Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Dyeing properties of meta-aramid fabric dyed with basic dye using

ultrasonic-microwave irradiation
Jeremiah Amesimeku a, b, Lihua Fan a, Wizi Jakpa c, Chaoxia Wang a, *
a
Key Laboratory of Eco-Textile, Ministry of Education, School of Textiles and Clothing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 20023, China
c
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Aramid fibers are typically problematic to dye as a result of their extremely crystalline structure and high
Received 7 May 2020 compactness. Ultrasonic and microwave irradiation are part of the recent most simple, low-cost, and
Received in revised form valued technologies in textile dyeing. Aside from energy-saving, these green techniques promote faster
20 October 2020
and increased dyeing efficiency at a lower temperature and less time frame. The dyeability of meta-
Accepted 24 October 2020
Available online xxx
aramid fabric with Basic Rhodamine Red via combined ultrasonic-microwave irradiation was exam-
ined in the first part of this study. The conditions that affect the dyeing properties namely; temperature,
Handling editor: Bin Chen time, dye concentration, liquor ratio, and carrier were investigated. The resultant color strengths were
studied by K/S values using a spectrophotometer.
Keywords: © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Meta-aramid fabric
Dyeing
Ultrasonic-microwave
Basic dye

1. Introduction the solution dyeing of these fibers at high temperature (over

130
C) (Zheng and Zheng, 2014; Sheng et al., 2019; Kim and Choi,
Poly-m-phenylene isophthalamide also referred to as meta- 2011) Aside from the elevated dyeing temperature as well as the
aramid is an organic lightweight synthetic fiber that offers excel- prolonged time that is associated with the dyeing of meta-aramid
lent electric insulative properties, resistance to heat, flame, and fabrics, most carriers used are highly toxic, characterized by
chemicals. It is perfect for the production of protective clothing strong irritant odor and difficult to remove before discharging
such as spacesuits, firefighter uniforms, racing suit, oil refineries (Zheng et al., 2017; Azam et al., 2019).
uniforms and other industrial applications, including automotive Ultrasound energy has increasingly become popular as a cleaner
hoses, industrial felt, filters, copy cleaners and much more (Fink production for textiles dyeing because it saves time, energy,
and Fink, 2008; Akato et al., 2017) Meta-aramid possesses an chemicals and reduces effluvium (Suslick, 1990; Gogate, 2008)
extreme amount of crystalline alignment and compact assembly as Improvements achieved by ultrasound related dyeing methods are
a result of the abundant intermolecular hydrogen bonds among the ascribed mainly to the incident known as cavitation and subse-
amide groups of the end-to-end chains. The high crystallinity quently, extra mechanical effects such as dispersion, degassing, and


coupled with a high glass transition temperature (Tg 270 C) makes diffusion. This cavitation thus a rapid and explosive breakdown of
it difficult to dye (Yang et al., 2000). To successfully dye this fiber, bubbles can create ‘‘hot spots” which is confined high temperature,
the amorphous areas has to be enlarged with a swelling agent elevated pressure, and an acute shear force that can break chemical
without weakening its distinctive performance qualities. Several bonds. The cavitations that arise adjacent to a solid surface produce
methods like dope dyeing, supercritical fluid dyeing, extremely microjets, which enable the liquid to move at a faster speed and


thermostable disperse dyes employed at 190 C have been reported. yield an improved circulation of dye molecules within the pores of
Also, cationic dyes with the help of carriers are employed during the fabric. This results in an enhanced dye absorption below the
normal energetic settings (Feldman et al., 1989; Kodric et al., 2016;
Guesmi et al., 2013a; Moholkar et al., 2004) Investigations on ul-
* Corresponding author. trasonic energy and its effect on dyeing processes have been
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Wang). studied on cotton (Guesmi et al., 2013b), wool (Ferrero and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124844
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al., Dyeing properties of meta-aramid fabric dyed with basic dye using ultrasonic-
microwave irradiation, Journal of Cleaner Production, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124844
J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

Periolatto, 2011), silk (Tissera et al., 2016), acrylic (Kamel et al., 2.2. Pretreatment
2010), nylon (Kamel et al., 2003), polyester (Lee et al., 2003), cel-
lulose acetate (Udrescu et al., 2014) with all yielding good results. The scouring of the pristine meta-aramid fabric was carried out
The use of ultrasound generally (600 W, 20 kHz) as revealed in the in 50 mL deionized water comprising 2 g/L sodium carbonate then
studies enabled the increase in dye diffusion coefficient by 30% 1 g/L sodium dodecyl-benzenesulfonate using a liquor ratio of 1:20
enabling a decrease of up to 20% in dyeing time with an equivalent to get rid of grease, dirt, as well as other impurities. The fabric was
temperature (Vouters et al., 2004). scoured at 60
C for 20 min, after which it was rinsed and dried. The
Microwave radiation is presented as a substitute for conven- fabric, before dyeing, was placed in CINDYE VAS solution for 10 min.
tional heating methods since it offers even, rapid and efficacious
heating by aiding all particles to heat up simultaneously. Micro- 2.3. Dyeing procedure
wave radiation, in addition, assists several chemical reactions like
synchronization and synthesis of organic compounds and poly- An ultrasound-microwave (US-MW) reaction system (XO-
mers. Also, microwave radiation amplifies the dispersion of organic SM200, Nanjing Xianou Instruments, China) producing an ultra-
molecules in polymers which creates additional pores, and gives sound frequency of 25 kHz in addition to 600 W microwave power
rise to the rate of dye fixation in the textile material (Kappe and was used as dyeing equipment for the experiments. The microtip
Dallinger, 2009; Ahmed and El-Shishtawy, 2009; Deng et al., transducer was 15 mm thick and produces 1.766 cm2 within a
2017) Various researchers have utilized microwave radiation to surface area. It had a supply of 50% available power and a probe
dye several fibers and in so doing have achieved high exhaustion depth of 10 mm. The ultrasonication process was accomplished by a
rate, increase dyeing rate, high diffusion of dye and excellent pulsated approach (pulse interval of 2 s then resting time of 2 s).
colorfastness properties (Al-Mousawi et al., 2013; Zaghloul et al., During dyeing, a digital thermometer placed at the center of the
€
2018; Oner et al., 2013). reaction system was used to measure the temperature.
In this present study, the dyeing of meta-aramid fabric with Initially, the dyeing experiments were completed at four various
basic dyes using a combined ultrasonic-microwave (US-MW) re- temperatures viz. 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90
C with a dye bath of 5% owf
action system was investigated. The use of combined US-MW has and 100:1 liquor to goods ratio for 20min. Comparisons of color
been employed for the extraction of natural dyes with excellent strength (K/S values) from samples dyed at varying temperatures
results (Xu et al., 2016; Wizi et al., 2018). However, the present revealed 70
C as the optimal result. Furthermore, time-dependent
study is aimed at the application of US-MW to augment the dyeing tests were conducted at 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min. Additionally,
efficacy of meta-aramid fabric as well as its fastness properties. experiments were performed at different dye concentrations of 1, 5,
10, 15, and 20% owf with liquor to goods ratio of 100:1 at 70
C for
20 min. Also, investigations on the ideal liquor to goods ratios were
2. Experiments performed at 100:1, 150:1, and 200:1 at 70
C for 20 min. Finally, the
carrier influence was studied by dyeing the meta-aramid fabric
2.1. Materials with and without the carrier using the ideal dyeing parameters. The
efficiency of various dyeing experiments was judged based on color
100% meta-aramid (200 g/m2, 2/1 twill weave, weft, and warp K/S values.
35s/2) was obtained from Yantai Tayho Fashtech, China. Basic
Rhodamine Red (Fig. 1) was supplied by Rhawn Ltd., China, and 2.4. Characterization and performance test
used without further purification. The non-toxic carrier, CINDYE
VAS (liquid) was supplied by Shanghai Bozzetto Group, China, with 2.4.1. SEM
its chemical structure, and constituents unpublished for classified Micrographs of the dyed and undyed surfaces were captured
reasons. and examined with scanning electron microscopy (Hitachi S-4700,
Japan) operating at 10 kV under 5000 magnification. The specimen
was secured with two-sided sticky tapes on a pin stud and then
spluttered with gold to intensify their electrical conductivity.

2.4.2. FTIR
A Nicolet FTIR (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Massachusetts,
USA) was used to inspect the possible alterations in the functional
groups of the samples before and after dyeing in an ATR mode. The
spectra were achieved between the wavenumber of
4000e500 cm1 with a resolution of 4 cm1 and with an average of
32 scans.

2.4.3. Colorimetric measurements

The colorimetric parameters of the dyed meta-aramid fabrics
were obtained on a reflectance spectrophotometer (Xrite 8400,
USA) with a D65 illuminant and 10
standard observer. The color
strength which is equivalent to the K/S values of samples were
calculated with the Kubelka-Munk equation (Kamel et al., 2010).

K/S ¼ (1-Rlmax)2 / 2Rlmax (1)

Fig. 1. Chemical structure of Basic Rhodamine Red. (For interpretation of the refer-
ences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this
article.) DE* ¼ ½ðDL* Þ2^ þ ðDa* Þ2^ þ ðDb* Þ2 ^
^ ð1=2Þ (2)

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J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

irregularities and roughness with no damage to its surface. This is

CV% of K=S ¼ s=m  100 (3) an indication of the physical relaxation in the microstructural re-
The letters K, S, and Rlmax signify the absorption coefficients, the gions of the dyed fabric with an increased prospect of diffusion
scattering coefficients, the reflectance value maximum absorbance accomplished by combined ultrasonic-microwave irradiation
wavelength of the dyed fabric respectively (Kamel et al., 2010). The (Tissera et al., 2016; Elapasery et al., 2017).
individual samples were reviewed at four distinct areas, two times
on every side of the overlapped fabric for uniformity, and the mean 3.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
value was determined. The coefficient of variation (CV%) of K/S
values was used to ascertain the dye uniformity of the dyed sam- Possible changes in the chemical structure of the meta-aramid
ples where s is the standard deviation and m mean. Subsequently, a fabric were examined with ATR, and the results are depicted in
small CV% of K/S indicates high uniformity. Generally, a CV% <5% is Fig. 3. The spectra of the meta-aramid fabric show virtually no
considered very satisfactory (Centore, 2016). The total color dif- change before and after dyeing with and without CINDYE VAS. The
ference (DE*) were obtained using the CIE Lab equation in Eqn (2), absorption bands of the meta-aramid fabric displayed its distinctive
where (DL*) is difference in lightness/darkness value, (Da*) is dif- peaks at 3293 cm1, 1645 cm1, and 1526 cm1 which are ascribed
ference on red/green axis, and (Db*) is difference on blue/yellow to the stretching vibrations of amide NeH; C]O and NeH bending
axis (Kamel et al., 2010). vibrations distinctly. The absorption band at 1645 cm1 of the dyed
fabrics can also be ascribed to C]O of the non-covalent salt or ionic
2.4.4. Colorfastness linkage between the cationic sections of the dye and anionic
Colorfastness of the various dyed samples to crocking, laun- carboxylated (eCOOe) termination of the aramid fiber. This is
dering, light, and its subsequent evaluation was conducted in because usually, the absorption bands of various types of carbonyl
conformity with the AATCC test specifications (Zheng et al., 2017). compounds overlay each other (Coates, 2006). The band at
1240 cm1 is ascribed to the stretching vibrations of the CeN bond.
The bands located at 1603 cm1 in addition to 1475 cm1 are
2.4.5. Thermoanalysis test
assigned to bending vibrations of C]C bond of the benzene ring
The examination of thermal decomposition was executed by the
(Yu et al., 2017; Fan et al., 2012). The dye carrier CINDYE VAS has a
thermogravimetric analyzer, TGA 2050 (PerkinElmer, USA) in a
nitrogen setting (60 mL/min). The samples were heated from 30
C
to 600
C at a 10
C/min heating rate. Also, the samples with each
weighing between 5 and 6 mg were placed within a platinum
crucible and its weight loss measurement was conducted. The TG
and differential DTG curves were captured and presented concur-
rently throughout the assessment. The anticipated inception tem-
perature (Ta) signifies the temperature where weight loss started,
(Tb) is the temperature of ultimate weight loss, and (Tc) connotes
the peak temperature of decomposition.
The differential scanning calorimetry tests were performed by a
TA-Q200 DSC device at a 10
C/min heating rate under nitrogen
with a uniform 50 mL/min flow rate. The sample of about 6 mg was
placed in an alumina pan and processed from 0 to 400
C.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Surface morphology

The variations in the morphological surface of the dyed and

undyed meta-aramid fabric were inspected with SEM. The results
obtained are shown in Fig. 2. The undyed sample (Fig. 2a) shows an
almost even surface alongside longitudinal markings (Jassal and
Ghosh, 2002). In contrast, the dyed samples exhibit surface Fig. 3. FTIR spectra of CINDYE VAS and meta-aramid fabrics.

Fig. 2. SEM images of (a) undyed (b) dyed meta-aramid fabric with basic rhodamine red

3
J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

comparable structure like meta-aramid. The spectrum of this aro- additional shear during dyeing by the combined effects of ultra-
matic amide compound is like that of the dyed and undyed meta- sound and microwave. This effect is achieved by dispersion (de-
aramid fabric, with absorption peaks at 2881 cm1, 1670 cm1, aggregation of dye molecules in the dye bath with high relative
and 1268 cm1 which are attributed to C]H, CeO, CeN stretching molecular mass into homogeneous diffusions), as well as degassing
vibrations respectively. The corresponding peaks assigned to ben- (forcing out the enmeshed air within the meta-aramid specimen
zene are located at 1593 cm1, 1495 cm1, and 1411 cm1. Conse- into liquid then discharging it by cavitations, thereby promoting
quently, in regard to the principle of Like-Dissolves-Like, CINDYE dye-fiber fixation) (Vouters et al., 2004; Ahmed and El-Shishtawy,
VAS has a favorable expansion performance on the fabrics during 2009).
the dyeing process (Zheng and Zheng, 2014).
3.6. The effect of liquor ratio on K/S value
3.3. The effect of temperature on K/S value
An examination of the K/S value of the meta-aramid dyed
The outcome of dyeing temperature on color strength of the samples concerning the impact of liquor was carried at 70
C with a
meta-aramid samples dyed using Basic Rhodamine Red was carried dye bath of 5% owf for 20 min. The liquor to goods ratio used were
out under various temperatures ranging for 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90
C 100:1, 150:100, and 200:1. According to the results presented in
with a dye bath of 5% owf and liquor to goods ratio of 100:1 for Fig. 5b and Table 4, the color strength reached a plateau of K/S value
20min. According to the results depicted in Table 1 and Fig. 4a, the at 150:1 liquor to goods ratio and then declined. The phenomenon
K/S increased slowly whilst the temperature rises until it reached may be by virtue of the circulation of dyestuffs that possibly
the highest value of K/S at 70
C before declining. Mostly, a raise in happened satisfactorily in 150:1 liquor to goods ratio. Moreover,
dye-uptake is a result of fiber swelling which consequently im- 200:1 liquor to goods ratio was superfluous which caused in a low
proves the dye diffusion. The diffusion rate of dyes into fibers in- uptake because of the outspread of dyes in large liquor.
creases with increasing dyeing temperature, which results in high
color strength. Also, the combined effect of ultrasonic-microwave 3.7. The effect of carrier on K/S value
irradiation enhanced the dye diffusion by disaggregation of the
dye molecules. However, the decline in color strength at dyeing An enhanced fabric penetrability and swelling capacity are
temperatures of 80e90
C may be due to reduced substantivity among the factors that improve the extent of dye diffusion. One of
ratio of the dye resulting in accelerated dye hydrolysis. The opti- the ways to achieve this desired effect is by the addition of sup-
mum dyeing temperature is therefore considered to be 70
C plementary compounds that are made up of smaller molecules
because of the higher color strength. pertaining to the dye molecules as well as a strong attraction to the
fabric. However, the carriers, do not only have small molecule sizes
3.4. The effect of dyeing time on K/S value but they can also disperse rapidly into the fabrics and stimulate
relaxation in the microstructure of the fabric. CINDYE VAS is a non-
Generally, the dyeing process is gradual, requiring the rapid toxic carrier that has recently been used to dye meta-aramid fab-
migration of dye molecule from the dyebath to the substrate, its rics. Huanda et al. (Zheng and Zheng, 2014; Zheng et al., 2017) have
adsorption on the substrate, and the successive diffusion within the reported the use of CINDYE DNK to improve the color strength of
substrate. Therefore, the impact of time in relation to the dyeing disperse-dyed meta-aramid fibers by supercritical carbon dioxide
rate and the subsequent high color strength is worth considering. A at 130
C. One possible means by which CINDYE VAS operates is
temperature of 70
C is seen to have contributed to greater dye first to attach itself to the fibers in the form of van der Waals force
uptake and optimal dyeing of the meta-aramid fabric. Conse- or hydrogen bonds thereby altering the fiber-to-fiber bond to fiber-
quently, it was used to ascertain the optimal dyeing time ranging to-carrier bond. The action could weaken the bonding force among
from 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min with a dye bath of 5% owf and 100:1 the aramid fibers and subsequently create an opening in the fibers
liquor to goods ratio. As shown in Fig. 4b and Table 2, the color thereby increasing the diffusion rate of the dye. As shown in Fig. 6
strength K/S increased simultaneously with a rise in the dyeing and Table 5, there was a considerable increment in the color
time. strength of the sample dyed with the carrier. It is worth indicating
that, the synergetic actions of the ultrasonic-microwave irradiation
3.5. The effect of dye concentration on K/S value and carrier made it possible to achieve higher color strength at a
low temperature (Fig. 7).
The investigation to determine the impact of dye concentration
on the K/S value was conducted using different quantities of Basic 3.8. Colorfastness performance
Rhodamine Red (1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% owf) at 70
C with 100:1
liquor to goods ratio. Although dye molecules are likely to aggre- Colorfastness tests were conducted for the samples dyed with
gate in solution while a rise in concentration occurs, the results and without a carrier, with summarized conclusions presented in
presented in Fig. 5a and Table 3 reveal a rise in color strength with Table 6. The dyed samples used were selected from those with very
high dye concentration. These results may be attributed to the high color strength and the overall evaluations showed the dyed

Table 1
Colorimetric data of dyeings at different temperatures.

Temp. (
C) L* a* b* DL* Da* Db* DE* K/S CV% of KS

Undyed 88.09 0.44 9.96 e e e e e e

90 54.27 53.23 8.32 33.82 53.67 18.28 66.06 7.94 0.33
80 54.86 51.07 7.72 33.23 51.51 17.68 63.80 7.21 0.25
70 52.67 54.03 7.71 35.42 54.47 17.67 67.33 9.12 0.20
60 53.69 52.89 7.44 34.40 53.33 17.40 65.80 8.40 0.31
50 54.36 53.44 7.83 33.73 53.88 17.79 66.01 8.04 0.32

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J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. The values of K/S within a visible light spectrum of the dyed fabrics at (a) different temperatures (b) different dyeing time.

Table 2
Colorimetric data of dyeings at different dyeing time.

Time (min) L* a* b* DL* Da* Db* DE* K/S CV% of KS

10 52.92 50.59 6.06 35.17 51.03 16.02 64.01 8.46 0.31

15 54.60 54.76 7.40 33.49 55.2 17.36 66.86 8.95 0.27
20 52.67 54.03 7.71 35.42 54.47 17.67 67.33 9.12 0.20
25 53.43 55.31 5.47 34.66 55.75 15.43 67.43 10.13 0.24
30 51.46 52.38 5.69 36.63 52.82 15.65 66.16 10.18 0.25

Fig. 5. The values of K/S within a visible light spectrum of the dyed fabrics at
(a) different dye concentration (b) different liquor ratio.

Table 3
Colorimetric data of dyeings with different dye concentrations.

Dye Con. (% owf) L* a* b* DL* Da* Db* DE* K/S CV% of KS

1% 58.69 47.82 7.23 29.40 48.26 17.19 59.07 5.65 0.32

5% 52.67 54.03 7.71 35.42 54.47 17.67 67.33 9.12 0.20
10% 51.23 52.01 5.19 36.86 52.45 15.15 65.87 10.26 0.25
15% 49.88 49.98 4.35 38.21 50.42 14.31 64.86 10.44 0.25
20% 50.42 51.89 4.95 37.67 52.33 14.91 66.18 10.36 0.25

Table 4
Colorimetric data of dyeings with different liquor ratio.

Liquor Ratio (X:1) L* a* b* DL* Da* Db* DE* K/S CV% of KS

100 52.67 54.03 7.71 35.42 54.47 17.67 67.33 9.12 0.20
150 52.51 55.2 6.06 35.58 55.64 16.02 67.96 10.35 0.18
200 53.50 54.26 6.92 34.59 54.70 16.88 66.88 9.57 0.27

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J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

fabrics have excellent colorfastness properties. Yet, this is credited

to an increase in dye penetration via ultrasonic-microwave irradi-
ation. Likewise, the outstanding colorfastness is an invaluable
advantage over those dyed using cationic dyes with carriers.

3.9. Thermal characteristics

Thermogravimetric analysis carried out with a heating rate of

10
C/min in nitrogen was used to examine the thermal durability
of the different samples. Fig. 8 a, b displays TG curve together with
the DTG curve generated during the pyrolysis of the dyed and un-
dyed samples. Concerning TG curve, the leveled region denotes the
extent of thermal stability whereas the inclined region corresponds
to the scope of weight loss. Fig. 8a, shows the TG curves first exhibit
weight loss attributed to the release of adsorbed moisture that
extends from about 84 to 92
C. (Wang et al., 2011). The initial
weight loss was 3.98% (0.23 mg), 2.97% (0.15 mg), and 3.41%
(0.18 mg) representing the control, carrier-dyed, and non-carrier
dyed meta-aramid fabrics respectively. The TGA results show that
thermal degradation begins at a temperature of 476
C with a total
Fig. 6. Values of K/S within a visible light spectrum of the dyed fabrics with and weight loss of 29.10%, 36.58%, and 36.54% also corresponding to the
without carrier. control, carrier-dyed, and non-carrier dyed meta-aramid fabrics

Fig. 7. Digital images of a) pristine fabric (b) dyed without CINDYE VAS
(c) dyed with CINDYE VAS.

Table 5
Colorimetric data of dyeings with and without carrier.

Sample L* a* b* DL* Da* Db* DE* K/S CV% of KS

Dyed with CINDYE VAS 52.67 54.03 7.71 35.42 54.47 17.67 67.33 9.12 0.20
Dyed without CINDYE VAS 67.21 42.52 8.76 20.88 42.52 18.72 50.93 2.19 0.83

Table 6
Colorfastness performance of the dyed samples.

Sample Color Change Laundering Crocking Light

Staining

Wo PAN PET PA Co Ac Dry Wet

No Carrier 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4e5
Temperature 5 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 5 4e5 4e5
Time 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4e5 4e5
Dye Conc. 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 4e5 5 4e5 4e5
Liquor Ratio 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4e5 4e5

a Wo: Wool, PA: Polyamide, PAN: Acrylic, PET: Polyester, Co: Cotton, Ac: Acetate.

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J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 8. (a) TG (b) DTG (c) DSC curves of the control, dyed fabric with and without carrier.

respectively. Aside from weight loss; heat absorption, complex results in the salinization of resident drinking and agricultural
depolymerization, random rupture, hydrolysis, restructuring, and water. However, US-MW do not contribute to salinization due to
other chemical reactions (Rebouillat, 2001) occur in the meta- the absence of salts in the dyebath. Also, the use of US-MW ensures
aramid fabric after 476
C. There are also high amounts of inert less inputs like chemicals and energy and less harmful output such
residue formed which are stable up to 595
C (64.88% for the as wastewater (Zheng and Zheng, 2014; Sheng et al., 2019).This
control fabric, 57.75% for the non-carrier dyed fabric, and 57.87% for facilitates direct savings on production costs, for instance costs for
the carrier dyed fabric). Table 7 points out the distinctive temper- raw materials, utilities and labor costs (Table 8). In summary the
atures achieved by TG/DTG thermograms. The DSC curve in Fig. 8c sustainability and profitability are as follows;
indicated an endothermal reactivity from 82 to 132
C, an attribute
of moisture evaporation. It is worth noting that neither the com-  a decrease in the use of water, dyeing time, and energy (for
bined ultrasonic-microwave irradiation nor the carrier was detri- example, there was about a 50% drop in temperature viz from
mental to the thermal durability of the meta-aramid fabric. 130
C to 70
C.
 minimum utilization of dyes and other auxiliaries with less
effluent discharge.
3.10. Contribution of the study to sustainability and profitability
 Enhanced dye uptake with no adverse effect on the character-
istic qualities of the fiber. A comparison of various dyeing pro-
In general, ultrasonic and microwave technologies have been
cesses for meta-aramid fabric is presented in Table S1
popular and acknowledged at laboratory/pilot scale levels. The
synergy of these technologies was employed in this study by using
As a result of the cost-effectiveness of this method, efforts are
an ultrasound-microwave reaction system producing an ultrasound
being made towards its use and development for small-scale en-
frequency of 25 kHz in addition to 600 W microwave power. The
terprises (Vouters et al., 2004; Ahmed and El-Shishtawy, 2009;
conventional high temperature dyeing utilizes substantial amounts
Bozzetto Group, 2019).
of salts and auxiliaries, which is discarded in large volumes into
water bodies notwithstanding some attempts on recovery. This
4. Conclusion

Table 7 This research examined the dyeability of meta-aramid fabric

Thermal behavior of the different test samples.
using basic dye through combined ultrasonic-microwave irradia-
Sample Ta/
C Tb/
C Tc/
C tion controlled by dye concentration, time, temperature, liquor
Control 421.60 444.36 476.11 ratio, and the addition of carrier. Based on the color measurement
Dyed without carrier 426.33 449.21 489.38 analysis, a temperature of 70
C, as well as liquor to goods ratio of
Dyed with carrier 424.64 449.22 490.60 150:1 was obtained as the optimum process condition. Meanwhile,
Ta ¼ inception temperature; Tb ¼ temperature of ultimate weight loss. high color strength was achieved by increasing dyeing time
Tc ¼ peak temperature of decomposition. coupled with dye concentration. Also, there was a substantial
7
J. Amesimeku, L. Fan, W. Jakpa et al. Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 8
Comparison of key parameters between conventional H.T dyeing and US-MW.

Parameters Conventional H. T Dyeing US-MW

Temperature (
C) 130 70
Time (min) 60 20
Swelling agent/carrier BA, DMA DMF, DMSO CINDYE VAS
Form of energy Electrical energy transformed to thermal energy Electrical energy utilized through US and MW
Energy saving None High, saves about 50%
Process cost High due to large energy, time and chemical consumption Low by reason of less energy, time and chemical consumption
Pollution High Low
Remarks Widely used, high energy, time and harmful auxiliaries’ requirements Short reaction time, limited but clean auxiliaries and energy efficient
Reference (Kim and Choi, 2011; Azam et al., 2019; Ahmed and El-Shishtawy, 2009) (Lee et al., 2003; Elapasery et al., 2017; Bozzetto Group, 2019)

H.T (High Temperature), US-MW (Ultrasonic-Microwave Irradiation), BA (Benzyl alcohol), DMA (Dimethylacetamide), DMF (Dimethylformamide), DMSO (Dimethylsulfoxade).

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