UNIT I

MENTAL HEALTH MATTERS

Overview

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:

1. understand what mental health problem is;

2. identify the types of mental health; and
3. define different types of mental health.

Lesson Proper

Mental health is just as important to our lives as our physical health

Mental health is not the same thing as the absence of a mental illness. Mental health includes
emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It can influence:

 How you feel about yourself, the world, and your life
 Your ability to solve problems and overcome challenges
 Your ability to build relationships with others and contribute to your communities
 Your ability to achieve your goals

Many people take care of their physical health before they feel sick. They may eat well, exercise and
try to get enough sleep to help maintain wellness. You can take the same approach to mental health.
Just as you may work to keep your body healthy, you can also work to keep your mind healthy.

4 BASIC DIMENSIONS OF MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

1. Thoughts
The way you think about something has a big impact on your mental health. Changes in your thoughts
often go along with changes in your mental health. When you feel well, it's easier to see life in a more
balanced and constructive way. When you aren't well, it's easy to get stuck on negative things and
ignore positive things.

Examples of helpful thoughts

 I know I can cope and get through these rough times

 There are things in my life that I feel excited about!
 I know my friends really care about me
 I feel good about the way my life is going these days

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  I have some really cool talents and interests
 I want to do something that makes a positive difference
 I'm a good person even though I have some flaws
 I feel grateful for the good things in my life

Examples of negative thoughts

 It feels like something really bad is going to happen

 Nothing good ever seems to happen to me
 I'm never going to get through this
 My flaws are too big to overcome
 I feel like I’m losing my mind
 I'm ugly and stupid
 They think I’m a loser
 Life sucks!

2. Body reactions
Body reactions are changes in your body functions such as heart rate, breathing, digestion, brain
chemicals, hormones and more. Changes in your body reactions often go along with changes in your
mental health.

Examples of body reactions

 Muscle tension, muscle aches or headaches

 Dry mouth
 Upset stomach or nausea
 Upset bowels or diarrhea
 Lack of appetite or increased appetite
 Sweating, hot flushes or cold chills
 Chest pain, shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
 Pounding, racing or abnormal heartbeat
 Feeling dizzy or light-headed
 Tingling in hands and/or feet
 Feeling that you're separated from things around you
 Aggravation of an existing health problem (e.g., acne, digestive disorders, migraines, chronic
pain, etc.)
 Changes in sexual functioning, such as decreased sex drive

3. Emotions
A big part of emotions is the way you feel. Emotions can be pleasant, unpleasant, or blended, such as
when you have two emotions at the same time. Changes in emotions often accompany changes in
mental health.

Examples of emotions/feelings

 Happiness or joy
 Contentment
 Calmness
 Excitement

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  Feeling love or affection
 Confusion
 Boredom
 Relief
 Irritability or anger
 Frustration
 Anxiety or fear
 Sadness or feeling down
 Embarrassment
 Hopelessness
 Disgust

4. Behaviors
Behaviors are the ways you act and respond to your environment. Some behaviors are helpful, and
some can be harmful. Changes in behavior often go along with changes in mental health.

Examples of helpful behaviors

 Working on a solution to a problem one step at a time

 Reaching out to a friend or family member for support and understanding
 Practicing your spiritual activities
 Doing something relaxing like taking a bath or practicing yoga
 Exercising
 Engaging in hobbies or leisure activities

Examples of harmful behaviors

 Isolating yourself and pulling away from friends and family

 Using alcohol or drugs to make bad feelings go away
 Avoiding the things that upset you
 Overeating, not eating enough, or purging food (such as vomiting, over-exercising)
 Lashing out at other people (verbally or physically)
 Excessively depending on loved ones or clinging to loved ones

Mental health is determined by our overall patterns of thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and body
reactions.

Each of the four mental health dimensions can influence all of the others. Here's an example.

Ups and downs are a normal part of life. We all feel a bit stressed out or struggle to cope with
a problem from time to time. We all get angry once in a while or find it hard to express our needs
assertively. Most of us could use a little help finding balance, getting enough sleep, and getting active.

You may notice that these kinds of problems can take a toll on the way you feel. When you
feel a lot of stress, it can be hard to feel optimistic about the future. When you feel overwhelmed by
a problem, it’s easy to feel like nothing ever works out. When you struggle to balance different needs
and obligations, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed and frustrated. These Wellness Modules aren’t about

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managing a mental illness or other concern (though they can certainly help!) They are simply four
short pages to help you maximize good mental health and well-being, so you feel your best.

Each Wellness Module breaks down a different factor related to mental health and well-being.
You’ll explore different evidence-based skills to help you work through common problems. Don’t be
fooled—some of these skills aren’t as simple as they appear! But if you’re willing to dedicate a bit of
time and effort, you’ll find that good mental health is in everyone’s reach. We encourage you to take
advantage of the quizzes in some Wellness Modules to help you track your progress.

Mental Health Matters

Mental Health Matters...for everyone! Mental health is about more than not experiencing an illness.
And it’s just an important as physical health. Your mental health affects so much: how you feel about
yourself, how you relate to others, how you see the world, how you deal with problems, and so much
more. Learn about the four dimensions of mental health and take a quiz to check your wellness level.

1: Stress and Well-Being

Stress and Well-Being explores different kinds of stress and how it’s connected to mental and
physical health. We can’t just get rid of all stress in our lives, but we can learn to manage stress well!
Learn different coping strategies to help you manage stress and learn when you might need a bit of
extra support to help you through a difficult time. Take a stress survey to help you identify the
different kinds of stress in your life and track your progress as you learn to manage stress well.

2: Social Support

Social Support is important! Our support networks can help us cope with problems, look at a situation
from a different perspective, learn new skills, and, of course, celebrate successes and have fun. Giving
and receiving the right social support can boost mental health and well-being. Different people can
offer different kinds of support. Take a quiz to help you measure the support you receive from family
and friends and find tips to help you improve or make changes to your support networks if you aren’t
getting the support you need.

3: Problem-Solving

Problem-Solving skills can’t make difficult situations just go away, but they can certainly make
difficult situations easier to manage. We deal with problems every day. Some problems are easy to
solve, but others a bit more complicated—and ignoring problems can make us feel even worse in the
end. We can start to feel stressed, depressed, helpless, and even a little hopeless. Take charge and
learn the steps to break big problems into manageable pieces and use the problem-solving worksheet
to practice your new problem-solving skills.

4: Anger Management

Anger Management isn’t about bottling up your feelings. It’s about problem-solving, getting to the
cause of anger, and learning skills to control anger. Anger isn’t necessarily a bad thing—it’s a normal
feeling, and it can even be helpful. The problem is that too much anger, very intense anger, anger that
doesn’t match the situation, and anger that affects other people can be more harmful that helpful.

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Find strategies to help you manage anger and learn when you might need to reach out for extra
support.

5: Getting a Good Night’s Sleep

Getting a Good Night’s Sleep is not always an easy task. About one in four Canadians experience a
sleep problem, and many of us just simply prioritize other tasks oversleep. Sleep, however, is vital to
all areas of health and well-being. It’s hard to feel confident and capable when you’re tired! The good
news is that small changes to your daily routine can make a big impact on the quality of your sleep.
Find 10 tips to help you sleep well and use the sleep diary to help you keep track your sleep skills and
monitor your progress.

6: Eating and Living Well

Eating and Living Well are just as important to mental health as they are to physical health! Good
self-esteem, health body image, and balance in the way we understand food and exercise are a big
part of our overall mental health and well-being. It’s hard to feel good about much when you don’t
like the way you look, but drastic diets and disordered eating patterns can make us feel worse. Most
of us recognize that regular exercise is good for health—and it’s a great way to manage low mood,
stress, anxiety, and other mental health concerns. But too much or too little exercise can cause
problems, too. Learn more about finding good, healthy balance and find tips to help you make changes
in your life.

7: Healthy Thinking

Healthy Thinking is a tool to help you look at problems or situations in a realistic and balanced way.
Do you find yourself thinking about what you "should" do or wonder why things never seem work
out? Do you jump to conclusions before you have solid evidence? These common thinking traps can
really make us feel down or upset, but you can learn to challenge unhelpful thoughts and look at
things from a more balanced perspective. Find a step-by-step guide to help you challenge unhelpful
thoughts and practice your skills in our online worksheet.

8: Finding Balance

Finding Balance is about allocating time for things you must do and things you want to do…without
changing the number of hours in a day! We all feel pressure to spend more time at work or feel like
we must prioritize chores or other obligations over activities we enjoy. Without good balance,
though, it’s easy to start to feel overwhelmed, run down, and stressed out. Many people say they feel
guilty about spending time on themselves, but you are an important person in your life! Learn why
balance matters, find strategies to help you evaluate your own needs and priorities, and take a quiz
to see if you’ve found health balance.

9: Staying Mentally Healthy with Technology

Staying Mentally Healthy with Technology looks at technology in mental health: how technology
might help and how technology might harm well-being. Computers, phones, apps, websites, and other
technologies are part of daily life. But how and why we use technologies can have a big impact on our
own well-being and our relationships with others. Some technologies can be a way to avoid problems
or cope with difficult feelings. Some people feel pressure to act or look certain ways. Some people
forgo a good night’s sleep or other healthy habits. In this module, you can take a quiz to see if you

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might benefit by rethinking your relationship with technologies like phones, computers, and tablets.
You'll also find tips to help you find balance in your technology use.

10: Mindfulness

Mindfulness is a tool that can help you slow down, look at situations in a more balanced way, and
appreciate what you are experiencing in the moment. Mindfulness can have a very positive impact
on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—all of which are important parts of health and well-being. Learn
how mindfulness works and what it might look like and find resources to help you practice
mindfulness skills and bring a little mindfulness into your life.

Devastating Effects of Mental Illness

The long-term effects of mental illness can have devastating consequences on the human body and
spirit. An inability to deal with daily life pressures can lead to issues with your job, relationships, and
your overall health. Whether you realize it or not, your mental capacity to deal with life can negatively
impact others as well.

While your health and safety come first, it cannot be argued that we all have an impact on each other,
and the health of one can significantly impact the health of the other. Trained and registered health
professionals such as counsellors can help you in learning how to manage your emotions and
feelings. Dr. Stephanie Baker (PhD, MSW) has over 25 years of experience in mental health therapy.
She says that 80% of your recovery must come from your commitment and willingness to get better.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a proven and effective method in helping people with anxiety
and depression.

According to the American Psychological Association, we often do not recognize the acute effects of
stress and pressure on our bodies until we develop some physical symptoms of mental illness. Our
mental state of mind takes its toll on our physical health, our emotional well-being, and even our
intellectual health as we begin to experience cracks in the foundation that bring lasting
consequences.
How can we safeguard our mental health and experience vibrance and wellness in all areas of life?
Read on to discover the 7 components of good mental health, and why it is so essential to foster each
element for total body wellness.

7 Components of Mental Health

1. In-person therapy

Few of us are completely equipped with the tools needed for mental health in daily living; we often
need an objective sounding board to bounce life experiences off of in order to see patterns and
emotions that need further evaluation. The need for in person therapy in 2021 is higher now than
ever before. In general, we humans feel a need to decompress from the pressures and stresses of life
as we learn new techniques for self-care and regulation that can improve our quality of life.

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2. Community

Treating mental illness in 2021 may look different from years past, but that is no excuse to isolate
yourself and wallow in your own unique set of issues. Building a solid community of support, love,
and friendships around you will be an essential part of your wellness journey. Surround yourself with
like-minded people; those who wish to become healthier and happier, and be uplifted by
conversations, in-person meetings, virtual care services and exchanges with your circle of support.
In doing so, you'll realize that this journey is not a solo trip, and that you have people around you to
improve the quality of your life.

3. Physical health

The body and the brain are intimately interconnected, and the health of one affects the health of the
other. Your body is an intricate network of systems all working together to help you navigate life
successfully, and you have a responsibility to take care of it. Eating well, getting adequate exercise,
sleep, and hydration are valuable actions you can take to preserve your physical well-being, which in
turn will help you feel more positive about life in general.

4. Intellectual health

Exercising your mind and committing to being a lifelong learner is a valuable part of your mental
health process as well. With all aspects of health, intellectual health requires balance; learning new
skills and acquiring new knowledge will open up doors of opportunity that can improve your life
significantly.

5. Environmental health

Your environment can significantly impact your mental state of mind; those who are subjected to
daily stressors and living conditions that are less than ideal can negatively impact your
environmental health and cause mental illness. Doing what you can to remove those aspects of your
life that are stressing you out----relationships, living conditions, social situations, physical health
issues----will help to reduce the stress response in your brain that can contribute to poor cognitive
function.

6. Boundaries

It is impossible to fulfill all of life's obligations and take care of yourself as well; setting boundaries
and learning to say "no" to those things that are not essential will allow you to carve out some time
for safeguarding your mental health. You may initially feel guilty if you haven't said no to friends and
family before, but the more you stand up for yourself and take back your time, the easier it will be to
practice the daily habits that preserve your mental wellness.

7. Self-care

The gifts of the last few years include more time for many---people are learning the fine art of self-
care as we sit inside our homes, for we have no choice but to take an introspective look at what we

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need most. Doing those things that nurture body, soul, and spirit will improve not only your life, but
the lives of those around you.

Why should mental health matter to you and your family?

When your mental health suffers, it can become hard to enjoy life. You may start to feel run down,

Thoughts Body reactions

 I did a good job  My muscles feel relaxed
 I hate being stuck in traffic  My heart is racing

Behaviors Emotions
 I rewarded myself with a movie  I feel happy
 I pound my fists  I feel angry
both mentally and physically. Many of these changes can make it harder to enjoy a balanced and
rewarding life. Everyone can benefit from learning how to enhance and protect their mental health—
whether or not they’ve experienced mental illness or a substance use problem.

Why should mental health matter to you and your family?

When your mental health suffers, it can become hard to enjoy life. You may start to feel run down,
both mentally and physically. Many of these changes can make it harder to enjoy a balanced and
rewarding life. Everyone can benefit from learning how to enhance and protect their mental health—
whether or not they've experienced mental illness or a substance use problem.

The 4Ms of Mental Health

How to manage high stress?

Psychiatrist Sue Varma suggest that during a time of high stress, it’s important to focus on “the four
M’s of mental health – mindfulness, mastery, movement and meaningful engagement.”

Seems apt right now.

It's a lovely, easy to remember, frame-up. The easy to remember bit is really important because in
times of panic and anxiety our ability to access our pre-frontal cortex (executive functioning) is
limited.

This totally fits the bill:

1. Mindfulness - doesn't have to be sitting in a quiet room. You can practice being present to
your mind (and to the rhythm of the activity) in any routine activity. Sanding wood, washing
hands (20 secs might go faster), playing guitar, mowing lawns, cooking.

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 2. Mastery - getting better at something. Ideally at something that 'strengthens' you and you
care about. Could be job-related and/or out of work time.
3. Meaningful engagement - humans are social animals. We need to connect. Remember your
community - we’re in this together. Think about your connections, your wider community,
your friends, workmates, family. And perhaps this could also look like acts of kindness (like
my client making something for his wider whanau).
4. Movement - yes, we have to move! Outside, go for walks, go to the bush, the beach, the garden,
use a hammer, fix a car? Or perhaps you exercise - cycle, run, walk, swim? And could include
a more conceptual form of movement in time and space.

Any particular activity could include all four elements, but not necessarily so.

In comments, would love to hear your response to this and whether you use this frame-up for
yourself or your team/friends.

Wishing you a slightly calmer and well week ahead.

Psychiatrist Sue Varma suggest that during a time of high stress, it’s important to focus on “the four
M’s of mental health – mindfulness, mastery, movement and meaningful engagement.”

References:

Carter Center - Mental Health Awareness - End The Stigma

Verzosa, Kylie – Mental Health Webblinehttps://www.webbline.com

Gunting, Ayunan G. Why mental health matters in this pandemic

Websites:

Webblinehttps://www.webbline.com

https://businessmirror.com.ph

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 UNIT II

HISTORY, CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN

THE COUNTRY

Overview

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to

1. Define human rights

2. Understand the concept of human rights
3. Understand the Philippine Constitution under the Article 3, 1987

Lesson Proper

A Brief History of Human Rights

The Cyrus Cylinder (539 B.C)

In 539 B.C., the armies of Cyrus the Great, the first king of ancient Persia, conquered the city of
Babylon. But it was his/her next actions that marked a major advance for Man. He freed the slaves,
declared that all people had the right to choose their own religion, and established racial equality.
These and other decrees were recorded on a baked-clay cylinder in the Akkadian language with
cuneiform script.

Known today as the Cyrus Cylinder, this ancient record has now been recognized as the world’s first
charter of human rights. It is translated into all six official languages of the United Nations and its
provisions parallel the first four Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Concept of Human Rights

Human rights allow a person to live with dignity and in peace, away from the abuses can be inflicted
by abusive institutions or individuals. But the fact remains that there are rampant human rights
violations around the world.

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To further promote the importance of human rights in the Philippines, December 4 to 10 of each year
is marked as National Human Rights Consciousness Week via Republic Act No. 9201.

December 10 is also considered as the United Nations Human Rights Day. It commemorates the day
the UN General Assembly Adopted the United Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

What are human rights?

Human rights, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, refers to norms that aim to
protect people from political, legal, and social abuses. The United Nations (UN) defines human
rights as universal and inalienable, interdependent, and invisible, and equal and non-
discriminatory.

Universal and inalienable:

Human rights belong to all and cannot be taken away unless specific situations call for it.
However, the deprivation of a person’s right is subject to due process.

Interdependent and indivisible:

Whatever happens to even one right-fulfillment or violation-can directly affect the others.

Equal and non-discriminatory:

Human rights protect all people regardless of race, nationality, gender, religion, and political
learning, among others. They should be respected without prejudice.
Human rights can also be classified under individual, collective, civil, political, economic, and
social, and cultural.

What laws or legal documents ensure the human rights of Filipino Citizens?

The rights of Filipinos can be found in Article III of the 1970 Philippine Constitution. Also called the
Bill of Rights, it includes 22 sections which declare a Filipino citizen’s rights and privileges that the
Constitution has to protect, no matter what.

Aside from various local laws, human rights in the Philippines are also guided by the UN’s
International Bill of Human Rights- a consolidation of 3 legal documents including the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR), and the International Covenant on Economic Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). As one of
the signatories of these legal documents, the Philippines is Obliged to recognize and apply
appropriate laws to ensure each right’s fulfillment. This is not always the case, however, as the

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Philippine Constitution lacks explicit laws to further cement specific human rights in the local
context. For example, the Right to Adequate Food may be included in the UNDR but it is not explicitly
indicated in the Philippine Constitution. Thus, the government cannot be held responsible if this not
attained (READ: Zero Hunger: Holding gov’t accountable)

Who oversees the fulfillment and protection of human rights in the Philippines?

Human rights are both rights and obligations, according to the UN. The state- or the government- is
obliged to “respect, protect, and fulfill” these rights.

Respect begets commitment from state that no law should be made to interfere or curtail the
fulfillment of the stated human rights. Protecting means that human rights violations should be
prevented and if they exist, immediate action should be made.

In the Philippines the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) primarily handles the investigations of
human rights violations. However, it has no power to resolve issue as stated in the Supreme Court
decision in 1991.

Established in 1986 during administration of President Corazon Aquino, CHR is an independent body
which ensures the protection of human rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights.

Aside from investigations, it also aids and legal measures for the protection of human rights guided
by Section 18 Article XIII of the Philippine Constitution.

Do criminals or those who break the law still enjoy human rights?

Criminals or those in conflict with the aw are still protected by rights as indicated in many legal
documents such as the Philippines’ Criminal Code and UN’s Standard Minimum Rules for the
Treatment of Prisoners.

Specific human rights, however, may be removed, provided they go through due process
beforehand.

BILL OF RIGHTS. According to the 1987 Philippine Constitutions defined as the declaration and
enumeration of a person’s rights and privileges which the Constitution is designed to protect
against violations by the government or by individuals or group of individuals. It is a charter of
liberties for the individual and a limitation upon the power of state.

CLASSES OF RIGHTS

1. Natural
2. Constitutional
3. Statutory rights or those promulgated by the congress and may be abolished by the letter also

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HUMAN RIGHTS UNDER ARTICLE 3, 1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION
1. The rights to life, liberty, and property
2. The right against unreasonable searches and seizures
3. Right to Privacy of Communication and Correspondence
4. Freedom of Expression and Assembly
5. Freedom of Religion
6. Liberty of Abode and Right to Travel
7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern
8. Freedom of Association
9. Prohibition against Expropriation of Property without just compensation
10. Prohibition against Impairment of Contract
11. Free Access to the Court and Quasi-Judicial Bodies
12. Right to counsel and the right to remain silent
13. The right to bail
14. Right to presumption of innocence
15. Rights of the accused in criminal prosecution
16. Right to Habeas Corpus
17. Right to speedy disposition of cases
18. Right against self-incrimination
19. The right against excessive, cruel, or unusual punishment
20. Right against involuntary servitude
21. Right against double Jeopardy
22. Right against the bill of attainder and ex post facto law

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References:

Study Guide in NSTP 1 for NEUST students (2019)

Deleon, Hector.1987 Philippine Constitution

Espinas, Arnold L., Ferrer, Melchor P., Dalanagin. Propecasio D., Santos, Miguel R., De Jesus Marilyn
T., Cabasag, Julius F. (2011) Reference test in NSTP. Mutya Publishing

Handbook on Community Training Programs for Participatory, ISF. Manila; Central for Rural
Technology Development, Philippine Business for Social Progress,1999

Sonia Gasilla, Ed.d. Edeliza Dela Cruz-Lazo, Palino M. Mapue, NSTP (Literacy Training Service 1)
Online References:

https://www.youthforhumanrights.org/what-are-human-rights/universal-declaration-of-
human-rights/articles-16-30.html
https://pdea.gov.ph/transparency/8-transparency/89-mission
https://www.slideshare.net/johnver523/social-trends-and-issue-human-rights
https://intensiveenglish2.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/0/6/13061498/preamblenosummary
statements.docx
https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/114698-human-rights-philippines
https://www.livingasequals.com/2019/11/03/what-are-god-given-rights/
https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/114698-human-rights-philippines
https://www.intellasia.net/things-to-know-human-rights-in-the-philippines-486128

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 UNIT III

GOVERNANCE

Overview

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to

1. Explain the significance of the shift in how people and nations perceive
governance and how it differs from government.
2. Critically define the meaning of good governance.
3. Discuss the inter-relationship between the concept of governance and new
public management (NPM).
4. Comment on and criticize the meanings and implications of various
definitions of governance and develop your own definition of the concept of
governance.
5. Trace the evolution of new public management which led to the
definition of governance.
6. Synthesize the related and theoretically related concepts of governance

Lesson Proper

Getting to Definition

This is the first leg of the module on governance. In this module, the instructor provides a
practical introduction in the study of governance and development to analyze an array of definitions
and meaning of the concept of governance. Later on, the students will be asked to crystallize their
own notion of governance and how it may be applied in the real world.

THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE

In most dictionaries “government” and “governance” are interchangeably used, both

denoting the exercise of authority in an organization, institution, or state. Government is the name
given to the entity exercising that authority. Authority can most simply define as legitimate power.
Whereas power is the ability to influence the behavior of others, authority is the right to do so.
Authority is therefore the based on an acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of
coercion or manipulation. Weber distinguished between three kinds of authority, based on the
different grounds upon obedience can be established; traditional authority is rooted in history,
charismatic authority stems from personality and legal authority is grounded in a set of impersonal
rules. To study government is to study the exercise of authority. (Heywood, 1997) Government is

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closely related to politics.

To study politics is in essence to study government or more broadly, to study the exercise of
authority. Politics is the art of government, the exercise of control within the society through the
making and enforcement of collective decisions. (Heywood 1997) The realm of politics is restricted
to state actors who are consciously motivated by ideological beliefs, and who seek to advance them
through membership of a formal organization such as a political organization. This is the sense in
which politicians are described as “political” whereas civil servants are seen as “nonpolitical”, the
state as “public” and the civil society as “private”. The institutions of the state (the apparatus of the
government, the courts, the police, the army, the society-security system and so forth) can be
regarded as “public” in the sense that they are responsible for the collective organization of the
community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public’s
expense, out of taxation. In contrast, civil society consists of what Raymund Burke called the little
platoons, institutions such as the family and kinship groups, private businesses, trade unions, clubs,
community groups and so on that are private in the sense that they are set up and funded by
individual citizens. On the basis of this public/private life division, government is restricted to the
activities of the state itself and the responsibilities which are properly exercised by public bodies.
Although civil society can be distinguished from the state, it nevertheless contains a range of
institutions that are thought as “public” in a wider access.

One of its crucial implications is that it broadens our notion of the government transferring
the economy in particular from the private to the public realm. Now, the conception of politics and
government move beyond the narrow realm of government to what is thought as “public life” or
“public affairs.” Since, the government doesn’t only decide for all and the civil society and the private
sectors play vital role in the community, thus, the conception of the word “governance”. Governance
is a broader term than government. In its widest sense, it refers to the various ways in which social
life is coordinated. Government can therefore be seen as one of the institutions in governance; it is
possible to have governance without government. (Heywood, 1997)

Governance: Varying Definitions

Governance is:

“The traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised” – Kaufman et al

The way “ … power is exercised through a country’s economic, political, and social institutions.” – the
World Bank’s PRSP Handbook.

“The sound exercise of political, economic, and administrative authority to manage a country’s
resources for development. It involves the institutionalization of a system through which citizens,
institutions, organizations, and groups in a society articulate their interests, exercise their rights, and
mediate their differences in pursuit of the collective good “(Country Governance Assessment 2005).

“The exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all
levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes, and institutions through which citizens and groups
articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations, and mediate their
differences.” UNDP.

In governance, citizens are rightly concerned with a government’s responsiveness to their needs and

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protection of their rights. In general, governance issues pertain to the ability of government to
develop an efficient, effective, and accountable public management process that is open to citizen
participation and that strengthens rather than weakens a democratic system of government. “ The
USAID, Office of Democracy & Governance.

It refers to how any organization, including a nation, is run. It includes all the processes, systems, and
controls that are used to safeguard and grow assets.” (UNDP, 1997)

“The systems, processes and procedures put in place to steer the direction, management and
accountability of an organization.” Birmingham City Council.

When applied to organizations that operate commercially, governance is often termed

"corporate governance"

"Promoting fairness, transparency and accountability" – World Bank

"a system by which business organizations are directed and controlled".- OECD

“The manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s social and economic
resources for development. It is referred to as the quality of the institutions to make, implement and
enforce sound policies in an efficient, effective, equitable and inclusive man The Asian Development
Bank (ADB)

In broad terms, governance is about the institutional environment in which citizens interact among
themselves and with government agencies/officials. (ADB, 2005).

The process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not
implemented). Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance,
international governance, national governance, and local governance.
The interactions among structures, processes and traditions that determine how power and
responsibilities are exercised, how decisions are taken, and how citizens or other stakeholders have
their say. Fundamentally, it is about power, relationships and accountability: who has influence, who
decides, and how decision-makers are held accountable. (IOG 2003)

“As the exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority to manage the nation’s affairs at
all levels. It comprises of mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups
articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights and obligations, and mediate their differences.
Governance is not the sole domain of government but transcends government to encompass the
business sector and the civil society. NEDA (2006) tentative, unpredictable, and fluid. Governance is
complicated by the fact that it involves multiple actors, not a single helmsman.

These multiple actors are the organization's stakeholders. They articulate their interests;
influence how decisions are made, who the decision-makers are and what decisions are taken.

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 Decision-makers must absorb this input into the decision-making process. Decision-makers
are then accountable to those same stakeholders for the organization's output and the process of
producing it.

Governance According to UNDP

The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes supports and
sustains human development - especially for the poorest and most marginal. But the search for a
clearly articulated concept of governance has just begun.

Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent, and accountable. It is
also effective and equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political,
social, and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the
poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development
resources.
Governance has three legs: economic, political, and administrative. Economic governance
includes decision-making processes that affect a country's economic activities and its relationships
with other economies. It clearly has major implications for equity, poverty, and quality of life. Political
governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy. Administrative governance is the
system of policy implementation.
Encompassing all three, good governance defines the processes and structures that guide
political and socio-economic relationships.

Governance encompasses the state, but it transcends the state by including the private sector
and civil society organizations. What constitutes the state is widely debated. Here, the state is defined
to include political and public sector institutions. UNDP's primary interest lies in how effectively the
state serves the needs of its people. The private sector covers private enterprises (manufacturing,
trade, banking, cooperatives and so on) and the informal sector in the marketplace. Some say that the
private sector is part of civil society. But the private sector is separate to the extent that private sector
players influence social, economic, and political policies in ways that create a more conducive
environment for the marketplace and enterprises.

Civil society, lying between the individual and the state, comprises individuals and groups
(organized or unorganized) interacting socially, politically, and economically - regulated by formal

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and informal rules and laws.

GOVERNANCE & SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

UNDP believes that developing the capacity of good governance is the primordial way to
eliminate poverty. Notions of good governance and the link between governance and sustainable
human development vary greatly, however, both in academic literature and among development
practitioners2. (UNDP, 1997)

So, what is sustainable human development?

Human development as expanding the choices for all people in society. This means that men and
women - particularly the poor and vulnerable - are at the center of the development process. It also
means "protection of the life opportunities of future generations...and...the natural systems on which
all life depends" (UNDP, Human Development Report 1996). This makes the central purpose of
development the creation of an enabling environment in which all can enjoy long, healthy, and
creative lives.

Economic growth is a means to sustainable human development - not an end in itself. Human
Development Report 1996 showed that economic growth does not automatically lead to sustainable
human development and the elimination of poverty. For example, countries that do well when ranked
by per capita income often slip down the ladder when ranked by the human development index.
There are, moreover, marked disparities within countries - rich and poor alike - and these become
striking when human development among indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities is evaluated
separately.

There are five aspects to sustainable human development - all affecting the lives of the poor and
vulnerable:

 Empowerment - The expansion of men and women's capabilities and choices increases their
ability to exercise those choices free of hunger, want and deprivation. It also increases their
opportunity to participate in, or endorse, decision-making affecting their lives.

 Co-operation - With a sense of belonging important for personal fulfillment, well- being and a
sense of purpose and meaning, human development is concerned with the ways in which
people work together and interact.

 Equity - The expansion of capabilities and opportunities means more than income - it also means
equity, such as an educational system to which everybody should have access.

 Sustainability - The needs of this generation must be met without compromising the right of
future generations to be free of poverty and deprivation and to exercise their basic
capabilities.

 Security - Particularly the security of livelihood. People need to be freed from threats, such as
disease or repression and from sudden harmful disruptions in their lives.

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 UNDP focuses on four critical elements of sustainable human development: eliminating poverty,
creating jobs, and sustaining livelihoods, protecting, and regenerating the environment, and
promoting the advancement of women. Developing the capacities for good governance
underpins all these objectives.

The Art of Governing

To govern is to exercise power and authority over a territory, system, or organization. This
applies to both government and governance3. The exercise of authority is uppermost in government
and remains significance in governance but is no longer the single focus. This is because the power
in governance is not so much wielded as shared, and authority is defined not so much by control of
the ruler as by the
consent and participation of the governed. Is a state weak under a regime of governance? Not
necessarily for it can be stronger than ever before except that the acts expected of it are different
from the role of the state as government.

In traditional parlance, government rules and controls, but in governance, it orchestrates and
manages. These contrasts may seem overdrawn, but we will flesh out and qualify them as the
discussion proceeds.

Ruling and orchestrating rest on different bases. To rule is to be the sole authority, for which
the appropriate response is to obey. A government that rule relies on force to exact compliance, and
we know from introductory from the introductory political science that the state has the monopoly
of legitimate violence. It enacts laws binding on all the inhabitants and metes out sanctions according
to these laws. It delivers services to passive recipients who have little influence in the definition of
the programs or their eligibility requirement and methods.

By contrast, to orchestrate is to call on everyone to play a part in moving the society. Power
rests on the trust the players have on the director and on each other. Because built on trust,
transparency in the conduct of governing is essential. Laws still bind all, but they are laws they had a
part in bringing about. Accountability is shared, and they who have the greatest power bear the
greater responsibility.

To control is not to manage, as Landau and Stout maintained in a classic article. We have not
found a definition of governance that uses control instead of management.

To control is to direct what each part of the system must do. It assumes that the controller
knows the goals and is certain how an action it requires can lead to it. Deviation will be viewed as
error in a context of full knowledge.

Controlling assumes a law (using the term in scientific sense) but to manage is to act on a
hypothesis. The manager works on incomplete information and tests if the hypothesis is borne out
in a given situation. A manager then must be open to inputs from outside him which might provide
new information and to methods other than those originally promulgated that could lead to the
specified goal. Governance chooses management over control because its system is permeable,
admits outside the influences, assumes no omnipotence or omniscience on the part of the decision-
maker, and subjects’ decisions to the evaluation and critique of all those with a stake in them.

All governing is an act of leadership, of moving a society towards a preferred direction. While

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government can have a connotation of being interested only in maintenance and in preserving peace
and order, governance implies leadership toward societal development. This is shown in the
following passage from the International Institute of Administrative Sciences.
Governance is the process whereby elements in society wield power and authority, and
influence and enact policies and decisions concerning public life, economic and social development.”

This shows that the concept is indeed a product of the late twentieth century when
development became a preoccupation of societies and states. The definition of development shall be
discussed on the succeeding modules.

The Need for Good Governance: Why Governance Matters

Good governance creates a strong future for an organization by continuously steering

towards a vision and making sure that day-to-day management is always lined up with the
organization’s goals. At its core, governance is about leadership.

An effective board will improve the organization’s results, both financial and social, and make
sure the owners' assets and funds are used appropriately. Poor governance can put organizations
at risk of commercial failure, financial and legal problems for directors/trustees or allow an
organization to lose sight of its purpose and its responsibilities to its owners and people who benefit
from its success.

Theories of Governance

If Max Weber and Woodrow Wilson were to suddenly appear on the landscape of modern
public administration, normative theories in hand, it is likely they would be unable to recognize the
field of governance. The comprehensive, functionally uniform, hierarchical organizations governed
by strong leaders who are democratically responsible and staffed by neutrally competent civil
servants who deliver services to citizens – to the extent they ever existed – are long gone. They have
been replaced by an ‘organizational society’ in which many important services are provided through
multi organizational programs. These programs are essentially “interconnected clusters of firms,
governments, and associations which come together within the framework of these programs”
(Hjern and Porter, 1981, pp. 212-213).

These implementation structures operate within a notion of governance about which a

surprising level of consensus has been reached. There is a pervasive, shared, global perception of
governance as a topic far broader than ‘government’; the governance approach is seen as a “new
process of governing, or a changed condition of ordered rule; or the new method by which society is
governed” (Stoker, 1998, p. 17). Similarly, in the scholarship that has followed the ‘Reinventing
Government’ themes of public effectiveness; much has been written of New Public Management
practices by which governance theory is put into action (Mathiasen, 1996; Lynn, 1996, 1998; Terry,
1998; Kelly, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998).

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 Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries
between and within public and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of governance
is its focus on mechanisms that do not rest on recourse to the authority and sanctions of
government….Governance for (some) is about the potential for contracting, franchising and new
forms of regulation. In short, it is about what (some) refer to as the new public management.
However, governance …is more than a new set of managerial tools. It is also about more than
achieving greater efficiency in the production of public services (1998, p. 17-18). Peters and Pierre
agree, saying that governance is about process, while NPM is about outcomes (1998, p. 232).

Governance is ultimately concerned with creating the conditions for ordered rule and
collective action (Stoker, 1998; Peters and Pierre, 1998; Milward and Provan, 2000). As should be
expected, all efforts to synthesize the literature draw from theories found in the separate traditions.
Berman owes debts to Van Meter and Van Horn (1975, 1976) and Goggin, et al (1990), among others.
See Kaboolian (1998) for a description of reform movements in the public sector that collectively
comprise “New Public Management” (NPM). I adopt her definition of NPM as a series of innovations
that – considered collectively – embody public choice approaches, transaction-cost relationships, and
preferences for efficiency over equity. notes, the outputs of governance are not different from those
of government; it is instead a matter of a difference in processes (1998, p. 17).

Governance refers to the development of governing styles in which boundaries

between and within public and private sectors have become blurred. The essence of
governance, and its most troublesome aspect, according to its critics, is a focus on mechanisms that
do not rest on recourse to the authority and sanctions of government (Bekke, et al, 1995; Peters and
Pierre, 1998; Stoker, 1998; Rhodes, 1996, 1997). Stoker (1998, p. 18) draws five propositions to
frame our understanding of the critical questions that governance theory should help us answer. He
acknowledges that each proposition implies a dilemma or critical issue.

1. Governance refers to institutions and actors from within and beyond government. (But
there is a divorce between the complex reality of decision-making associated with governance
and the normative codes used to explain and justify government). The question, as it relates to
policy implementation, is one of legitimacy. The extent to which those with decision-making
power are seen to be legitimate (in the normative sense) will directly impact their ability to
mobilize resources and promote cooperation and build and sustain partnerships. Thus, the
normative dilemma has pragmatic overtones. Beetham suggests that for power to be legitimate
it must conform to established rules; these rules must be justified by adherence to shared
beliefs; and the power must be exercised with the express consent of subordinates (1991, p.
19).

2. Governance identifies the blurring of boundaries and responsibilities for tackling social
and economic issues. This shift in responsibility goes beyond the public-private dimension to
include notions of communitarianism and social capital. (However, blurring of responsibilities
can lead to blame avoidance or scapegoating). An interesting research area that has grown in
scope and importance following the implementation of welfare reform is the study of faith-
based organizations’ role and impact in service delivery. Public agencies have not merely
endorsed or encouraged this partnership, but in some cases have institutionalized these
arrangements. This suggests a shift in responsibility beyond the more traditional notions of
contracting out and privatization. At the same time, all of these activities contribute to
uncertainties on the part of policy makers and the public about who is in charge and who can
be held accountable for performance outcomes. Implementation theory must attend to the

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 nature and impact of responsibility and accountability.

3. Governance identifies the power dependence involved in the relationships between

institutions involved in collective action. Organizations are dependent upon each other for
the achievement of collective action, and thus must exchange resources and negotiate shared
understandings of ultimate program goals. The implementation literature is replete with
studies of coordination barriers and impacts (for example, Jennings and Ewalt, 1998).
(Nonetheless, power dependence exacerbates the problem of unintended consequences for
government because of the likelihood of principal-agent problems.) For implementation
scholarship to contribute to a greater understanding of governance relationships,
arrangements for minimizing (and impacts of) game-playing, subversion, creaming and
opportunism must be explored.

4. Governance is about autonomous self-governing networks of actors. (The emergence of

self-governing networks raises difficulties over accountability). Governance networks, in
Stoker’s terms, “involve not just influencing government policy but taking over the business of
government” (1998, p. 23). The “hollow state” that networks have triggered (Milward, 1996;
Milward and Provan, 2000) raises questions about how government can manage public
programs when they consist largely of entities outside the public domain. Network theory and
governance issues overlap, and they are both directly linked to questions of implementation.

5. Governance recognizes the capacity to get things done which does not rest on the power
of government to command or use its authority. (But even so, government failures may
occur.) It is in this proposition that we find a natural progression from the more encompassing
theory of governance to the more prescriptive notions of New Public Management. Stoker
notes that within governance there is a concerted emphasis on new tools and techniques to
steer and guide. The language is taken directly from reinventing themes. The dilemma of
governance in this context is that there is a broader concern with the very real potential for
leadership failure, differences among key partners in time horizons and goal priorities, and
social conflicts, all of which can result in governance failure. Stoker draws on Goodin as he
suggests that design challenges of public institutions can be addressed in part by “revisability,
robustness, sensitivity to motivational complexity, public dependability, and variability to
encourage experimentation” (Stoker, 1998, p. 26, quoting from Goodin, 1996, p. 39-43).

As Peters and Pierre note, “governance is about maintaining public-sector resources under
some degree of political control and developing strategies to sustain government’s capacity to act” in
the face of management tools that replace highly centralized, hierarchical structures with
decentralized management environments where decisions on resource allocation and service
delivery are made closer to the point of delivery (1998, p. 232).

What is good governance?

Like government, governance can be good or bad. Bad government and bad governance
have similar characteristics: Corruption, Whimsical and Expedient Decision-Making,
Shortsightedness, disregard for the concern of the many and decisions 6. In the same vein, the
criteria for good governance and would be the same as good governance. They include
accountability and ethics in decision-making and implementation, transparency and predictability,
rule-bound decision-making and action, responsiveness, a long-term view of the public interest.
The public should therefore have a right to expect laws, a fair judicial system, politically accountable

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lawmaking, and an effective and reform-minded bureaucracy.

One goal of good governance is to enable an organization to do its work and fulfill its
mission. Good governance results in organizational effectiveness.

Good governance is about both achieving desired results and achieving them in
the right way.

Since the "right way" is largely shaped by the cultural norms and values of the organization,
there can be no universal template for good governance. Each organization must tailor its own
definition of good governance to suit its needs and values.

The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes, supports,
and sustains human development - especially for the poorest and most marginal. But the search for
a clearly articulated concept of governance has just begun.

Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent, and accountable. It is
also effective and equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political,
social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the
poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development
resources.

THE EIGHT CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE BY UNDP

Good governance is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent,

responsive, effective, and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that
corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are considered and that the voices of the most
vulnerable in society are heard in decision- making. It is also responsive to the present and future
needs of society. Much has been written about the characteristics of efficient government, successful
businesses, and effective civil society organizations, but the characteristics of good governance
defined in societal terms remain elusive.

Interrelated, these core characteristics are mutually reinforcing and cannot stand alone. For
example, accessible information means more transparency, broader participation, and more effective
decision-making. Broad participation contributes both to the exchange of information needed for
effective decision-making and for the legitimacy of those decisions. Legitimacy, in turn, means
effective implementation and encourages further participation. And responsive institutions must be
transparent and function according to the rule of law if they are to be equitable.

Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented,

accountable, transparent, responsive, effective, and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the
rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are considered and that
the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the
present and future needs of society.

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Participation

Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance All men and
women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate
institutions that represent their interests. Such broad participation is built on freedom of association
and speech, as well as capacities to participate constructively. Participation could be either direct or
through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that
representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in
society would be taken into consideration in decision making. Participation needs to be informed and
organized. This means freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil
society on the other hand.

Rule of law

Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the laws on human rights.
Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also
requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of
laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force.

Transparency

Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions, and information
are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is provided to
understand and monitor them.

Transparency means that decisions taken, and their enforcement are done in a manner that
follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly
accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means that
enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and media.

Responsiveness

Institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders. Good governance requires that
institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

Consensus oriented

Good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best
interests of the group and, where possible, on policies and procedures.

There are several actors and as many viewpoints in a given society. Good governance
requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what
is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad
and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve

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the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural,
and social contexts of a given society or community.

Equity and inclusiveness

All men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.

A society’s well-being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in
it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly
the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.

Effectiveness and efficiency

Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making the best use of
resources.

Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs
of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the
context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection
of the environment.

Accountability

Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but
also the private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their
institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom varies depending on whether decisions or
actions taken are internal or external to an organization or institution? In general, an organization or
an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability
cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law.

Strategic vision

Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and human
development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an
understanding of the historical, cultural, and social complexities in which that perspective is
grounded.

The World Bank on the other hand, cites 4 dimensions of governance which are: Public Sector
Management, Accountability, and Legal Framework for Development and Transparency &
Information

The World Bank’s interest in governance stems from its concern with the effectiveness of the
development efforts it supports. From this perspective, sound development management is critical
in ensuring adequate returns and efficacy of the programs and projects financed and for the World
Bank’s underlying objectives of helping countries reduce poverty and promoting sustainable
development growth.

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Four Basic Elements of Good Governance according to ADB

ADB likewise regards governance as synonymous with sound development management. It

relates to governance to the effectiveness with which development assistance is used, the impact of
development programs and projects and the absorptive capacity of borrowing countries. To
address governance issues, the Asian Development bank has built upon the approach of the World
Bank and has identified four basic elements of good governance:

Basic Elements of Good Governance

Basic Elements of Key Dimensions Specific Areas of

Good Governance Action
1. Accountability means making Establishing criteria to measure Public Sector Management
public officials answerable for performance of public officials Public Enterprise
government behavior and responsive Institutionalizing mechanisms Management
to the entity from which they derive to ensure that standards are Public Financial
authority met management
Civil Service Reform
2. Participation refers to Undertaking development for Participation of
enhancing people’s access to and and by the people beneficiaries and affected
influence on public policy groups
processes Interface between
government and the
private sector
Decentralization of public
and service delivery
functions (empowerment
of Local Governments)
Cooperation with Non-
Government
Organizations
3. Predictability refers to the existence Establishing and sustaining Law and development Legal
of laws, regulations and policies to appropriate legal and Frameworks for Private
regulate society and the fair and institutional Arrangements Sector Development
consistent application of these Observing and upholding the
rule of law
Maintaining consistency of
public policies
4. Transparency refers to the Ensuring access to accurate and Disclosure of Information
availability of Information to the timely information about the
general public and clear government economy and government
rules, regulations, and decisions policies

Institute On Governance Five Principles of Good Governance

The Five Good Governance Principles. The UNDP Principles and related UNDP text on which they are
based. The Institute on Governance has identified five principles of governance, using as basis the
UNDPs indicators of good governance.

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 27

1. Legitimacy and Voice

Participation – all men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through
legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their intention. Such broad participation is built
on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to participate constructively.

Consensus orientation – good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad consensus on
what is in the best interest of the group and, where possible, on policies and procedures.

2. Direction
Strategic vision – leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance
and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development. There is also
an understanding of the historical, cultural, and social complexities in which that perspective is
grounded.

3. Performance
Responsiveness – institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders.
Effectiveness and efficiency – processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while
making the best use of resources.

4. Accountability
Accountability – decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society organizations
are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders. This accountability differs
depending on the organizations and whether the decision is internal or external.

Transparency – transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions, and
information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is
provided to understand and monitor them.

5. Fairness

Equity – all men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. Rule of Law
– legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the laws on human rights.

As reflected on the discussions above, the different institutions and organizations have their
own indicators or criteria of good governance which they can apply in their own organizations or as
useful tool of government as measures in good governance.

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References:

Source: Institute on Governance http://www.iog.ca

Source: Asian Development Bank (2005) Country Governance Assessment

Source: Governance for Sustainable Human Development (1997) A UNDP Policy Document

United Nations Development Programmed Internet Source:

http://magnet.undp.org/policy/

Source: Governance for Sustainable Human Development A UNDP Policy Document (1997)

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 UNIT IV

Public Health

Overview

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to

1. The students should be able to gain important knowledge on the concept of public health.
2. The students should be able to identify the common health problems in the community level as
well as their causes.
3. The students should be able to present ways on how public health concerns may be addressed.

Lesson Proper

Definition of terms:

Public Health involves policies and actions designed to promote the overall health of the people in
community.
Hygiene refers to the practices aimed towards preventing diseases and maintenance of health
through cleanliness and healthy living.

Sanitation pertains to the hygienic practice of waste disposal and keeping the environment within
hygienic standards.

Nutrition refers to the balanced intake of nutrients necessary to enable the human body or parts of
the body to perform its functions. Many health problems may be prevented with a healthy diet. Diet
refers to what a person eats. There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fiber,
minerals, protein, vitamins, and water. These nutrients classes can be categorized as either
macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller
quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, protein, and water. The micronutrients
are minerals and vitamins. The micronutrients provide energy. Vitamins, minerals, fifer, and water
do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons. Other micronutrients include
antioxidants and phytochemicals.

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Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrients classes. Some nutrients are required regularly
while others are needed only occasionally.

Causes of Malnutrition

1. Lack of sufficient budget for food

2. Lack of knowledge on the nutritional values of food
3. Lack of knowledge on proper food preparation
4. Incorrect feeding practice
5. Unavailability of nutritious food or food shortage

Effects of Malnutrition to Children

1. Weak body resistance

2. Weak mental capability
3. Derailed growth

Things to Know About Breast-Feeding

1. Breast milk is the most nutritious and complete food for infants.
2. Colostrum’s (first drop of milk from the mother) are rich in antibodies needed by the infants
to strengthen their resistance against infections.
3. Breast-feeding helps in fast recovery of mother’s health after giving birth.
4. It makes the infant closer to the mother.
5. Breast-feeding must begin immediately after the child is born.

COMMON HEALTH PROBLEMS

1. Sore Eyes. Caused by a virus in which the surface of the eyeball and the inside of the eyelids
became inflamed. It may be transferred by hand contacts.
2. Chicken Pox. Highly contagious disease which affects young ones during their early years but is
more severe in adults. Infection is easily spread via airborne droplets that are exhaled or expelled
causing outbreaks in places where there are person-to-person contacts. Health centers offer free
vaccination against chicken pox.
3. Cholera or El Tor. Contagious and serious disease, which is an infection of the small intestine,
characterized by severe diarrhea that causes a person to lose up to half a liter of water an hour.
It is caused by germs taken into the body through food and drinks. Rats, cockroaches, flies, and
ants are common carrier of cholera. Common symptoms are pain in the back or in the legs and
arms, frequent bowel movement, vomiting, and dehydration.
4. Tuberculosis (TB). A highly contagious bacterial infection usually affecting the lungs. This is a
disease which is the most common cause of death in the Philippines. Symptoms are fever,
sweating especially at night, malaise, weakness and poor appetite, chronic cough, blood in the
sputum, chest pain, and shortness of breath and swelling in the neck due to enlarged lymph
nodes.

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5. Typhoid Fever. A bacterial infection that first attacks the intestines, and then spreads to the liver,
spleen, and gall bladder. The disease is highly infectious, transmitted through contaminated
water and food. Even after a person has recovered from typhoid fever, he may remain a carrier
of bacteria for years. Typhoid fever can be fatal if not treated promptly. Symptoms are severe
headache, cough, high fever, chills, loss of appetite, weakness, constipation, and abdominal pain
6. Diarrhea. Is a loose, watery stool. A person with diarrhea typically passes stool more than three
times a day. Acute diarrhea is a common problem that usually lasts 1 or 2 days and goes away on
its own without special treatment. Prolonged diarrhea persisting for more than 2 days may be a
sign of a more serious problem and poses the risk of dehydration. Chronic diarrhea may be a
feature of a chronic disease Diarrhea can cause dehydration, a state which means that the body
lacks enough fluid to function properly. Dehydration is particularly dangerous in children and
older people, and it must be treated promptly to avoid serious health problems. The fluid and
electrolytes lost during diarrhea need to be replaced promptly because the body cannot function
without them. Electrolytes are the salts and minerals that affect the amount of water in your body,
muscle activity, and other important functions. Liquids like broth and soup that contains sodium
and fruits juices, soft fruits, or vegetable that contain potassium, help restore electrolyte levels.
Over-the-counter rehydration solution like Pedialyte is also a good electrolyte source and is
especially recommended for use in children.

Note: Vaccines for some common diseases are available for free at government health center.
Sexually Transmitted disease (STDs)

STDs are diseases or infections which are transmitted between humans by means of sexual contact.
There are also instances in which some sexually transmitted infections are transmitted through birth,
needles, breastfeeding or even by using public toilets.

Examples of STDs

Genital herpes. Caused by the herpes simplex viruses type 1 (HSV-1) and type (HSV-2). Signs
typically appear as one or more blisters on or around the genitals or rectum. The blisters break,
leaving tender ulcers (sores) that may take two to four weeks to heal the first time they occur.
Typically, another outbreak can appear weeks or months after the first, but it almost always is less
severe and sorter that the first outbreak.

Syphilis. Caused by the bacterium Treponema palladium. Syphilis is passed from person to person
through direct contact with a syphilis sore. Sores occur mainly on the external genitals, vagina, anus,
or in the rectum. Sores also can occur on the lips and in the mouth. Pregnant women with disease can
pass it to the babies they are carrying. Syphilis cannot be spread through contact with toilet seats,
doorknobs, swimming pools, hot tubs, bathtubs, shared clothing, or eating utensils.
Gonorrhea. Caused by Neisseria gonorrhea, a bacterium that can grow and multiply easily in the
warm, moist areas of the reproductive tract, including the vertex (opening the womb), uterus
(womb), and fallopian tubes (egg canals) in women, and in the urethra (urine canal) in women and
men. The bacterium can also grow in the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus.

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Non-gonococcal Urethritis (NGU). An inflammation of the urethra. The symptoms of which can
include pain or a burning sensation upon urination, a white/cloudy discharge, and a feeling that you
need to pass urine frequently. There are instances that the infected person develops no symptoms.

AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Acquired. The virus is acquired directly through sexual contact or through other body fluids
from the person infected with HIV.

Immune. It attacks the immune system, the body’s defense against Illnesses.
Deficiency. The body’s immune system becomes defenseless and unable to fight infections
once AIDS sets in.
Syndrome. Those sick with AIDS will develop a set of symptoms or diseases as a result of a
weakened immune system.

HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus, the virus that causes AIDs. HIV is found in the blood
and other body fluids such as semen, vaginal secretions and breast milk of mothers infected with the
virus. A person can be infected with HIV for a long time (even up to 10 years) and not know it. Some
people only find out that they have HIV when it has already developed into AIDS.

Because HIV attacks the immune system, people with HIV (or AIDS) can have several illnesses,
illnesses that the immune system could no longer fight that may lead to the patient’s death. Diseases
that commonly afflict AIDS victims are pneumonia, diarrhea, tuberculosis, herpes and many more.

SYMPTOMS OF AIDS

The symptoms of AIDS can be felt between two months to ten years. These can include:
1. Unexplained, continuous swelling of glands (For example, in the breast, neck, and armpits)
2. Soaking night sweats
3. Fever
4. Chills
5. Paralyzing fatigue
6. More than ten pounds of weight less than two months
7. Diarrhea that lasts for several weeks

Although these signs and symptoms may also indicate many other illnesses, it is best to consult the
doctor immediately once they occur. There are blood tests that can determine if a person is infected
with HIV.

1. Through sexual contact, primarily unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse. Transmission

through oral sex is also possible.
2. By sharing needles (used with syringes) such as those used as drug paraphernalia.
3. By receiving transfusion of HIV- infected blood.
4. Through transplant of an HIV- infected organ.

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5. By using contaminated skin-piercing instruments like needles, syringes, razor blades, tattoo
needles or circumcision instruments.
6. Through injury by contaminated needles or another sharp object.
7. Through prenatal modes, which means passed from mother to infant during pregnancy,
childbirth, or breastfeeding.
8. By getting the mucus membranes such as the eyes or opened wounds splashed with infected
blood or other body fluids.
Take note that materials and instruments like needles, razor blades and the like are only
contaminated if they carry traces of blood or body fluids from an infected HIV person .

STEPS IN PREVENTING AIDS

1. Maintain a high sense of moral values

2. Be faithful to the partner
3. Stay away from bad vices and influencers
4. Provide program that will strengthen the family
5. Provide adequate programs and facilities designed to uphold total development of young
individuals.
6. Use other acceptable methods prescribed by the government.

DENGUE H-FEVER

Dengue Hemorrhagic-Fever is one of the common but serious infectious viral diseases found in sub-
tropical countries like the Philippines. It is an infection carried by the Aedes Aegpti mosquito.

AEDES AEGYPITI

Dengue fever is transmitted by the mosquito of the genus Aedes aegypti. Aedes comes from the Greek
term meaning unfriendly or unpleasant. True to its meaning, the mosquito is detested in anyone’s
household.

Aedes aegypti bites during daytime and breeds in clear stagnant water. Possible breeding places
included flower vases, old rubber tries, discarded open tin cans and water pails. It is characterized
by white stripes on its thorax (body) and is smaller in size than the ordinary household mosquito.

The mosquito is usually found in tropics and subtropics. The adult mosquito rests in the dark places
of the houses.

SYMPTOMS OF DENGUE H-FEVER

1. The patient experiences a sudden onset of a high and prolonged fever. The fever may last up
to seven days.
2. Joint and muscle pains usually come during the initial stage of infection.
3. Pain behind the eyes, of which pain is especially evident when the patient moves his eyes.

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 4. Feebleness or weakness is felt by the patient, and the movement of the entire or parts of the
body will be very difficult.
5. Appearance of tiny red spots called petechiae, also known as maculopapular, on the skin. A
dengue case usually reveals 20 or more red spots in one cubic inch of the skin.
6. Nose bleeding after fever starts to wane.
7. Enlargement of the liver which will be evident at the abdominal area.
8. Vomiting of brownish to blackish discharge.
9. Dark-stained stools. Blood may also accompany the stools.

PREVENTING DENGUE THROUGH THE FOUR O’CLOCK HABIT

1. Keep drums, pails and other water containers covered to avoid becoming breeding grounds
for mosquitos.
2. Replace water in the flower vase regularly.
3. Clean all the side portions of water storage at least once a week.
4. Roof gutters must be maintained in such a way that train water can fall freely towards the
down spout.
5. Old tires used as weight to support roofs must be disposed or punctured.
6. Dispose all empty tin cans, bottles and other things that can hold water that may be serve as
breeding ground for mosquitoes.
7. Say no to indiscriminate fogging.
PANDEMIC

A pandemic (from Greek πᾶν, pan, "all" and δῆμος, demos, "people”) is an epidemic of an
infectious disease that has spread across a large region, for instance, multiple continents or
worldwide, affecting a substantial number of people. A widespread endemic disease with a stable
number of infected people is not a pandemic.

PANDEMIC VS EPIDEMIC

What is a pandemic?

A pandemic is a type of epidemic that relates to geographic spread and describes a disease
that affects an entire country or the whole world.

An epidemic becomes a pandemic when it spreads over significant geographical areas and
affects a large percent of the population.

In short, a pandemic is an epidemic on a national or global level.

What is an epidemic?

An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that spreads quickly and affects many people at the
same time. An outbreak occurs when there is a sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease,

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like COVID-19. It generally describes an increase that was not anticipated. An outbreak can occur in
a community, geographical area, or several countries.

An epidemic is often used broadly to describe any problem that has grown out of control.
During an epidemic, the disease is actively spreading.

10 OF THE WORST PANDEMICS IN HISTORY

1. HIV/AIDS PANDEMIC (AT ITS PEAK, 2005-2012)

Death Toll: 36 million

Cause: HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS has truly proven itself as a global pandemic, killing more than 36 million people
since 1981 when it was first discovered in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1976. Among the
31 to 35 million people who are currently living with HIV, most of them are those who live in Sub-
Saharan Africa, 5% of their population is infected which is around 21 million people. As awareness
has grown, new treatments have been developed that make HIV far more manageable, and many of
those infected go on to lead productive lives. Between 2005 and 2012 the annual global deaths from
HIV/AIDS dropped from 2.2 million to 1.6 million.

2. FLU PANDEMIC (1968)

Death Toll: 1 million

Cause: Influenza

“The Hong Kong Flu”, also referred to as category 2 Flu. The flu pandemic of 1968 was caused
by the H3N2 stain of the Influenza. A virus, a genetic offshoot of the H2N2 subtype. It only took the
virus 17 days, from the first reported case on July 13, 1968, before the outbreaks of the virus were
reported to have reached Singapore and Vietnam, and only three months to reach the Philippines,
India, Australia, Europe, and United States. This pandemic still caused the death of more than a
million people even though the mortality rate of the virus was only .5%. This pandemic caused the
death of more than a million people, which includes the 500,000 residents of Hong Kong which
comprises 15% of their population at that time.

3. ASIAN FLU (1956-1958)

Death Toll: 2 million

Cause: Influenza

From 1956 to 1958, the Asian Flu was a pandemic outbreak of Influenza A of the H2N2
subtype that originated in China. In its two-year spree, Asian Flu traveled from the Chinese province
of Guizhou to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States. Depending on the source, estimates for

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the death toll of the Asian Flu vary, but the World Health Organization places the final tally at
approximately 2 million deaths, 69,800 of those in the US alone.

4. FLU PANDEMIC (1918)

Death Toll:20 -50 million

Cause: Influenza

A disturbingly deadly outbreak of influenza tore across the globe between the years 1928 and
1920, infecting over a third of the world’s population and ending the lives of 20 – 50 million people.
Of the 500 million people infected in the 1918 pandemic, the mortality rate was estimated at 10% to
20%, with up to 25 million deaths in the first 25 weeks alone. The victims are what separated the
1918 flu pandemic from other influenza outbreaks; compared to another influenza, which killed the
juveniles and the elderly or the already weakened patients, the 1918 flu pandemic attacks the
completely healthy young adults and leaving the children and other people with weak immune
system alive.

5. SIXTH CHOLERA PANDEMIC (1910-1911)

Death Toll: 800,000+

Cause: Cholera

Like its five previous incarnations, the Sixth Cholera Pandemic originated in India where it
killed over 800,000, before spreading to the Middle East, North Africa, Eastern Europe, and Russia.
The Sixth Cholera Pandemic was also the source of the last American outbreak of Cholera (1910–
1911). American health authorities, having learned from the past, quickly sought to isolate the
infected, and in the end, only 11 deaths occurred in the U.S. By 1923 Cholera cases had been cut down
dramatically, although it was still a constant in India.

6. FLU PANDEMIC (1889-1890)

Death Toll: 1 million

Cause: Influenza

Originally the “Asiatic Flu” or “Russian Flu”, this strain was thought to be an outbreak of the
Influenza A virus subtype H2N2, though recent discoveries have instead found the cause to be the
Influenza A virus subtype H3N8. The first cases were observed in May 1889 in three separate and
distant locations, Bukhara in Central Asia (Turkestan), Athabasca in northwestern Canada, and
Greenland. Rapid population growth of the 19th century, specifically in urban areas, only helped the
flu spread, and before long the outbreak had spread across the globe. Though it was the first true
epidemic in the era of bacteriology and much was learned from it. In the end, the 1889-1890 Flu
Pandemic claimed the lives of over a million individuals.

7. THIRD CHOLERA PANDEMIC (1852–1860)

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Death Toll: 1 million

Cause: Cholera

Generally considered the deadliest of the seven cholera pandemics, the third major outbreak
of Cholera in the 19th century lasted from 1852 to 1860. The Third Cholera also originated in India,
like the first and second pandemics, spreading from the Ganges River Delta, before it started
spreading through Asia, Europe, North America, and Africa. This pandemic ended over a million
people’s lives. John Snow, a British physician, tracked the cases of cholera, while he was working in
the poor area in London, and was able to successfully identify the means of transmitting the disease;
through contaminated water. Unfortunately, the worst year of the pandemic was the same year
(1854) that he had his discovery, 23, 000 people still died in Great Britain.

8. THE BLACK DEATH (1346-1353)

Death Toll:75 – 200 million

Cause: Bubonic Plague

An outbreak of Plague, from 1346 to 1353, ravaged Europe, Africa, and Asia with an estimated
death toll of 75 to 200 million people. The Plague is suspected to have originated from Asia and
jumped continents through the fleas living on rates that often board merchant ships. During that time,
ports are considered to be the major urban centers which make it the perfect breeding grounds for
rats and fleas, which made the bacterium flourish, devastating three continents with it.

9. PLAGUE OF JUSTINIAN (541-542)

Death Toll: 25 million

Cause: Bubonic Plague

The Plague of Justinian was a bubonic plague outbreak that afflicted the Byzantine Empire
and Mediterranean port cities. This plague was estimated to have killed up to 25 million people,
around half of the population of Europe at that time, in its year-long reign of terror. The Plague of
Justinian, regarded as the first recorded incident of Bubonic Plague, made its mark on the world. This
killed a quarter of the population in the Eastern Mediterranean, devastating the city of
Constantinople. At its peak, the plague was killing an estimated 5,000 people per day which
eventually resulted in the deaths of 40% of the population of the city.

10. ANTONINE PLAGUE (165 AD)

Death Toll: 5 million

Cause: Unknown

The Antonine Plague, also known as the Plague of Galen, was an ancient pandemic that
affected Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The true cause of this plague is still unknown but it is
thought to have been either Smallpox or Measles. The disease was spread by the Roman soldiers

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coming back from Mesopotamia around 165 A.D. This disease caused them 5 million people and it
decimated the Roman army.

What about COVID-19 (the novel coronavirus)?

In the region of Wuhan, China, a new (“novel”) coronavirus has begun showing itself in human
beings at the beginning of December 2019. They have named the virus “coronavirus disease of 2019”
or COVID-19 for short. Because it is a new virus, no one on earth has immunity against this virus, thus
the quick spread of the virus among people. Originally, it was considered as an epidemic in China,
however, within a few months, the virus managed to spread worldwide. By March 2020, WHO
declared COVID-19 as a pandemic. By the end of that same month, more than half a million was
already infected and the death nearly reached 30, 000. The infection rate in the US and other
countries was still spiking.

As a result of this pandemic, people have become more aware of the best practices during the
pandemic, from careful hand-washing to social distancing. Countries across the world declared
mandatory stay-at-home measures, closing schools, businesses, and public places. Dozens of
companies and many more independent researchers began working on tests, treatments, and
vaccines. The push for the human race to survive the pandemic became the primary concern in the
world.

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered

coronavirus. Most people who fall sick with COVID-19 will experience mild to moderate symptoms
and recover without special treatment.

How It Spreads?

The virus that causes COVID-19 is mainly transmitted through droplets generated when an
infected person coughs, sneezes, or exhales. These droplets are too heavy to hang in the air and
quickly fall on floors or surfaces. You can be infected by breathing in the virus if you are within
proximity of someone who has COVID-19, or by touching a contaminated surface and then your eyes,
nose, or mouth.

COVID-19 affects different people in different ways. Most infected people will develop mild
to moderate illness and recover without hospitalization.

Most common symptoms:

1. fever
2. dry cough
3. tiredness

Less common symptoms:

1. aches and pains
2. sore throat
3. diarrhea
4. conjunctivitis

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 5. headache
6. loss of taste or smell
7. a rash on the skin, or discoloration of fingers or toes

Protect yourself and others around you by knowing the facts and taking appropriate precautions.
Follow the advice provided by your local health authority.

To prevent the spread of COVID-19:

1. Clean your hands often. Use soap and water, or an alcohol-based hand rub.
2. Maintain a safe distance from anyone who is coughing or sneezing.
3. Wear a mask when physical distancing is not possible.
4. Don’t touch your eyes, nose, or mouth.
5. Cover your nose and mouth with your bent elbow or a tissue when you cough or sneeze.
6. Stay home if you feel unwell.
7. If you have a fever, cough, and difficulty breathing, seek medical attention.
8. Calling in advance allows your healthcare provider to quickly direct you to the right health
facility. This protects you and prevents the spread of viruses and other infections.
9. Masks

Masks can help prevent the spread of the virus from the person wearing the mask to others.
Masks alone do not protect against COVID-19 and should be combined with physical distancing and
hand hygiene. Follow the advice provided by your local health authority.

To date, there are no specific vaccines or medicines for COVID-19. Treatments are under
investigation and will be tested through clinical trials. World Health Organization

1. Self-care

If you feel sick you should rest, drink plenty of fluid, and eat nutritious food. Stay in a separate
room from other family members, and use a dedicated bathroom if possible. Clean and disinfect
frequently touched surfaces.

Everyone should keep a healthy lifestyle at home. Maintain a healthy diet, sleep, stay active,
and make social contact with loved ones through the phone or the internet. Children need extra love
and attention from adults during difficult times. Keep to regular routines and schedules as much as
possible.

It is normal to feel sad, stressed, or confused during a crisis. Talking to people you trust, such
as friends and family can help. If you feel overwhelmed, talk to a health worker or counselor.

2. Medical treatments

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 If you have mild symptoms and are otherwise healthy, self-isolate and contact your medical
provider or a COVID-19 information line for advice. Seek medical care if you have a fever, a cough,
and difficulty breathing. Call in advance.

What to do Before and During Pandemic

Before a Pandemic

1. Store additional supplies of food and water

2. Check your regular prescription drug supplies.
3. Have any nonprescription drugs and other health supplies on hand, including pain relievers,
stomach remedies, cough, and cold medicines, fluids with electrolytes, and vitamins.
4. Get copies and maintain electric versions of health records
5. Talk with family members and loved ones about how they would be cared for if they got sick,
or what will be needed to care for them in your home.

During Pandemic

Main goal: limit the spread of germs and prevent infection

1. Avoid close contact with people who are sick

2. When you are sick, keep your distance from others to protect them from getting sick too
3. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing
4. Washing your hands often will help protect you from germs
5. Avoid touching your eyes, nose or mouth
6. Practice good health habits. Get plenty of sleep, be physically active, manage your stress,
drink plenty of fluids, and eat nutritious food.

Virus prevention suggestions

1. Preventing viruses – practice social distancing

2. Preventing viruses – wash hands often and avoid touching your face
3. How to avoid viruses – wear disposable gloves when going in public places and wash hands
as soon as possible
4. Don’t panic-buy or hoard supplies until experts determine what cause coronavirus
5. Keep prescriptions current & non-prescription medicines available
6. Keep your health records accessible on paper or online

How to Avoid Viruses & Maintain One’s Psychological Well-Being

1. Maintain a regular sleep pattern

2. Keep to everyday routines as much as possible
3. Maintain physical activity & keep your immune system boosted

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 4. Do not panic

References:

NSTP 1 2020 Edition for NEUST Students

Online References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_pandemic

https://www.rochesterregional.org/news/2020/03/pandemic-vs-epidemic

https://empoweryourlifestyles.com/historical-pandemics-epidemics-plagues/

https://covoto.com/

https://www.wandtv.com/news/cdc-adds-3-new-symptoms-to-covid-19-list/article_1292c928-bae0-
11ea-9c4f-b798b914599b.html

https://www.aacorona.com/

https://genxsoft.info/2020/04/17/coronavirus-disease-symptoms-prevention-and-treatments/

https://s21151.pcdn.co/wp-content/uploads/What-To-Do-Before-and-During-a-Pandemic.pdf

https://www.mphonline.org/best-practices-during-a-pandemic/

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 UNIT V

DEVELOPING AND MAINTANING THE VIABILITY OF SOCIAL

ORGANIZATIONS FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Overview

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to

1. Know the types of social organizations.

2. Identify the role of social organizations in community development.
3. Appreciate the attributes necessary to develop and maintain viability of social organizations.

Lesson Proper

INTRODUCTION

Definition and Nature of Social Organization. If a number of men have a common aim but simply
proceed to work toward it as they see fit in disregard to the rest, they are likely to work cross
purposes. Sooner or later, one of them will probably seek to improve the situation by suggesting Let’s
get organized.
Social organization has grown out of the needs, drives and interests of the group. It is the
integration of social norms and social acts as persons or as groups behave in a given social system.
As Blan and Scott define social organization, it refers to the “ways in which human conduct becomes
socially arranged, that is, to the observes regularities in the behavior of people that are due to the
social conditions in which they find themselves, rather than to their psychological or physiological
characteristics as individual.
On a more specific level, some view social organization as a system of division of labor, and
specialization of activities. As a result of establishing procedures for working together through
implicit agreements, particularly when large numbers are involved, they established explicit
procedures for coordinating their activities in the interest of achieving specific objectives. The
defining criteria of an organization are the existence of procedures for mobilizing and coordinating
the efforts of various, usually specialized, subgroups in the pursuit of join objectives.

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Types of Social Organization. Organizations may be classified into various types depending upon
the nature or objectives they wanted to achieve. But generally, they can be classified as:

Formal Organization. Refers to the organizational pattern designed by the management. These are
explicit procedures as to the division of labor and power of control, the rules and regulations about
wages, fines, etc. which govern the relations among members, and which should be conformed with.
We usually associate bureaucracies as a formal organization

Informal Organization. Refers to the social interactions that develop among the workers above and
beyond the formal one determined by the organization (i.e., they not only work as a team but also as
friends) or to the actual organizational relations as they evolved as a consequence of the interaction
between the organization’s design or rules and pressures of interpersonal relations among the
participants.

Role of Social Organization in Community Development

Modern society depends largely on social organizations as the most rational and efficient form of
bringing in social grouping known to effect positive changes. By coordinating a large number of
human actions, the organization creates a powerful social tool. It combines its personnel with its
resources, weaving together leaders, experts, workers, machines, and raw materials. At the same
time, it continually evaluates how well it is performing and tries to achieve its goal. All these allow
the organization to serve the various needs of the society and its citizens more effectively than
smaller and more natural human groupings such as families and friendship groupings.

A community development worker, therefore, can utilize these organizations to achieve

the development goals. The various fields of specialization and expertise in the
organization can be tapped, and with the use of existing in the organization can be tapped,
and with the use of existing raw material and available capital, benefits can be achieved,
and thus improved the conditions of the community.

ELEMENTS AND/OR ATTRIBUTES NECESSARY TO DEVELOP AND MAINTAIN VIABILITY OF

SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

1. Effective program for recruitment and development of talent. It is essential for social
organizations to have the kind of recruitment that will bring a steady flow of able and highly
motivated individuals. Recruitment policy allows the selection of active local leaders and members.
If the members of any organization are active and skillful, the organization can be viable. It is
important that leaders of organizations should be tactful in selecting the skillful members. In the
village, however, the problem lies in the shortage and skilled, qualified, trained, and motivated people
which handicap proper functioning of social organizations in relation to community development
programs. Community development programs demand a large number of active and efficient local
leaders and members to successfully attain their objectives and goals.

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Sound recruitment depends upon the chairman or the officers/members (of the concerned
organization) who are responsible for the said function. As mentioned earlier, it is hard to find highly
trained skilled and motivated people in the village. There are varieties of training techniques
employed to develop skills and attributes of the people. Successful implementation of a community
development program requires re-orientation of all local leaders and members of social
organizations as to what their roles and responsibilities in the development of their communities.
Any training program should focus on increasing responsibilities and be trained in the basic skill of
group work.

2. Establishing hospitable environment for the individual and making clear to him his
responsibilities. There must be a hospitable environment for the individual and his
responsibilities should be made clear to him. Organizations that have killed the spark of
individuality in their members will have greatly diminished their capacity for change. It is through
the activation of social organizations that people could be changed, because there is a tendency for
the individual to conform with the will of the group.

In any organization, the members play a very important role; the success of failure of an organization
rest on the hands of the members. However, many individuals in the organization are not aware of
their importance in the maintenance and enhancement of their organization. Knowing their
responsibilities is a factor that can contribute to the existence of viable organizations.

The following are some important responsibilities of a member of an organization:

a. Respect for his fellows. Willingness to recognize that the importance of every individual
is a primal requisite for the maintenance of the social organization. Respecting what other
people say and also understanding what they mean would not only contribute for the
enrichment of the group ideas, especially during decision-making process, but would
consequently encourage active participation from other members of the organization.
b. Help build harmonious relationship. The relationships of the members, to a great
extent, determine the viability of the organization. When the members of the organization
are in good terms with one another that is, they have common desires, they feel more at
ease to share ideas with others, they have satisfactory interpersonal contact and/or
communications, and the like, success will not be a farfetched reality.
c. Express his ideas/feeling openly and clearly. The proper functioning of the
organization toward the realization of its goals, suggestions, comments, etc. from the
members are very important. Ideas and information given by the members will, to a great
extent, enhance and speed decision-making, consequently resulting to a swift
accomplishment of the goals of the organization.

3. Sound System of Evaluation

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 45

 a. Organizational Level. The organizational must have a built-in system of evaluating its
performance in relation to its goals. Regular meetings of officers, committees or mass
membership are very important as they provide a venue, whereby members could give their
feedback and discuss how far their organization has gone. The organization must not only be
particular in knowing the problems net and how they were dealt with or solved. In this
connection, proper documentation/recording of activities. Records like minutes of the
meetings, list of members and officers, plan of action, etc. are useful materials that could be
referred to for evaluation purposes.

b. Individual Level. The organization must encourage criticism and self-criticism to minimize
misunderstanding among members. It must have an atmosphere in which uncomfortable
questions can be asked. It is the responsibility of every individual to understand the questions
and ask for clarification or definition, if necessary. Questions should not be left unanswered
during the process of discussions. Unanswered questions could lead to difficulty and many
result to erroneous results or discontentment.
There are good reasons for criticism as in other social relationships. Some forms of
disagreements, owing to the differences among individuals, could be solved through open
exchanges of ideas or opinions. An individual may not know that he’s hurting someone else if
no one will caution or tell him such.
Moreover, it is not enough that one could pinpoint shortcomings or failure of another; he
too should do his best to examine his own self how he relates himself to others and how he
performs based on what is expected of him by the rest of the members of the organization.

4. Adaptability of Internal Structure. Of course, the organization must be manned with

people. The activity groupings and authority provision of an organization structure must
consider people’s limitations and customs. This is not to say that the structure must be
designed around individuals but instead around goals and accompanying activities. But an
important consideration- often a constraining factor for the organization architect- is the kind
of people who are to man it. Just as the engineer considers the performances, strengths and
weaknesses of materials going into his projects, so must the organizer consider his material-
people.

a. Division of Labor. The activities of the organization should be divided and grouped so
as to contribute effectively to its objectives.
Why divide work?

 Because men differ in nature, capacity, skill and can gain greatly in dexterity by
specialization
 Because the same man cannot be at two places at the same time
 Because one man cannot do two things at the same time
 Because the range of knowledge and skill is so great that a man cannot, within his life
span, know more than a small fraction of it. In other words, it is a question of human
nature, time, and space in the division of work among the skilled specialists; however,
a specialist in planning and coordination must be sought as well. Otherwise, a great

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 46

 deal of time may be lost, members may get in other’s way, and there may even be a
difference in opinion as to where the various doors and window are to go.

b. Specialization. The work of every individual in the organization should be combined as

far as possible to the performance of a single leading function. This is the principle of
specialization. It applies to departments and divisions as well as to individuals. It
concerns delegation of authority horizontally, rather than vertically, as in the case of
scalar principle
The total duties in the organization are divided according to function.
c. Coordination. Coordination means that an organization manifests a spirit of cooperation
and goodwill and integrates themselves into teams in order to produce good results. By
good results, we mean progress and development.
Most organizations fail due to lack of coordination among the leaders and members.
Sometimes, jealousy and destructive competition prevail. Projects are hampered or
discontinued due to failure to work together for the common welfare. Competition of
honors and awards of recognition become foremost than honors of service.
It is evident, especially in social organizations where work is more subdivided, that the
greater is the danger of confusions, thus the greater is the need of overall supervision and
coordination.

5. Leadership. The selection of a leader is an important factor for an organization to develop.

It lies in the leaders’ the success or failure of the implementation of a program or project. It
is also influenced by the degree to which the available resources are used in the most efficient
way. It should be emphasized, however, that the cooperation of the members with the
leadership toward the attainment of the organization’s objectives is very crucial.

6. Effective Internal and External Communication. Communication is a process by which in

information, decisions and directives pass through a social system and the ways in which
knowledge, opinions and attitudes are formed or modifies. Social organizations become what
they are, due to the ability of members within them to relate with each other. The
synchronization of efforts by many specialized units and by different individuals within a
social organization can be affected through the process of communication.

7. Flexibility. Flexibility is the ability to adjust, adopt or change to new situations. To maintain
the viability of social organizations, the element of flexibility should be taken into
consideration.
Flexibility could be affected by the following:

a. Flexibility of Policies and Procedures. The success of an organization is dependent upon

its policies and operating procedures. Clear understanding of these policies can facilitate the
smooth functioning of the organization’s plans and objectives.

Social organizations operate with some element of flexibility in procedure to give the
members option to do things that do not hinder with their own personal plans and activities.

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 47

 Many organizations remain stagnant because they fail to recognize the element of flexibility.
So, the organization should be flexible in its organizational procedures without disrupting its
regular decision making routines. The importance of accepted rule of orders and which as
they become established, create a sense of security in the operation of its business.

These rules make coordination efforts also sometimes lead to rigidity and neglect of the
social and psychological needs of organizational participants. In such case, members of the
organization feel that they are bound by certain regulations and so feel pressured. This will
lead to resentment and later waning of the interest of members. To counteract such feelings,
the organization should rather allow freedom for members to operate as an open group,
where the members are free to participate in a group. Meetings and other activities should
be scheduled in such a way that the regular activities of the members are not altered.

b. Flexibility of Objectives. Objectives are said to direct the activities of the organization
toward the achievement of goals.

Objectives can be flexible to suit new innovations or new thrusts which the organization’s
members think can redirect the organization’s activities towards a more fruitful realizations
of goals.

Members of organizations should feel that the objectives are directed toward their needs so
that fruitful realization of goals.

c. Flexibility of Plans. A plan is a guide to an activity but does not function like a road map. The
direction provided in a plan must always be understudied, especially if the plan is being
implemented. No one, especially planners can always be perfect in their ideas.
As the plan is implemented, the group may find shortcomings or errors in the original ideas.
The organization must be ready to modify part of
the original plan to ensure success of the project.

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 48

References:

Espinas, Arnold L., Ferrer, Melchor P., Dalanagin.Propecasio D., Santos, Miguel R., De Jesus Marilyn
T.,

Cabasag, Julius F. (2011) Reference test in NSTP.Mutya Publishing

Handbook on Community Training Programs for Participatory, ISF. Manila; Central for Rural
Technology Development, Philippine Business for Social Progress,1999

Sonia Gasilla, Ed.d. EdelizaDela Cruz-Lazo, Palino M. Mapue, NSTP (Literacy Training Service 1)

Study Guide in NSTP 1 for NEUST students (2019)

NEUST Student Handbook

RA 9163

Online References:

http://www.vnseameo.org/InternationalConference2010/Full%20Papers/English/Amparo_Talag.
doc)

https://www.coursehero.com/file/p2trb7a9/appropriating-funds-therefore-and-for-other-
purposes-under-the-government-of/

https://www.coursehero.com/file/p1j8au0/All-freshmen-students-trainee-shall-initially-
undertake-5-common-basics/

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 49

 UNIT VI

ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND LIVELIHOOD

Overview

This unit gives you an idea of what is entrepreneurship and its contribution to the economy.
Also, you will know the different types of business and the factors why some businesses fail.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:

1. Understand the contribution of small business to the development of the nation.

2. Identify potential small businesses which are feasible in the community level.
3. Share knowledge on how small businesses and livelihood programs may promote the
general well-being of the community.

Lesson Proper

What Is an Entrepreneur?

An entrepreneur is an individual who creates a new business, bearing most of the risks and
enjoying most of the rewards. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as an innovator, a source of new
ideas, goods, services, and business/or procedures.

Entrepreneurs play a key role in any economy, using the skills and initiative necessary to
anticipate needs and bring good new ideas to market. Entrepreneurs who prove to be successful in
taking on the risks of a start-up are rewarded with profits, fame, and continued growth opportunities.
Those who fail suffer losses and become less prevalent in the markets.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 A person who undertakes the risk of starting a new business venture is called and
entrepreneur.
 An entrepreneur creates a firm, which aggregates capital and labor in order to produce goods
or services for profit.
 Entrepreneurship is an important driver of economic growth and innovation.
 Entrepreneurship is high-risk, but also can be high reward as it serves to generate economic
wealth, growth, and innovation.

Section One : Entrepreneurship

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 Entrepreneurship refers to the person’s ability to produce, introduce and make accessible
to the people alternative or new products and services in response to the existing needs of the
prospective market with the primary purpose of gaining profit in the process.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENTREPRENEURS TO THE ECONOMY

1. Opening the market for untapped raw materials. This is usually driven by their desire to come
up with original concept and design which they believe would be the last formula in winning
the competition. Others will search for alternative materials or sources for cost cutting
purposes.

2. Creating markets for existing or new products and services. They capitalize on their
resourcefulness, creativity, and persistence to create demands.

3. Mobilizing capital resources. They cause movement of products and services in the economy.
In doing so, even capital resources change hands benefiting not only capitalist but also the
stakeholders of the economy.

4. They pay taxes. More business will mean more taxpayers contribute to the efforts of the
government of providing basic services to the people.

5. Generating employment opportunities. Entrepreneurs hire workers to help them the day-to-
day operation of business. As the business grows and more business-minded people are lured
in the industry, the greater will be the demand for workers.

6. Contributing greatly to the GDP and local labor. Based on the data presented by NSO, SMEs
contribute 32% to the GDP, make up 99.6% of all the registered business in the Philippines
and generate 70% of all employment.

Section Two : Small and Medium Enterprise (SME)

Republic Act 6977 or the Magna Carta for small enterprises defines small and medium
enterprises (SME) as any business or activity or enterprise engaged in industry, agribusiness, and/or
services, whether single proprietorship, cooperative, partnership or corporation whose total assets
inclusive of those arising from loans but exclusive of the land on which the particular business
identity’s office, plant and equipment are situated, must have value falling under the following
categories:

Micro less than - P 50,000

Cottage P 50,001 - P 500,000

Small P 500,001 - P 5,000,000

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Medium P 5,000,001 - P 20,000,000

Common reasons why a Small Business fails

1. Lack of knowledge and experience on the part of those who planned and manage the
business.
2. Lack of resources to support all the capital requirements
3. Location of the business is not suitable
4. Poor inventory management’
5. Premature implementation of expansion plan
6. Lack of competent workers to take care of the production process.

Types of Business

1. Manufacturing. This is for people who have interest and ability to produce goods for
distribution to the market.
2. Trading. This involves the marketing of ready-made products and services.
3. Services. This type of business is good for people who love to meet and work with people. It
includes tutorial services, event management, consultancy, transportation services and many
more of such nature.
4. Agri-business. This is suited to rural setting since it caters with production, processing, and
marketing agricultural products.

Factors to consider in choosing right business

1. Personal interest
2. Knowledge or talents
3. Training and work experience
4. Start-up capital
5. Government programs
6. Market trends

Promoting Small business and Livelihood

1. Skill training
2. Trade fair
3. Business orientation seminars
4. Job fair
5. Micro-financing

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 52

 6. Tax incentives
7. Promotion cooperatives

Section Three : Business Planning

It is widely believed that 1 out of 5 businesses today will be around after five years. The
failures of the most enterprises may be attributed to the lack of well-crafted business plan. The
business plan serves as the businessman’s road map to success.

Principles of Planning

1. Planning must be realistic. It must be based on available resources, and attainable goals.
2. Planning must be based on felt needs. The objectives of the entrepreneur should fit the needs
of its prospective market.
3. Planning must be flexible. Resources, needs and economic conditions change. Planning
should be adjusted to such change to keep the business running.

Contents of a Business Plan

1. Statement of mission, vision, and objectives

2. Business title and description
3. Product/service description
4. Industry analysis
5. Production and inventory management plan
6. Equipment and manpower requirements
7. Marketing plan and pricing policy
8. Financial plan

Source of Capital

Small entrepreneurs usually meet financial requirements for his/her investment by resorting
to his/her personal savings or his other assets, loans from relatives, close friends, bank and other
private and government financial institution.

Section Four : Government requirements for Small Business

Required by the Business Permit and Licensing Office (BPLO)

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 53

 1. Barangay Clearance for Business
2. Cedula
3. DTI Registration for Single Proprietorship
4. SEC Registration for Partnership and Corporation
5. Sketch of location
6. Photocopy of Contract of lease

Other requirements after BPLO:

1. Sanitary permit to operate

2. CENRO Certificate of Environmental Compliance Certificate
3. Fire Safety Inspection Certificate

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 54

Reference:

Gamit, Estrelita T, Junie S. Milo, Jaime B. Mina III, Juvenal S. Yabut, and Firma C. Viray. “National
Service Training Program II: CWTS and LTS”. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House

Online Resource:

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/entrepreneur.asp

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 55

 UNIT VII

INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND THEIR ROLE IN NATION BUILDING

Overview

In this unit, we shall discuss indigenous people, who they are, what their rights are, and how
they contribute to nation building.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:

1. appreciate the importance of indigenous people (IP) in nation-building.
2. identify the basic elements of indigenous people education; and
3. Understand the unique culture and developmental needs of indigenous people.

Lesson Proper

Definition and History

Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which, having a historical continuity
with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves
distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them.

As used in the Constitution, the term “indigenous cultural communities refer to those non-
dominant groups in our country which possess and wish to preserve ethnic, religious, or linguistic
traditions or characteristics markedly different from the rest of the population.

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 56

 There are approximately 370 million Indigenous people in the world, belonging to 5,000
different groups, in 90 countries worldwide. Indigenous people live in every region of the world, but
about 70% of them live in Asia.
In the Philippines, the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) has identified at least 100
cultural groups with more than 11million members. About half of the members of these tribal groups
belong to the Muslim group that dominates the provinces of Cotabato, Lanao, Sulu, Zamboanga, and
Basilan

In pre-colonial times, the inhabitants of the Philippines were identified according to the
location of their settlements. Those who settled along riverbanks were called “Taga-Ilog”,
“Kapampangan,” Subanon,” Maranaws,’ etc. Those who settled along the seacoasts were called
“TagaDagat”, “Tausug” ‘Pangasinenses”. And those who settled upland were called TagaBundok,
Tinggian, ‘Bukidnon’, Tagbanuas,” TBoli, etc. Our colonizers marginalized many indigenous people in
the country because they refused to be subjugated for, they preferred to live free. The foreign rulers
called them “Moros”, “pagans,” “Simarones,” “Remontados”,” Savages” to differentiate them from
those who accepted foreign rule. Today these indigenous people are called Lumads which means
“Native of the Land” and together with the rest of the country’s inhabitant, are called Filipinos.

Definition of Indigenous People

The Indigenous peoples view themselves as having a historical existence and identity that is
separate and independent of the states now enveloping them. Lands located in a specific geographic
area form a central element in their history and identity and are central regarding their
contemporary political demands.

The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues has developed an understanding
of the term based on the following:

 Self-identification as indigenous peoples at the individual level and accepted by the

community as their member.
 Historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies
 Strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources
 Distinct social, economic, or political systems
 Distinct language, culture, and beliefs
 Form non-dominant groups of society
 Resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as distinctive
peoples and communities.

Importance of Indigenous People

The Philippines’ seven thousand one hundred seven islands are home to more than five
hundred Indigenous People communities. Indigenous Peoples in the world remain one of the poorest,
most excluded, and disadvantaged sectors of society. They continuously face different issues
including discrimination, poverty, and human rights abuse.

The Philippine government implemented the Indigenous People’s Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997
in response to the challenges that we face regarding IPs. This law affirms the Indigenous People’s
rights to their ancestral domains, self-governance and empowerment, social justice, and human

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rights, and rights to cultural identity. Ten years later, in 2007, the UN General Assembly adopted the
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), which provides a
framework for the survival, dignity, well-being, and rights of the world’s Indigenous Peoples, and
strengthens their rights to identity, education, health, employment, and language, amongst others.
More recently, the United Nations adopted Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals,
which also include the rights and well-being of Indigenous Peoples.

The Constitution recognizes the importance of indigenous people in our national life. They
add to the diversity and richness of life in our country whose culture the state should protect and
preserve and enhance. We owe much of our knowledge of our past to them. Their success in
preserving their old traditions, roles, beliefs, etc. reveal the true identity and culture of the people
before the foreigners came to rule our country. They also fought foreign domination during the
centuries of our people's struggle for nationhood.

Indigenous Education

Indigenous education specifically focuses on teaching indigenous knowledge, models,

methods, and content within formal or non-formal educational systems. The growing recognition and
use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous
knowledge through the processes of colonialism, globalization, and modernity. Indigenous
communities can "reclaim and revalue their languages and [traditions], and in so doing, improve the
educational success of indigenous students", thus ensuring their survival as a culture.

Increasingly, there has been a global shift toward recognizing and understanding indigenous
models of education as a viable and legitimate form of education. There are many different
educational systems throughout the world, some that are more predominant and widely accepted.
However, members of indigenous communities celebrate diversity in learning and see this global
support for teaching traditional forms of knowledge as a success. Indigenous ways of knowing,
learning, instructing, teaching, and training have been viewed by many postmodern scholars as
important for ensuring that students and teachers, whether indigenous or non-indigenous, can
benefit from education in a culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes, and
enhances awareness of indigenous traditions, beyond the standard Western curriculum of reading,
writing, and arithmetic.

Rights

Constitutionally, Section 22 recognizes the existence and the rights of the indigenous cultural
communities. They are entitled to the full enjoyment, both as a group and as individuals, of all the
human rights recognized in the Constitution. The state was also directed by the provision to promote
the rights of indigenous communities within the framework of national unity and development. Thus,
the state must consider the customs, traditions, beliefs and self-interests of the indigenous cultural
minorities when formulating and implementing new and old state policies and program with full
respect to their dignity, uniqueness, and human rights. This provision is necessary to promote
national unity and developments especially in a multi-ethnic society like ours.

The aforementioned legal mandates of the supreme law of the land, our Constitution enables
the government to create laws protecting and promoting the customs, traditions, beliefs, and
interests, while retaining their rights to participate fully, if they so choose, in the political-economic,
social, and cultural life of the state.

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Culture and Knowledge

Indigenous peoples are the holders of unique languages, knowledge systems, and beliefs and
possess invaluable knowledge of practices for the sustainable management of natural resources.
They have a special relation to and use of their traditional land. Their ancestral land has fundamental
importance for their collective physical and cultural survival as peoples. Indigenous peoples hold
their diverse concepts of development, based on their traditional values, visions, needs, and
priorities.

Political participation

Indigenous peoples often have much in common with other neglected segments of societies,
i.e., lack of political representation and participation, economic marginalization and poverty, lack of
access to social services, and discrimination. Despite their cultural differences, the diverse
indigenous peoples share common problems also related to the protection of their rights. They strive
for recognition of their identities, their ways of life and their right to traditional lands, territories, and
natural resources.

Indigenous Groups in the Philippines

Northern Philippines

These groups ranged from various Igorot tribes, a group that includes the Bontoc, Ibaloi,
Ifugao, Isneg, Kalinga, Kankanaey, and Tinguian, who built the Rice Terraces. They also covered a
wide spectrum in terms of their integration and acculturation with lowland Christian and Muslim
Filipinos. Native groups such as the Bukidnon in Mindanao had intermarried with lowlanders for
almost a century. Other groups such as the Kalinga in Luzon have remained isolated from lowland
influence.

Several upland groups were living in the Cordillera Central of Luzon in 1990. At one time it
was employed by lowland Filipinos in a pejorative sense, but in recent years it came to be used with
pride by native groups in the mountain region as a positive expression of their ethnic identity. The
Ifugao of Ifugao province, the Bontoc, Kalinga, Tinguian, the Kankanaey, and Ibaloi were all farmers
who constructed the rice terraces for many centuries.

Other mountain peoples of Luzon are the Isnag of the province of Apayao, the Gaddang of the
border between Kalinga and Isabela provinces, and the Ilongot of Nueva Vizcaya province and
Caraballo Mountains all developed hunting and gathering, farming cultivation and headhunting.
Other groups such as the Negritos formerly dominated the highlands throughout the islands for
thousands of years, but have been reduced to a small population, living in widely scattered locations,
primarily along with the eastern ranges of the mountains.

Southern Philippines

In the southern Philippines, upland, and lowland tribal groups were concentrated on
Mindanao and the western Visayas, although there are several upland groups such as the Mangyan
living in Mindoro. Among the most important groups found on Mindanao are collectively called the
Lumad, and includes the Manobo which is a bigger ethnographic group such as the Ata-Manobo and

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 59

the Matigsalug found in Davao City, Davao del Norte and Bukidnon Province; the Langilan-Manobo
in Davao del Norte; the Agusan-Manobo in Agusan del Sur and southern parts of Agusan del Norte;
the Pulanguiyon-Manobo of Bukidnon Province; the Ubo-Manobo in southwestern parts of Davao
City, and northern parts of North Cotabato Province that is also to include the Arumanen-Manobo of
Carmen (N. Cotabato); the Dulangan-Manobo in the Province of Sultan Kudarat; the Talaandig,
Higaonon and Bukidnon of Bukidnon province, Bagobo, Mandaya, Mansaka, Tagakaulo in Davao
region who inhabited the mountains bordering the Davao Gulf; the Kalagan lives particularly in
lowland areas and seashores of Davao del Norte, Compostella Valley, Davao Oriental and some
seashores in Davao Del Sur, the Subanon of upland areas in Zamboanga; the Mamanua in the Agusan-
Surigao border region; the B'laan, Teduray and Tboli in the region of the Cotabato province, and the
Samal. Samal is synonymous with Luwa'an. Yakan is the indigenous tribe in the hinterlands of Basilan
Province. In the lowland lives the SamaBanguingui tribe while in coastal areas there leaves the
nomadic Luwa'an. Sulu lowland areas are also home to the SamaBanguingui. The Sama or the Sinama
and the Jama Mapun are the indigenous tribes in the province of Tawi-Tawi.

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 60

References:

Cobo, Jose, 1986 the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations. IWGIA

Ekeke, Hamilton and Dorgu, Theresa 2015 Curriculum and Indigenous Education for
Technological Advancement.ISSN 2055-0219

Online Resources:

https://theculturetrip.com/asia/philippines/articles/a-guide-to-the-indigenous-tribes-of-the-
philippines/#:~:text=There%20Lumad%20tribes%20comprise%20about,musical%20instruments
%20they've%20created.

https://www.iwgia.org/en/philippines.html

http://docshare.tips/implications-of-constitutional-challenges-to-the
ips_578e8006b6d87fc02c8b4c47.html

https://edoc.pub/81011330-textbook-on-the-philippine-constitution-1pdf-4-pdf-free.html

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 61

 UNIT VIII

SPORTS AND RECREATION

Overview

The National Service Training Program in its pursuit to develop the civic consciousness
among the minds of the youth is also committed in promoting the total well-being of the latter. This
unit shall discuss activities that will help develop the youth the spirit of camaraderie and
sportsmanship while promoting their well-being through sports and recreational activities.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:

1. gain knowledge on the importance of sports and recreation.

2. learn appropriate sports and recreation; and
3. share and enjoy sports and recreation.

Lesson Proper

While caught in the hectic schedules and routine chores, everyone must find time to refresh and
rejuvenate their minds and engage in so sports or recreation.

Sport is an active diversion requiring physical exertion and competition. It is also defined as
an organized, competitive, skillful physical activity requiring commitment and fair play. It is governed
by a set of rules or custom, while recreation activity during leisure or free time with intrinsic
motivation and rewards.

The word "sport" comes from the Old French “desport” meaning "leisure", with the oldest
definition in English from around 1300 being "anything humans find amusing or entertaining".

In the most people, they find sports as their recreation. It is what they do during their free
time, while other took sport seriously and take it to the higher level and building career out of it.
These people are known as professional athletes.

Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do

something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational
activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun".

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 62

 The term “recreation” appears to have been used in English first in the late 14th century,
first in the sense of "refreshment or curing of a sick person", and derived turn from Latin (re: "again",
“creare”: "to create, bring forth, beget").

What Is Sport and Recreation?

Sport and recreation entail activities that help to develop life skills, abilities, talents and
improve the general health of the body. Such activities may be used as sources of income, to have fun
and to stay physically fit. Sport and recreation activities include soccer, basketball, swimming,
aerobics, yoga, tennis, dancing, hockey, golf, cycling and mountain biking, running, listening to music
and many others.

Sport and recreation is a big industry that offers career opportunities to many people. Many
people need help in physical fitness, spiritual and psychological well-being and maintaining good
nutrition. This industry offers several career opportunities, such as a personal trainer, coach, activity
leader, nutritionist, player manager, commentator, massage therapist, fitness instructor and
ground's manager, among others. It also provides athletes, or players, an opportunity to earn money
through their talents and abilities.

Sport and recreation activities can also be used to have fun and during leisure time. Some
activities, such as swimming, cycling and running, are used to stay physically fit by shedding calories.
Moreover, sport and recreation activities also offer a chance for people to travel, interact with new
people and improve life skills. Recreational activities may also be used to help with curbing stress
and during rehab programs.

Sports and recreation not only exist to serve our boredom or a place to getaway. It is an
activity that enhance our social well-being and physical activity.

Types of Recreation

Breaking recreation down into various areas, classifications, or types might be done in
numerous ways. The listing below represents one of the ways that recreation could be categorized
for individuals, groups, or leaders planning programs.

The listing is shown in random order and does not indicate any order of importance.

1. Physical activities (sports, games, fitness, etc.)

2. Social activities (parties, banquets, picnics, etc.)
3. Camping and outdoor activities (day camps, resident camps, backpacking, float trips, etc.)
4. Arts and crafts activities (painting, scrapbooking, ceramics, woodworking, etc.)
5. Dramatic activities (plays, puppetry, skits, etc.)
6. Musical activities (singing, bands, etc.)
7. Cultural activities (art appreciation, music appreciation, panels, discussion groups, etc.)
8. Service activities (fun in doing things for others)

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 Recreation also, of course, includes activities for all age groups (children, senior adults, etc.),
as well as various special populations (physically handicapped, mentally retarded, etc.). However,
most people in these groups could still relate to many of the types of activities mentioned in the list
above.

Active recreation refers to a structured individual or team activity that requires the use of special
facilities, courses, fields, or equipment. It is also defined as activities engaged in for the purpose of
relaxation, health and wellbeing or enjoyment with the primary activity requiring physical exertion,
and the primary focus on human activity

Examples of Active Recreational Activities

 Baseball
 Football
 Soccer
 Golf
 Hockey
 Tennis
 Skiing
 Skateboarding

Passive recreation refers to recreational activities that do not require prepared facilities like sports
fields or pavilions. Passive recreational activities place minimal stress on a site’s resources; as a
result, they can provide ecosystem service benefits and are highly compatible with natural resource
protection.

Examples of Passive Recreational Activities

 Hunting
 Camping
 Hiking
 Wildlife viewing
 Observing and photographing nature
 Picnicking
 Walking
 Bird watching
 Historic and archaeological exploration
 Swimming
 Cross-country skiing
 Bicycling
 Running/jogging
 Climbing
 Horseback riding
 Fishing

How to know if it is the right activity for you?

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 1. A primary reason of engagement is for pleasure and fun.
2. Involvement in the activity may have a serious commitment and self-discipline.
3. When recreation activity is a part of an organized community or agency program, it should
be socially and morally acceptable.

Types of Participation

1. Active participation may include both sport and fitness.

2. Passive participation includes spectator and video participation.

Forms of Participation

1. Sports – indoor and outdoor ex. Basketball, Volleyball, Badminton, Chess and Taekwondo

2. Indoor Recreation
 Reading
 Writing
 Television in household
 Use of computers
 Use of technology for entertainment
 Playing cards
 Cultural activities
 Art
 Music
 Dance
3. Outdoor Recreation
a. This includes activities in the outdoors and with outdoor environment.
b. Outdoor setting may be in town, in a wilderness area, parks, camps and other outdoor
area.

Traveling and touring

 Domestic travel
 International travel
 Short trips
 Travel for business

Recreation related to real state

 Traditional amusement parks

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  Theme parks
 Sport stadium

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Reference:

Firma C. Viray, Estrelita T. Gamit, Junie S. Milo, Jaime B. Mina, Juvenal S. Yabut. NSTP Book

Online Resources:

https://www.reference.com/world-view/sport-recreation-89a5e16b8afd67b6

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport

http://leisurelines.blogspot.com/2005/07/types-of-recreation.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreation

https://semspub.epa.gov/work/11/174083.pdf

https://test-dlgsc-sitefinitycms
ause.azurewebsites.net/department/publications/publication/definition-of-sport-and-active-
recreation#:~:text=as%20a%20sport.-
,Active%20recreation,primary%20focus%20on%20human%20activity.

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 UNIT IX

EDUCATION

Overview

This unit gives you an idea about the significance of education as well as the different areas
of it that are contributory to one’s development. The unit furthermore allows you to gain awareness
on how education can change one’s life.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, I will be able to:

1. appreciate the significance of education.

2. gain additional knowledge in different areas of education and learning; and,
3. apply education in improving myself and community.

Setting Up

Name: ____________________________________________________________________
Course/Year and Section: ______________________________________________

Direction: In a separate piece of paper, answer the following

1. In your own point of view, how important is education?

2. How do you keep yourself motivated?

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Lesson Proper

Education is a lifelong process of gaining physical, mental, and social knowledge and
understanding for an individual to adapt and improve for a positive growth. It is also a process of
acquisition of useful knowledge necessary to ensure that a person can perform his or her
responsibilities proficiently.

Education for Filipinos should be accessible for everyone, and citizens have a right for a
quality education as amended in the Philippine Constitution Article 19 Sec. 1. Philippines is a proud
nation when it comes to percentage in literacy among its citizens. In 1980’s, people who can read has
increased dramatically despite of the increasing population of the Filipinos, compared to other
countries that ached to their growing population that causes enlarged percentage of illiteracy.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The history of education, according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universitat Berlin
(1994), began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770. Education as a science cannot be
separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their
society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution
of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In
pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through imitation. Storytelling continued from one
generation to the next. Oral language that could be preserved and passed soon increased
exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of
communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc., formal education and schooling
eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500 BC.

Nowadays, some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most countries. Due to
population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO’s (United Nations
Scientific and Cultural Organization) major program and theme Education for All has calculated that
in the next 30 years, more people will receive formal education in all of human history thus far.

Three Dimensions of Education

1. Development of knowledge (cognitive)

2. Training of mental abilities (affective)

3. Development of character

Philippine Level of Education

1. Elementary. The primary formal education which starts mostly at 6-7 years of age. Different
countries have different length when it comes to primary education and to some countries, it
is compulsory to attend this basic form of education.

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 2. Secondary. In many countries, secondary education is for adolescence stage; this formal type
of education is usually characterized by compulsory comprehensive primary education to
selective tertiary or post-secondary preparatory subjects.

3. Tertiary or post-secondary. Characterized as degree, diploma, or certificate level of

education, it is being provided by colleges and universities which serve as main institutions
for such higher form of education.
Philippine Education Structure

Formal Education is a progression of education of three levels: elementary (grade school), secondary
(high school), and tertiary (college degree or vocational school).

Non-Formal Education or ALS (Alternative Learning System) is a form of education that exists
without passing the standardization process; it is given to out-of-school youths and adults with no
formal education.

Learning

It refers to the process of acquiring knowledge or skills that can be of better use. Learning is
an integral part of education; they always come together in all aspects. Educating a student means
teaching, and when teaching takes place, learning should follow.

Different Learning Modalities

Education is divided into different learning modes which have been a significant research
agenda for many centuries, like authors; Dunn and Dunn for learning stimuli, Gardner for multiple
intelligences, and Renzulli for different teaching strategies. However, there research have been
simplified into three learning modalities:

1. Visual. Learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.

2. Auditory. Learning based on listening to instruction/information.

3. Kinaesthetic. Learning based on hands-on work and engaging activities.

Researchers believed that students would have a sound learning is they are provided with
their preferred form of learning modalities. That is why they suggest that teachers should have
different teaching or instructional strategies and suffice understanding on the subject matter fort
them to convey the knowledge effectively.

Learning Motivations

Motivation is equally important with teaching strategies. Leonardo Da Vinci’s statement, “Just
as eating against one will be harmful to health, so study without a liking for its spoils the memory and

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it retains nothing it takes in.”, suggests proper usage of motivation during classes. It proves to give
the subject more interest and pleasure that makes students lively and attentive during classes.

Types of Motivation

1. Intrinsic motivation is based on the essential desires and initiative of the student which
produce innate intention to act. Motivation is considered intrinsic if the primary reason of
the student to devote to such kind of learning is personal interest and enjoyment.

2. Extrinsic motivation is based on external reasons such as incentives and benefits for others
(e.g., maintaining high grades because of scholarship retention, school policy, parent desires).
We may say that this form of motivation can also be termed as enforced motivation.
Techniques for Motivating Students

1. Rewards. Learners are more responsive and produce more acceptable behaviour if rewards
outweigh the punishment.
2. Contracts. Anticipation of positive gains after completion for both quality and quantity of a
work creates optimistic thinking for students.
3. Games and Simulations. Direct involvement of the learners gives them interest to participate.
4. Use of Audio-visual Materials. Can make curiosity that attracts the attention of students.
5. Good Learning Progress. Studies show informed mark improvement of students serves as
effective incentives.
6. Offering to Help. Available assistance makes students more confident in completing activities
and assignments. Teachers support and boost students’ confidence to start and complete
work accurately.
7. Providing Explanations. A good and concise explanation makes work easier; therefore,
students will complete activities and assignments more often.
8. Groupings. A sense of belongingness creates a difference in performing a task; trusted friends
and classmates create a comfortable working environment.
9. Accepting Diversity. Recognizing individual differences such as gender, religion, race, culture,
etc., imposes necessary adjustments to each and every one, avoiding conflicts of interest.
10. Praise and Encouragement. Positive remarks have always been a good reinforcement to bring
out the best in students.
11. Volunteering. Recognition of students that willingly participate in class gives inspiration to
others.
12. Grades and Test. A good mark in tests and quizzes serves as a reward for students that
participate actively in the class.

GENERAL AREAS OF EDUCATION

Physical Education

It is an integral part of the school curriculum throughout the world. It helps young people
develop skills for leisure and activities conducive for healthful living, contributing to their physical,
social, and mental health. (Bucher, 1979)

Physical Education, despite of its significance, is one of the most disregarded subjects in
school. Reasons such as low unit equivalence and low academic contribution have been common for

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students in secondary and tertiary level of schooling. Some students are bored with their instructors
teaching P.E. with insufficient mastery of the subject or the so-called non-specialists. In addition,
others are disappointed in teachers with unhealthy physical condition or inappropriate physique for
the activity or subject matter (e.g., obese P.E. instructor discussing sports and its relation to health),
a believing and learning through example philosophy, and a teacher who teaches what he or she
cannot do.

Psychological or Mental Education

It is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational
interventions, the psychology of teaching and the social psychology.

Educational psychology can, in part, be understood through its relationship other discipline.
It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the
relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology, in turn, informs a wide range of
specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology,
curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management.
Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning
sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties
of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in
introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).

Social Education

It is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes,
and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving
greater equality, and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent, 1994). Learners may be motivated
by aspirations for progress and betterment. Education is perceived as a place where children can
develop according to their unique needs and potentialities. The purpose of education can be to
develop every individual to their full potential.

Other Important Areas

Health Education

It is primarily focused on teaching people about health. Learning about health is empowering
nations to apprehend his right of health and longevity of life stated in the 1987 Constitution of the
Philippines, Article 11 Section 15, and the state shall protect and promote the right to the health of
the people and instill health consciousness among them.

Components of Health

1. Social Health. Refers to the ability to interact with other people and have a satisfying
relationship.
2. Mental Health. Refers to the ability of a person to learn.

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 3. Emotional Health. Refers to the ability to control emotions and be comfortable in expressing
them appropriately.
4. Spiritual Health. Refers to a faith in a godly force or in a higher form of being.
5. Physical Health refers to the ability to perform normal daily tasks and chores without
suffering fatigue.

Educational Technology

The widespread usage of internet and mobile phone not only offers wide variety of accessible
communication, but also serves as a powerful tool in learning. Audio visual learning and PowerPoint
presentations have now been commonly used as methods of instruction in many Colleges and
Universities thus making learning easier and more convenient.

Online education has been a new way of learning and acquiring a degree in some developed
countries; it gives students an option known as distant learning. The introduction of virtual learning
environment gives an interactive form of education. This is a web-based presentation of visual or
pictorial images which can demonstrate and teach different concepts. The virtual learning can easily
be accessed through the internet connection. Emerging research into the effectiveness of virtual
manipulation as a teaching tool have yielded promising results, suggesting comparable, and in many
cases, superior overall concept-teaching effectiveness compared to standard teaching methods.

Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the
instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is
capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is being used in the assessment of
students. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience
Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussion.

The current census of household with internet access or connection in the Philippines is now
30% and other gain access through public internet rentals. Filipinos in the current survey of Pulse
Asia has the greatest number of users on the growing social website known as Facebook and
Instagram.

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References:

Sonia Gasilla ,Ed.d.Edeliza Dela Cruz-Lazo,Palino M. Mapue,NSTP (Literacy Training Service 1)

Espinas,Arnold L.,Ferrer,Melchor P.,Dalanagin.Propecasio D.,Santos,Miguel R.,De Jesus Marilyn

T.,Cabasag,Julius F.(2011)Reference test in NSTP.Mutya Publishing

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 74

National Service Training Program – NSTP 2 75
 UNIT X

COMMUNITY SERVICE/IMMERSION

Overview

This unit shall orient you about Community Service and its importance in improving the
quality of life. Moreover, the unit shall discuss the different types of communities and their
characteristics. Lastly, ethical principles shall be thoroughly discussed as these matters are very
important in dealing with the community through humanitarian services.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, I will be able to:

1. Define Community and its different types.
2. Delimit the Fundamentals of Community Service.
3. Realize and formulate solutions on problems and issues in the Community.
4. Familiarize on approaches and methods in Community Organizing and Mobilization.
5. Adopt Ethics and Attitudes in Community Work to the group.

Lesson Proper

What is Community?

A Community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms,
religions, values, customs, or identity.
Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g., a country,
village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable
relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community,
important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work,
government, society, or humanity at large. Although communities are usually small relative to
personal social tiles, “community” may also refer to large group affiliations such as national
communities, international communities, and virtual communities.
The English-language word “community” derives from the old French “comunetḗ” (currently
“Communautḗ”), which comes from the Latin communitas “community”, “public spirit” (from Latin
communis, “common”).
Human communities may share intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in
common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.

Key Concepts

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Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

In Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887), German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies describes

two types of human association: Gemeinschaft (usually translated as “community”) and Gesellschaft
(“society” or “association”). Tonnies proposed the Gemeinschaft – Gesellschaft dichotomy as a way to
think about social ties. No group is exclusively one or the other. Gemeinschaft stress personal social
interactions, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions. Gesellschaft stress indirect
interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions.

What are the elements of Community?

The important elements of the community are as follows:

1. Demographics
 Characteristics of population
 Tells about the movement of the population in the community that you will serve

2. History
 Allows you to identify certain patterns of change and people’s way of adapting these
changes that can be useful in plotting your activities
 Events of the past that contributed to the development of the community

3. Understanding the economy, culture, and the community structures

 An economy consist of economic systems of a country or other area; the labour,
capital, and land resources; and the manufacturing, production, trade, distribution
and consumption of goods and services of that area.
 Income level of the people
 Culture (Latin: cultura, lit. “cultivation”) ways of living of the people
 Structures physical, political, and social culture

Types of Community

1. Geographic Community is the most powerful force that causes the creation of the community
in which the people’s mobility or day-to-day are confined within a limited by physical
boundaries. They establish their culture by doing their activities within a common social
environment.

2. Tribal Community. The cohesiveness of the community is strengthened by common social

racial attributes and socio-cultural orientations that were passed on from generation to
generation.

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 3. Symbolic Community. The community is founded on deep rooted submission to belief system.
This community is oftentimes characterized by exclusivity which is driven by the people’s
desire to freely express and practice their belief apart from discriminating view of others.

4. Built-up Community. Usually located in urban areas and is not always characterized by
cohesiveness because the people’s socio-economic concerns prevail over the entire social
environment.

Other Types of Communities

1. Interest – Communities of people who share the same interest or passion.

2. Action – Communities of people trying to bring about change.
3. Place – Communities of people brought together by geographic boundaries.
4. Practice – Communities of people in the same profession or undertake the same activities.
5. Circumstance – Communities of people brought together by external events/situations.

Community Service is when you work for free to help benefit the public or your community.
Usually, students who choose to do community service do so volunteers, meaning that they choose
to help out because they want to do so. Community service can have a lot of positive effects on
students such as helping them to develop skills, making, and allowing them to improve the quality of
life of others.

Community Service is a non- paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the
benefit of the community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering since it
is not always performed on a voluntary basis. Personal benefits may be realized, but it may be
performed for a variety of reasons including citizenship requirements, a substitution of criminal
justice sanctions, requirements of a school or class, and requisites for receipt of certain benefits.

Engaging in community service provides students with the opportunity to become active
members of their community and has a lasting, positive impact on society at large. Community
service or volunteerism enables students to acquire life skills and knowledge, as well as provide a
service to those who need it most.

Community organizing is a process where people who live in proximity to each other come
together into an organization that acts in their shared self-interest.

Unlike those who promote more-consensual community building, community organizers

generally assume that social change necessarily involves conflict and social struggle in order to
generate collective power for the powerless. Community organizing has as a core goal the generation
of durable power for an organization representing the community, allowing it to influence key
decision-makers on a range of issues over time. In the ideal, for example, this can get community-
organizing groups a place at the table before important decisions are made. Community organizers
work with and develop new local leaders, facilitating coalitions and assisting in the development of
campaigns.

Types of Community Engagement

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1. Community engagement with a focus on community development or community building
2. Community participation in consultation and decision-making
3. Community engagement that helps organizations, businesses etc. to improve their service
delivery or to achieve their goals
4. Community engagement as part of social change movements or as part of the work of voluntary
community organizations

Approaches to Community Organization

Neighbourhood organizing is one form of community organizing. This is nothing but an effort
by the community to solve the day-to-day problems and help those in need. There are three type
approaches to neighbourhood organizing.

1. The Social Work Approach: In this approach, the society is viewed as a social organism and
therefore the efforts are oriented towards building a sense of community. The community
organizer whose role is of an "enabler or an advocate” helps the community identify a problem
in the neighbourhood and strives to achieve the needed social resources by gathering the existing
the social services and by lobbying with some in power to meet the needs of the neighbourhood.
This method is more consensual, and the neighbourhood is seen as a collective client.

2. The Political Activists Approach: Saul Alinsky, the Godfather of community organizing is the
founder of this approach. The basic philosophy of this approach is based on his thinking that "
more representative the organization the stronger the organization." In this approach the
community is seen as a political entity and not as a social organism. Here, the neighbourhood is
viewed as a potential power base capable of getting power. The role of the community organizer
is to help the community understand the problem in terms of power and necessary steps are
taken to mobilize the community. The problem of the neighbourhood is always identified as
absence of power and in the interest of gaining power for the neighbourhood the organizers are
faced with conflicts with groups, interests, and elites. Since most of the community organizers
come from outside the community, it has faced the problems of equality of power relations and
leadership in the community.

3. Neighbourhood Maintenance/Community development Approach: This approach has emerged

out of both the previous approaches namely within the same neighbourhood movements. It is
seen in the form of civic associations. This association uses peer group pressure to provide
services in the community. They use this strategy to pressurize the officials to deliver services to
the community but sometimes this approach takes the form of political activists’ approach as they
realize that their goals can be only achieved only through confrontations. In this approach we see
the characteristics of de-emphasis on dissent and confrontation and these organizations view
themselves as more proactive and development minded.

4. Neighbourhood Development Approach: Neighbourhood Model is the oldest model of

community organization. This model has been practiced in India and in some of the
underdeveloped countries. It has been used in the developmental activities. In general, it is
believed that people living in a neighbourhood have the capacity to meet the problems they come
across in their day-to-day life through their own efforts and resources. The main aspect here is
that the community realizes its needs and takes appropriate steps to meet the needs of the
community, which will bring greater satisfaction to all its members both individually and

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 collectively. The role of the worker in this model is to induce a process that will sensitize the
community and make the community realize its needs. Based on the value of self-sustenance the
worker energizes the community and makes the community self-reliant, and not merely
depending on the help form outside. So rather than providing services in the community, the
communities are energized to meet its own needs. This model encourages the people to think for
themselves rather

5. System Change Approach: As the name suggests, the system change model aims at developing
strategies to either restructure or modify the system. Thus, it is termed as "System Change
approach to community work”. Although we find glimpses of this model gaining more
acceptances, this has not become very popular. We know of various mechanisms that cater to the
needs of the society. Such as education, health services housing, women empowerment, and
employment. All these services are rooted through various systems and all these systems do have
sub-systems. The fundamental aspect in this model is that the due to various reasons the systems
become dysfunctional. For example, the system of education as we have it today, reveals that the
cities have better educational faculties as compared to the rural areas. This system (education
policy) of education has generated disparities in the society. i.e., access to education, lack of basic
facilities, trained staff, etc. The system instead of becoming a tool of empowering mechanism
brings disparities between people of different socio-economic condition. So, the system has failed
to achieve its objectives. Thus, the worker on observing this dysfunction in the community finds
it important to develop strategies to restructure or modify the system.

6. Structural Change Approach: One of the most difficult and rarely practiced models of community
work is structural change model. The society consists of small communities, and it is nothing but
"a web of relationships". These relationships of the people are formally structured by the
respective countries' state policies, law and constitutions and informally by its customs,
traditions etc. that determines the social rights of the individuals. The social structure in some of
the societies is controlled by the state. Understanding the macro- structure of social relationship
and its impact on the micro realities, the worker tries to mobilize the public opinion to radically
change the macro-structure. Thus, the structural change model aims to bring a new social order,
an alternative form of society which will transform the existing conditions at the micro-level. This
can happen only if an alternative form of political ideology is adopted. This form of community
work may originate from a community itself, but it has wider coverage i.e., the entire society or
nation. Sometimes this takes the shape of social action, which is another method of social work
profession. Since the general situation in the developing countries is very peculiar, it is very
difficult for the community worker to actually practice this model.

Ethics and Attitudes in Community Work

Ethical community work/engagement involves working to high ethical standards and so how
we go about engagement is vitally important. The following are some of the principles:

1. Careful planning and preparation: Through adequate and inclusive planning, ensure that the
design, organization, and convening of the process serve both a clearly defined purpose and
the needs of the participants.

2. Inclusion and demographic diversity: Equitably incorporate diverse people, voices, ideas, and
information to lay the groundwork for quality outcomes and democratic legitimacy.

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 3. Collaboration and shared purpose: Support and encourage participants, government and
community institutions, and others to work together to advance the common good.

4. Openness and learning: Help all involved listen to each other, explore new ideas
unconstrained by predetermined outcomes, learn and apply information in ways that
generate new options, and rigorously evaluate public engagement activities for effectiveness.

5. Transparency and trust: Be clear and open about the process, and provide a public record of
the organizers, sponsors, outcomes, and range of views and ideas expressed.

6. Impact and action: Ensure each participatory effort has real potential to make a difference,
and that participants are aware of that potential.

7. Sustained engagement and participatory culture promote a culture of participation with

programs and institutions that support on going quality public engagement.

Additional Ethical Principles

1. Courage
2. Inclusiveness
3. Commitment
4. Respect & honesty
5. Flexibility
6. Practicability
7. Mutual obligation

What is Community Immersion?

Community immersion allows individuals who are not familiar with the people and
communities where they will work immerse themselves in these settings. This gives them the
opportunity to reflect on their assumptions, attitudes, and the knowledge base of their profession
and to gain cultural competence. In the education field, it is an approach that has evolved with
changing composition and diversity of schools and the continuing preponderance of white and
female teachers.

How It Works

Communities become integral partners in educator preparation in different ways. Individuals

can participate in:

 a residency program, where they live and work in a community and take courses for a
specified period of time; and
 a field experience-based program, where methods courses are held in urban schools and
summer exposures include exploring and learning about the community and interning with
community agencies.

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Why immersion is an important approach (strategy) in giving service to the communities?

 An old proverb says that “Experience is the best teacher”

 Through community immersion, the students will be exposed in further and other realities of
life which they may or may not belong
 The role of the youth in the national/local development cannot be overemphasized. To
reinforce this, are the very words of our national hero, “The youth is the hope of the
Motherland”

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Reference:

Sonia Gasilla ,Ed.d.Edeliza Dela Cruz-Lazo,Palino M. Mapue,NSTP (Literacy Training Service 1)

Espinas,Arnold L.,Ferrer,Melchor P.,Dalanagin.Propecasio D.,Santos,Miguel R.,De Jesus Marilyn
T.,Cabasag,Julius F.(2011)Reference test in NSTP.Mutya Publishing

Online Resources:

https://medium.com/familyengagementplaybook/gfrp-community-immersion-
84ff40545db0#:~:text=What%20It%20Is,and%20to%20gain%20cultural%20competence

https://www.academia.edu/29905321/NSTP_lecture_notes

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