Acm PDF

ACM
Uptime® Elements ™
Passport
C o n di ti o
et
Asset Condition Management

IN PREPARATION FOR
s n
As
Part of the Certified Reliability Leader
Body of Knowledge ACM
nt
e
Managem
asset condition information • vibration analysis

fluid analysis • ultrasound testing
infrared thermal imaging • motor testing
alignment and balancing • non-destructive testing
machinery lubrication
ACM
Asset Condition
Management
Aci Vib Fa Ut Ir Mt Ab Ndt Lu

ISBN 978-194872-55-0
HF012017
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registered trademarks of NetexpressUSA Inc. d/b/a Reliabilityweb.com and
its affiliates in the USA and in several other countries.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ACM Contents
asset condition information
Aci Introduction.......................................................... 3
Key Terms and Definitions................................... 7
Why Asset Condition Information?...................... 8
Current State Asset Condition Information......... 9
Historical Asset Condition Information............... 18
Data Quality.......................................................... 21
Application of Knowledge.................................... 24
Decision Support.................................................. 25
Value Driven Actions............................................ 26
Feedback Loops................................................... 26
Safety Considerations.......................................... 27
What Every Reliability Leader Should Know....... 27
Summary.............................................................. 29
References............................................................ 29
vibration analysis
Vib Introduction.......................................................... 33
Objective............................................................... 34
Vibration Program Application............................ 35
iii
Do’s and Don’ts.................................................... 44
Benefits................................................................. 45
Summary.............................................................. 46
References............................................................ 46
fluid analysis
Fa Introduction.......................................................... 49
Fluid Analysis Overview....................................... 52
Fluid Analysis Implementation............................ 55
The Testing Process............................................. 61
Reports: Data Presentation, Rating
and Advisories.................................................. 70
The Future of Fluid Analysis................................ 71
Summary.............................................................. 75
References............................................................ 78
ultrasound testing
Ut Introduction.......................................................... 81
Advantages of Ultrasound................................... 87
Ultrasound Testing Overview............................... 91
Applications for Ultrasound Programs................ 93
Steps for Beginning an Ultrasound Program...... 94
iv
Determining the Key Performance Indicators
for Ultrasound Testing..................................... 95
Summary.............................................................. 98
References............................................................ 99
infrared thermal imaging

Ir Introduction.......................................................... 103
Why Infrared?....................................................... 103
Thermal Theory.................................................... 104
Thermography Images......................................... 105
Collecting Images................................................. 106
Measurement and Analysis.................................. 107
Applications.......................................................... 107
Data and Reporting.............................................. 113
Summary.............................................................. 115
Reference.............................................................. 116
motor testing
Mt Introduction.......................................................... 119
Benefits of Motor Testing..................................... 123
Motor Testing Methods........................................ 124
Developing a Motor Testing Program.................. 125
v
Executing a Motor Testing Program.................... 129
Key Performance Indicators for a
Motor Testing Program.................................... 131
Summary.............................................................. 132
References............................................................ 133
alignment and balancing

Ab Introduction.......................................................... 137
Why Use Precision Alignment?............................ 137
Why Balancing Matters?...................................... 138
Alignment............................................................. 139
Balancing.............................................................. 143
Alignment and Balancing Training....................... 149
Summary.............................................................. 151
non destructive testing

Ndt Introduction.......................................................... 155
Why Non Destructive Testing?............................ 156
Non Destructive Testing Inspection Methods..... 157
Training................................................................. 162
Summary.............................................................. 164
Reference.............................................................. 164
vi
Lu Introduction.......................................................... 167
Why Manage Lubrication?................................... 168
Objective............................................................... 169
Lubrication Program Optimization...................... 169
Summary.............................................................. 178
References............................................................ 179
Acknowledgment............................................... 181
vii
The Uptime Elements is a holistic system
based approach to reliability
that includes: Technical Elements,
Cultural Elements, Leadership Elements
Asset Condition
ACM Management
Aci Vib Fa
asset vibration fluid
condition analysis analysis
information
Ut
ultrasound
Ir
infrared
Mt
motor
testing thermal testing
imaging
Ab Ndt Lu
alignment and non machinery
balancing destructive lubrication
testing
® ™
Uptime Elements
Technical Activities Leadership Business Processes
Reliability Engineering Asset Condition Work Execution Leadership

REM for Maintenance ACM WEM LER for Reliability AM Asset Management
Management Management
Ca Rsd Aci Vib Fa Pm Ps Es Opx Sp Cr Samp

criticality reliability asset vibration fluid preventive planning and executive operational strategy and corporate strategic asset
analysis strategy condition analysis analysis maintenance scheduling sponsorship excellence plans responsibility management
development information plan
Re
reliability
Rca
root cause
Ut
ultrasound
Ir
infrared
Mtmotor
Odr Mro
operator driven mro-spares
Hcm Cbl Ri Ak Alm
human capital competency risk asset asset lifecycle
engineering analysis testing thermal testing reliability management management based management knowledge management
imaging learning
Cp Rcd Ab Ndt Lu De Cmms computerized

Int Rj Dm Pi Ci
capital reliability alignment and non machinery defect maintenance integrity reliability decision performance continuous
project centered balancing destructive lubrication elimination management journey making indicators improvement
management design testing system
A Reliability Framework and Asset Management System™

Reliabilityweb.com’s Asset Management Timeline
Operate
Business Residual
Needs Analysis Design Create/Acquire Maintain Dispose/Renew
Liabilities
Modify/Upgrade
Asset Lifecycle
Reprinted with permission from NetexpressUSA Inc. d/b/a Reliabilityweb.com. Copyright © 2016-2017. All rights reserved. No part of this graphic may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior express written consent of NetexpressUSA Inc. Uptime®,
Reliability®, Certified Reliability Leader™, Reliabilityweb.com® , A Reliability Framework and Asset Management System™ and Uptime® Elements™ are trademarks and registered trademarks of NetexpressUSA Inc. in the U.S. and several other countries.
reliabilityweb.com • maintenance.org • reliabilityleadership.com

Aci
asset condition
information
Introduction
Aci
Asset condition information (Aci) in the Uptime
Elements comprises all the data, observations and con-
ditions of an asset. This information is more than just
current state, it is the cumulative condition of an asset
over its lifecycle. This approach enables day-to-day deci-
sion support, as well as prognostics of future conditions.
A multitude of Aci sources exist, including vibration,
infrared thermography, ultrasound, oil analysis, motor
testing, nondestructive testing, machinery lubrication,
alignment and balancing. Additional sources of asset
condition data range from data historians to knowledge
retained by seasoned operators or tradespeople.
In fact, asset condition information has been one of
the fastest growing areas in asset management in the
last 20 years. Automation and the Industrial Internet of
Things (IIoT) in the next 20 years will bring exponen-
tially more data to maintenance toward making better
decisions. Accenture, a global professional services com-
pany, estimates the IIoT could add $14.2 trillion to the
global economy by 2030.
With more and better methods of monitoring asset
condition comes the responsibility to manage the
data collected from these technologies. The key to Aci
3
management is the correlation of information to support

the most value driven solutions possible.
In monitoring asset condition information, it is
important to know three things:
1. What to monitor and with what method;

2. When to monitor and automate the act of collecting
the data;
3. How to automate the consolidation and analysis of
the data collected to be able to make timely and accu-
rate maintenance decisions.
Determining What to Monitor

In implementing condition monitoring, there are typ-
ically two different approaches used to decide what
method to use to detect a failure mode. The first
approach is to select an area or plant and implement
one new asset condition monitoring technique. This
approach helps you to quickly ramp up skills in the
new technology and also compare results of the same
nature across like equipment in different operating
contexts. However, it can result in monitoring an
asset that possibly did not warrant monitoring (i.e.,
imbalance of cost versus benefit) or it can result in
4
monitoring a condition on a frequency that is either
Aci
too much, too soon or too little, too late. The second
and better approach is to conduct a reliability analysis
(see Reliability Engineering Passport). For example,
failure mode and effects (FMEA) analysis can be used
to systematically determine all the condition monitor-
ing tasks required to mitigate risk based on the asset’s
operating context. In this way, the tasks are part of a
documented and systematic reliability process, with an
understanding of the technical basis for doing the work
(i.e., feasible and worth doing).
Determining When to Monitor

The frequency of monitoring any condition should be
determined within the reliability analysis being con-
ducted. Original equipment manufacturers may have
initial recommendations for an asset type, but ultimately
the Reliability Engineering for Maintenance Uptime
Elements will dictate the frequency of the condition
monitoring tasks required to mitigate risk based on the
asset’s operating context.
5
Automating the Consolidation and Analysis of

the Data Collected
The results of any condition monitoring activity should
be automatically processed within an asset condition
information system or asset performance management
system to make timely and accurate decisions. Other-
wise, data resides in silos making it harder to correlate
data. With automation of condition information, read-
ings are consolidated into one central repository and
analyzed in a timely manner. Therefore, degradation
trends are visible and there is a clear line of sight with
the ability to trace a condition indicator at any time
down to the failure mode. Everyone involved under-
stands why the proactive work is required. And more and
more predictive analysis, regression analysis and machine
learning are helping to make better decisions. Condition
monitoring needs to be part of an asset management
system, as referenced in the ISO55001 asset manage-
ment standard.
6
Key Terms and Definitions
Aci
Asset – A thing, item, or entity that has potential or
actual value to an organization; An item with a poten-
tial value that an organization owns and has a use for,
to create value (income), and has the responsibility to
take care of.
Asset management – An organizational process to max-
imize value from an asset during its life; The management
of the life of an asset to achieve the lowest lifecycle cost
with the maximum availability, performance efficiency
and highest quality.
Asset management strategy – Documented informa-
tion that specifies how organizational objectives are
to be converted into asset management objectives, the
approach for developing asset management plans and
the role of the asset management system to support
achievement of the asset management objectives. Also
known as strategic asset management plan (SAMP).
Asset type – Grouping of assets that have common
characteristics that distinguish them as a group or class.
Computerized maintenance management system
(CMMS) – A software system that keeps records and
tracks all maintenances activities, (e.g., maintenance
7
work orders, PM schedules, PM masters, material parts,

work plans and asset history). Usually it is integrated
with support systems, such as inventory control, pur-
chasing, accounting and manufacturing, and controls
maintenance and warehouse activities.
Lifecycle – Stages involved in the management of an
asset.
Risk – A future event that has some uncertainty of
occurrence and could have negative or positive conse-
quences if it were to occur; Probability of an event times
its effects.
Why Asset Condition Information?

Decisions made in isolation are driven from one per-
spective and limited in value. This is best exemplified by
examples of conflicting key performance indicators (KPIs):
• If a warehouse has a mandate to reduce stock and per-

sonnel base their decisions on turns, they may return
critical spares that protect the operation from high
risk failures.
• If the asset renewal program is not considered within
the maintenance program, then an asset that recently
had high cost work conducted on it may be replaced.
8
The ideal utilization of asset condition information
Aci
provides a clear understanding of the current condition
of an asset based on all inputs. This information is then
applied to the compiled knowledge of this or similar
assets to support the most value-added decisions pos-
sible. The types of decisions driven by effective asset
condition information include:
• Shut down or continue operating;

• Repair or replace;
• Alignment of strategic interventions;
• Remaining useful life;
• Prognostics of future failures;
• Optimal loading profiles;
• Cost to procure versus cost of ownership.
Current State Asset Condition

Information
Industry has evolved well beyond the era of simple pres-
sure gauges. As such, there are numerous data sources on
modern assets. This listing of data sources, while incom-
plete, identifies some of the predominant data sources.
9
On-line Data
On most modern industrial assets, there are numerous
sensors constantly gathering information. This infor-
mation is then compiled into a data historian and
some of the data is then alarmed to indicate the onset
of conditions, predominantly utilized for operational
requirements. Some on-line data also provides process
variation information to the data historian for investi-
gative purposes.
In many industrial facilities, the historian data is
mostly underutilized. If information has value, it should
be utilized. If there is no value, the data point should not
be collected as there are costs related to collecting and
maintaining data.
The emergence and relevance of asset intelligence and
the IIoT will continue to deliver improved mechanisms
to load any data from any approved or open source with
an IP address The term online means so much more
today than just a few years ago; devices no longer need
to be hardwired, they don’t even have to be in the same
facility or location anymore.
If failure modes are identified as rapid failures, there
may be a requirement to add monitoring data points
with a high sampling rate. If on-line data is targeted at a
10
failure mode, the alarm/action point must be established.
Aci
For every level of alarm, the corresponding action must
be clearly defined. If there is any confusion as to the
required action, then alarms will be ignored, which could
result in catastrophic failures.
To clarify the role of on-line data in the Aci Uptime
Elements, failures should be viewed from a different
perspective. Many failures that are considered random
may actually have a unit of measure that correlates to the
failure frequency. If the on-line data is analyzed from the
perspective of the asset, it may be discovered that process
throughput, starts and stops, or shock loading may be
key factors in failure prediction.
Here is an example of utilizing Aci with on-line data to

resolve an issue:
A screw compressor was failing, with seals requiring
major yearly intervention. During the investigation,
the work execution data was correlated to the number
of starts and stops. It was determined that the driving
factor in seal wear was the scrubbing incurred during
start-up. This problem was resolved by installing a pres-
sure recirculation system that eliminated the need to
stop the asset. The prognostic risk profile then counts
11
the number of starts and stops to schedule mainte-

nance. This resulted in a 300 percent life extension on
the asset.
Human Sensory Data

Human sensory is by far the most utilized data type. It
would require extreme advances in technology to sub-
stitute the amount of data you analyze with a single
glance. Applying human sensory inspection is natural
to all people, though the attention given to abnormal
states is inconsistent.
The sensitivity of senses also varies between people.
For example, ask a veteran mechanic and a data entry
clerk to place their hands on a warm component and rate
the temperature cold, warm, or hot. They may well return
different answers. As a result, leading organizations often
prequalify and quantify their inspection criteria into
detectable operating windows. This allows their inspec-
tors to consistently produce an accurate current state of
the asset or component being inspected by ensuring that
variations in human senses are removed in the collec-
tion of explicit asset health data. As a result, inspections
data is repeatable and reproducible and false readings
are greatly reduced. It is essential that this information
12
is compiled in a format that enables searching or queries
Aci
to analyze the data. The optimal collection of informa-
tion on asset condition is an electronic format utilizing
descriptive indicators.
Descriptive indicators are inspections that have a dis-
tinct set of qualitative values that can be detected with
the human senses and cannot be measured in numbers.
The challenge when applying descriptive indicators to
data collection is establishing consistency in both the
understanding of the required inspection and guide-
lines for reporting the severity of the abnormality. The
wording should not leave any room for misinterpretation
or any discretionary judgment calls on the state of the
inspected component.
The descriptive indicator should focus the inspector
on a specific item. For example, if the mechanic was told
to “inspect machine,” the mechanic may return with a
“machine OK” statement. On the same machine, if the
mechanic was told to “inspect foundation mounting
bolts,” but had a defined set of states from which to
choose, the inspection would be focused on a specific
component addressing a specific failure mode.
This data collection then could be applied to asset
condition information and correlated to vibration
13
analysis or process information to identify the magni-

tude of the issue and the value of a resolution.
Numerical Data
Numerical data accounts for only a small percentage of
data collection, though this statement is not to imply
numeric data’s importance or validity. Numerical data
tends to be consistently collected if read from digital
indications. Rules and algorithms can be used to ana-
lyze multiple numerical and, sometimes, descriptive
indicators.
The field of operational analytics or predictive analyt-
ics is growing in size, scope and importance by changing
the way maintenance organizations determine when
the right time is to do the right work on their assets.
Additionally, the use of Boolean logic can reveal if mul-
tiple contributory failure mode states exist to determine
abnormal condition and asset degradation. The appli-
cation of algorithms to produce simple red, yellow and
green light indicators can provide trending long before a
single parameter may identify change. For example, the
health of a pump may be determined by a combination
of flow, velocity, vacuum, and perhaps, case flow (i.e.,
leakage) and their combined intersection point value
14
long before each individual failure mode may identify
Aci
failure. Operational analytics is now allowing forecasting
through the use of multivariate regression, linear regres-
sion and Six Sigma analysis.
The Figure 1 example (see page 16) details a fairly
simple model that returns a highly confident result. The
model shows that as the outside temperature increases,
the main meter current (KW) increases. It also shows
that above 50 degrees F, the load increase accelerates, but
at a predictable rate. These results can lead to dynamic
seasonal inspections that consider outside temperatures
prior to alarming or not alarming due to normal load
changes as outside temperatures change.
The benefits are that the algorithms and solutions are
flexible, agile, cost-effective and allow for scalability for
their users. Very soon, these simple, fairly common tools
will give way to neural networks for machine learning, but
today this type of application is limited to mature facilities.
This emerging field of analytics continues to grow
in both its use and its importance within the field of
maintenance reliability.
To ensure consistent numerical data collection, sev-
eral items need to be considered when using analog
type gauges. For example, a gauge mounted six feet high
15
Figure 1
16
may be interpreted differently by personnel of varying
Aci
heights. One tool for collecting numerical data is a
comparative analysis of new to historical readings. This
ensures the readings are within limiting states that, if
exceeded, would require intervention.
The key to managing numerical data is consistency
of the conditions in which the data is measured. For
example, if amperage is the type of measurement, then
the load on the driven unit should be consistent or in a
controlled state. If numerical data is measured against
uncontrolled conditions, the deviation of the readings
would negate the value of the alarms.
Unit of measure is one consideration that influences
the consistency of numerical data because it depends on
the person reading and entering the data. If pounds per
square inch (PSI) is the in-house standard unit of mea-
sure, then all applicable pressure gauges should be PSI
to negate the chances of misinterpretation. One added
advantage of standardization of unit of measure is the
ease in using multiple readings for calculated indicators.
CBM Data
Data collected through condition based monitoring
(CBM) is a key component in the Aci Uptime Element.
17
This information detects the onset of failure and is nor-

mally aligned to known failure modes. This includes
vibration analysis, oil analysis, ultrasonic testing, motor
testing, infrared thermal imaging, nondestructive test-
ing, reciprocation monitoring, hydraulic profiling and
any other methodology of analyzing the condition of
an asset with regard to its deviation from its normal
operating condition.
The use of CBM to ascertain the onset of failures is
only as valuable as the information collected. If an Aci
approach is utilized, an understanding of the deviations
in vibration readings would be correlated to operational
parameters and utilized.
One example of this would be:

Vibration analysis has diagnosed cavitation. The data is
then integrated with the process flow data, which reveals
a normal process variation that produces cavitation. As
such, the prognosis is negated.
Historical Asset Condition Information

To develop a clear understanding of an asset’s condition
from a risk perspective, it is imperative to understand not
just the historical failures, but the loading and process
18
anomalies it has been exposed to throughout its lifecycle.
Aci
Considering an asset’s condition by the current state is
the same as thinking the flu has the same health risk to
a 90-year-old in palliative care as it does to a healthy
20-year-old.
There are various information sources to consider for
decision support.
Work History (CMMS)

If your computerized maintenance management system
(CMMS) is well utilized for work management, it is a
key source for asset information. Ideally, it is structured
with failure modes aligned with proactive structured
work development in the form of a task that is techni-
cally feasible and worth doing (i.e., viable). The failure
modes should be validated and created from strategies,
such as those found in maintenance strategy develop-
ment (MSD). The understanding and tracking of failures
at the root cause level (i.e., failure mode) through Aci
is critical to ensure that any organization maintains the
causes and not the symptoms or effects of the failure.
This approach enables:

• Correlation of asset condition to past failures;
19
• Quantifiable value or costs of failures;

• Frequency of failures;
• Success or failure of resolutions to problems;
• Correlation of failures to the asset’s lifecycle phase;
• Comparison of like asset performance within different
operational contexts.
If the CMMS is poorly utilized, it will become

a repository of disjointed information that requires
manual review and validation of related failures or asset
condition information. It should be noted that Aci man-
agement on a lifecycle scale is an advanced concept and
all supporting systems should be implemented and func-
tional prior to attempting advanced analysis.
Purchase History
Purchase history is linked to the Mro-spares manage-
ment Uptime Elements under the Work Execution
Management (WEM) domain. Most parts utilized on
an asset should be found in the bill of materials (BOM)
and identified on individual work orders. When fleet
level analysis is being conducted, the purchase history
is an input into the evaluation of the rates of failures or
the requirements for stocking levels.
20
Aci
Historical Analysis (REM)
Any reliability engineering for maintenance (REM)
conducted for an asset (e.g., reliability-centered main-
tenance (RCM), preventive maintenance optimization
(PMO), FMEA, etc.) not only should be the input to
the choices collected for Aci, but a living document that
is continuously improved through the application of Aci
evaluation. ISO55001, and for that matter any ISO doc-
ument, requires the revisiting of historical analyses as
a living document to ensure a transparent process of
continuous improvement exists. Correcting or improv-
ing an analysis based on Aci, therefore, is an excellent
and auditable mechanism to prove compliance to this
standard.
Data Quality
The right quantity and quality of accurate information is
needed to make the correct asset condition information
decisions in a timely manner. Far too often, data quality
is not addressed and decisions are skewed based on poor
or incomplete information.
Since all information costs something to collect and
analyze, the quality should be aligned to the risks being
managed, or based on the value of the expected benefits.
21
Quality decision support is unlikely without the right

quality of information made available at the right time
and delivered in a usable format.
Data is growing at an exponential rate due to advances
in sensor technology and costs, access and devices that
can produce data. When working with data, it’s import-
ant to know:
• Velocity – Speed of data coming in, which can be

real-time, hourly, daily, etc.;
• Volume – Amount/size in MB, GB, TB, etc.;
• Variety – Format of data coming in, from spread-
sheets, photos, PI data, sensor data, structured and
unstructured, etc.;
• Veracity – Uncertainty of data, how reliable and accu-
rate is it.
The IIoT brings even more data opportunities to

businesses. The challenges are capturing and turning
data into actionable information and gaining access
to the data, bringing it into one place and using it
correctly. Today, data can come from anywhere an IP
address exists, including remote sensing of operations,
the environment, Wi-Fi enabled devices, IT systems,
22
man-made data, real-time data, data historians, etc. Data
Aci
types can be unstructured data, systems data, control
systems, equipment types, pdf formats, photos, video,
logbooks, Excel® files, event failures, temperatures, dates,
documents, etc.
Everyone now lives in a digital world, a world of big
data. As a result, modern CMMSs must have the ability
to pull the critical few data points to populate the indus-
try-relevant algorithms in order to create asset condition
information.
Some considerations for collecting information are:
• Is the information available?

• What is the cost of the information versus the value
of having the information?
• What is the quality of the information as delivered
versus as required?
• How complete is the information?
• What format is the information delivered in?
• How useful is the information in driving correct
decisions?
• What information should be correlated to this
information?
23
Equally important is: How time sensitive is the

information and, as a result, what is the frequency of
collection? As an example, a bearing failure mode with
a P-F curve of six months may not need to be collected
every minute, hour, or second. Perhaps daily is fine. On
the other hand, that same bearing in a mission critical
operation, such as nuclear, may need constant monitor-
ing. As a result, the criticality or risk associated with the
asset may be a consideration of data quality.
Application of Knowledge
When asset condition information is compiled and
knowledge is applied to the information, a deeper
understanding and awareness of the asset emerges.
Things that are evaluated in isolation may no longer fit
the programs or interventions designed to manage the
asset’s condition.
For example: An inspection interval selected at half
the P-F curve under RCM logic may be less intrusive
if aligned with some other intervention. Or, the useful
life of a component may be sacrificed to align major
interventions that result in increased availability.
24
Decision Support
Aci
Managed effectively, asset condition information enables
advanced decision support for a multitude of choices
in asset management. In its simplest form, it may drive
choices on failure mitigation or how long you can run an
asset. In a complex example, the decision may be: What
is the most cost-effective lifecycle of a fleet of trucks?
The decision support enabled by effective Aci extends
well beyond failure mitigation to a higher level of asset
management.
There are very few organizations that have not invested
in an asset management system to assist with day-to-day
decision support. Ideally, the CMMS should be able to
link to the strategic development of failure modes, pri-
oritized from a criticality analysis to the asset condition
information collected through the system’s interfaces, to
various tools defined within the asset condition manage-
ment tool set employed within an organization.
The system, itself, should have the capability to run
advanced calculations based on vetted algorithms, or
have the capability to access statistical tools on domains
within the Internet. Once the system has pulled the
information from the various sources not limited to
within the organization’s firewalls, it should be able
25
to link back the information to the initiating strategy

development (e.g., RCM, FMEA, PMO, etc.) and gen-
erate the applicable KPIs to allow for sound, confident
decision-making. This is the manner in which a modern
CMMS provides a holistic view of condition based
information in line with standards, such as ISO55000,
ISO3100 and API691.
Value Driven Actions

The first level of Aci utilization is to manage the current
state of your assets. If you have a system or software that
can provide a health report on all critical assets in your
facility, you can utilize this information to make informed,
value-driven decisions on things like operational cam-
paigns or optimal shutdown timing and durations.
Advanced Aci enables value-driven choices on asset
lifecycles, renewal programs, failure prognostics, opera-
tional loading, etc.
Feedback Loops
Asset condition information provides feedback to con-
tinuously improve things, such as:
• Asset selection;
• Commissioning and start-up processes;
26
• Operational envelopes;
Aci
• Maintenance programs;
• Operational campaigns;
• Spare parts optimization;
• Training programs;
• Production projections.
Safety Considerations
Asset condition information also addresses these safety
considerations by:
• Ensuring the risks in data collection are managed;

• Ensuring decisions derived by optimizing Aci do not
impact safety;
• Integrating safety in all decisions;
• Considering the secondary consequences of a cata-
strophic failure if a failure is detected and a decision
is made to continue running the asset.
What Every Reliability Leader

Should Know
• All measurements and testing deliver nothing unless
they drive the appropriate action.
27
• A cross-reference of as many sources of information

as possible will drive the best solutions.
• The information provided by asset condition monitor-
ing is critical in a physical asset management program.
• The integrity of the data must be verified to ensure
correct decision-making.
• Asset condition monitoring must be economically
viable, in other words, it saves more than it costs.
A wealth of knowledge about how an asset’s condi-

tion degrades exists in the minds of maintainers and
operators. This information represents critical facts that
should be captured and systematized for the sustainabil-
ity of the organization.
The asset condition information you collect should be
determined by the analysis tool, such as (RCM, FMEA,
PMO, etc.). This linkage to why you are doing the work
you do is important to workforce acceptance. Valued
insight and integration into the collection of Aci is often
critical to implementing and sustaining a cultural change
process that is often the most important determining
factor on whether a reliability initiative delivers or dies.
28
Summary
Aci
• On-line data is the most underutilized information
in industry.
• Descriptive indicators account for the majority of
inspections in industry.
• It is imperative that human sensory inspections be
clearly defined and consistently applied.
• When all asset condition information is considered,
it will drive the most value.
• Understand the current state of asset health.
• Look within the data to develop a deeper understand-
ing of your assets.
• The IIoT will change the way you treat and value asset
condition information moving forward.
References
Accenture Technology. Winning with the Industrial
Internet of Things. www.accenture.com/us-en/
insight-industrial-internet-of-things
29
Vib
vibration
analysis
vibration analysis
Introduction
The application of vibration analysis (VIB) for the pur-
pose of condition based monitoring is a well-proven
Vib
process. Many types of faults can be detected and man-
aged at an early point in the progression of a failure.
Vibration analysis also can be used for acceptance cri-
teria and quality control of precision maintenance tasks
like alignment and balancing. When implemented and
applied properly, vibration analysis is one of the five pri-
mary condition based monitoring technologies.
Why Vibration Analysis?

Advanced detection of failures enables timely planning
and scheduling of repair work and/or development of
contingency plans to minimize the risk to operational
goals. There are a multitude of failure modes easily
detected by analysis of the vibration spectrum or time
waveform.
Some examples of detectable faults are bearing
defects, imbalance, misalignment, gear faults and elec-
trical faults.
33

Accelerometer – A sensor, transducer, or pickup that
converts acceleration to an electrical signal.
Vibration – An undesirable situation caused by one or
more pulsating forces due to unbalance, misalignment,
etc., in an asset’s structure.
Vibration Analysis – A widely used predictive mainte-
nance technology for evaluating rotating equipment to
determine if any undesirable changes are present that
might give an early indication of imminent failure.
Vibration Monitoring – Technology used to determine
equipment condition and potentially predict failure
resulting from mechanical oscillation or motion.
Objective
The intent is to create a reference document for the cor-
rect selection, application, alarming and management of
vibration analysis data within asset health monitoring. It
is not to teach vibration analysis; it is assumed the appli-
cation is conducted by a minimum ISO Level 2 certified
vibration analyst. The scope is to aid in the transition
of failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) outputs
to the correct inputs into a vibration analysis program.
34
vibration analysis
This approach will minimize the risk of selecting general

data sets that could compromise the output of FMEA.
Asset health only can be monitored if the targeted data
Vib
detects the identified failure modes. An additional con-
cept covered is the focused alarming approach. This
allows the vibration analyst to upload data and only
view the exceptions, thus maximizing productivity of
the vibration team.
Vibration Program Application

FMEA Targeted Vibration Data
If the output of FMEA, reliability centered mainte-
nance (RCM), or preventive maintenance optimization
(PMO) has identified condition based monitoring
(vibration analysis) as the targeted maintenance solu-
tion for identifying the onset of a failure mode, then
the application of vibration analysis requires a more
advanced level of information to adequately address a
specific failure mode.
Vibration analysis is a general statement. To truly
identify a failure mode, there are several considerations
that must be addressed. These include, but are not lim-
ited to, the data type, frequency ranges, resolution alarm
types, alarm amplitudes and rate of failure.
35
Overall, vibration alarms are of limited value in

identifying a specific failure mode, as are general data
sets with fixed lines of resolution and a standard Fmax.
The data must be truly targeted at identifying a specific
failure mode to be successful. This level of diligence in
selecting vibration data will ensure the failure mode is
detected with the greatest P-F interval. This allows the
greatest lead time for scheduling and acquiring parts.
Specific alarm bands and types are also required. Alarm
management is essential to vibration analysis.
Vibration Analysis Data Types

The data types used in vibration analysis are targeted
at detecting individual fault areas. The following list is
limited to the basic condition monitoring data types. The
data type selected depends on the specific fault targeted.
The frequency range the fault is found in will drive the
selection of data types.
Velocity – Will detect imbalance, misalignment, loose-

ness and late stage bearing faults, and is focused on
general purpose data.
Acceleration – Will detect gear faults, rotor bars and

other high frequency faults.
36
vibration analysis
Displacement – For low RPM equipment, it measures

actual shaft movement with eddy current probes.
There are other detection methods, including high
Vib
frequency detection (HFD), enveloped acceleration,
peak view, etc.
Understanding the data types is imperative to select-
ing the correct tool to apply to the failure mode. If
the data type is not matched to the failure mode, it is
unlikely that the fault will be detected in time to manage
the required intervention.
Vibration Analysis Data Ranges and Resolution

Even the correctly selected data type can be incorrectly
prepared and not contain the required information to
identify a failure mode. Failure modes will be located in
portions of a spectrum; to generalize this, they may be
found in subharmonics, low range, midrange, or high
range. This refers to the frequency of the fault, or how
often within one revelation does the fault happen. The
Fmax refers to the cutoff point of a spectrum; if the
Fmax is too low, the data required will not be contained
within the spectrum. Basically, if you do not collect the
data, you cannot analyze it. If the Fmax is too high, it
reduces the resolution.
37
Once the correct Fmax is determined to address the

failure mode identified in the Fmea, the next step is
defining the resolution required to differentiate between
individual peaks. The frequency axis is divided into bins.
This gives the spectrum the resolution to see and alarm
on individual points in the data set. If the resolution is
too low, the individual peaks will be masked and, there-
fore, undetectable. If the resolution is too high, the data
collection time is longer.
Alarm Types and Amplitudes

With the advances in diagnostic and alarming capabilities
within vibration management programs, it is irrational
to rely on down arrow key analytics. If spectrums or time
waveforms are not alarmed, the time commitment to
review data sets is extremely detrimental to the volume
of equipment an analyst can cover. With correct alarms
focused on failure modes, the analyst is only required to
view exceptions. If the data is unchanged from the last
collection and covered with correct alarms, why look
at it? Overall alarms are sometimes utilized with the
misconception that they will detect failure modes. In
most cases, overall values are set high enough to min-
imize false alarms due to process changes. This level is
38
vibration analysis
quite often far too high to adequately detect subtle dif-

ferences in the initial onset of a bearing fault. The key
applicable use for overall alarms is to produce machine
Vib
trips; the purpose is to stop the machine to reduce the
consequences of damage, not to detect the early onset
of a failure.
1. Advanced alarm types will have a name that describes

the target data of the alarm: Overall, 1 to 6x har-
monic, sub-synchronous, low range, midrange, high
range, gear/vane/piston pass, etc.
2. They will also target a specific type of data: Single
value, peak, peaks all, peaks synchronous, peaks
non-synchronous, band energy, etc.
3. Advanced alarms also require trigger types: Absolute,
% change from last, % change from base, % change
mean, % above noise floor, % of targeted peak, stan-
dard deviation, rate of change, rise over run, etc.
4. They may also require being: Alarmed on the high
side, low side, high and low, and have an incorporated
% seek.
Only by truly understanding the failure mode can the

appropriate alarm be developed. You must comprehend
the evidence presented throughout the failure mode
39
to enable the earliest detection, therefore the highest

preparation time.
Alarm Amplitudes
The amplitude of the alarm should be validated by the
data. Predetermined alarms based on ISO or API stan-
dards may not adequately incorporate transmission path.
If you use standard alarms, you may have a small bearing
in a large housing or a large bearing in a thin housing.
The transmission path is inherent with the machine
design, therefore, standard alarms will have limited suc-
cess; they are meant as a guideline.
If the vibration data has been selected to target a
specific failure mode, the data should be collected (at
least once) prior to determining the amplitudes. The
first consideration would be to review the data to see
if the fault exists at this point. If the fault doesn’t exist
(confirmed by an advanced analyst), then the second
consideration would be how consistent this data would
be in a normal state. Is this unit constant or variable
speed? What process anomalies would affect this data?
These criteria would drive your selection of range types.
Range types are absolute, frequency, orders, phase angle,
or time in seconds. Understanding the data to this point
40
vibration analysis
will give an indication of the level of alarming required

to provide an early indication of a fault. It should be
low enough to give an indication of suspicion of a fault
Vib
(caution) and have a bandwidth to allow suspicion to
pass through to confirmation (critical). The amplitudes
should be tailored to the data. Combining this with con-
sistent data collection will result in alarms that are a true
indication of a specific failure.
Alarm Targets
Some failure mode alarms are leading indicators (targets);
they are thresholds established to trigger an intervention
to avoid failure or damage. If they are targets, they must
be clearly understood as such. Let’s use imbalance as an
example: The amount of acceptable imbalance is selected.
The failure mode is fan imbalance and the cause buildup
of dirt. In this case, the alarm amplitude is how much dirt
is allowable to imbalance the fan before the reaction to
clean it is taken. Setting this alarm type is done by under-
standing the consequences of the failure. If imbalance
reaches xx mm/sec, then it will damage the bearings. It
is then logical to clean the fan prior to xx mm/sec.
It takes a substantial amount of work to set correct
alarm amplitudes, but the return on investment is major.
41
Once completed, all detectable failure modes will be

addressed for the lifetime of the selected equipment.
Collection Interval Management

The industry accepted method is to define the P-F
curve of the failure and collect data at one half the P-F
interval. The challenges in this logic are for the P-F to
be known and its consistency in all failures. In most
cases, the P-F is unknown and, therefore, guessed at.
If the P-F is known (the failure has happened and was
trended), this would be a correct starting point for mid-
life (constant phase) data collection. The frequency of
collection should be increased both on the commis-
sioning and startup phases of an asset’s life and during
the progression of a detected failure. The engineering
decision can be an adequate selection of collection
intervals for the constant phase of equipment life. The
data collection intervals also should be correlated with
the risk of failure occurring at that point of the com-
ponent’s lifecycle.
If the data collected is targeted at a specific failure
mode but has the ability to detect several other failure
modes, the collection interval must be aligned to the
failure with the most rapid progression (shortest P-F).
42
vibration analysis
This will detect the rapid failure and over provide data
for the other failure modes.
Failure Mitigation Management
Vib
There is a clear distinction between monitoring the
health of an asset and managing the failure of an asset.
If a failure has been detected with vibration analysis,
the data collection intervals must be shortened. Impend-
ing failures that are detected should be watched carefully,
as the failure will progress to a point considered rapid
failure onset. In bearings, this would be considered Phase
4 bearing failure. Even failures profiled in laboratory
conditions will not progress in exactly the same manner
each time. This is the result of complex variables, such as
inconsistent loading, shock loading, inconsistent assem-
bly, inconsistent materials, etc.
Once detected, the first call will be an educated guess
(it will fail in two or three months). This would drive
weekly data collection until the failure progresses, then
a call would be made (it will fail any day). If shutdown
cannot be accomplished at this point, you may progress
to hourly data collection. If the point of transfer from
failing to rapid failure onset can be detected, then this
would be the point when shutdown should be initiated.
43
The safety of personnel collecting the data should be
considered from the onset of the program’s setup, with
the following considerations in mind:
Asset access/egress;
Temperature;
Potential process failure risks;
Stored energy;
Intrinsic explosiveness;
Chemical emissions;
Elevated risk if in failure progression state;
Any other criteria the may induce risk to personnel.
Do’s and Don’ts

DO set up your data collection points to address
identified failure modes.
DON’T use generic data points hoping for program
success.
DO manage the alarm structure, thresholds and types
to optimize analysis.
DON’T use down arrow key analysis hoping to see
problems.
DO involve your vibration analyst in the FMEA,
RCM, or PMO process.
44
vibration analysis
DON’T use generic, structured work outputs like

“vibration analysis” without communicating the
failures identified to the vibration team.
Vib
DO utilize collection interval management to establish
dynamic data collection frequencies to account for
baselining and failure mitigation.
DON’T base your program on a standard, time-driven
collection frequency (e.g., “we collect data every two
months”) without consideration of failure modes.
Benefits
A well run vibration analysis program will control the
quality of asset installations and predict a multitude of
failures well in advance. This enables adequate time to
ensure asset availability within the desired operating
campaign. If the cost benefit has been conducted during
the FMEA stage, vibration analysis is a cost-effective
way to identify impending failures.

Should Know
• Vibration analysis is the most widely used technology
for rotating equipment.
• The rate of change is equally as important as the actual
values.
45
• Overall alarms will indicate approaching failures but

will not help in detecting specific failure modes.
• The type and level of alarms are based on specific fail-
ure modes.
• Baseline vibration readings are an excellent method of
detecting whether precision installation and balancing
has been carried out.
Summary
Implementing a program is relatively simple. Align the
data with the failure modes, establish alarm criteria for
the data, and comply to and manage your collection fre-
quencies. When failures are detected, provide the decision
support to minimize the impact to your business goals.
References
Friedman, Alan. Audit it! Improve It. How to Get the Most
from Your Vibration Monitoring Program. Fort Myers:
Reliabilityweb.com, 2014.
White, Glen. Introduction to Machine Vibration. Fort Myers:
Jackson, Charles. The Practical Vibration Primer. Fort Myers:
www.Vibrationschool.com
46
Fa
fluid
analysis
fluid analysis
Introduction
Asset Condition Monitoring (ACM) is an overarching
term used to describe machinery symptoms through
test data monitoring. The technologies applied allow
a component to continue to be operated while being
monitored. This passport focuses on the technology of
Fa
fluid analysis (Fa) for Machine Condition Monitoring
(MCM) in the Uptime Elements.
The primary condition monitoring techniques for

ACM are:
• Fluid analysis, commonly called oil analysis;

• Vibration analysis, and its acoustic subsets.
Other ACM examples are ultrasound testing and

infrared thermography.
Why should you be interested in ACM-Fa? What

does it do?
• ACM-Fa can be compared to a health physical exam

for humans, except you are monitoring machine
health. Appropriate tests are employed on a lubricant
49
sample to reveal problems that can be mitigated before

extensive component damage occurs.
• Fa can assess the lubricant’s condition so, for example,
extended drain intervals can be safely implemented.
• The ultimate ACM deliverable, however, is the conser-
vation of money, resulting in maximized production
uptime and revenue. The earlier problems come to
light, the less the cost to eliminate them. Maximized
production is the reward of ACM.
As the primary techniques for ACM, fluid analysis

and vibration analysis are vital to success and return
on investment (ROI). These two techniques are well
ensconced in most maintenance communities. Success
does vary from entity to entity, depending on the level
of commitment, execution and assessment.
This Passport provides an overview to help you better
understand the key aspects of ACM/Fa in order to
prepare for implementation and participation in fluid
analysis. However, it is not possible to cover fluid anal-
ysis and all its complexities and nuances in just a primer.
Additional reference materials that cover each important
aspect in much greater depth are available.
50
fluid analysis
As one might expect, all the reading and class time

in the world will not make one an expert in much of
anything. It is certainly true of fluid analysis. Doing the
work and seeing its effect are crucial. Consider this ref-
erence Passport as a basis and grounding for fluid analysis.
Fa
Acoustic Emission Analysis – Acoustic emission anal-
ysis technology is applied to study bearing faults, detect
flaws and cracks in welding and pipe-work, and to study
de-lamination, de-bonding, and fracture in aerospace
materials.
Condition Monitoring – The continuous or periodic
measurement and interpretation of data to indicate the
condition of an item, component, or asset to determine
the need for maintenance.
Fluid Analysis – A process of monitoring and reporting
information obtained from the analysis of lubricants,
hydraulic oil and other fluids to determine the quality
and/or condition of an asset being lubricated.
Vibration – An undesirable situation caused by one or
more pulsating forces due to unbalance, misalignment,
etc., in an asset’s structure.
51
Fluid Analysis Overview

Things that can be revealed with fluid analysis include:
• Abnormal wear of various parts in the component via
wear metals identification and quantification. This is
the most important aspect of ACM and MCM. It’s
about the machine, first and foremost.
• Issues with the component that may have exacerbated
wear or soon will. Proactive, preventive input is often
presented:
• Abrasives (dirt) detection, a component killer;
• Water contamination, a lubricant killer.
• Oxidation, excessive temperatures, or lubricant
overextension;
• Wrong lubricant addition, creating a risk of insuf-
ficient lubricity or incompatibility of the lubricant
with the component’s seals;
• Fuel dilution (diesels), indicative of leakage or
prolonged idling;
• Soot (diesels), indicative of less than optimal com-
bustion from overfueling, air intake restriction,
lugging, etc.;
• Coolant leakage (liquid-cooled engines), present-
ing risk of bearing seizure and similar trauma.
52
fluid analysis
• Lubricant suitability for continued use, often result-

ing in substantial lubricant savings via safely extended
drains.
While it is clearly a solid benefit to be aware of a

lubricant’s condition, this is not the primary focus of
fluid analysis. That is why the term “oil analysis” is
Fa
incomplete and often misleading. Testing and test data
are a means to an end, the preservation and profitable
function of the machine. That is the end goal and it’s
where the highest savings are.
The Activity Loop:

• A representative sample is taken from the component.
• The sample is analyzed using revealing test methods.
• Test data are reviewed and evaluated by knowledge-
able experts (and, of late, by Intelligent Agents or
Expert Systems infused with domain-expertise).
• A report is provided that should:
• Advise the recipient of recommended action;
• Justify that advice with reference to the test data.
• Report recipients cause or perform appropriate
maintenance.
• Report recipients actions are conveyed to the evaluator
as to the findings (i.e., feedback). Feedback received
53
is used to vet previous comments and will influence

future comments for similar data patterns.
This process occurs globally millions and millions of

times a year and, when effective, saves billions and bil-
lions of dollars. Such gains however, require real work.
They don't just happen because samples are taken and
tested. The samples must be representative and mainte-
nance actions need to be taken and findings reported.
After maintenance is performed (or not) there needs to
be some solid interaction between the evaluator and the
report recipient for validation and confidence.
Things you need to know and incorporate:

• There is a lot of “low hanging fruit” in fluid analysis.
It is relatively easy to conserve money by finding the
obvious problems and tending to them. Getting full
value (i.e., the maximum ROI) may prove much more
elusive because it requires added efforts that often are
not given.
• Feedback on action reports is critical. A commitment
to report maintenance actions and findings needs to
be routine work in order to complete the information
loop.
54
fluid analysis
• Lack of feedback precludes reinforcement of good

commentary and evaluation.
• Lack of vetting reports that are not on target
results in a repeat of such an error.
• Missing feedback blunts ROI determination due
to a lack of complete information or data.
Fa
Bottom Line: A thorough commitment is the key to
fluid analysis success.
Fluid Analysis Implementation

Management mandate is necessary for any lasting success:
• Fluid analysis is a top-down commitment, a cultural
commitment.
• Funding is imperative; the rewards are not instant.
• A team needs to be designated. Someone must be
in charge of the program as a primary job to make it
effective and compliant.
• Review/accountability is a requisite if ROI is to be
substantial and maximized.
The equipment database must be as complete and accu-
rate as can be:
• Components (e.g., the sampled sumps):
• Manufacturer – helps identify wear point
metallurgy;
55
• Model – adds additional nuance and focus.

• Lubricants assigned to each component must be fully
identified as to manufacturer, brand and grade. The
brand is key to assuring that metallic additives in the
lubricant will be accounted for. The grade provides the
viscosity range reference.
Who will provide the testing?
• Commercial labs – They’ve been around longest and
usually offer the most comprehensive test schedules.
Their disadvantage is they are usually remote, thus
relationships are arm’s length and communication lim-
itations may pose issues. There are numerous qualified
labs of this type. You should interview them before
committing and be aware of and have confidence in the
personnel who will be evaluating your data. Ask about:
• Typical turnaround time (24 to 48 hours is
standard);
• Technical qualifications;
• Experience with your type of operation and
equipment. Don’t be afraid to ask for references.
• Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) or oil
company labs - They are similar to commercial labs
56
fluid analysis
because most oil companies employ commercial labs

to private label their analyses.
• Ask about who performs the data evaluations and
renders comments. This way, you can evaluate the
commercial lab before committing.
• Often, limited and/or minimal tests are offered
Fa
and no flexibility exists. This may or may not pose
a problem. In any event, check it out.
• Sometimes, the service is discounted or even
“free.” Find out why. Cheapest isn't always best.
• Private labs, often on-site – It can be argued that this
is the best approach, but it first requires sufficient sam-
ples to be analyzed to justify installing a lab. Things
to consider:
• Qualified personnel will have to be hired.
• Operating a private lab is a full-time job, however,
personnel are often assigned to the lab as part of
their job. This can be a serious impediment since
full focus is not assured. Avoid this trap.
Sampling is straightforward enough, although not
simple. There are details:
• Representative sampling is imperative to avoid invalid
data.
57
• Almost always, the machine or component should

be warm from operation either after some running
time, or very shortly after shutdown. This is particu-
larly important with hydraulic systems since particle
counting is part of the standard testing package.
• Samples need to be taken from the flow stream,
upward of filtration, whenever possible.
• Special purpose sample valves are very popular
as they minimize contamination and offer the
best chance for a consistently valid sample. Such
valves also render sampling considerably easier,
and with less introduction of contamination.
• Components without a pump (e.g., most gear-
sets) usually cannot be sampled like engines,
compressors and hydraulics. Sometimes, a
hand-operated vacuum pump is used or sam-
pling ports are installed in the sumps of larger
components so they are below the lubricant
level. If the lubricant is warmed up, these are
reasonable methods.
• Provide necessary information about the sample.
• It is considered a best practice to prepare the
sample container label in advance of taking the
58
fluid analysis
sample so there is a minimal chance for sample

switching.
• Many labs now use bar coding or similar scanning
to automatically populate their lab information
management system (LIMS). This speeds up pro-
cessing with accuracy, but there is no automated
Fa
system for the following information:
• If your label is not equipped for scanning,
you must provide the unique name (e.g., asset
number, etc.) of the component being sampled.
• Hours or distance of the current lubricant’s res-
idence interval.
• Date the sample was secured.
It is necessary for the sampler to be diligent in this
regard because such information influences data trend-
ing, a very important aspect of Fa.
Send the secured samples to the lab as soon as pos-

sible. It is a shame to spend valuable time collecting
samples only to let them sit on a desk or shelf for days
or weeks at a time. Unthinkably, this type of lapse occurs
much more often than it should. Time can be critical
in averting major trauma or failure.
59
Table 1
Routine Tests for Example Component Types
Large Ferrous
Particle
TEST Metals Viscosity Water Fuel Soot Oxidation Nitration Acid No. Base No. Particle
Count
Screening
COMPONENT TYPE
Diesel Engine X X X X X X X X
Natural Gas Engine X X X 4-cycle X X 2-cycle 4-cycle 2-cycle 2-cycle
Gas Turbine X X X X X X
Steam Turbine X X X X
Gearset X X X X XX
Hydraulic X X X X X X XX
Rotary Compressor X X X X X X X
Reciprocating X X X X X X
Compressor
60
fluid analysis
The Testing Process

Table 1 suggests suites of tests for various equipment
types. Though this is not all encompassing, all tests are
valid for the component type referenced. Occasionally,
you or your evaluator may want to have additional or
alternative testing done to confidently decide on the
Fa
choice of actions to take based on the data. It’s import-
ant that you both be on the same page in this regard.
The routine tests and how they are accomplished:

• Metals (spectrometric analysis) – Atomic emission or
atomic absorption is the technical process. A sample
is literally combusted so electrons escape from their
respective atoms. This produces an unstable situation
and the atoms quickly recapture electrons, emitting
light in that process. Each element produces a unique
wavelength, mostly in the ultraviolet region for test-
ing purposes, but also in the visible region for some
elements. The test is quick, about one minute, and
mostly automated.
• Wear metals – Knowing metallurgies of parts is
fundamental. Major metals include iron (Fe), alu-
minum (Al), copper (Cu) and lead (Pb). These
metals are flagged when limits have been exceeded
61
based on component type, manufacturer/model

and the operating environment. They are also
trended to monitor run rate.
• Contamination metals/elements:
• Silicon (Si), abrasives (from dirt), compromised
air intake or breathers, or careless lubricant
handling/storage;
• Sodium (Na), potassium (K), or boron (B) –
Usually found in coolant leakage instances as
part of that fluid’s additive package. While Na
and B also can be contaminants or additives in
the lubricant itself, K is usually confined to the
coolant, thus a telltale indicator.
• Additive metals vetting – Phosphorous (P), zinc
(Zn), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are very
common additive metals that convey longevity to
the lubricant. While the spectrometer is perfectly
capable of detecting these elements, it is NOT
capable of distinguishing the chemistry of the
elements, thus it is confined to being an indica-
tor and suggestor that the lubricant in question is
proper for the component under analysis. Other
tests address additive efficacy.
62
fluid analysis
• Viscosity – A fluid’s resistance to flow. The majority

of viscosity testing is conducted in fabricated, preci-
sion glass tubing where flow is timed very precisely
at a given temperature to produce the result. There
are two major Fa temperatures: 40 degrees C is used
for International Organization for Standardization
Fa
(ISO) designated lubricants mostly found in industrial
settings and rotary machinery; 100° C is SAE auto-
motive based and is used for reciprocating machinery
(e.g., engines and compressors), as well as automatic/
powershift transmissions.
• Water – There are numbers of ways to inspect for
water:
• Crackle/sputter test. A droplet of lubricant on a
hot plate will sputter and make a crackling noise
with as little as 500 ppm of water. Many labs
screen every sample this way.
• Karl Fischer methods – This complex detection
and quantification method uses principles of titra-
tion and/or coulometry. Detection can be as low
as 10 ppm to 20 ppm for critical fluids.
• Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) – See the
explanation of FTIR following this list.
63
• Fuel (dilution) – Confined mostly to diesel engines.

Low viscosity can be an indicator, but that would be
poor science since other lubricant states, such as oxi-
dation, can produce a thickening effect that offsets fuel
influence, resulting in a normal viscosity and a missed
fuel leak. Gas chromatography (ASTM D3524-14) is
the gold standard for fuel dilution testing.
• Soot – Usually derived from FTIR using a practice
that traces back to thermogravimetric analysis for
carbon particles in lubricants.
• Oxidation/nitration – Indications that the lubricant is
degrading to a point where lubricity is compromised.
Not reversible. FTIR is the primary method, though
more rigorous methods exist.
• Acid number (AN) – One in a family of neutralization
numbers where all acids, both weak and strong, are
determined either by titration (traditional) or FTIR
(more recently introduced). Monitored for limit or
rapid change. Level varies for different lubricant prod-
ucts and applications. Corrosion may be indicated if
AN correlates to wear metals.
• Base number (BN) – One in a family of neutraliza-
tion numbers where the alkalinity level is determined
either by titration (traditional) or FTIR (more recently
64
fluid analysis
introduced). Monitored for depletion in diesel engine

lubricants.
• Particle count (PC) – Provides scalar indications of
particulates greater than 4µ (micrometers). A laser-
based optical counter is the most common instrument
type to measure particles from 4µ to 70µ in binned
Fa
sizes, focusing on 4µ, 6µ and 14µ to yield ISO code.
Hydraulics are the chief application of this test due to
their precision clearances and the need to monitor and
control contamination. However, gas turbines, pow-
ershift transmissions and other component types are
also candidates. No element identification is provided
with PC, just contamination levels.
• Ferrous particle screening – The particle quantifier
(PQ) or direct reading ferrography (DRF) are mag-
netometric methods that detect ferromagnetic, iron
dominant particles that likely represent wear. Gear-
sets are ideal candidates for this important screening
technique, especially since basic spectrometric metals
analysis has increasing difficulty with detection of par-
ticles greater than 4µ.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometric

analysis has been around for decades and was introduced
65
to fluid analysis around 1970-1980. Infrared spectrome-

try deals with the functional chemistry of the lubricant,
such that FTIR can analyze for oxidation, nitration, fuel
soot, water, AN and BN, with additional capabilities still
being discovered and developed. Military Fa laboratories
were the first to standardize much of the procedures and
protocols, such that ASTM Practice E2412-04 is now a
formal standard for fluid analysis. Once the instrument
is purchased, FTIR provides a very inexpensive, high
yield data acquisition package, making it a de facto test
offering from virtually every lab.
Insight into the tests and their applications for
selected component types:
Diesel engines – This component type is among the

more mechanically complex machines one encounters
with fluid analysis. However, much is well understood
about it since diesel engines were the first candidates (ca.
1948) for fluid analysis as a motor condition monitor
(MCM) tool, as opposed to simply investigating lubri-
cant efficiency and occasional indications of the need
for minor component maintenance, such as tune-ups.
• Metals (spectrometric);
• Viscosity – This test is mandatory to ensure sustained
66
fluid analysis
lubricant quality or to detect the possibility of lubri-

cant mixing.
• Water – With diesels, most water detection is indic-
ative of an invalid (i.e., cold) sample as lubricant
temperature is usually more than sufficient to evapo-
rate condensate water. Detecting glycol additives (i.e.,
Fa
coolant leakage) validates the water, but it is unusual
to see both, even with a valid sample.
• Fuel – Raw fuel in the crankcase is indicative of exces-
sive idling, restricted injector nozzles or injector seal,
or other interface malfunction. Large amounts (i.e.,
8% to 10%) are dangerous and capable of triggering
crankcase explosions.
• Soot – Soot generation occurs during fuel combustion.
Excess levels are indicative of incomplete combustion.
Causes can include faulty valve timing, over fueling,
or restricted air intake.
• Neutralization numbers (i.e., AN or BN) –Not as
popular or necessary in recent decades due to virtual
elimination of sulfur in diesel fuels; therefore they are
of marginal use in developed countries with good fuel
quality. The only benefit from the test is to determine
the need for a lubricant change, but tests like oxi-
dation and nitration virtually always will be signals
67
Table 2
ISO4406 Cleanliness Code
Number of Particles Per mL
More Than Up to and Including Range Number (R)
80000 160000 24
40000 80000 23
20000 40000 22
10000 20000 21
5000 10000 20
2500 5000 19
1300 2600 18
640 1280 17
320 640 16
160 320 15
80 160 14
40 80 13
20 40 12
10 20 11
5 10 10
2.5 5 9
1.3 2.6 8
0.64 1.28 7
0.32 0.64 6
0.16 0.32 5
0.08 0.16 4
0.04 0.08 3
0.02 0.04 2
0.01 0.02 1
68
fluid analysis
to drain the lubricant before the BN is exhausted. If

one is receiving the AN/BN values from FTIR, the
data is available inclusive with the overall cost of the
FTIR test.
Hydraulic systems – This component type is very sensi-
Fa
tive to particles ranging from 4µ to 14µ due to precision
clearances in spool valves and other contact points.
ISO4406 offers a particulate cleanliness scale that clas-
sifies particles at 4µ, 6µ and 14µ, as shown in Table 2.
Each ISO number for the three particle sizes of interest
is indicative of a level of concentration twice that of the
number below it and half that of the number above it.
Filtration maintenance and general cleanliness guidelines
are based on this scale, once corporate or OEM stan-
dards have been determined as cleanliness goals. Particle
counting always should be performed on hydraulic lubes.
Powershift transmissions, gas turbines, 2-cycle slow
speed reciprocating gas engines, some steam turbines,
rotary compressors, etc., also may apply. When in doubt,
consult your evaluation specialist, OEM, or oil company.
Gearsets – Most gearsets have no filtration protection.

As such, large particles are constantly present in the
69
lubricant, so it is important to include ferrous particle

(>4µ) screening methods, such as PQ or DRF.
Reports: Data Presentation, Rating

and Advisories
Once all testing is completed, the most important phase
of Fa takes place: Assessing or rating the test data and
rendering an advisory by applying expert commentary.
This procedure is known as evaluation. Although it is
not possible to cover the entire topic of evaluation in
this passport, what is important is that one recognizes:
The Evaluation is THE DELIVERABLE
of fluid analysis – the Key to ROI
Without evaluation, no useful work has been performed
and no benefit is taken from the exercise.
What should one expect from a report, then? It
should contain:
• Quality data: Bad data equals wrong conclusions and

commentary.
• Proper flagging of data: How severe is the data com-
pared to an appropriate table of boundaries? If the
data is color-coded, such as white, green, yellow,
orange and red, to indicate its severity against the table
70
fluid analysis
or an alarming trend, this gives a sense of urgency

proportional to the severity of the situation.
• Expert commentary or advisories: Rendered by
domain experts who fully understand patterns and
correlation of test results.
• Reasoning: Provided to the report recipient so he/she
Fa
can comprehend and place credibility in the action
recommended.
• Rate report urgency level: Labeled as normal, abnor-
mal, urgent, or critical.
The Future of Fluid Analysis

Fluid analysis will continue to solidify its purpose. This
century will continue to bring more computerized eval-
uation using expert systems, known as intelligent agents,
infused with domain expertise. This approach will take
hold as expertise and experience are lost through attri-
tion. With maintenance departments now responsible
for even more complex machinery and lubricants, they
will become more demanding and in need of depth and
accuracy in the evaluation. Intelligent agents:
• Reduce errors, in general;
• Optimize advisories and commentary;
71
• Provide precision phrasing matched to computer-

ized maintenance management system (CMMS)
work orders;
• Mine data to find new patterns and correlations
for increasing depth and accuracy;
• Absorb and deal with the prodigious data output
from sensors;
• Include data from other condition monitoring
nondestructive testing, including vibration anal-
ysis, acoustic emission testing and thermography.
The intelligent agent has paved the way for develop-
ing incisive modules and money saving calculations and
assessments:
• Comparing one machine with another;
• Comparing one lubricant versus others;
• Assigning capital value to extended machine life;
• Assigning revenue value to maximization of
production;
• Smart maintenance scheduling;
• Realizing ROI to the fullest extent practicable.
Fluid analysis now has three tiers, thanks to more
recent developments of dependable online sensors. These
72
fluid analysis
sensors will change the way testing is performed. Much

more will be done on-site, as well.
• Tier 1 (online): Purpose-constructed sensors

for various parameter measurements, in essence,
online labs. The next decade will see a significant
proliferation of sensors as they establish their
Fa
value and their performance continues to improve.
• Tier 2 (on-site): Small footprint, clever instru-
mentation with fast testing cycles will eliminate
delays in obtaining results and evaluation, as
needed, using cloud-enabled intelligent agents.
Tier 2 will increasingly serve to vet Tier 1 data.
• Tier 3 (off-site): Traditional off-site labs will still
serve a vital purpose, but will be changing their
testing mix to support and augment the other
tiers, which will gradually reduce routine testing
from the Tier 3 mode. Tier 3 will move toward
increased activity in specialized, decision support-
ing tests that are often too expensive or complex
(i.e., requiring highly trained, experienced per-
sonnel) for Tier 2 applications, such as analytical
ferrography (AF) and scanning electron micros-
copy (SEM).
73

Should Know
Fluid analysis is a powerful tool in the maintenance tool-
box, but it does not manage itself. Setting up a program
is straightforward, but it is not necessarily easy. There
is a need to commit to performing a cultural business
exercise before the first sample is taken.
• Implementation decision and preparation:

• Top management commitment and funding is
essential
• Equipment databases must be complete for best
effect
• A manager needs to be named and empowered
• The analysis can be performed by a commercial lab-
oratory or an in-house lab as individual situations
might dictate. However, the most important consider-
ation is the means by which test data are assessed and
evaluated (i.e., the report or maintenance advisory).
Most labs provide similar, consensus tests in respect-
able fashion, but evaluation is not self-regulated.
• Evaluation has traditionally been a human pro-
cess and, as such, can vary widely depending on
the evaluator’s knowledge and experience with
74
fluid analysis
respect to the user’s equipment and operating

circumstances or application. Since no laboratory
charges a fee for an advisory, it is important to
know how this process is performed and by whom
when choosing the analytical facility.
• Over the last few decades, intelligent agents, which
Fa
are expert systems infused with domain knowl-
edge, have been introduced to reflect domain
expertise in a logical, consistent, nuanced fashion,
often offering a more focused assessment.
• You must be willing to supply thorough, accurate
feedback to the evaluator or the evaluating system if
you expect both accurate assessments and continuous
learning and improvement, whether the evaluator is
a human or an intelligent agent.
Heed this advice and your program will thrive and
significantly contribute to ROI.
Summary
Fluid analysis has existed for, perhaps, a century, primarily
for assessing lubricant contamination and degradation.
Oil companies and lubricant suppliers implemented the
technology to monitor lubricant efficiency and suitabil-
ity for continued use. However, ca.1948*, wear metals
75
analysis was introduced. This major addition changed

the focus from the lubricant to the machine. This was,
in effect, the real birth of Fa.
Today there is considerable technology in play to
facilitate testing and gathering of information. Here are
some salient aspects:
• Contrasting with vibration analysis;
• Fa is the only truly direct means of identifying
wear without visual inspection;
• Vibration analysis will always trump Fa for detect-
ing faults like misalignment or imbalance upon
installation or refurbishment of machinery. How-
ever, Fa is usually well in front of vibration analysis
if problems develop when the lube is in-service,
when wear metals will often present themselves
in advance of vibration detection.
• In addition to monitoring wear rates, Fa includes
a basic check on fluid contamination, and degra-
dation in terms of suitability for continued use, a
secondary benefit. This secondary benefit often
offsets a major portion of the costs of a program.
In such cases, the Program "pays for itself."
• Fa, like vibration analysis, is a condition monitor-
ing process that does not require the machinery to
76
fluid analysis
be taken off-line for the monitoring process to be

effective. It can be argued that Fa is the most valu-
able component of MCM, largely because root cause
issues, such as water, abrasives, or fuel, often present
themselves in the lubricant. Put another way, if only
one ACM tool were to be allowed, Fa would be the
Fa
overwhelming recommendation, with rare exception.
* 1948 was a watershed year in that routine inspection

of lubricants in U.S. railroad locomotive diesel engines
began to include the notion of wear metals (e.g., iron,
aluminum, copper and lead). This major addition to the
inspection process instantly changed the focus of testing
from the lubricant to the machine, thus MCM. It is
unfortunate that oil analysis was the adopted moniker for
this major emphasis shift, causing many users to misun-
derstand its most important purpose in the maintenance
process and its impact on organizations’ bottom line
via maximized machine availability (aka production).
Although fluid analysis (some lubricants are not oils) is
required to make the assessment, the process is today
more appropriately referenced as fluid analysis for Asset
Condition Monitoring (ACM).
77
References
ISO 18436-5:2012 Condition monitoring and diagnos-
tics of machines -- Requirements for qualification and
assessment of personnel -- Part 5: Lubricant laboratory
technician/analyst
ISO 18436-4:2014 Condition monitoring and diag-

nostics of machines -- Requirements for qualification
and assessment of personnel -- Part 4: Field lubricant
analysis
78
Ut
ultrasound
testing
ultrasound testing
Introduction
Ultrasound technology enhances lives in so many ways.
Medical ultrasound helps predict and confirm health
conditions. Industrial ultrasound nondestructively tests
the integrity of steel structures used in buildings and
bridges. Ultrasonic baths clean everything from indus-
trial parts to precious jewelry. Ultrasound measures metal
wear inside pipes, corrosion of tanks and remaining hull
thickness on ships. Automobiles equipped with ultra-
Ut
sound sensors lend safety to simple navigational tasks,
such as backing up, parking, or even avoiding collisions.
Thanks to ultrasound, human lives are better.
Another ultrasound discipline, one applicable to the
Uptime Elements, is ultrasound testing (Ut). Within
the framework, ultrasound testing has countless useful
applications for almost any industry. It is regularly used
to monitor industrial machine systems. Ultrasound test-
ing also reveals the conditional health of plant assets,
exposes sources of energy waste and identifies ways to
improve product quality.
A principal list of applications includes:

• Bearing condition monitoring;
• On-condition lubrication of bearings;
81
• Compressed air leak management;

• Vacuum leak detection;
• Steam trap testing and steam systems management;
• Electrical systems inspection;
• Valve bypass;
• Shell and tube heat exchanger testing;
• Tightness testing of nonpressurized volumes;
• Cavitation detection in pumps;
• Complex gearbox fault analysis;
• Slow speed bearing monitoring and analysis.
Industrial machine systems share a common dilemma.

As their condition deteriorates, so does their ability
to deliver value. The list of failure modes is long and
varies by asset. Most machine defects, however, share a
commonality: The onset of the defect produces high fre-
quency sound waves. The signal phenomena projected by
these defects are classified in three distinct ways: friction,
impacting and turbulence (FIT).
When machine defects first appear, friction, impact-
ing and/or turbulence project from the source. These
FIT phenomena generate distinct, ultrasonic sound
waves that become more pronounced as the defect wors-
ens. Eventually, they become so severe that they create
82
ultrasound testing
audible frequencies, too. At this point, the window for

proactive planning narrows and the opportunity to cor-
rect the problem with simple maintenance has passed.
Ultrasound testing enables inspectors to hear and mea-
sure defects at their onset, contributing positively to
asset reliability.
Certified reliability leaders (CRLs) consider ultra-
sound testing a vital technology for asset condition
management (ACM). It is a powerful troubleshooting
Ut
and condition monitoring tool for any reliability depart-
ment, regardless of industry sector.

Acquisition time – The length of time to acquire an
asset, component, data or a system; The length of time
prescribed to collect a static or dynamic measurement.
Airborne ultrasound – Ultrasonic waves that propagate
from source to sensor through a gaseous medium. These
waves are composed of high frequencies, above 20 KHz,
that cannot be heard by human ears.
Attenuation – A reduction or loss in the signal strength
(amount of energy) as it travels through a medium, typ-
ically proportional to the distance it travels..
83
Condition indicators – Trending data, operational

or acquired by predictive technologies, i.e. ultrasonic,
vibration, etc., that provides an indication of an asset’s
condition. When one or more condition indicators show
that an asset will fail soon or its performance is dete-
riorating, then maintenance is performed. Ultrasound
condition indicators include:
• Overall root mean square (RMS) decibel (dB) –
Average RMS measured for the duration of the signal
acquisition time.
• Maximum RMS dB – Maximum RMS measured for
the duration of the signal acquisition time.
• Peak value – Single highest amplitude measured for
the duration of the signal acquisition time.
• Crest factor – The ratio between peak and average
RMS that correlates remaining asset life.
Dynamic measurement – A measurement made where
the physical quantity being measured varies with time;
This variation may have a significant effect on measure-
ment results and the associated uncertainty.
FIT – An acronym for friction, impacting and turbu-
lence; the three phenomena projected by asset defects
as ultrasonic sound waves and applicable to ultrasound
testing.
84
ultrasound testing
Frequency – The repetition rate of a periodic event, usu-

ally expressed in cycles per second (Hz), revolutions per
minute (rpm), or multiples of a rotational speed (orders).
The International System of Units (SI) named this mea-
sure after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz and assigned the SI
symbol: Hz.
• Infrasound – sound waves with frequencies below 20
Hz.
• Sound – sound waves with frequencies above 20 Hz
Ut
but below 20,000 Hz (20 kHz).
• Ultrasound – soundwaves with frequencies above
20,000 Hz.
Friction – The resistance to motion of one object moving
relative to another. When two surfaces touch, they stick
together until there is sufficient force to move them. This
motion produces a broad range of indicators such as sound,
heat etc., that can be used to develop further actions.
Heterodyne circuit – The creation of two new fre-
quencies ( radio waves, beats) by mixing two different
sinusoidal frequencies together; The new frequencies are
the sum and difference of the original frequencies. High
quality ultrasound instruments use a heterodyne circuit
to make ultrasound frequencies audible to humans while
preserving original tonal quality and characteristics.
85
Impacting – The striking of one thing against another,

forceful contact; Impulsive phenomena, such as met-
al-to-metal impacting and gear mesh, generate a wide
range of sound and ultrasound frequencies. For exam-
ple, the leading edge of bearing defects generate sharp
impulsive signals with definitive peaks in the frequency
range of quality ultrasound instruments.
Static measurement – Static means no movement
or change, a stable condition. In regards to predictive
technology such ultrasoound, the static signal summa-
rizes the most important aspects of the total signal and
indicates asset condition relative to the asset’s historical
health.
Structure borne ultrasound – Ultrasonic waves that
propagate from source to sensor through a solid medium.
Turbulence – Violent or commotion; In fluid dynam-
ics, turbulence is a flow regime characterized by chaotic
changes in pressure and flow velocity; for example,
when associated with a leak, it generates a broad range
of sound and ultrasound waves.
Ultrasound – A predictive technology that can be
passive, listening, or active by emitting an ultrasound
pulse and analyzing the echo return; The use of sonic
86
ultrasound testing
technology to discover asset problems. One of three

words used to classify sound waves relative to the
human experience. The other two words are SOUND
and INFRASOUND.
• Infrasound – all sound waves below the limit of
human hearing.
• Sound – all sound waves perceptible by the human ear.
• Ultrasound – all sound waves above the human hear-
ing limit.
Ut
Ultrasound testing – A predictive technology for
locating defects in a material (asset) by passing acous-
tic energy in the ultrasound range through it. It can
be used for pinpointing surface defects, detecting pipe
leaks, degradation of bearings etc.
Advantages of Ultrasound
The inherent characteristics of ultrasound waves make
it an effective technology for monitoring the condition
of assets in noisy manufacturing facilities.
Ultrasound signals have short, low energy wave-
lengths that advantageously restrict propagation. This is
advantageous because ultrasound is loudest at its source
and attenuates after a short distance. In a noisy atmo-
sphere, inspectors can pinpoint the source of a defect
87
faster ultrasonically than they would listening with their

ears. Trying to hear problems audibly is confusing with
competing sounds from nearby machines making it
impossible to distinguish where the sound originated.
Another characteristic is directionality. Ultrasound
waves are longitudinal. Their propagation is strongest
in the direction they are cast. They are weak, low energy
signals that move forward through the medium, instead
of spreading outward.
Consider the advantage of directionality and attenu-
ation when measuring ultrasound on a simple machine
system. An electric motor driving a pump has four bear-
ings and a flexible coupling. Listening to that system
audibly yields meaningless data. Since ultrasound is direc-
tional and attenuates quickly in the density of its medium,
data from all five measurement points are credible with no
fear of one signal competing against the others.
Now imagine detecting the ultrasonic turbulence of
a compressed air leak from 30 feet amid the noise and
clatter of the factory floor. The directional signal leads
the inspector directly toward the path of the strongest
signal. Attenuation keeps other signals from competing
with the principal leak signal making for swift, uncom-
plicated ultrasonic leak surveys.
88
ultrasound testing
Benefits of Ultrasound
There are many ways ultrasound delivers value to an
organization’s reliability goals. As an asset condition
monitoring technology, Ut identifies defects and pre-
dicts failures in virtually any machine system, making it
a versatile ally that drives competitiveness.
As a troubleshooting technology, Ut locates efficiency
gaps in utilities, enabling organizations to save millions
of dollars annually in wasted energy.
Ut
As a contributor to employee safety, ultrasound finds
many defects, thus providing safety benefits to employ-
ees. The highest quality ultrasound instruments are
designed to keep ultrasound testing inspectors safe while
they conduct their rounds.
These benefits combine to foster a positive reliability
culture that resonate throughout the framework. Here
are two examples of how ultrasound testing intricately
weaves many of the Uptime Elements together.
Compressed Air Leak Management

An air compressor system without a leak management
program may give away over 30 percent of total demand
to leaks. Leaks are a failure mode of the system (Fmea).
A wrong solution would be to increase the capacity of
89
the system with a new compressor (Cp) without man-

aging the leaks first. Instead:
• Organize the compressed air system into small, man-

ageable sections and have operators scan each section
routinely for leaks (Rsd) (Ut) (Pm) (Odr).
• Tag each leak and submit for repair (Ps) (Cmms).
Analyze the work orders to identify repetitive bad
actors (Aci) (Rca). Replace inferior components with
better quality, longer lasting components (Mro) (De).
• Measure the efficiency of the compressed air system
before, during and after implementation of the leak
management program. Establish clear goals that mea-
sure the initiative’s progress (Pi).
• Document the results and publicize them to ensure
future funding (Es).
No fewer than 12 Uptime Elements are engaged in

a compressed air management program. For CRLs, no
singular element stands alone within the framework.
Bearing Lubrication
If calendar based preventive maintenance (PM) activi-
ties dictate the frequency of bearing relubrication, labor
is poorly allocated and grease is wasted. Formulas that
90
ultrasound testing
calculate the quantity of grease to use often result in

wasted grease and over lubrication of the bearing (Fmea)
(Rsd) (Ps) (Hcm). Instead:
• Change the process from calendar based to condition

based (Cmms). Only grease bearings when ultrasonic
condition indicators reveal changes to friction levels
(Ut) (Hcm).
• Use only enough grease to restore optimal friction
levels, thereby lowering grease consumption (Mro).
Ut
Over greasing is eliminated (De).
• Document effectiveness (Pi) and publicize wins to
ensure continued funding for the program (Es).
Condition based relubrication of motor bearings
represents one of the most relevant asset condition mon-
itoring tasks. No fewer than 11 Uptime Elements play a
role in this value driving program.
Ultrasound Testing Overview

Ultrasound detectors convert inaudible ultrasound into
audible sound while maintaining the characteristics and
quality of the original signal. They equip humans with
the ability to hear ultrasound. This frequency shifting
process is called heterodyning.
91
There are two types of ultrasound sensors: airborne and

structure borne. Each are designed to detect ultrasound
waves generated by friction, impacting and/or turbulence
traveling through solids and gases. Some examples:
• Turbulence from a pressure or vacuum leak generates

airborne ultrasound;
• Friction from an under lubricated bearing generates
structure borne ultrasound;
• Impacting from an inner race bearing defect generates
• Friction and impacting from a broken gear generates
• Turbulence from an electrical fault generates airborne
ultrasound;
• Turbulence from a passing valve generates airborne
ultrasound.
Airborne sensors detect ultrasound that propa-

gates through air. Ultrasound pressure waves reach the
piezoelectric sensor and are converted from pressure to
electricity (i.e., the piezoelectric effect). There are several
styles of airborne sensors, each designed to overcome
specific challenges. Some are designed for close range,
while others can detect ultrasound from a source several
92
ultrasound testing
hundred feet away. Others permit access to hard to reach

areas. Each must lend a degree of safety for the inspector.
Structure borne sensors detect ultrasound that prop-
agates through solids, such as a bearing housing, valve
body, or steam trap. Two designs, portable or permanent
mounted, contact the surface of the asset. If the asset is
functional, there is ultrasound. The contact sensor cre-
ates a conduit for ultrasound waves to travel from the
source to the sensor where it is converted from pressure
Ut
to electricity (i.e., the piezoelectric effect).
Applications for Ultrasound Programs

A common list of applications for ultrasound testing
include:
• Bearing condition monitoring;
• On-condition lubrication of bearings;
• Compressed air leak management;
• Vacuum leak detection;
• Steam trap testing and steam systems management;
• Electrical systems inspection;
• Valve bypass;
• Shell and tube heat exchanger testing;
• Tightness testing of nonpressurized volumes;
93
• Cavitation detection in pumps;

• Complex gearbox fault analysis;
• Slow speed bearing monitoring and analysis.
Steps for Beginning an Ultrasound

Program
While a one size fits all formula may not exist, use these
10 steps to incubate a new ultrasound program or resus-
citate an existing one.
1. Assemble a team that includes all stakeholders within

the organization
2. Identify leadership roles within the team
3. Create alignment among team members
4. Brainstorm a list of how the ultrasound program will
improve your present situation
5. Turn that list into written, prioritized goals
6. Determine how those goals will convert to return on
investment (ROI)
7. Specify and purchase quality ultrasound solutions
from a reputable manufacturer
8. Invest in training for the entire team from a reputable
ultrasound training provider
94
ultrasound testing
9. Construct methods to document, publicize and cel-

ebrate program wins
10. Frequently review progress and adjust written goals
accordingly
Just like any reliability-centered maintenance (RCM)

project, successful implementation of an ultrasound
program requires an aligned team. To achieve Step 3
Create alignment, ask each participant to answer these
five questions:
Ut
1. What are we setting out to accomplish?
2. What are we attempting to change?
3. Who do we need on our side?
4. What are our primary pain points?
5. How will we measure success?
Debate the answers and don’t move forward until

everyone is on the same page.
Determining the Key Performance

Indicators for Ultrasound Testing
Performance Indicators (see AM Passport) defines key
performance indicators (KPIs) as those four or five
factors crucial to the success of an organization at a
95
Suggested KPIs for an ultrasound lubrication program

Leading Increase the # of lube techs that are Level 1 certified
Indicators: ultrasound inspectors
Increase the # of assets lubricated only when
ultrasound indicates a need
Decrease the # of assets lubricated on a time-based
schedule
Lagging The # of lubricated bearing failures decreased
Indicators:
The # of replacement bearings in stores decreased
Grease consumption decreased
Suggested KPIs for an electrical inspection program
Leading Increase the # of electricians that are Level 1 certified
Indicators: ultrasound inspectors
Increase the # of electrical assets inspected
Lagging Decreased the # of flashovers per year
Indicators:
Decreased insurance costs
Suggested KPIs for a compressed air leak management program
Leading Increase the # of Level 1 certified ultrasound
Indicators: inspectors
Increase the # of leak surveys conducted
Increase the # of leaks tagged and repaired
Lagging Decreased energy consumption from compressor
Indicators: room
Transfer of compressor(s) from demand to standby
Decreased the # of leaks tagged and repaired
96
ultrasound testing
strategic level. KPIs are a way of measuring a program’s

progress in step with the organization’s clearly defined
strategy or business objectives. If business objectives
have not been defined, or worse, they are defined, but
not communicated to the business stakeholders (i.e., line
of sight), then stop! Do not bother creating key perfor-
mance indicators unless they can be mapped to your
organization’s strategy.
This passport identifies eight application pillars. An
Ut
ultrasound program is not complete without KPIs for
each pillar.
Don’t complicate this. KPIs are both leading and lag-
ging. Think of leading indicators as inputs; actions that
achieve outcomes. Lagging indicators are the outcomes.

Should Know
• Certified reliability leaders consider ultrasound testing
a vital technology for asset condition management
(ACM). It is a powerful troubleshooting and condi-
tion monitoring tool for any reliability department,
regardless of industry sector.
• Ultrasound testing equips reliability technicians with
super human hearing capabilities. Most asset defects
97
generate ultrasonic waves produced by friction,

impacting and turbulence (FIT). Ultrasound testing
empowers the detection of these phenomena the ear-
liest of all ACM technologies.
• Ultrasound testing is complementary to other condi-
tion monitoring technologies. Defects identified by
ultrasound testing are often confirmed by sharing data
(Aci) from other ACM Uptime Elements.
• Bearing manufacturers cite poor lubrication as a
dominant contributor of bearing failure. Ultrasound
testing measures elevated levels of friction, a prod-
uct of poor lubrication. Therefore, ultrasound testing
should be the principal technology used to detect the
most prevalent cause of bearing failure: over and under
lubrication.
• In terms of cost to implement and time to deploy, an
ultrasound program’s ROI is significant and should
not be overlooked by reliability leaders.
Summary
Ultrasound testing is a versatile technology vital to
the asset condition management (ACM) domain. It is
a useful troubleshooting tool and powerful condition
98
ultrasound testing
monitoring tool that every reliability department can

use, regardless of industry sector. It can be both simple
and complicated. Its low cost, coupled with fast imple-
mentation, leads to the fastest ROI of any of the ACM
elements. Sometimes, payback is realized within the first
24 hours.
References
Murphy, Thomas J. and Rienstra, Allan A. Hear More: A
Ut
Guide to Using Ultrasound for Leak Detection and Condition
Monitoring. Fort Myers: Reliabilityweb.com, 2010.
SDT Ultrasound Solutions – http://sdtultrasound.com/
Reliabilityweb.com – http://reliabilityweb.com/
Acuostic Lubrication Guidelines for Rolling Element Bearings
in Electric Motors. www.reliabilityweb.com, 2016.
UE Systems. www.uesystems.com
The Ultrasound Institute. www.theultrasoundinstitute.com
99
Ir
infrared
thermal
imaging
Introduction
Utilization of infrared (IR) thermography is growing
exponentially. This is driven by two conditions. The
first is the declining cost of cameras; small, portable Ir
cameras are relatively cheap and rugged. The second is
the versatility of the technology. With more cameras
deployed, technicians are finding more applications and
ways to enhance the value of applying this technology.
The images provided give clear, discernible conditions
that are easily conveyed to stakeholders.
Though collecting an image is relatively easy, it takes
a certified thermographer to correctly correlate the
Ir
radiated energy to temperature and present the correct
image.
The intent of this document is to create awareness and
guidelines for developing or supporting a thermography
program. It is not intended to replace proper thermog-
raphy training.
Why Infrared?
The first thought when introducing a thermographic
camera is normally switchgear. Many companies will
contract an annual inspection of their switchgear based
on insurer mandates and consider this the limit of their IR
103
requirement. This is the result of a lack of understanding

of the vast versatility of this technology. Thermography
has been utilized for electrical, mechanical, process and
building inspections. It also has been utilized for security
and drug detection. In many scenarios, if personnel have
access to a camera and are trained in its use, they will
find new, value-added ways to utilize this technology.
With the cost and associated risks of failure, most ther-
mographic programs will return the cost of equipment
and training with the first fault detected.
Thermal Theory
Thermographic cameras do not measure temperature,
they measure infrared radiation. If the emissivity is
known, the infrared radiation can be translated to tem-
perature. Thermographic cameras detect radiation in a
range on the electromagnetic spectrum. Since all objects
emit infrared radiation, the camera produces an image of
that radiation. The amount of radiation emitted increases
with temperature, which allows the camera to create an
image that can be correlated to temperature.
Infrared cameras are very sensitive to changes in tem-
perature, with a small change producing a substantial
change in the radiated energy. The energy seen by the
104
camera includes energy emitted, reflected and transmit-

ted through the object.
To correlate the image to temperature, the emis-
sivity of an object must be determined. Emissivity is
determined by the material and its surface condition.
Emissivity values range from zero to one.
Reflection is also a key factor in analyzing thermo-
graphic images.
Thermography Images
Images are created by the detector (microbolometer or
photon) detecting the energy radiated from an object
Ir
and converting it to an electrical impulse. The electri-
cal impulse is converted to a video image. This video
image indicates the radiated energy by varying the
colors in the image. The camera’s program correlates
the signal strength and entered emissivity to calculate
the temperature.
To capture an image, the thermographer adjusts the
focus, temperature range, light level and span on the
camera. This level of inspection will cover most common
fault detections, such as looking for process blockage or
general hot spots.
105
To attain an image that displays correct temperatures,

the operator enters emissivity, background reflection,
distance, relative humidity and atmospheric temperature.
Collecting a thermographic image is deceptively
simple; collecting a quality image that is representa-
tive of temperature and truly displays a fault requires a
trained professional.
Collecting Images
In many cases, insurers will ask clients if they have a
thermography program. Most organizations that have
a camera will answer yes to this question. If an incident
occurs, the insurer will ask for an image of the failed
component in a known to be good state. That exemplifies
the difference between a survey and a program.
Thermography surveys can be very beneficial for
detection of random faults and issues, but a program
should have a defined route that is conducted with
images collected and stored for trending or revival.
Images should be collected from the same distance and
angle, if possible.
106
Measurement and Analysis

Most camera systems have associated software to display
and analyze the image. The functionality and features
are somewhat dependent on the camera utilized. There
is also third-party software that interfaces with the
camera and enables correlations between items like
thermographic images, vibration analysis, oil condition
and process flows.
Displaying software packages will also enable sub-
stantial post-processing of the image.
• The palette type and range can be selected.
Ir
• The image can be blended from a full infrared to a
full visual.
• Isotherm levels can be banded.
• Cursor shapes can be changed.
Applications
There are a multitude of applications for thermography.
Electrical Systems
Faults with transmission lines can be inspected with
thermography. This is conducted with a gimbaled camera
mounted on a helicopter. This camera is mounted with
107
tracking capability with four axes of stabilization. This

allows a clear focused image to be captured as a helicop-
ter flies along the transmission lines. Transmission lines
also can be inspected from the ground; the helicopter
approach is for long inaccessible transmission lines.
There are numerous failures that can be detected in

transmission lines, such as:
• Grounds – Abnormal leakage to ground.

• Broken strands – Hot spots show up on cable
supports.
• Spiral heating – Shows up as a spiral of heat on a
stranded wire.
• Connections – Loose or inadequately sized connec-
tions show up as hot spots.
Faults with transformers can be identified on both

oil filled and dry units. In many cases, the insurer will
require annual images of transformers in a known to
be good state. Some conditions suspected in the trans-
formers will require confirmation with power factor,
transformer turns ratio, or dielectric tests.
108
Some failures found in transformers are:
• Bushing hot spots (top) indicate a bad connector.

• Bushing hot spots (bottom) indicate an internal
problem.
• Bushings with uniform heat indicate a bad bushing.
• Radiators with uneven heat due to low oil or flow
blockage.
• An exceptional hot spot on a dry transformer indi-
cating a short.
• Uneven temperature between windings indicating the
possibility of an unbalanced load.
Ir
• A hot spot on a winding indicating a possible shorted
turn.
Faults with switchgear can be identified in a multi-

tude of applications. This is one of the key applications
of thermography. Within a motor control center (MCC)
room, there can be a substantial number of switches,
compactors, coils, circuit breakers, resistors, fuses, etc.
Some general faults in switchgear are:
• Poor connections (hot spots);

• Defective coils (cold spots);
109
• Defective fuses or holders (uneven heat);

• Wire connection problems;
• Shorts (grounding).
Faults with electric motors can cross the line between

electrical and mechanical:
• Poor connections;
• Load imbalance;
• Winding issues;
• Rotor issues;
• Bearing faults;
• Misalignment.
Mechanical Systems
Faults with mechanical components can be easily
detected in mechanical systems. Since there are a mul-
titude of mechanical systems, only a few examples will
be referenced here.
Faults with gearboxes can be detected, however, it
should be noted that in many mechanical systems, heat
generation is a late stage of failure and other monitoring
should be considered for detection or confirmation of
faults:
110
• Misalignment;
• Overloading;
• Bearing failures;
• Gear mesh issues;
• Backlash issues (set-up);
• Lubrication issues.
Faults with engines are easily discernible. This is one

area where thermography seems to be underutilized.
Some detectable faults include:
• Cold exhaust (faulty injectors, misfiring);

• Hot exhaust (excessive fueling);
Ir
• Valve issues;
• Exhaust blockage;
• Exhaust leaks;
• Coolant flow blockage;
• Radiator blockage;
• Faulty thermostats;
• Oil line flows;
• Oil cooler blockage;
• Scale or contaminate buildup;
• Faulty starters;
• Accessory drive belt issues.
111
Faults with heavy equipment are easily discernible.

Some detectable faults include:
• Overheated tires;
• Overheated brakes;
• Heating or air conditioning issues;
• Hydraulic problems.
Process Systems
Faults with process systems can be detected in systems
where there is a process flow or friction inducing move-
ment between a product and a surface. Some examples
include:
• Piping flow blockage;

• Flow turbulence;
• Internal wear (shows up as hot lines on bends or wear
points);
• Valve leakage;
• Heat exchanger issues;
• Steam trap faults;
• Boiler faults;
• Refractory or insulation faults.
112
Building Envelopes
Deficiencies in building envelopes can be easily identi-
fied with thermography. Some examples are:
• Heat loss;
• Water leakage;
• Moisture detection;
• Insulation condition;
• Heating system inefficiencies.
Security and Policing

Security and policing groups are utilizing thermographic
cameras for various things. This is exemplified by U.S.
Ir
Customs and Border Protection agents presenting a
thermal imaging systems manufacturer with a $101
million contract.
• Some usage examples are:

• Border security;
• Night surveillance;
• Detection of drug grow lights.
Data and Reporting

As with any condition based maintenance (CBM) tech-
nology, thermal imaging must be reported in a clear,
113
concise and readable format. The reports should include

a visual light photograph to enable the reader to under-
stand the location of interest and direct the correct
responses to the correct location.
Reports should also include the object’s temperatures
and ambient temperature at the time of analysis. It may
be relevant to correlate the image to process loading at
the time.
There also should be a comments section that the
thermographer can use to convey findings and associated
recommendations.
As with any CBM technology, the reports should
include the value of the find or a correlation to cost
avoidance (e.g., had we not found this it would have…).
There is an extremely high potential for injuries with
electrical inspections. For detailed information, follow
electrical standards from your associated standards orga-
nization. Utilize all safety measures, including arc flash
personal protective equipment, inspection windows, etc.
114

Should Know
• Infrared thermal imaging is a useful technique for
more than just electrical applications.
• Infrared thermal imagining satisfies many of the
requirements of insurance companies.
• Software packages can be used to enhance the func-
tionality of this technique.
• Faults found through infrared thermography may
drive the use of other inspection techniques.
• Thermographic images aligned with digital images
give a clear indication of the fault location.
Ir
Summary
• Thermography is an extremely versatile inspection
method that has become very affordable.
• This tool is deceptively simple, so you must ensure
that proper educational and cognitive training is
conducted.
• Surveys are not programs; programs require images in
a known to be good state.
115
Reference
ISO 18434-1:2008 Condition monitoring and diagnostics
of machines -- Thermography -- Part 1: General procedures
116
Mt
motor
testing
motor testing
Introduction
A motor testing program can be used to find a variety
of problems, including loose connections, shorted wind-
ings, ground faults and insulation failures. In addition,
motor testing can be used to find various rotor prob-
lems, including rotor faults, such as air-gap faults, phase
imbalance and resistive loss. It also can be used with
other predictive tests to provide a picture of the overall
health of a motor.
A motor testing program delivers savings in the areas
of condition monitoring, equipment problem detection
and/or resolution, and acceptance testing. Key perfor-
mance indicators for a motor testing program should
always include ongoing savings tracking to ensure con-
Mt
tinued executive support.

Current – The flow of electric charge. Electric charge
flows when there is voltage present across a conductor.
Data Collection – Obtaining asset and facility informa-
tion to develop and support performance improvement
efforts.
119
Downtime – The amount of time when the assets/

machines in a plant or facility are not producing because
of failure, down for maintenance, or other reasons.
Emergency – A type of equipment problem where a
breakdown has occurred and immediate attention is
required; usually safety, health, or process integrity is
involved.
Motor – A device that converts electrical power into
mechanical force and motion; usually provides rotary
mechanical motion.
Motor Circuit Analysis (MCA) – An analysis measur-
ing the phase impedance in the circuitry between the
motor and the motor control center. The readings are
compared to standards to detect imbalances in resis-
tance or impedance. These imbalances may be caused by
corrosion, mismatched cables, or current leakage in the
circuit. Motor defects, such as broken bars, shorts, and
eccentricity, also can be detected.
Motor Current Analysis (MCA) – An analysis that
monitors the motor current during start-up (surge cur-
rent) and the current trace over time (decay) to detect
friction forces.
120
motor testing
Motor Current Signature Analysis – A method of

detecting the presence of broken or cracked rotor bars,
cracked end rings, rotor stator eccentricity and other
defects. Motor current spectrum in both time and
frequency domains are collected with a clamp on the
ammeter and fast Fourier transform (FFT) analyzer.
The motor must be energized and loaded during the
test.
Motor Flux Analysis – A method using a magnetic field
sensing coil attached to the external surface of operating
electrical motors to monitor conditions inside the motor.
Sensor signals from leakage flux are subjected to fast
Fourier transform (FFT) transformation and presen-
tation for identification of frequency spikes indicative
Mt
of internal defects, such as broken rotor bars, and stator
phase-to-phase and turn-to-turn faults.
Motor Normalized Temperature Analysis – A method
using devices, such as low-cost thermography equip-
ment, to measure temperatures at specific points on the
outside of operating electric motor casings to give an
indication of internal defects, such as degraded bearings,
rotor faults, stator winding faults, clogged air passages,
unbalanced motor currents and couplings in need of
realignment or lubrication.
121
Performance Indicators – Measures to determine the

performance of a function within a group, department,
and/or organization. Synonymous with Performance
Indices.
Performance Measurement – A quantifiable indicator
used to assess how well an organization or business is
achieving its desired objectives.
Performance Measures – Indicators used to measure
the performance of a function within a company.
Power – The rate at which electrical energy is transferred
by an electric circuit; the SI unit of power is the watt,
one joule per second.
Predictive Maintenance (PdM) – An advanced mainte-
nance technique focused on using technology to determine
the condition of assets and then taking appropriate actions
to avoid failures. Synonymous with Condition-Based
Maintenance and On-Condition Maintenance.
Torque – The tendency of a force to rotate an object
about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push
or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an
object.
Vibration Analysis – A widely used predictive mainte-
nance technology for evaluating rotating equipment to
122
motor testing
determine if any undesirable changes are present that

might give an early indication of imminent failure.
Voltage – The force that causes a current to flow in an
electrical circuit.
Benefits of Motor Testing

The three main benefits of motor testing are:
• Condition Monitoring. This is one of the main rea-

sons for testing motors. It allows the organization to
know the exact condition of the motor so maintenance
or replacement can be performed before the motor
fails. Knowing the condition of the motor also allows
for scheduling the repair/replacement with minimal
disruption to the production or process.
Mt
• Problem Detection/Resolution. When motors begin
to experience problems, such as increased operating
temperature or increased energy consumption, motor
testing allows the cause to be discovered and corrected
with minimal disruption to the operations and main-
tenance departments.
• Acceptance Testing. When motors are purchased or

rebuilt, they can be tested before accepting delivery
123
from a vendor. This ensures the motors are not put in

storage and then found unfit for service when required.
Using motor testing this way facilitates easier returns
of out of tolerance motors to the supplier in a timely
manner.
Motor Testing Methods

Besides detecting motor problems, a motor testing pro-
gram can detect problems in the support equipment
for the motors. These types of problems include cable
faults from the motor control center or disconnect, and
connection resistance for loose and broken connections.
The types of problems tested for at the motor include:
• Loose connections;
• Shorted windings;
• Ground faults;
• Insulation failures;
• Rotor faults, such as air-gap faults, phase imbalance
and resistive loss.
Once the problems to be tested for are clearly under-

stood and identified for a particular motor included in
the motor testing program, the next step is to determine
124
motor testing
the motor testing methods that are to be used. They can

include the following:
• No-Load Test;
• Load Point Test;
• Locked Rotor;
• Winding Resistance (including feeder cables);
• Insulation Resistance;
• DC High Pot;
• Dissipation Factor and Capacitance;
• Motor Current Analysis.
Developing a Motor Testing Program

Developing or modifying a motor testing program
provides significant cost savings to any company. By
Mt
preventing motors from failing with little or no advance
notice, costly equipment breakdowns can be prevented.
All motors that are vital to the company’s operation
should be included in a motor testing program. Some
examples are:
• Motors difficult to replace to reduce unplanned

downtime.
• Specialty motors to reduce delays from long lead
times.
125
• Overloaded motors to identify motors being operated

beyond design specification.
• Heavy-duty cycle motors to monitor motors that are
required to perform at maximum tolerances.
• Motors subject to extreme conditions to moni-
tor motors operating in environmentally hostile
conditions.
• Inventoried motors (back-up motors) to periodically
monitor motors that are in inventory/spares to prevent
damage in storage.
There are some prerequisites to initiating a motor

testing program. One that is vital to the success of a
motor testing program is motor traceability. One of the
common faults of any motor program is the inability to
keep track of motors as they are purchased, installed,
tested, removed for maintenance and reinstalled. Quite
often, motors are borrowed from non-operating units or
repaired and reinstalled in another location. They also
may be repaired and stored as a spare. As the motors are
moved from location to location (and as one considers
the number of motors associated with each plant), the
difficulty in keeping track of each motor becomes evi-
dent. When the maintenance department is faced with
126
motor testing
a heavy workload, there is a tendency to spend a great

deal of time on the maintenance tasks themselves, with
little or no time spent on documentation.
A major problem arises when the organization is
unable to track the motor because that also means it is
unable to determine the maintenance dollars associated
with it. The possibility exists that the organization will be
repairing the same motors for the same reasons without
regard to the root cause of the failures. In order to prevent
this, it is necessary to document all motor information
in a central database, typically a computerized mainte-
nance management system (CMMS). This allows the
organization to determine where the maintenance dollars
are being spent and help determine developing trends.
Information, such as installation and repair history, the
Mt
vendor or internal person who performed the repairs and
complete cost breakdown, is readily available to mainte-
nance personnel. Ideally, documentation would provide
an overview of the entire life of the motor, from the day
it is purchased until the day it is retired from service.
A second prerequisite is to detail which predictive
tests on the motors are already part of another monitor-
ing program. Some of these other predictive techniques
could include:
127
• Infrared Thermal Imaging – Many surveys are

conducted using an infrared camera to monitor the
associated switchgear, cable connections, bearings,
couplings, motor skin temperature, and air inlet
and outlet temperatures. Some common problems
that may be found include clogged or dirty air fil-
ters, hot couplings, high bearing temperatures and
hot electrical connections due to loose connections
or abnormally high current. While these problems
also will be detected by motor testing methods, less
duplication of tasks will ensure cost effectiveness of
the motor testing program.
• Vibration Analysis – Periodic vibration readings
may be taken on the motor bearing housings. These
readings consist of both overall amplitude and spec-
tral data taken in the horizontal, vertical and axial
planes of each bearing. The data is then uploaded to
a computerized system (usually specific to vibration
analysis) for evaluation and data storage.
• Oil Analysis – Some large motors have oil lubrica-
tion. Samples should be taken on a scheduled basis
and sent to a laboratory for in-depth analysis. Results
are obtained within a short time period and the data
is then analyzed and stored in a computer database
128
motor testing
(usually specific to oil analysis) for trending and

storage.
Executing a Motor Testing Program

When implementing a motor testing program, the goal
should be to integrate it into the overall plant mainte-
nance program. If it is not, then the problems found
by the motor testing program will not be planned and
scheduled for correction in a timely manner, leading to
unscheduled motor failures. Ongoing failures will dimin-
ish the perceived value for the motor testing program
and erode the executive support necessary to keep it
operational. Once the program is perceived as ineffective,
it is only a matter of time before it is discontinued and
the technicians disbanded. How can this be prevented?
Mt
First, the motor testing data should be reviewed
by predictive maintenance personnel on a daily basis.
When a problem is detected, individual test results are
correlated with other predictive maintenance data (e.g.,
vibration analysis and thermography) to help verify
the existence and severity of the problem. An elevated
vibration reading by itself may not be reason enough to
take the motor down for service. However, if coupled
with high wear particle concentrations found in the oil
129
sample, or high bearing temperatures indicated by ther-

mography, an added dimension is gained when making
a maintenance decision.
Detected problems are also thoroughly discussed
with appropriate plant personnel in an effort to gain
additional information, such as operating and perfor-
mance parameters and their effects. Once the problem
is diagnosed, the appropriate motor testing technician
should write a work notification/order. The appropri-
ate maintenance planner/scheduler will be notified and
maintenance can be scheduled based on the severity of
the problem.
In most cases, these maintenance activities can be
performed at an opportune time, when the equipment
is not needed. Normal wear maintenance, which even-
tually will require the motor to be removed and sent out
for service, also can be scheduled in advance, allowing
time for the procurement of spare parts or possibly a
replacement order. This new condition-based approach
results in more efficient scheduling of maintenance and
minimizes component damage through early detection.
In addition, it assures that the motors that require service
are properly attended to, thereby increasing reliability
and reducing the possibility of an unexpected failure.
130
motor testing
Key Performance Indicators for a Motor

Testing Program
Key performance indicators (KPI) for motor testing
impact several typical performance indicators, such as
equipment downtime, reactive versus planned mainte-
nance percentages, scheduled compliance, etc. However,
for the motor testing program to have continued success,
there needs to be measures related to motor quality sav-
ings, motor defects discovered (poor workmanship from
vendor), unnecessary motor replacement savings, equip-
ment uptime savings, etc. The more value from motor
testing that can be highlighted by the right performance
indicators, the more likely the program will be successful
in the future.
Mt
The longer and more successful the motor testing pro-
gram is, the smaller the saving numbers will appear. Once
all the potential motor failures are addressed, it is a matter
of monitoring and ensuring that any motor problems are
detected and repaired early. These reductions in ongo-
ing savings have led some companies to suspend their
motor testing program only to have to redevelop it in the
future at a greater cost. Once the motor testing program
is implemented, the proper reporting should be in place
to ensure continued executive support.
131

Should Know
• It delivers savings in the areas of condition monitor-
ing, equipment problem detection/resolution, and
acceptance testing.
• The motor testing program can be used to find a vari-
ety of problems, including loose connections, shorted
windings, ground faults, and insulation failures.
• The motor testing program can also be used to find a
variety of rotor problems, including rotor faults, such as
air-gap faults, phase imbalance, and resistive loss.
• The motor testing program can also be used in addi-
tion to other predictive tests to provide a picture of
the overall health of a motor.
• Key performance indicators for a motor testing
program should always include an ongoing savings
tracking to insure continued executive support.
Summary
Motor testing is an essential part of any comprehensive
predictive maintenance program. Motor testing begins
by measuring the integrity of the motor’s insulation
system. Motor testing also provides information about
the power condition, the load and the motor. When
132
motor testing
multiple testing techniques are utilized, they present a

picture of the motor’s health and provide technicians
with sufficient information required to accurately diag-
nose and predict imminent failures.
References
IEEE. www.ieee.org
InterNational Electrical Testing Association (NETA).
www.netaworld.org
Electrical Apparatus Service Association (EASA).
www.easa.com
Mt
133
Ab
alignment and
balancing
Introduction
Alignment and balancing (AB) are the cornerstones of
quality maintenance in any rotating equipment intensive
industrial facility. Their application reduces the strain
on the rotating mass of equipment. This is a proactive
approach to extending asset life and an integral part of an
overall precision maintenance program. Industrial facil-
ities that have clearly defined standards tailored to asset
requirements will see benefits in asset life and reduced
energy consumption. Precision alignment reduces axial
movement and shaft eccentricity, while quality balancing
reduces centrifugal forces found in modern high speed
machines.
Why Use Precision Alignment?

Aligning shaft centerlines to precision tolerances has a
substantial impact on:
• Reducing seal failures; Ab

• Substantially increasing bearing life;
• Reducing strain in shafts;
• Decreasing energy consumption;
• Reducing abnormal failures;
137
• Increasing component life;

• Reducing coupling failures.
Most companies do not define standards for quality

alignment practices, while some companies use generic
alignment standards without consideration for machine
specific tolerances.
Why Balancing Matters?

Unbalance is the uneven distribution of mass above
a shaft’s rotating centerline. This unbalance imparts
vibratory forces or motion to the bearings as a result of
centrifugal forces. The reduction of centrifugal forces
results in smoother running equipment requiring less
energy to rotate and less loading imparted on bearings
and seals.
Balancing should be managed on several levels:
• Vendors should be given a specification of acceptable

unbalance.
• Commissioning and start-up should include initial
balance checks and acceptance criteria.
• Rebalancing or acceptance criteria established post
mechanical intervention.
138
• Rebalancing as required from unbalance detected by

vibration analysis.
• Restoration of balance by removal of deposit buildup
or corrosion/erosion.
Alignment
Shaft alignment is the practice of aligning two or more
shafts to a required tolerance in relation to each other.
Any misalignment will increase the stress on the shafts,
resulting in premature wear of the components of an
asset. Misalignment can be parallel, angular, or a com-
bination of both.
Causes of Misalignment
There are multiple conditions that can cause misalign-
ment, but the most common causes are:
1. Improper installation (the most common cause of
Ab
misalignment);
2. Uneven thermal growth between components;
3. Foundation structural integrity issues;
4. Pipe strain.
139
In many cases, the causes can be eliminated by

addressing quality assurance (QA) and quality control
(QC) practices.
Pre-Alignment Checks and Conditions

1. To ensure alignment quality, some items should be
addressed prior to conducting the alignment.
2. Ensure the machine is locked out in a manner that con-
forms to all safety regulations and enables rotation of the
shafts.
3. Ensure potential energy is controlled. For exam-
ple, fan blades have the potential to backspin if not
blocked.
4. Inspect the base for structural integrity issues, like
cracked concrete, broken welds, worn or warped sur-
faces, or any other conditions that may impact the
alignment.
5. Clean and inspect the contact points on both the
machine and the base; inspect for flatness.
6. Ensure shafts and coupling components are clean
and check for runout.
7. Use new, precut stainless steel shims.
140
Alignment Processes and Methods

There are various methods to measure and correct mis-
alignment, including:
Straight edge and feeler gauge

This method is normally utilized to create a rough align-
ment of shafts to produce a starting point for a dial
indicator or laser alignment to be conducted. It would be
considered an acceptable method of alignment only on
low speed, non-critical equipment with little potential
consequences of misalignment.
Rim and face method

The rim and face method measures shaft misalignment
by using two dial indicators. One is mounted to the
opposing shaft to measure the rim of the coupling. This
determines the parallel offset. The second is mounted to
the opposing shaft to measure the face of the coupling.
Ab
This determines the angularity. Misalignment can now
be measured by determining the difference in the 12:00
and 6:00 positions on both dial indicators to establish
the vertical alignment and by comparing the difference
in the 3:00 and 9:00 positions to correct the horizontal
alignment.
141
Reverse rim dial method

The reverse rim dial method is based on two different
offset measurements (rim readings) taken at two dif-
ferent points along the length of the shafts. Since no
face readings are obtained with this method, measure-
ment inaccuracies due to shaft end play are essentially
eliminated.
Laser alignment method

Though precision alignments can be attained with dial
indicators, laser alignment is considered the fastest and
most accurate. With laser alignment, a Class 2 laser
is projected to a detector and the information (with
most modern alignment equipment) is wirelessly trans-
ferred to a visual interface that calculates the required
corrections.
The advantages of laser alignment include:
• No bar sag;
• High resolution;
• No sticking or jumping of readings;
• No human error from dial reading;
• No influence from axial movement;
142
• No play in mechanical linkages, data is stored for

revival or reporting;
• Data can be utilized for asset condition information.
Balancing
Equipment balancing is the practice of balancing a
rotating mass. Unbalance exists when a center axis of a
mass is not its running center axis. This can be induced
by many factors, like, porosity in castings, eccentricity,
uneven bolt holes, improper key sizing, deposit buildups,
corrosion or erosion, thermal distortion, etc.
An unbalanced component attempts to rotate around
its mass center; this transmits force to the bearings and
creates high levels of 1x vibration. This vibration and
loading cause wear to the bearings and can damage the
rotor (in extreme cases). Balancing to an acceptable level
reduces the strain and vibration transmitted to the com-
ponents, resulting in longer asset life, less failures and a Ab
reduced energy requirement.
Causes of Unbalance
There are two predominant causes of unbalance:
inherent and induced. Inherent causes would require
one balancing, while induced causes should have the
143
cause addressed and may or may not require additional

balancing.
Inherent causes, including porosity, eccentricity,
assembly design, machining errors and casting flaws,
can be addressed by dynamic balancing the rotating
mass one time. Once the rotating mass is balanced, any
requirement for rebalancing would have to be induced.
Induced causes, which include loose parts, improper
key sizing, deposit buildups, thermal distortion corro-
sion, erosion, or improper maintenance actions, may or
may not require rebalancing.
For example:
To restore balance in a fan with product buildup,
cleaning the fan would be the corrective action. If a dirty
fan is balanced, at some point of buildup, the centrifu-
gal force will discard material and the imbalance will
be amplified. If cleaning is conducted at this point, the
result would be a clean, unbalanced fan.
If the cause of the unbalance is erosion, then balanc-
ing is the requirement.
Pre-Balance Checks and Conditions

To ensure successful balancing, some items should be
addressed prior to conducting the balancing.
144
1. Ensure the machine is locked out in a manner that

conforms to all safety regulations and enables rota-
tion of the shafts.
2. Ensure potential energy is controlled. For exam-
ple, fan blades have the potential to backspin if not
blocked.
3. Ensure you have physical access to the rotating ele-
ment to add or remove balancing weights.
4. Clean and inspect the rotating element.
5. Ensure your amplitude and phase readings are
repeatable.
6. Balance as per a defined procedure.
7. Balance to an acceptable unbalance standard.
Balance Processes and Methods

There are two predominant methods of balancing: static
and dynamic.
Ab
Static balancing is an old method of balancing. It
is conducted by standing an element in an appropriate
testing stand. For example, a part can be placed on a
stand with rollers and the heavy side will roll to the
bottom. This method is seldom used in modern high
speed equipment and the term static is often misused
in dynamic balancing.
145
Dynamic balancing is conducted by:
1. Measuring the vibration amplitude and phase;

2. Stopping the rotor and attaching a trial weight;
3. Remeasuring the amplitude and phase;
4. Calculating the correction weight and location;
5. Removing the trial weight and adding the correction
weight;
6. Repeating if required.
This process is simplified since there can be a mul-

titude of balancing conditions with various types of
balancing machines and a multitude of combinations
of dynamic unbalance.
Alignment and Balancing Practices

Most companies do not define standards for alignment
and balancing; they leave the quality to the tradespeople
or foreman, then compound the issue by placing time
constraints on the job. This scenario is people-depen-
dent and normally results in inadequate practices that
cause more failures and lead to more substandard work.
The resolution to substandard alignment and balancing
requires quality assurance and quality control.
146
How quality assurance addresses the causes of mis-

alignment and unbalance: Quality assurance is created
by establishing standards, training and documentation
that will set up potential success. There are standards
available to use that provide a basic guideline for estab-
lishing a machine specific standard. Standards are
available from ISO, ANSI, API, etc. One standard to
consider is ISO1940.
The standards for alignment and balancing should
be a baseline acceptable minimum standard. The facility
should refine the textbook standard to produce asset type
or class standards by considering the following criteria:
1. The RPM of the shafts;

2. The diameter of the shaft and coupling;
3. The tolerance for misalignment or unbalance;
4. Equipment criticality;
5. The thermal growth of the assembly;
6. The temperature differential between components; Ab
7. The structural stability or inherent distortion (mobile
equipment) of the base;
8. The risk of catastrophic failure.
147
A standard of acceptable alignment and balancing should

start with a base standard that would provide adequate
targets for most non-critical equipment. For critical
equipment, an individual alignment/balance job plan
should be developed that considers the items previously
listed. Providing a standard guides personnel in making
the correct decisions to meet the acceptance criteria.
Training (regardless of the topic) fails to deliver the

anticipated value unless it addresses the three phases of
learning. The phases are educational, cognitive and expe-
riential. This training should be part of the competency
based learning (CBL) program for all mechanical trades.
A common problem is the creation of an “alignment/bal-
ance guy.” This leads to people dependency and requires
work scheduling around a person.
Documentation should be captured post alignment or

balancing. This reference document should include:
A. For alignment, the measured misalignment remain-

ing, any information regarding intentional offsets for
thermal growth, and be correlated to a baseline vibra-
tion spectrum to be incorporated in asset condition
information (ACI).
148
B. For balancing, the number of runs, the type and

weight of correction (material can be added or
removed), and be correlated to a baseline vibration
spectrum to be incorporated in ACI.
As with any quality assurance program, quality control

is required to ensure the standards are being followed
and the documentation is compiled.
Alignment and Balancing Training

Educational – Should be conducted by a subject matter
expert equipped with a rotor kit (alignment/balancing
training tool). This training should include all aspects of
alignment and balancing:
• Terminology and principles of AB;

• Pre-preparation;
• Rough alignment/balancing;
Ab
• Equipment setup (all types);
• Measurement functions;
• Repeatability and accuracy (validation);
• Tolerance standards;
• Graphing exercises;
• Offsetting for thermal growth;
149
• Plotting thermal growth;

• Addressing soft foot;
• Aligning/balancing machine trains;
• Tool specific software;
• Data storage and management.
Cognitive – Follows the educational part of train-

ing and ensures a qualified individual mentors the
tradesperson. If available in-house, be certain the AB
specialist utilizes good habits and provides mentorship.
In some cases, individuals feel their worth is at risk if
they impart knowledge. Ask yourself, “Is this person a
proper mentor?” If not, contract a subject matter expert
to provide some cognitive learning.
Experiential – This phase of learning is only developed

over time with experience. Ensure personnel conducting
AB have a go-to person to assist them if they have ques-
tions or problems with alignments or balancing.
150

Should Know
• Correct alignment and balancing will greatly assist in
reducing infant mortality in equipment.
• Alignment and balancing specifications should be
communicated to all contractors.
• There is not just one cause of misalignment – all
should be inspected.
• Misalignment and out of balance are common causes
of vibration problems.
• Baseline alignment and balancing are an essential part
of any physical asset management program.
Summary
Precision alignment and balancing will substantially
impact reliability goals. At a minimum, off-the-shelf
standards should be adhered to, and ideally, in-house
refined standards are preferred. With alignment and bal- Ab
ancing, a symptom of poor quality assurance and quality
control is improper workmanship.
151
Ndt
non destructive
testing
Introduction
Non-destructive testing (NDT) covers a wide variety of
test methods for a multitude of items requiring inspec-
tion to confirm structural integrity or the lack thereof.
NDT does not harm the material, component, or system
that is being analyzed.
The roots of this process can be traced back to an
1854 boiler explosion in Hartford, Connecticut, that
killed multiple people. The state then passed a law
requiring annual visual inspections of boilers. Though
many requirements for NDT are mandated, there are
substantial benefits in utilizing this process to ascertain
the structural integrity of assets.
NOTE: Visual inspections, non-destructive testing

and non-destructive inspection (NDI) should not be
mistaken for ultrasonic testing for reliability main-
tenance for predictive or preventative maintenance.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) for reliability requires the use of
high-frequency receivers or ultrasonic receivers or trans-
Ndt
lators within 20-200 kHz (or 20,000 hertz to 200,000

kilohertz).
Non-destructive testing (NDT) that utilizes a form

of ultrasound typically refers to ultrasound transducers
155
such as those referred to as pulse-echo ultrasound or

pitch and catch technologies. Some maintenance facil-
ities do not formally distinguish between these groups
since, in practice, there is considerable overlap in the
tasks they perform and the expertise that is required.
Why Non Destructive Testing?

NDT plays a critical role in validating the structural
integrity of a multitude of assets. This role is critical
from a safety perspective, as things like overhead cranes
are inspected at predetermined intervals to ensure the
safety of personnel. Understanding and managing the
structural integrity also minimizes cascading damage,
increases availability and creates a better awareness of
the overall health of an asset. It is key information that
should be integrated with other health measures to opti-
mize asset health information.
NDT practitioners develop and apply tests that
identify flaws and material characteristics that, if left
unaddressed, would result in catastrophic failures. This
field manages a multitude of risks, from train derail-
ments and crane failures to plane crashes and many
other failure types. NDT is an essential part of asset
management and is often underutilized; in many
156
cases, it is used at a bare minimum to meet regulatory

requirements.
The future state of NDT will be establishing a correla-
tion between strain and fatigue, with crack observations
enabling true prognostics of failure. This will provide
remaining useful life calculations that are truly repre-
sentative of the material and application.
Non Destructive Testing Inspection

Methods
With the diversity of NDT applications, there are many
methods for conducting NDT. The methods can be fur-
ther categorized by the various techniques utilized. The
methods listed here are predominate methods found in
industry; methods utilized in laboratory analysis and
heath are not included.
Visual Testing
Human sensory is an effective component of NDT pro-
grams. It is also a method that is impossible for the
Ndt
inspector not to apply. Though visual crack detection

is a later stage of failure, the speed and accuracy makes
visual inspections a key component of both NDT and
condition- based maintenance (CBM).
157
Visual inspections also can be enhanced with a mul-

titude of optical enhancement tools, like, microscopes,
controlled cameras, borescopes, endoscopes, telescopes,
high speed cameras, etc.
Radiography
Radiography is conducted by using penetrating radiation
to examine the internal features of materials. Radiation is
directed through the part and onto a detector. This process
results in a shadow graph that displays material thickness,
density changes and voids.
Some defects, like delamination, are difficult to detect
with this method, therefore, in most cases, ultrasonic is the
preferred method of inspection.
The most commonly known form of radiography is
X-ray computed tomography (CT-scan), commonly used
in the medical profession.
Dye Penetrant Testing

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI) is an easily applied, low
cost inspection method. This method is used to identify
cracks on all non-porous materials (e.g., plastics, ceramics
and metals). DPI will detect surface defects, such as hair-
line or fatigue cracks.
158
There are two main types of dye. One is visual and dis-
plays a vivid color contrast, and the other is fluorescent
and requires an ultraviolet light to brightly display the
color contrast.
To conduct dye penetrant inspections, the object is
coated with a solution that contains a visible or fluorescent
dye. The excess solution is then removed and a developer
applied, resulting in the retained solution (retained by the
defect) to be seen.
As this method is limited to surface cracks, magnetic
particle inspection is often the preferred method for fer-
rous metals since it also highlights subsurface cracking.
Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is another base test
that is relatively easy to conduct. The test is conducted by
inducing a magnetic field in a ferrous material and dust-
ing the surface with iron oxide particles. With this process,
the surface or near surface flaws disturb the magnetic field
and leak magnetic flux in the flawed areas. The iron par-
Ndt
ticles are attracted to the flux leakages, which produce a

visual indication of the defect.
The complexity of this method is in applying and
removing the magnetism. To magnetize the component,
159
a current is applied (AC or DC). It is imperative to know

the amount of current required to magnetize the part.
(Refer to ASTM E1444/ E1444m for the formulas).
Ultrasound Testing
Ultrasound testing (UT) has become one of the predomi-
nant tools utilized for NDT. There are multiple advantages
to this method:
• Highly sensitive (detects minor flaws);

• Detects flaws deep in the component;
• Can be conducted from the surface;
• Provides a high level of accuracy;
• Ability to classify the nature of the flaws;
• Portable.
In pulse-echo ultrasound, an electromagnetic acoustic

transducer sends and receives a pulsed sound wave. The
wave is displayed in amplitude. Any degradation in the
transmission path results in a reduction in the amplitude
of the sound received back. Any imperfection in an object
or the back wall of an object will reflect the sound back.
Ultrasonic testing can be utilized for corrosion measure-
ments, as well as crack detection.
160
There are numerous tools and systems utilized that

apply the wave physics of sound transfer. One example of
this is laser ultrasonic, where a laser is utilized to generate
the sound waves.
Eddy Current Testing

As with magnetic particle testing, eddy current testing
(ECT) is another method classified as electromagnetic
testing.
In this method, electrical currents are created by a coil
that is placed in proximity to the suspect area. The coil
generates a magnetic field that is affected by flaws in the
material. The variations in the phase and magnitude of
the eddy current identify flaws.
This method only applies to conductive materials with
accessible surfaces and a relatively smooth surface.
Other Types of Testing

There are many other types of testing methods and tech-
nologies. Be sure your NDT technicians are versed in
current and emerging technologies.
Ndt
NOTE: Leak testing is a critical health and environment

protecting process to detect minor leaks prior to spillage or
release of gases. Many vessels require a regulated test. For
161
example, air tanks on trains require biannual hydro testing.

Ensure you are compliant on any regulated inspections for
your containing tanks.
Non destructive testing on its own is a method for
ensuring the safety of your organization. Failures of a
structural nature seldom happen suddenly. Ensure your
organization conducts, at a minimum, the regulated
NDT and that the testing is done by qualified and com-
petent practitioners.
Identify all potential hazards with individual pro-
cesses (e.g., radiation) and utilize safe work procedures.
Training
It is imperative that NDT practitioners are certified in
most industrialized countries. As the inspections are
often regulatory in nature to be compliant, the techni-
cian must be certified. Most certifying bodies follow a
three-level certification:
• Level 1 denotes technicians who are qualified to per-

form only specific calibrations and tests under close
supervision and direction by higher level personnel.
162
They can only report test results. Normally, they work

following specific work instructions for testing pro-
cedures and rejection criteria.
• Level 2 denotes engineers or experienced technicians
who are able to set up and calibrate testing equip-
ment, conduct the inspection according to codes and
standards (instead of following work instructions) and
compile work instructions for Level 1 technicians.
They are also authorized to report, interpret, evaluate
and document testing results. They can also supervise
and train Level 1 technicians. In addition to testing
methods, they must be familiar with applicable codes
and standards and have some knowledge of the man-
ufacture and service of tested products.
• Level 3 denotes specialized engineers or very experi-
enced technicians. They can establish NDT techniques
and procedures and interpret codes and standards.
They also direct NDT laboratories and have a central
role in personnel certification. They are expected to
have wider knowledge covering materials, fabrication
Ndt
and product technology.
163

Should Know
• NDT is more than just one methodology.
• NDT forms an intrinsic part of measuring structural
integrity.
• In many instances, NDT will help with planning of
future maintenance or replacement expense.
• NDT methodologies require a level of training for
the inspectors.
• NDT often form part of regulatory requirements.
Summary
Numerous methods and tools are required to conduct
non destructive testing. There is not one perfect tool for
all applications, so an effective program will be based on
multiple technologies.
Incorporate NDT information into your overall asset
condition information program and utilize the findings
to provide decision support to your organization.
Reference
The American Society for NonDestructive Testing®
(ASNT). www.asnt.org
164
Lu
machinery
lubrication
Introduction
Machinery lubrication is one of, if not the main, foun-
dational element that makes it possible for physical
assets to deliver on their value proposition. There have
been numerous studies revealing that improper lubri-
cation accounts for the majority of failures within
industries.
Managing machinery lubrication encompasses select-
ing the correct lubricant, storing it properly, distributing
it effectively, sampling it correctly, managing its degra-
dation and disposing of it properly.
The lubricant lifecycle, from selection to disposal, all
falls within the machinery lubrication element, exclud-
ing oil analysis.

Lubricant – Any substance interposed between two sur-
faces for the purpose of reducing friction and/or wear
between them.
Lubricate – The adding of a type of lubrication, typically
grease or oil, into a compartment, surface, or onto an
exposed component.
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167
Lubrication Task – A time or condition based action

involving the addition or exchange of lubricant (such as
grease or oil).
Why Manage Lubrication?

If machinery lubrication is properly managed, it is vir-
tually unnoticed and any anomalies are flagged early.
If machinery lubrication is unmanaged, there will be
numerous failures due to:
• Wrong lubricant;
• Dirt ingress;
• Water ingress;
• Cross contamination;
• Under lubrication;
• Over lubrication;
• Excessive leakage;
• Wrong lubricant for loading;
• Other causes.
Properly managed lubrication will enable assets to

attain their value potential.
168
Objective
To develop a lubrication management program that will
prevent value destruction in many aspects.
• If the wrong lubricant is selected, it impacts both the

asset life and the life of the lubricant.
• If lubricants are stored improperly, they will be contami-
nated, degrade, or be wasted.
• If the distribution of the lubricants is mismanaged, con-
tamination, misapplication and waste introduce risk.
• If sampling is mismanaged, the resulting decisions and
work executed will be ineffective.
• If containment is not managed, safety and environmen-
tal risks are introduced.
• If the disposal program is not conveyed and optimized,
high costs and environmental risks will be incurred.
Lubrication Program Optimization

There are six key areas of lubrication management that
must all function in a series to minimize value destruc-
tion. This approach manages the lifecycle of a lubricant
from selection to disposal.
Lu
169
Lubricant Selection
Lubrication selection is guided by basic machine type
and refined by loading/duty cycle. Various industrial
applications have different considerations. A sample of
selection criteria is listed below.
Engine Oil – Fuel type, loading, temperature range,

manufacturers’ requirements, etc.
Gear Oil – Loading, temperature range and lubrication

system type (pumped/splash)
Hydraulic Oil – Temperature range, viscosity range
Transmission Oil – Transmission type, loading
Grease – Temperature range, loading, component

material
Note: The listed considerations should be correlated to

the manufacturer’s specifications for the lubricant. This
listing does not include all variables.
Coordination between you providing information

on loading conditions, your equipment suppliers iden-
tifying equipment lubrication requirements and your
170
lubricant vendor providing lubricants to match those

requirements should ensure you have an adequate prod-
uct from the start.
Lubricant Storage
Poor lubrication storage has contributed to a substantial
number of equipment failures. Ingress of dirt and water
leads to increased requirements for filtration, hydration,
etc. In the worst case scenario, contamination from dirt
and water leads to substantial machine damage and
downtime. Proper lubrication storage is one of the most
controllable of all lifecycle extension practices.
Lubrication Storage Practices

1. Filter new oil prior to storage.
2. Locate each storage tank in a clean, dry enclosure.
3. Ventilate storage tanks with correctly sized and
maintained desiccant breathers.
4. Affix a color-coded label on each tank so the enclosed
lubricant is clearly identified.
5. Pump the outlet oil through a filter.
6. Size oil storage based on consumption.
7. Locate drums in a clean, dry, temperature-controlled
Lu
enclosure.
171
8. Store drums slightly tilted to discard any spillage.

9. The barrel pump always remains clean and is col-
or-coded and used for one oil type only.
Distribution of Lubricants
It is essential to get the clean lubricant into equipment
without contamination, avoiding both material con-
taminations and/or cross contamination from other
lubricants. It has been well established that lubricants
should not be intermixed; anti-foam and other protec-
tive additives can be severely compromised with only
minor amounts of incompatible lubricants.
Lubrication Distribution Practices

1. Utilize personnel trained in contamination control
to dispense lubricants.
2. Lubricant entry points should have a filter on the
ingress point of the tank.
3. Monitor consumption and use the information for
asset health.
4. Limit the transferred oil’s exposure to the atmosphere
and elements.
5. All tank ingress points should have color-coded
labels indicating the correct lubricant requirement.
172
6. Establish dispensing stations.

7. Containers used to transfer oil to equipment should
be color coded.
8. Containers should be kept clean and dry at all times.
9. Containers should only be used for the type of oil for
which they have been selected and color coded.
Lubrication Sampling
Lubricants will still degrade over time and equipment
will fail as a result. For oil analysis to provide a correct
diagnosis of the condition of the equipment/lubricant,
the sample must be representative of the oil flowing
through the system. Improperly collected samples will
result in false analysis, thereby driving incorrect actions.
Lubrication sampling should be:
1. Conducted on regular intervals to enable trend analysis.

2. Performed by trained personnel.
3. Supported by quality assurance documentation (sam-
pling procedures).
4. Done on clearly identified sampling ports.
5. Performed on ports that enable consistent drawing
of a sample representative of the oil flowing through
Lu
the system.
173
6. Using sample bottles that are completely clean.

7. Done only with sample bottles that are opened prior
to the sample being collected.
8. Performed with hoses for drawing samples that are
used for one sample then discarded.
Lubricant Containment
Much of the life of a lubricant is spent within the sump
or system requiring lubrication, or in energy transfer, as
in hydraulics. Properly managing the sump or system
containing the lubricant will reduce the risks and costs
of lubrication management.
Considerations for lubricant containment are:
1. Clearly labeled sumps to ensure application of the

correct lubricants.
2. Adequately designed to ensure flow, manage turbu-
lence and prevent cavitation or aeration.
3. Sufficiently sized to meet system requirements.
4. Adequately cooled to prevent system and lubricant
overheating.
5. Ventilation with ingress controlling breathers sized
to meet system requirements.
6. Ingress controlling filling systems.
174
7. Implementation of consumption tracking (some

leaks are internal, leak inspection may be inadequate).
8. Proper maintenance of all hoses and piping.
Lubricant Disposal
It is estimated that 40 percent of lubricants are released
into the environment. In most cases, returning the lubri-
cant for remanufacture is the best alternative. Lubricants
are a hazardous substance and should be managed as
such. Optimizing the life of a lubricant lessens the dis-
posal requirements and the associated costs.
Lubricant disposal programs should include:
1. Hazardous material information and action plans.
2. Lubricant disposal plans amended to work orders
that require lubricant changes.
3. Reclamation or disposal guidelines developed at the
time of purchase.
4. Oil return credits or cost negotiated at the time of
purchase.
5. Personnel trained in the correct reclamation pro-
cesses to ensure the lubricant gets collected without
spillage or degradation.
6. Proper tools and equipment to enable oil collection.
Lu
7. An environmental protection policy.

175
This is a small sampling of lubrication management
safety items. It is intended for awareness purposes only.
In all cases, the job hazard analysis and site safety pro-
grams should be adhered to.
Selection Safety
1. Hazards identification
2. First aid measures
3. Firefighting measures
4. Accidental release measures
5. Exposure controls/personal protection
6. Stability and reactivity
7. Toxicological information
Storage Safety
1. Structural integrity
2. Ventilation positioning
3. Secondary containment
4. Physical protection (barriers)
5. Overfill protection
176
Distribution Safety
1. Personal protective equipment
2. WHIMS information
3. Filling procedures
4. Fill point accessibility
Sampling Safety
1. Personal protective equipment
3. Sampling procedures
4. System pressurization
5. Stored energy
Containment Safety
1. Structural integrity
2. System pressure ratings
3. Radiant heat control
4. Worn hoses, lines, or piping
5. Permissible personnel proximity
Disposal Safety
1. Interim storage
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3. Handling personal protective equipment
177
What Every Reliability Leader Should

Know
• Correct lubrication offers the opportunity to prevent
a large number of failures in industry.
• Too much or too little grease is the biggest cause of
failures in rotating equipment.
• Specific lubricants have been developed for many
different applications - choosing the correct one is
essential for asset health.
• Correct storage of lubricants is as important as correct
application.
• The analysis of the condition of the lubricant can give
direction to the condition of the equipment.
Summary
Managing machinery lubrication starts with selecting
the correct lubricant, storing it properly, distributing it
effectively, sampling it correctly, containing it, managing
its degradation and disposing of it.
Developing a proactive relationship with your lubri-
cant vendor is a low-cost way to obtain assistance on
all aspects of machinery lubrication. It is also highly
recommended that lubricant application programs are
well documented and executed.
178
If machinery lubrication is properly managed, it is

virtually unnoticed and any anomalies are flagged early.
References
Smith, Ricky and Martin, David A. Maintenance and
Reliability Lubrication 101 – Keeping it Simple, Fort Myers:
Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE).
www.stle.org
International Council for Machinery Lubrication (ICML).
www.lubecouncil.org
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179
Acknowledgment
The Uptime® Elements™ were originally created by Terrence
O’Hanlon, CEO and Publisher of Uptime® magazine and
Reliabilityweb.com®, in consultation and close cooperation
with Reliabilityweb.com co-founder Kelly Rigg O’Hanlon.
Early versions were reviewed by Erin Corin O’Hanlon and
Ian Jaymes O’Hanlon. The initial idea was inspired during a
parent-teacher meeting with science teacher Mark Summit
at Canterbury School in Fort Myers, Florida.
Development of this concept could not have happened
without the mentoring by true masters in the, reliability
and asset management communities, including Terry Wire-
man; Paul Barringer; Dr. Robert Abernathy; Jack Nicholas
Jr.; Anthony “Mac” Smith; Ron Moore; Bob DiStefano;
Steve Turner; Joel Levitt; Ramesh Gulati; Winston Ledet;
June Ledet; Michelle Ledet Henley; Heinz Bloch; Christer
Idhammar; Ralph Buscarello; Edmea Adell; Celso De Aze-
vedo; JohnWoodhouse; the entire AEDC/Jacobs/ATA team
led by Bart Jones; and many more people who have been kind
and generous in sharing their expertise.
Early stage evolution definition and development by
Steve Thomas, Ramesh Gulati, Jeff Smith, Grahame Fogel,
John Schultz and the Allied Reliability Group team, and PJ
Vlok proved invaluable to its current state. Early presentation
of these elements resulted in valuable feedback from mem-
181
Acknowledgment
bers of the Oklahoma Predictive Maintenance Users Group

(OPMUG), Fort Myers Institute of Technology (formerly
High Tech Central), and attendees of CBM-2013 Condi-
tion Monitoring Conference and other learning events held
at the Reliability Leadership Institute in Fort Myers, Florida.
The Uptime Elements revision team includes contribu-
tions from Sandra DiMatteo, Scotty McLean, Anne-Ma-
rie Walters, David Armstrong and Greg Bentley of Bentley
Systems, Derek Burley of Blue Sky Reliability, Jack Poley of
CMI, Allan Rienstra of SDT, Dan Ambre of Full Spectrum
Diagnostics, Jim Hall of The Ultrasound Institute, Ramesh
Gulati of Jacobs and Christo Roux of Outotec Oyj. A huge
effort was made by Rhys Davies, Paul Scott, Danielle Hum-
phries and Claire Gowson of eAsset Management on the
new Asset Management passports.
There was a very strong effort to move thinking around
reliability strategy development and the updated RCM Proj-
ect Managers’ Guide that came from Derek Burley, Sam Paske,
Nick Jize, Tim Allen, Doug Plucknette and John Fortin.
The entire Reliability Leadership Institute Community of
Practice drove the revisions with many lessons and special
contributions from Randy Rhine and Rylan Eades of Honda
NA, Eric Newhard, Medtronic, Rob Bishop and Waldemar
Rivera of BMS, and George Williams of B. Braun.
The Reliabilityweb.com and Uptime Magazine team led
by Jenny Brunson and including Jocelyn Brown, Melody
182
Acknowledgment
McNeill, Dave Reiber, Joel Levitt, Maura Abad and Heather

Clark, made further refinement.
The biggest contributions have come from the existing
Certified Reliability Leaders who helped up reach our initial
goal of 1,000 CRLs within the first 26 months. Your active
participation and your leadership by example has inspired us
to continue to refine Uptime Elements to engage, empower
and align would-be reliability leaders who can positively im-
pact their organizations, their communities and the world.
We hope you will join us in our new CRL-2020 goal of
10,000 Certified Reliability Leaders by the year 2020 and
one in outer space!
Associations, such as the Association of Asset Manage-
ment Professionals, the Association for Facilities Engineer-
ing, the Vibration Institute, the Operational Excellence So-
ciety, the American Society of Civil Engineers, MIMOSA,
Fiatech, The Asset Leadership Network, the National Prop-
erty Management Association, the American Society for
Testing and Materials and The American Society of Non-
destructive Testing, have also created a foundation for this
work through their efforts to create guidance, metrics and
an ever expanding body of knowledge around maintenance,
reliability and asset management practices.
183
CRL Body of Knowledge
The Association of Asset Management Professionals (AMP)
has developed an exam and certification based on the
Uptime Elements and it’s Reliability Leadership system. It
is designed to create leaders who focus on delivering value to
the triple bottom line of:
• Economic prosperity,
• Environmental sustainability,
• Social responsibility.
The body of knowledge that creates the foundation for the
exam and certification includes:
1. The Uptime® ElementsTM Passport series
2. The Journey by Stephen Thomas
3. Don’t Just Fix it, Improve It! by Winston P. Ledet,
Winston J. Ledet and Sherri M. Abshire
4. Uptime® ElementsTM Dictionary for the Reliability Leader
and Asset Manager by Ramesh Gulati
All books are available at

www.mro-zone.com and Amazon.com
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
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NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
ACM
Uptime® Elements ™
Passport
C o n di ti o
et

IN PREPARATION FOR
s n
As
Part of the Certified Reliability Leader
Body of Knowledge ACM
nt
e
Managem
asset condition information • vibration analysis

fluid analysis • ultrasound testing
infrared thermal imaging • motor testing
alignment and balancing • non-destructive testing

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ACM

Asset Condition Management

asset condition information • vibration analysis

Aci Vib Fa Ut Ir Mt Ab Ndt Lu

© 2017 Netexpress USA, Inc. d/b/a Reliabilityweb.com

This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced,

For information: Reliabilityweb.com

Uptime®, Reliabilityweb.com® and Uptime® Elements™ are the trademarks or

infrared thermal imaging

alignment and balancing

non destructive testing

Reliability Engineering Asset Condition Work Execution Leadership

Ca Rsd Aci Vib Fa Pm Ps Es Opx Sp Cr Samp

Cp Rcd Ab Ndt Lu De Cmms computerized

A Reliability Framework and Asset Management System™

reliabilityweb.com • maintenance.org • reliabilityleadership.com

management is the correlation of information to support

1. What to monitor and with what method;

Determining What to Monitor

monitoring a condition on a frequency that is either

Determining When to Monitor

Automating the Consolidation and Analysis of

Key Terms and Definitions

work orders, PM schedules, PM masters, material parts,

Why Asset Condition Information?

• If a warehouse has a mandate to reduce stock and per-

The ideal utilization of asset condition information

• Shut down or continue operating;

Current State Asset Condition

failure mode, the alarm/action point must be established.

Here is an example of utilizing Aci with on-line data to

the number of starts and stops to schedule mainte-

Human Sensory Data

is compiled in a format that enables searching or queries

analysis or process information to identify the magni-

long before each individual failure mode may identify

may be interpreted differently by personnel of varying

This information detects the onset of failure and is nor-

One example of this would be:

Historical Asset Condition Information

anomalies it has been exposed to throughout its lifecycle.

Work History (CMMS)

This approach enables:

• Quantifiable value or costs of failures;

If the CMMS is poorly utilized, it will become

Quality decision support is unlikely without the right

• Velocity – Speed of data coming in, which can be

The IIoT brings even more data opportunities to

man-made data, real-time data, data historians, etc. Data

Some considerations for collecting information are:

• Is the information available?

Equally important is: How time sensitive is the

to link back the information to the initiating strategy

Value Driven Actions

• Ensuring the risks in data collection are managed;

What Every Reliability Leader

• A cross-reference of as many sources of information

A wealth of knowledge about how an asset’s condi-

Why Vibration Analysis?