1 I

by Translated

BlameY Kathleen and JohnB.Thompson

FROM. TEXT TO ACTION in Essays ll Herrneneutics,

Ricoeur Paul

Press UniversitY Northwestern lllinois Evanston,

\Sts/qt t-gtot-nv_l

What ls a Text? and Explanation Understanding

blr essaywill be devoted primarily to the debate between two funl-.- du*.ntal attitudes that may be adopted in regard to a text. These I two attitudes were summed up, in the period of Wilhelm Dilthey at the end of the last century, by the two words explanation and interpretation. For Dilthey, explanation referred to the model of intelligibility borrowed from the natural sciences and applied to the historical disciplines by positivist schools; interpretation, on the other hand, was a de,rivative form of understanding, which Dilthey regarded as the fundamental attitud of the human sciences and as that which could alone preserve the fundamental difference between these sciencesand the sciencesof nature. Here I propose to examine the fate of this opposition in the light of conflicts between contemporary schools. For the notign of explanation has since been displaced, so that it derives no longer from the natirral sciences but fiom properly linguistic models. As regards the concept of interpretation, it has undergone profound transformations that distance it' from the psychological notion of understanding, in Dilthey's sense of the word. It is this new position of

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the problem, perhaps less contradictory and more fecund, which I should like to explore. But before unfolding the new concepts of explanation and understanding, I should like to pause at a preliminary question that in fact dominates the whole of our investigation. The question is this: what is a text?

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Whatls a Text?

Let us say that a text is any discourse fixed by writing. According to this definition, fixation by writing is constitutive of the text itself. But rvhat is fixed by writing? We have said: any discourse. Is this to say that discourse had to be pronounced initially in a physical or mental form? that all writing was initially, at least in a potential way, speaking?In short, what is the relation of the text to speech? / To begin with, we are tempted to say that all writing is added to some anterior speech. For if by speech lparole] rve understand, with Ferdinand de Saussure, the realization of Languagellanguel in an event'of discourse, the production of an individual utterance by an individual speaker, then each text is in the same position as speech with respect to language. Moreover, writing as an institution is subsequent to speech and seems merely to fil in linear script all the articulations that have already appeared orally. The attention given most exclusively to phonetic writings seemsto confirm that writing adds nothing to the phenomenon of speech other than the fixation that enables it to be conserved. Whence the conviction that writing is fixed speech, that inscription, whether it be graphics or recording, is inscription of speech-an inscription that, thanks to the subsisting character of the engraving, guarantees the persistenceof speech. The psychological and sociological priority of speech over writing is not in question. It may be asked, however, whether the late appeara ance of writing has not prov<,rked radical change in our relation to the very statements of our discourse. For let us return to our definition: the text is a discourse fixed by writing.lWhat is fixed by writing is thus a discourse that could be said, of course, but that is written precisely because it is not said. Fixation by writing takes the very place of speech, occurring at the site where speech could have emergedJThis suggests that a text is really a text only when it is not restricted to transcribing an anterior speech, when instead it inscribes directly in written letters what the discourse means.

This idea of a direct relation between the meaning of the statement and u'riting can be supported by reflecting on the function of reading in relation to writing. Writing calls for reading in a way that will enable us shortly to introduce the concept of interpretation. For the moment, let us saythat the reader takes the place of the interlocutor, just as writing takes the place of speaking and the speaker. The writing-reading relation is thus not a particular case of the speaking-answering relation. It is not a relation of interlocution, not an instance of dialogue. It does not sufc--to say that reading is a dialogue with the aurhor through his work, for the relation of the reader to the book is of a completely different nature. Dialogue is an exchange of questions and answers; there is no exchange of this sort between the rvriter and the reader. The writer does not respond to the reader. Rather, rhe book divides rhe act of writing and the act of reading into two sides,between which there is no communication. The reader is absent from the act of writing; the writer is absent from the act of reading. The text thus produces a double eclipse of the reader and the writer. It thereby replaces the relation of dialogue, which directly conrlects the voice of one to the hearing of the other. The substitution of reading for a dialogue that has not occurrecl is so manifest that when we happen to encounter an author and speak to him (about his book, for example), we experience a profound disruption of the peculiar relation that we have with the author in and through his work. Sometimes I like to say that to read a book is to consider its author as already dead and the book as posthumous. For it is when the author is dead- that the relation to the book becomes cornplete and, as it were, intact. The author can no longer respond; it only remains to read his work. The difference between the act of reacling and the act of dialogue confirms our hypothesis that writing is a realization comparable and parallel to speech, a realization that takes the place of it and, as it were, intercepts it. Hence we could say that what comes to writing is discourse as intention-to-say and that rvriting is a direct inscription of this intention, even if, historically and psychologically, writing began with the graphic transcription of the signs of speech. This emanciparion of writing, which places the latter at the site of speech, is the birth of the text. Now, rvhat happens to the srarement itself when it is directly inscribed instead of being pronounced? The most striking characteristic has alwaysbeen emphasized: writin_g-pJele"rves discourse and makes it an archive available for individual and collective memorv. It mav be added that the linearizationof symbolspermits an analytic ana airti,',ctivetranslation of all the successiveand discrete features of language and thereby

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increases its efficacy. Is that all? Preservation and increased ef;frcacy still characterize only the transcription of oral language in graphic signs.The emancipation of the text from the oral situation entails a veritable upheaval in the relations between language and the world, as well as in the relation between language and the various subjectivities concerned (that of the author and that of the reader). We glimpsed something of this second upheaval in distinguishing reading from dialogue; we shall have to go still further, but this time beginning from the upheaval that the referential relation of language to the world undergoes when the text takes the place of speech. What do we understand by the referential relation or referential function? In addressing himself to another speaker, the subject of discourse says something about something; that about which he speaks is the referent of his discourse. As is well known, this referential function is supported by the sentence, which is the first and the simplest unit of discourse. It is the sentence that intends to say something true or something real, at least in declarative discourse. The referential function is so important that it compensates, as it were, for another characteristic of language, namely, the separation of signs from things. By means of the referential function, language "pours back into rhe universe" (according to an expression of Gustave Guillaume's) those signs which the symbolic function, at its birth, divorced from things. All discourse is, to some extent, thereby reconnected to the world. For if we did not speak of the world, of what should we speak? When the text takes the place of speech, somerhing important occurs. In speech, the interlocutors are present not only to one another but also to the situation, the surrounclings, and the circumstantial milieu of discourse. It is in relation to this circumstantial milieu that discourse is fully meaningful; the return to reality is ultimately a return to this reality, which can be indicated "around" the speakers, "around," if rve may say so, the instance of discourse itself. Language is, moreover, well equipped to secure this anchorage. Demonstratives, adverbs of time and place, personal pronouns, verbal tenses, and in general all the "deictic" and "ostensive" indicators serve to anchor discourse in the circumstantial reality that surrounds the instance of discourse. Thus, in living speech, tb.eid'ealsenseof what is said turns toward t]nereal reference, toward that "about which" we speak. At the limit, this real reference rends to merge with an ostensive designation where speech rejoins the gesture of pointing. Sense fades into reference and the latter into the act of showing. This is no longer the casewhen the text takes the place of speech. The movement of reference toward the act of showing is intercepted, at

the same time as dialogue is interrupted by the text. I say intercepted and not suppressed; it is in this respect that I shall distance myself from what may be called henceforth the ideology of the absolute text. On the basis of the sound remarks we have just made, this ideology proceecls,by an unwarranted hypostasis, through a course that is ultimately surreptitious. As we shall see, the text is not lvithout reference; the task of reading, qua interpretation, will be precisely to fulfill the reference. The suspensethat defers the reference merely leaves the text, as it were, "in the air," outside or without a world. In virtue of this obliteration of the relation to the world, each text is free to enter into relation with all the other texts that come to take the place of the circumstantial realitv referred to by living speech. This relation of text to text, rvithih the effacement of the world about which we speak, engenders the quzrsiworlcl of texts or Literature. Such is the upheaval that affects discourse itself, u'hen the movement of reference toward the act of showing is intercepteclby the text. Words cease to efface themselves in front of things; lvritten words become words for themselves. The eclipseof the circumstantialworld by the quasi world of texts can be so complete t[at, in a civilization of rvritins, the world itself is no longer lvhat can be shorvn in speaking but is redrjced to a kind of "aura" that written works unfold. Thus we speak of the Greek world or the Byzautine world. This world can be called "imaginary," in the sensethat it is represented writing in lieu of the world pre.senled speech; but this by by imaginary rvorld is itself a creation of literature. The upheaval in the relation betu,een the text and its world is the key to the other upheaval of which we have already spoken, that which affects the relation of the text to the subjectivities of the author and the reader. \4rethink that we knou' what the author of a text is becausc wc derive the notion of the author front that of the speaker. The subject of speech,according to Benveniste,is what designatesitself in saying "I." When the text takes the place of speech,there is no longer a speaker,at Ieast in the senseof an immediate and clirect self-designation of the one rvho speaks in the instance of discourse. This proximity of the speaking subject to his own speech is replaced by a complex relation of the author to the text, a relation that enables us to say that tire author is instituted by the text, that he standsin the spaceof meaning traced and inscribed by writing. The text is the very place where the author appears. But does the author appear otherwise thn as first reader? The distancing of the text from its author is already a phenomenon of the first reacling that, in one move, poses the whole series of problems that we are now going to

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confront concerning the relations between explanation and interpretation. These relations arise at the time of reading.

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or E x p l a n a ti o n U n d e rsta n d i n g ?

As we shall see, the two attitudes that we have initially placed under the double title of explanation and interpretation will confront one another in the act of reading. This duality is first encountered in the work of Dilthey. For him, these distinctions constituted an alternative wherein one term necessarily excluded the other: either you "explain" in the manner of the natural scientist, or you "interpret" in the manner of the historian. This exclusive alternative will provide the point of departure for the discussion that follows. I propose to show that the concept of the text, such as we have formulated it in the first part of this essay,demands a renewal of the two notions of explanation and interpretation and, in virtue of this renewal, a less contradictory conception of their interrelation. Let us say straightaway that the discussion will be deliberately oriented toward the search for a strict complementarity and reciprocity between explanation and interpretation. The initial opposition in Dilthey's work is not exactly between explanation and interpretation, but between explanation and understanding, interpretation being a particular province of understanding. we must therefore begin from the opposition between explanation and understanding. Now if this opposition is exclusive, it is because,in Dilthey's work, the two terms designate two spheres of reality which they serve to separate. These two spheres are those of the natural sciences and the human sciences. Nature is the region of objects offered to scientific observation, a region subsumed since Galileo to the enterprise of mathematization and since John Stuart Mill to the canons of inductive logic. Mind is the region of psychological individualities, into which each mental life is capable of transposing itself. Understanding is such a transference into another mental life. To ask whether the human sciencescan exist is thus to ask whether a scientific knowledge of individuals is possible, whether this understanding of the singular can be objective in its own way, whether it is susceptible of universal validity. Dilthey answered afrmatively, because inner life is given in external signs that can be perceived and understood as signs of another mental life: "Understanding," he saysin the famous article "The Development of Hermeneutics," "is the process by which we come to know something of mental life through

'IhiS is the unclerstanding of the perceptible signs which manifest it."r of province.f Among the signs anwnicf, intrpretari,on is a particular "rnanifestations fixed in a durable way," other mentl life, lve have the .,human testimonies preserved by lvriting," the "written monllthe ments." Interpretation is the art of understanding applied to such manifestations,to iuch testimonies,to such monunlents, of rvhich writing is the distinctive characteristic.tJnderstanding, as the knolvledge through signs of another lnental life, thus provides the basis in the pair underthe latter elerlent supplies the clegreeof objecstnding-interprerarion; tification, in virtue of the fixation ancl preservation that rvriting c()nfer-s upon signs. " ' ancl unclerst:rucllrh.,.rgh this clistinction between explanatior-r it becomesincreasi'gly.bscure as soon as rveask ing see's cleai at first, ouiselvesabout the couditions of scientificityof interpretation. Explanation has been expelled fron-r the fieltl of the hutnzrn sciences; but the conflict reappearsat the very heart of the concept of intcrpretation berween, on t one hand, the intuitive ancl unverifiable chzrracterof'tl-re psychoiogizingcoltcept of understanding to which interpretation is subrdinate and, on rl-reorher hand, the dernand for objectivity that beThe splitting of hernlenerttics longs to the very notion of human science. betiveen its ps;'chologizingtendency and its search for a logic of interpretation ultimately calls into question the relation between understandIs ing and interpretati<-rn. not interpretation a speciesof understanding rvch explods the genre? Is not the specific difference, namely, fixation conrmon to all si5;ns, by writing, more important here than the feature iiut of piesenting inner life in an external form? What is more important: th inclusion of hermeneutics in the sphere of understatlding or its difference therefrom? Schleiermacher, before Dilthey, had witnessed this internal splitting of the hermeneutical project and had overcolne rt through a happy marriage of romantic genius and philological virtuosity. With bitthey, ihe epistemological demands arc more pressing' Several generations separate him from the scholar of Romanticism, several re{lection; the contradiction [enerations well versed in epistemological now explodes in full daylight. Listen to Dilthey commenting upon Schleiermacher: "The ultimate aim of hermeneutics is to understancl the author better than he understands himself." So much for the psychology of understanding. Now for the logic of interpretation: "The funtion of hermeneutics is to establish theoretically, against the constant intrusion of romantic lvhirn and sceptical subjectivism into the domain of history' the universal validity of interpretation, upon which all certitude in history restsi' (p. 333 tpp. 259-60, modifiedl). Thus hermeneutics fulfills

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the aim of understanding only by extricating itself from the immediay of understanding e1l1s-f16m, let us say, dialogical values. Understanding seeksto coincide with the inner life of the author, to liken itself the to him (sichgleichsetzen), reproduce (nachbilden) creative processes to that engendered the work. But the signs of this intention, of this creation, are to be found nowhere else than in what Schleiermacher called the "exterior" and "interior form" of the work, or again, the "interconnection" (Zwammenhang) that makes it an organized whole. The last writings of Dilthey ("The Construction of the Historical World in the Human Sciences") further aggravated the tension. On the other hand, the objective side of the work was accentuated under the influence of Husserl's Logical Inuestigations(for Husserl, as we know, the "meaning" of a statement constitutes an "ideality" that exists neither- in mundane reality nor in psychic reality: it is a pure unity of meaning without a real localization). Hermeneutics similarly proceeds from the objectification of the creative energies of life in works that come in between the author and us; it is mental life itself, its creative dynamism, that calls for the mediation by "meanings," "values," or "goals." The scientific demand thus presses toward an ever greater depsychologization of interpretation, of understanding itself and perhaps even of introspection, if it is true that memory itself follows the thread of meanings that are not themselvesmental phenomena. The exteriorization of Iife implies a more indirect and mediate characterization of the interpretation of self and others. But it is a self and another, posed in psychological terms, that interpretation pursues; interpretation always aims at a reproduction, a Nachbil dung, of lived experiences. This intolerable tension, which the later Dilthey bears witness to, leads us to raise two questions that guide the following discussion. Must we not abandon once and for all the reference of interpretation to understanding and ceaseto make the interpretation of written monuments a particular case of understanding the external signs of an inner mental life? But if interpretation no longer seeks its norm of intelligibility in understanding others, does not its relation to explanation, which we have hitherto set aside, now demand to be reconsidered?

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T h eT e x ta n dS tru ctu ra lxp l a n a tion E

Let us begin again from our analysis of the text and from the autonomous status we have granted it with respect to speech. What we have

called the eclipse of the surrounding world by the quasi world cif texts engenders two possibilities. We can, as readers, remain in the suspense of the text, treating it as a worldless ancl authorlessobject; in this case, r r ' e x p i a i nt h e ( e x t i n t e r m so I i r s i n t e l n a lr e l a t i o n si,t s y l r , , r u r e .O n r l r e e other hand, we can lift the suspenseand fulfill the text in speech, restoringit to living communication; in this case,\4'einterpret the text. These two possibilities both belong to reading, and readins is tl-redialectic of these two attitudes. Let us consider them separately,before exploring their articulation. We can undertake a first type of reading that formally records, as it were, the text's interception of all the relations to a rvorld that can be pointed out and to subjectivities that can converse. This transference into the "place"-2 place that is a nonplaca-e11s1i111tes a specialproject with respectto the text, that of prolonging-the suspense concerning the referential relation to the world and to the speaking subject. By means of this specialproject, the reader decidesto situate himself in the "place of the text" and in the "closure" of this place. On the basisof this choice, the text has no outside but only an inside; it has no transcendenr aim, unlike a speech that is addressed to someone about something. This project is not only possiblebut legitimate. For the constitution of the text as text and of the body of texts as literature justilies the interception of the double transcendence of discourse, toward the worid and toward someone. Thus arises the possibility of an explanatory attitude in regard to the text. In contrast to rvhat Dilthey thought, this explanatory attitude is not borrowed from a field of knowledge and an epistenological model other than that of language itself. It is not a naturalistic model subsequently extended to the human sciences.The nature-mind opposition plays no role here at all. If there is some form of borrowing, it occurs within the same field, that of signs. For it is possible to treat the text according to the explanatory.rules that linguistics successfullyappiies to the simple system of signs that constitute language llanguel as opposed to speech lparolel.As.is well known, the language-speech distinction is the fundamental distinction that gives linguistics a homogeneous object; speech belongs to physiology, psychology, and sociology, whereas language, as rules of the game f which speech is the execution, belongs only to linguistics. As is equally well known, Iinguistics considers only systemsof units devoid of proper meaning, each of which is defined only in terms of its difference from all the otllers. These units, lvhether they be purely distinctive like those of phonological articulation or significant like those of lexical articulation, are oppositive units. The interplay of

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oppositions and their combinations within an inventory of discrete units is what defines the notion of structure in linguistics. This structural model furnishes the type of explanatory attitude that we are now going to see applied to the text. Even before we embark upon this enterprise, it may be objected that the laws that are valid only for languagg as distinct from speech could not be applied to the text. Although the text is not speech, is it not, as it were, on the same side as speech in relation to language? Must not discourse, as a series of statements and ultimately of sentences, be opposed in an overall way to language? In comparison to the languagediscourse distinction, is not the speaking-writing distinction secondary, such that speaking and writing occur together on the side of discourse? These remarks are perfectly legitimate and justif us in thinking that the structural model of explanation does not exhaust the field of possible attitudes that may be adopted in regard to a text. But before specifing the limits of this explanatory model, it is necessaryto grasp its fruitfulness. The working hypothesis of any structural analysisof texts is this: in spite of the lact that writing is on the same side as speech in relation to language-namely, on the side of discoulss-1hs specificity of writing in relation to speech is based on structural features that can be treated as analogues of language in discourse. This working hypothesis is perfectly Iegitimate; it amounts to saying that under certain conditions the larger units of language llangagel, that is, the units of a higher order than the sentence, display organizations comparable to those of the smaller units of language, that is, the units that are of a lower order than the sentence and that belong to the domain of linguistics. In Structural Anthropology, Claude Lvi-Strauss formulates this working hypothesis for one category of texts, the category of myths: Like everylinguisticentity, myth is made up of coristitutive of units. Theseunits imply the presence thosewhich normally . enter into the structure of language, the namelythe phonemes, The morphemesand the semantemes. constituentunits of as myth are in the samerelation to semantemes the latter are Each to morphemes,and as the latter in turn are to phonemes. it form differs from that which precedes by a higher degreeof 'complexity. rvhich For this reason,we shallcall the elements properly pertain to myth (andwhich are the most complex of e a l l ) :l a r g ec o n s t i t u t i vu n i t s . : By means of this working hypothesis, the large units that are minimally the size of the sentence, and that placed together constitute the narra-

tive proper to the myth, can be treated according to the same rules that are applied to the smaller units familiar to linguistics. To indicate this analogy, Lvi-Strauss speaks of "mythemes" in the same way that one speaks of phonemes, morphemes, and semantemes. But in order to remain within the limits of the analogy between mythemes and the linguistic units of a lower level, the analysisof texts lvill have to proceed to the same sort of abstraction as that practiced by the phonologist. For the latter, the phoneme is not a concrete sound, to be taken absolutely in its sonorous substance;it is a function defined by the commutative method and its oppositive value is determined by the relation to all other phonemes. In this senseit is not, as Saussure would say,a "substance" but a "form," an interplay of relations. Similarly, a mytheme is not one of the sentences of the myth but an oppositive value that is shared by severai particular sentences,constituting, in the language of l,vi-Strauss, a "bundle of relations." "Only in the form of c-ombinations of such bundles do the constituent units acquire a signiSing function" (p 234 lp 2l1l). What is called here the "signifying function" is not at all what the myth means, its philosophical or existential import, but rather the arrangement or disposition of mythemes, in short, the structure of the myth. I should like to recali briefly the analvsis that, according to this method, Lr,i-Straussoffers of the Oedipus myth. He divides the sentences of the rnyth into four columns. In the first column he places all the sentencesthat speak of overrated blood relations (fcir example, Oedipus marriesJocasta,his mother; Antigone buries Polynices,her brother, in spite of the order forbidding it). In the second column, we find the same relation but modified by the'inverse sign: underrated or devalued blood relations (Oedipus kills his father, Laius; Eteocles kills his brother, Polynices).The third column concerns monsters and their destruction; the fourth groups together all those proper names whose meaning suggests a difculty in walking straight (lame, clumsy, swollen foot). The comparison of the four columns revealsa correlation. Between the first and second columns we have blood relations overrated or underrated in turn; between the third and fourth rve have an affirmation and then a negation of the autochthony of man. "It follou's that the fcrurth column is related to the third colurnn as the first is to the second . . . ; the overrating of blood relations is to their underrating as the artempt to escapefrom autochthony is to the impossibility of succeeding in it." The myth thus appears as a kind of logical instrument that brings together contradictions in order to overcome them: "The impossibility of connecring the groups of relations is overcome (or, more exactly, replaced) by the assertion that

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FROM THE HERMENEUTICS OF TEXTS WHAT IS A TEXT?

two contradictory relations are identical, insofar as each is, like the other, self-contradic.tory"(p.239 tp.216l)- We shall return shortly to this conclusion; let us restrict ourselves here to stating it. We can indeed say tht we have thereby explained the myth, but not that we have interpreted it. We have brought out, by means of structural analysis,the logii of the operations that interconnect the packets of relations; this logic constitutes "the structural law of the myth concerned" (p.2a1 tp. 2171).We shall not fail to notice that this law is, par excellenpe, the object of reading and not at all of speech, in the senseof a recitation whereby the power of the myth would be reactivated in a particular situation. Here the text is only a text and the reading inhabits it only as such, while its meaning for us remains in suspense. together with any realization in present speech. I have just taken an example from the domain of myths; I could take another from a nearby domain, that of folklore. This domain has been explored by the Russian formalists of the school of Propp and by the French specialists in the structural analysis of narratives, Roland Barthes and A. J. Greimas. In the work of these authors, t{e find the same postulates as those employed by Lvi-Strauss: the units above the sentence have the same composition as the units below the sentence; the sense of the narrative consists in the very arrangement of the elements, in the power of the whole to integrate the subunits; and conversely, the senseof an element is its capacity to enter in relation with other elements and with the whole of the work. These postulates together define the closure of the narrative. The task of structural analysis will be to carry out the segmentation of the work (horizontal aspect), then to establish the various levels of integration of the parts in the whole (hierarchical aspect). Thus the units of action isolated by the analyst will not be psychological units capable of being experienced, nor will they be units of behavior that could be subsumed to a behaviorist psychology. The extremities of these sequencesare only the switching points of the narrative, such that if one element is changed, all the rest is different. Flere we recognize the transposition of the method of commutation from the phonological level to the level of narrative units. The logic of action thus consists in an interconnected series of action kernels that together constitute-the structural continuity of the narrative. The application of this technique ends up by "dechronologizing" the narrative, in a way that brings out the logic underlying narrative time. Ultimately the narrative would be reduced to a combinationfcombinatoirel of a few dramatic units (promising, betraying, hindering, aiding, etc.) which would be the para-

digms of action. A sequence is thus a successionof nodes of action, each closing off an alternative opened up by the preceding one. Just as the elementary units are linked together, so too they fit into larperunits; for example, an encounter comprises elementary actions like approaching, calling out, greeting, and so on. To explain a narrative is to grasp this entanglement, this fleeting structure of interlaced actions. Corresponding to the nexus of actions are rlations of a similar nature between the "actants" of tlre narrative. Ry that lve understand the characters not at ail as psychological subjects endowecl r.vith their own existence but rather as the roles correlated n'ith formalizecl actions. Actants are defined entirely by the predicates of action, by the sernantic axes of the sentence and the narrative: the actant is the one by whorn, to rvhom, lvith whom, . . . the action is done; it is the one who promises, rvho receivesthe promise, the giver, the receiver',and so on. Structulal analysisthus brings out a hierarchy of r.tctan,ts correlative to tl-rehierarchy of actions. The narrative remains to be assembledas a n'hole and put back into narrative commLrnication.It is then a discoursethat ir narrator addressesto an audience. For structnral analysis,hr.xvever, the trvo inter'locutors must be sought only in the text. The n:rrrator is clesignated by the signs of narrativity, lvhich belong to the very constituti()n cif the narrative. Beyond the three levelsof actions,actants,and narration, there is nothing else that falls within the scope of the science of senriologry. There is only the world of narrative users, r,vhichcan eventually be dealt with by -)thersemiological disciplines (those analvzing social, eccinomic, ancl ideological systems);but these disciplines are no longer linguistic in nature. This transposition of a linpuisticmodel to the theory of the narrative fully confirms our initial remark: today, explanation is no lonser a concept borrowed from the natural sciencesand transferred to the alien domain of written artifacts; rather, it stems from the very sphere of language, by analogical transference from the small units of language (phonemes and lexemes) to the units larger than the sentence, such as narratives, foiklore, and myth. Henceforth, interpretation-if it is still possible to give a senseto this notion-will no longer be confronted by a model external to the human sciences.It r'vill,instead, be confronted by a model of intelligibility that belongs, from birth so to speak, to the domain of the human sciences,and indeed to a leading science in this domain: linguistics. Thus it will be upon the same terrain, within the same sphere of language llangage], that explanation and interpretation wiil enter into debate.

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Toward NewConcept a Interpretation of

Let us consider now the other attitude that can be adopted in regard to the text, the attitude that we have called interpretation. We can introduce this attitude by initially opposing it to the preceding one, in a manner still close to that of Dilthey. But as we shall see,it will be necessaryto proceed gradually to a more complementary and reciprocal relation between explanation and interpretation. Let us begin once again from reading. Two ways of reading, we said, are offered to us. By reading we can prolong and reinforce the suspense that affects the text's reference to a surrounding world and to the audience of speaking subjects: that is the explanatory attitude. But we can also lift the suspenseand fulfill the text in present speech. It is this second attitude that is the real aim of reading. For this attitude reveals the true nature of the suspensethat intercepts the movement of the text toward meaning. The other attitude would not even be possible if it were not first apparent that the text, as writing, awaits and calls for a reading. If reading is possible, it is indeed because the text is not closed in on itself but opens out onto other things. To read is, on any hypothesis, to conjoin a new discourse to the discourse of the text. This conjunction of discourses reveals, in the very constitution of the text, an original capacity for renewal that is its open character. Interpretation is the concrete outcome of conjunction and renewal. In the first instance, we shall be led to formulate the concept of interpretation in opposition to that of explanation. This will not distance us appreciably from Dilthey's position, except that the opposing concept of explanation has already gained strength by being derived from linguistics and semiology rather than being borrowed fiom the natural sciences. According to this first sense,interpretation retains the feature of appropriation that was recognized by Schleiermacher, Dilthey, and Bultmann. In fact, this sensewill not be abandoned; it will only be mediated by explanation, instead of being opposed to it in an immediate and even naive way. By "appropriation," I understand this: that the interpretation of a text culminates in the self-interpretation of a subject who r','jit' ' thenceforth understands himself better, understands himself differently, " or simply begins to understand himself. This culmination of the under,-i;tt'"'""t" standing of a text in self-understanding is characteristic of the kind of reflective philosophy that, on various occasions,I have called "concrete reflection." Here hermeneutics and reflective philosophy are correlative and reciprocal. On the one hand, self-understanding passesthrough the

detour of understanding the cultural signs in lvhich the self documents and forms itself. On the other hand, understanding the text is not an end in itself; it mediatesthe relation to himself of a subject who, in the short circuit of immediate reflection, does not find the meaning of his own life. Thus it must be said, with equal force, that reflection is nothing without the mediation r,rf signs and works, and that explanation is nothing if it is not incorporated as an intermediary stage in the process of selfunderstanding. In short, in hermeneutical reflection--or in reflective hermeneuti5-1hs constitution of the saf is contemporaneous rr'ith the constitution of meaning. The term appropriation underlines two additional features. One of the aims of all herrneneutics is to stnrggle against cultural distance. This struggle can be understood in purely temporal ternts as a struggle against secular estran5ement,or in more genuinely hermeneutical terms as a struggle against the estrangement from meaning itself, that is, from the system of values upon which the text is based. In this sense,interpretation "brings together," "equalizes," renders "contemPorary and similar," thus genuinely making orre's oun what was rnitially alien. o A b o v e a l l , t h e c h a r a c l e r i z a t i o n f i n t e r p r e t a t i o na s a P P r o P r i a t i o n is meant to underline the "present" character of interpretation. Reading is like the execution of a musical score; it marks the realization, the enactment, of the semantic possibilities of the text. This final featur-eis the most important becauseit is the condition of the other tlvo (that is, of overcoming cultural distance and of fusing textual interpretation with -gelfJntcrpretation). Indeed, the feature of realization discloses a decisive aspect of reading, namely, that it fulfills the discourse of the text in a dimension similar to that of speech. What is retained here from the notion of speech is not the fact that it is uttered but that it is an event, an instance of discourse, as Benveniste says.The sentencesof a text signif,v -he "actualized" text finds a surrounding and an audience; hereand now. it resumes the referential movemenl-in1s1spted and suspended-toward a rvorld and toward subjects. This world is that of the readr, this subject is the reader himself. In interpretation, rve shall say, reading becomes like speech.I do not say "becomes speech," for reading is never equivalent to a spoken exchange, a dialogue. But reading culminates in a concrete act that is related to the text as speech is related to discourse, namely, as event and instance of discourse. Initially the text had only a sense,that is, internal relations or a structure; now it has a meaning, that is, a realization in the discourse of the reading subject. By virtue of its sense,the text had only a semiological dimension; now it has, by virtue of its meaning, a semantic dimension.

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Let us pause here. Our discussion has reached a critical point where interpretation, understood as appropriation, still remains external to explanation in the sense of structural analysis. We continue to oppose the as if they were two attitudes between which it is necessary to choose. I should like now to go beyond this antithetical opposition and brin$ out the articulation that would render structural analysis and hermeneutics complementary. For this it is important to show how each of the two attitudes we havejuxtaposed refers back, by means of its own peculiar features, to the other. Consider again the examples of structural analysis we have borrowed from the theory of myth and narrative. We tried to adhere to a notion of sense that would be strictly equivalent to the arrangement of the elements of a text, to the integration of the segments of action and the actants within the narrative treated as a whole closed in upon itself. In fact, no one stops at so formal a conception of sense. For example, his eyes, the constitutive unit what Lvi-Strauss calls a "mytheme"-in of myth-is expressed in a sentence that has a specific meaning: Oedipus kills his father, Oedipus marries his mother, and so on. Can it be said that 'structural explanation neutralizes the specific meaning of sentences,retaining only their position in the myth? But the bundle of relations to which Lvi-Strauss reduces the mytheme is still of the orcler of the sentence; and the interplay of oppositions that is instituted at this very abstract level is equally of the order of the sentence and of meaning. If one speaks of"overrated" or "underrated blood relations," ofthe "autochthony" or "nonautochthony" of man, these relations can still be written in the form of a sentence: the blood relation is the highest of all, or the blood relation is not as high as the social relation, for example in the prohibition of incest, and so on. Finally, the contradiction that the myth attempts to resolve, according to Lvi-Strauss, is itself stated in terms of meaningful relations. Lvi-Strauss admits this, in spite of himself, when he writes: "The reason for these choices becomes clear if lve recognize that mythical thought proceeds from the consciousnessof certain oppositions and tends towards their progressive mediation"; and again, "the myth is a kind of logical tool intended to effect a mediation between life and death" (pp. 2a8, 2a3 [pp. 224,220D.In the background of the myth there is a question that is highly significant, a question about life and death: Are we born from one or from two? Even in its formalized version, Is the same born from the same or from the other? this question expressesthe anguish of origins: whence comes man? Is he born from the earth or from his parents? There would be no contradiction, nor any attempt to resolve contradiction, if there were not significant questions,

meaningful propositions about the origin and the end of man. It is this function of myth as a narrative of origins that structural analysisseeksto place in parentheses. But such analysisdoes not succeed in eluding this function: it merely postpones it. Myth is not a logical operator between any propositions whatsoever but involves propositions that point toward limit situations, toward the origin and the end, toward death, suffering, and sexuality. Far from dissolving this radical questioning, structural analysis reinstates it at a more radical level. Would not the function of structural analysisthen be to impugn the surface semanticsof the recounted myth in order to unveil a depth semanticsthat is, if I may say so, the living semantics of the myth? If that were not the function of structural analysis,then it r.r'ould, my opinion, be reduced to a sterile game, to a derisory combinain tion lcombinatoirel elements, and myth would be deprived of the funcof tion that Lvi-Strauss himself recognizes when he asserts that mythical thought arises from the awarenessof certain oppositions and tends toward their progressive mediation. This awarenessis a recognition of the aporias of human existence around which mythical thousht gravitates.To eliminate this meaningful intention r,vc-ruld to reduce the theory of myth be to a necrologv of the meaninglessdiscoursesof mankind. lf, on the contrary, we regard structural analysisas a siage-and a neessaryone-bstween a naive and a critical interpretation, between a surface ancl a depth interpretation, then it seemspossible to situate explanation and interpretation along a unique hermeneutical and to integrate the opposed atti arc rudes f explanation and understanding within an overall conception of reading as the recovery of meaning. We shall take another step in the direction of this reconciliation between explanation and interpretation if we now turn toward the second term of the initial contradiction. So far we have lvorked with a concept of interpretation that remains very subjective. To interpret, rve said, is to appropriate hereand now the intention of the text. In saying that, we remain enclosedwithin Dilthey's concept of understanding. Now what we have just saicl about the depth semantics unveiled by the structural analysisof the text invifes us to say that the intended meaning of the rext is not essentiallythe presumed intention of the author, the lived experience of the rvriter, but rather what the text means for whoever complies with its injunction. The text seeks to place us in its meaning, that isaccording to another acceptation of the 1y6161 54725-in the same direction. So if the intention is that of the text, and if this intention is the direction that it opens up for thought, then depth semanricsmust be understood in a fundamentally dynamic way. I shall therefore sav: ro ex-

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out the structure, that is, the internal relations of depen/ plai" is to bring de.tc. that constitute the statics of the text; to interpret is to follow the i path of thought opened up by the text, to place oneself en route toward i the orient of the text. We are'invited by this remark to correct our initial I .oncept of interpretation and 1s 5316[-feyond a subjective process of I interpretation as ^n act on th6 1s>(1-fer an objective process of interpretation that would be the act o/ the text. I shall borrow an xample from a recent study I made of the exegesis of the sacerdotal story of creation in Genesis 7, I-2,4a.3 This exegesisreveals, in the interior of the text, the interplay of tlvo narratives: a Tatberichtin which creation is expressed as a narrative of action ("God that is, a narrative of speech ("God said' made . . . "), and a Wortbericht, . "). The first narrative could be said to play the role of and there was tradition and the second of interpretation. What is interesting here is that interpretation, before being the act of the exegete, is the act of the text. The relation between tradition and interpretation is a relation internal to the text; for the exegete, to interpret is to place himself in the meaning indicated by the relation of interpretation that the text itself supports. This objective and, as it were, intratextual concept of interpretation is by no means unusual. Indeed, it has a long history rivaling that of the concept of subjective interpretation, which is linked, it will be recalled, to the problem of understanding others through the signs that others give of their conscious life. I would willingly connect this ner'v concept of interpretation to that referred to in the title of Aristotle's in treatise On Interpretation. Aristotle's hermneia, contrast to the hermeneutical technique of seersand oracles, is the very action of language on things. Interpretation, for Aristotle, is not what one does in a second language with regard to a first; rather, it is what the first language already does, by mediating through signs our relation to things. Hence interpretation is, according to the commentary of Boethius, the work of tl;.e aox significatiua per se ipsam aliquid significans, siue complexa,siue inThus it is the noun, the verb, discourse in general, that intercomplexa. pret in the very process of signifying. It is true that interpretation in Aristotle's sense does not exactly prepare the way for understanding the dynamic relation between several Iayers of meaning in the same text. For it presupposes a theory of speech and not a theory of the text: "The sounds articulated by the voice are symbols of states of the soul, and written words are symbols of rvords uttered in speech" (On Interpretation, $l). Hence interpretation is confused with the semantic dimension of speech: interpretation is discourse

itself, it is any discourse. Nevertheless, I retain from Aristotle the idea that interpretation is interpretation furlanguage before being interpretation olflanguage. I would look in the work of Charles Sanders Peirce for a concept ofinterpretation closer to that required by an exegesisthat relates interpretation to tradition in the very interior of a text. According to Peirce, the relation of a "sign" to an "object" is such that another relation, that between "interpretant" and "sign," can be grafted onto the first. What is important for us is that this relation betrveen interpretant and sign is an open reltion, in the sense that there is always another interpretant capable of mediating the first relation. G.-G. Granger explains this verv well in his Essaid'une philosophied,usQIe:
The interpretant that the sign evokes in the mind coulcl not be the result bf a pure anci simple deduction that woulcl extr-acr from the sign something already contained therein. . . . The interpretant is a commentary, a definition, a gloss on the sign in its relation to the object. The interpretant is itself symbolic expression.The sign-interpretant association,realized by whatever pst'chological processes,is rendered possible oniy by the community, more or less imperfect, of an experience between speaker and hearer. . . . It is always an experience that can never be perfectly reduced to the idea or object of the sign of which, as we said, it is the structure. Whence the indefinite character of Peirce'sseriesof internletants.a

We must, of course, exercise a great deal of care in applying Peirce's concept of interpretant to the interpretation of texts. His interpretant is an interpretant of signs, whereas our interpretant is an interpretant of statements. But our use of the interpretant, transposed from small to large units, is neither more nor less analogical than the structuralist transfer of the laws of organization from units of levels below the sentence to units ofan order above or equal to the sentence. In the case of structuralism, it is the phclnological structure of language that serves as the coding model of structures of higher articulation. ln our case, it is a feature of lexical units that is transposed onto the plane of statements and texts. So if we are perfectly aware of the analogical character of the transposition, then we can say that the open series of interpretants, which is grafted onto the relation of a sign to an object, brings to light a triangular relation of object-sign-interpretant; and that the latrer relation can serve as a model for another triangle that is constituted at the

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level of the text. In the new triangle the object is the text itself; the sign is the depth semantics disclbsed bv structural analvsisl and the series of linterpretants is the chain of interpretations produced by the interpretcommunity and incorported into the dynamics of the text, as the fing rwork of meaning upon itself. Within this chain, the first interpretants . serve as tradition for the final interpretants, which are the interpretation in the true sense of the term. Thus informed by the Aristotelian concept of interpretation and above all by Peirce's concept, we are in a position to "depsychologize" as ' far as possible our notion of interpretation and to connect it with the process that is at work in the text. Henceforth, for the exegete, to interpret is to place himself within the senseindicated by the relation of interpretation supported by the text. The idea of interpretation as appropriation is not, for all that, \ | .li-inuted; it is simply postponed until the termination of the process. It i lies at the extremity of what we called above the hermeneuticalarc: itis t}:'e final brace of the bridge, the anchorage of the arch in the ground of lived experience. But the entire theory of hermeneutics consistsin mediating this interpretation-appropriation by the seriesof interpretants that belong to the work of the text upon itself. Appropriation loses its arbitrariness insofar as it is the recovery of that which is at work, in labor, within the text. What the interpreter says is a resaying that reactivates wrr'at is said by the text. At the end of our investigation, it seems that reading is the con/ crete act in which the destiny of the text is fulfiIled. It is at the very heart i of reading that explanation and interpretation are indefinitely opposed ' and reconciled.

Translated John B. Thompson by