Transport Engineering Lecture Notes-2020

Debre-Tabor University CEng3181: Transport Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering 2020-2021
Debre-Tabor University
Faculty of Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
Module: Transport Engineering (CEng3181)

Writer:
By: Amare Tilahun (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering)
Editor:
By: Natnael Melsew (M.Sc. in Road and Transport Engineering)
May,20/2012 E.C
Debre-Tabor, Ethiopia
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) i

Course outline
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course covers introduction to transport systems, transport planning, characteristics of driver,
pedestrian, vehicle and road, traffic engineering studies, fundamental principles of traffic flow,
traffic-control devices and systems, and highway capacity.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
 To introduce students to the fundamental issues in transportation systems theory, analysis,
and design.
LEARNING OUTCOME
The theory should be taught and practical should be carried out in such a manner that students are
able to acquire required learning out comes in cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain to
demonstrate following course outcomes.
 Explain the importance of transport engineering
 Explain the main components of roadway modes of transportation
 Discuss traffic and its characteristics.
 Explain the 3-E’s of traffic engineering
 Conduct various field tests on traffic engineering
 Demonstrate the four-transport planning modelling
 Design and analyse spot speed, traffic volume studies, parking studies
 Demonstrate the fundamental principles of traffic flow
 Supervise construction of road signs, traffic markings and traffic signals
TEACHING AND EXAMINATION SCHEM
Teaching scheme Total credits Examination scheme

(in Hours) (L+T+P) Marks
L T P C FTE CA
2 3 0 5 50 50
Legends: L-Lecture; T-Tutorial; P-Practical; FTE-Final Term Examination and CA-Continuous

Assessment
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) i

COURSE CONTENTS
Major learning outcomes

Chapter Topics and sub-topics
(in cognitive domain)
1a. Define transportation
1.1.Introduction
1b. Explain various
1.2.Importance of transport
Chapter-01: Introduction to importance of transport
1.3.Modes of transport
Transport Engineering 1c. Discuss various types of
1.4.Physical elements of transportation
modes of transportation
system
1d. List physical elements
of transportation system
2.1.Introduction
2a. Discuss the road and
2.2.Driver characteristics
Chapter-02: Characteristics road users and its
2.3.Pedestrian characteristics
of Road and Road Users characteristics
2.4.Vehicle characteristics
2b. Explain PIEV theory
2.5.Road characteristics
3a. Explain the basics
elements of transport
planning
3b. Describe the source of 3.1.Introduction
data collection 3.2.Basics elements of transport
Chapter-03: Transport
3c. Define the following planning
Planning
terms: planning, trip 3.3.Transport planning data collection
generation, HB, NHD, trip 3.4.Transport modelling
attraction
3d. Demonstrate the
transport modelling
4a. Explain the 3-Es of
4.1.Definition
traffic engineering
4.2.Spot speed studies
4b. Determine the spot
Chapter-04: Traffic 4.3.Traffic volume studies
speed statistical analyse,
Engineering Studies 4.4.Travel time and delay studies
traffic volume studies
4.5.Parking studies
4c. Describe the two types
4.6.Accident studies
of parking
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) ii

4d. Explain cause of
accidents and prevention
5a. Describe various
5.1.Introduction
elements of traffic flow
5.2.Traffic flow elements
Chapter-05: Fundamental 5b. Draw the fundamental
5.3.Fundamental relationships of
Principles of Traffic Flow relationships of traffic flow
traffic flow (u,k,q)
5c. Develop the traffic
5.4.Traffic stream model
stream model
6.1.Introduction
Chapter-06: Traffic Control 6a. Enumerate various 6.2.Traffic marking
Device and Systems control devices 6.3.Traffic signs
6.4.Traffic signals
7a. Explain highway
capacity and LOS
7.1.Introduction
Chapter-07: Highway 7b. differentiate capacity
7.2.Capacity of two-way highway
Capacity and LOS
7.3.Level of service (LOS)
7c. Analyse the two-way
highway capacity
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) iii

Introduction
for rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a good system of transportation is
very essential. transportation system comprises of good network of roads, railways, well developed
waterways and airways. among all modes of transportation, road transport is the nearest to the people.
the goods and passengers have to be first transported by roads before reaching it to airport, harbour
or railways stations. it is a comprehensive module for undergraduate students of civil engineering.
the module comprises chapters on introduction to transport engineering, characteristics of roads and
road users, transport planning, traffic engineering studies, fundamental principles of traffic flow,
traffic control devices & systems and highway capacity. in addition, the module consists of several
chapter wise questions and assignments to help understand the concepts better.
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course outline .................................................................................................................................. i
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING ....................................................... 1
1.1. OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT ..................................................................................... 1
1.3. MODES OF TRANSPORT ................................................................................................. 2
1.4. PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM ......................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................ 4
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD AND ROAD USERS .................................................................. 4
1.1. OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS ......................................................................................... 4
1.3. PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................ 5
1.4. VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS ....................................................................................... 7
1.5. ROAD CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER-THREE .......................................................................................................................... 14
TRANSPORT PLANNING .............................................................................................................. 14
3.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 14
3.2. BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING .......................................... 14
3.3. TRANSPORT PLANNING DATA COLLECTION ......................................................... 16
3.4. TRANSPORT MODELING .............................................................................................. 20
3.4.1. Trip Generation ........................................................................................................... 20
3.4.2. Trip Distribution ......................................................................................................... 26
3.4.3. Modal Split.................................................................................................................. 38
3.4.4. Trip Assignment.......................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER-FOUR ............................................................................................................................ 42
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES ............................................................................................ 42
4.1. OVERVIEW....................................................................................................................... 42
4.2. SPOT SPEED STUDIES ................................................................................................... 43
4.3. VOLUME STUDIES ......................................................................................................... 50
4.3.1. Purpose of traffic volume study .................................................................................. 50
4.3.2. Presentation of traffic volume data ............................................................................. 50
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) v

4.3.3. PCU (Passenger Car Unit) .......................................................................................... 58
4.3.4. Traffic Volume Count at Intersection/Turning Movement Traffic............................. 58
4.4. TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES ........................................................................ 59
4.5. PARKING STUDIES ......................................................................................................... 61
4.5.1. On-Street Parking Facilities ........................................................................................ 61
4.5.2. Off-Street Parking Facilities ....................................................................................... 62
4.6. ACCIDENT STUDIES ...................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................................. 65
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TRAFFIC FLOW ................................................................. 65
5.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 65
5.2. TRAFFIC FLOW ELEMENTS ......................................................................................... 65
5.3. FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS OF TRAFFIC FLOW (u, k, q) ............................ 69
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................. 77
TRAFFIC-CONTROL DEVICES AND SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 77
6.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 77
6.2. TRAFFIC MARKINGS ..................................................................................................... 77
Colors and Patterns .................................................................................................................... 77
6.3. TRAFFIC SIGNS ............................................................................................................... 78
6.4. TRAFFIC SIGNALS ......................................................................................................... 81
CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................................... 91
HIGHWAY CAPACITY .................................................................................................................. 91
7.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 91
7.2. CAPACITY OF TWO-WAY HIGHWAY ........................................................................ 91
7.3. LEVEL OF SERVICE OF HIGHWAY [L-O-S] ............................................................... 93
EXPERIMENTS FORMATS ..................................................................................................... 108
ANSWERS .................................................................................................................................. 113
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) vi

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

1.1. OVERVIEW
ransport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to
T another.
Transportation engineering is a type of civil engineering which focuses on the infrastructure
of transportation: all the elements which support the movement of goods and people.
Transportation engineers design runways, build bridges, layout roads and plan docking facilities.
They look at traffic patterns, determine when new transport facilities are needed and come up with
better ways to get from point A to point B.
Also, application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation,
and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and
goods.
A transportation system is the system of infrastructure that serves to move people and goods
efficiently. The transportation system consists of fixed facilities, flow entities, and a control
component. Transport is performed by various modes, such as air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline
and space. The transport system elements can be physical elements (infrastructure, vehicles), human
resources (operators) and operations.
1.2. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT
Followings are the points of importance of transport.

a) Makes available raw materials to manufacturers or producers: Transport makes it
possible to carry raw materials from places where they are available, to places where they
can be processed and assembled into finished goods.
b) Makes available goods to customers: Transport makes possible movement of goods from
one place to another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers spread in different parts
of the country have the benefit of consuming goods produced at distant places.
c) Enhances standard of living: Easy means of transport facilitates large-scale production
at low costs. It gives consumers the choice to make use of different quantities of goods at
different prices. So it raises the standard of living of the people.
Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 1

d) Helps during emergencies and natural disasters: In times of national crisis, due to war
or internal disturbance, transport helps in quick movement of troops and the supplies
needed in the operation.
e) Helps in creation of employment: Transport provides employment opportunity to
individuals as drivers, conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc. who are
directly engaged in transport business. It also provides employment to people indirectly
in the industries producing various means of transport and other transport equipments.
People can also provide repairing and maintenance services by opening service centers at
convenient locations.
f) Helps in labour mobility: Transport helps a lot in providing mobility to workers. You
may be aware that people from our country go to foreign countries to work in different
industries and factories. It is not always possible to have workers near the factory. Most
industries have their own transport system to bring the workers from where they reside
to the place of work.
g) Helps in bringing nations together: Transport facilitates movement of people from one
country to another. It helps in exchange of cultures, views and practices between the
people of different countries. This brings about greater understanding among people and
awareness about different countries. Thus, it helps to promote a feeling of international
brotherhood.
1.3. MODES OF TRANSPORT
A mode of transport is a technological solution that used a fundamentally different vehicle,

infrastructure and operations. The transport of a person or cargo may be by one or more modes, the
latter called intermodal transport. Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages, and will be
chosen for a trip depended on the nature of the purpose, cargo and destination. While there transport
in air and on water has their own mode, land transport has several modes.
The four main modes of transport are:

(i) Roadway/Highway Transport
(ii) Railway Transport
(iii)Waterway Transport
(iv) Airway Transport
Other transports are human power transport, animal power transport and pipelines.

a) Road Transport
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically
smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and
historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or
maintenance.
Figure 1.1: Roadway Transport
Table 1.1: The advantages and disadvantages of roadway transport
Advantages Disadvantages
 Door to door service  Seasonal nature (depends on weather
 Service in rural areas condition)
 Flexible service  Accidents and breakdowns
 Suitable for short distance  Unsuitable for long distance and
 Rapid speed bulky traffic
 Private owned vehicles  Luck of organization
 Feeder to other mode of transport
b) Rail Transport
Rail transport is where train runs along a two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. They
rail are anchored perpendicular to cross ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a
consistent distance apart, or gauge.

Figure 1.2: Railway Transport
Table 1.2: The advantages and disadvantages of railway transport
 Dependable  Luck of Door to door service
 Better organized  Luck of Flexible service
 High speed over long distances  No rural Service
 Suitable for bulky and heavy goods  Unsuitable for short distances and
 Safety small load
 Employment opportunities  Booking formalities
 Suitable for short distance
 Rapid speed
 Private owned vehicles
 Feeder to other mode of transport
c) Water Transport
Water transport refers to movement of goods and passengers on waterways (sea, ocean, lake, canal
or river) by using various means like boats, steamers, launches, ships, etc. With the help of these
means goods and passengers are carried to different places, both within as well as outside the country.
Within the country, rivers and canals facilitate the movement of boats, launches, etc. Since the goods
and passengers move inside the country, this type of transport is called inland water transport.

Figure 1.3: Waterway Transport
Table 1.3: The advantages and disadvantages of waterway transport
 Economical  Seasonal nature (depends on weather
 Service in rural areas condition)
 Accidents and breakdowns
d) Air Transport
The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the rocket. Aviation is able to quickly
transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy
use; for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters can be used.
Figure 1.4: Airway Transport

Table 1.4: The advantages and disadvantages of airway transport
 High speed  Very costly
 Comfortable and quick service  Small carrying capacity
 Emergency service  Seasonal nature (depends on weather
 Most suitable for carrying light condition)
goods of high values  Accidents and breakdowns
 Time saving  Unsuitable for cheap and bulky
goods
 Specialized skills
1.4. PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
i. Infrastructure iv. Control
ii. Vehicles v. Communications
iii. Equipment’s
Infrastructure
It is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to operate. It consists of a way, terminal and facilities
for parking and maintenance. For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle
travels must be built up. Air and water craft are able to avoid this, since the airway and seaway do
not need to be built up. However, they require fixed infrastructure at terminals.
Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations were passengers and freight can be
transferred from one mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are integrating different
modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's advantages. For instance,
airport rail links connect airports to the city centres and suburbs. The terminals for automobiles are
parking lots, while buses and coaches can operate from simple stops. For freight, terminals act as
transhipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of production to the
point of use.

Vehicle
A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure,
the vehicle moves along with the cargo and riders. Vehicles that do not operate on land are usually
called crafts.
Figure 1.5: Infrastructure (travel ways) for road and railway transport
Figure 1.6: vehicles of different transportation modes
References:
[1] Roess, R. P. and Prassas, E. (2004), Traffic Engineering, 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall.
[2] Roess, R. P. and Falcocchio, J. C. (2004), Highway Transportation Engineering, 14.
Pearson US Imports & PHIPEs.
[3] Nicholas Garber and Lester A. Hoel, Traffic and High way Engineering
[4] Fredric& Mannering Principles of Highway and Transport Engineering, McGraw-Hill
[5] Any other materials related to transport engineering courses

EXERCISE:
1. What are the main objectives of transportation?

2. Explain the four major modes of transportation with examples.
3. What are the main advantages and limitations of road transportation?
4. What is the most flexible types of transportation available?

CHAPTER TWO
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD AND ROAD USERS

1.1.OVERVIEW
The four main components of the highway mode of transportation are the driver, the
pedestrian, the vehicle, and the road. The bicycle is also becoming an important component
in the design of urban highways and streets. To provide efficient and safe highway
transportation, knowledge of the characteristics and limitations of each of these components is
essential. It is also important to be aware of the interrelationships that exist among these
components in order to determine the effects, if any, that they have on each other. Their
characteristics are also of primary importance when traffic engineering measures such as traffic
control devices are to be used in the highway mode. Knowing average limitations may not
always be adequate; it may be necessary to sometimes obtain information on the full range of
limitations.
1.2.DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS
One problem that faces traffic and transportation engineers when they consider driver
characteristics in the course of design is the varying skills and perceptual abilities of drivers on
the highway, demonstrated by a wide range of abilities to hear, see, evaluate, and react to
information. Studies have shown that these abilities may also vary in an individual under
different conditions, such as the influence of alcohol, fatigue, and the time of day. Therefore,
it is important that criteria used for design purposes be compatible with the capabilities and
limitations of most drivers on the highway.
The two driver characteristics of utmost importance are visual acuity factors and the reaction
process. The two overlap, in that reaction requires the use of vision for most driving cues.
Understanding how information is received and processed is a key element in the design of
roadways and controls. Hearing is also an important element in the driving task.
Visual Characteristics of Drivers
When drivers initially apply for, or renew, their licenses, they are asked to take an eye test.
Static visual acuity is hardly the only visual factor involved in the driving task. Static Visual
Acuity is defined as “ability to see small details clearly” and the driving task is Reading distant
traffic signs.

Perception-Reaction Process
Perception-reaction time is an important factor in the determination of braking distances, which

in turn dictates the minimum sight distance required on a highway and the length of the yellow
phase at a signalized intersection. The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian
evaluates and reacts to a stimulus can be divided into four sub-processes:
Perception Identification Emotion Volition
See the object Identify the Decide what The driver actually
or the control object or the action to take executes the action
device control device decided during the
emotion sub process
This process is very important to determine the braking distance, AASHTO recommended 2.5
sec for the stopping sight distance (SSD).
1.3.PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
Pedestrian is defined as: “any person who is a foot or who is using a wheelchair or a means of
conveyance propelled by human power other than a bicycle” and a Handicapped Pedestrian
is: “a pedestrian, or person in a wheelchair, who has limited mobility, stamina, agility, reaction
time, impaired vision or hearing, or who may have difficulty walking with or without assistive
devices”
Pedestrian characteristics relevant to traffic and highway engineering practice include those of
the driver, discussed in the preceding sections. In addition, other pedestrian characteristics may
influence the design and location of pedestrian control devices. Such control devices include
special pedestrian signals, safety zones and islands at intersections, pedestrian underpasses,
elevated walkways, and crosswalks. Apart from visual and hearing characteristics, walking
characteristics play a major part in the design of some of these controls.

The standard walking speed of pedestrian used in timing signals is 4.0 ft/s, with 3.5 ft/s
recommended where older pedestrians are predominant. Consideration also should be given to
the characteristics of handicapped pedestrians, such as the blind.
Figure 2.1: Pedestrian characteristics at crossing facilities in Addis Ababa

Bicycles are now an important component of the highway mode, especially for highways
located in urban areas. In designing urban roads and streets, it is useful to consider the
feasibility of incorporating bicycle facilities. The basic human factors discussed for the
automobile driver also apply to the bicyclist, particularly with respect to perception and
reaction. It should, however, be noted that unlike the automobile driver, the bicyclist is not only
the driver of the bicycle, but he/she also provides the power to move the bicycle. The bicycle
and the bicyclist therefore unite to form a system, thus requiring that both be considered jointly.
The bicycle, like the automobile, also has certain characteristics that are unique. For example,
the suggested minimum design speed for bicycles on level terrain is 20 mi/h, but downgrade
speeds can be as high as 31 mi/h, while upgrade speeds can be as low as 8 mi/h. in addition the
mean speed of bicycles when crossing an intersection from a stopped position is 8 mi/h and the
mean acceleration rate is 3.5 ft /sec2.
Figure 2.2: Bicycle facilities

1.4.VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
The various vehicular characteristics affecting road the road design may be
classified into two types.
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics
Static characteristics
Static characteristics of vehicle includes the vehicle dimensions, weight, axle

configuration, turning radius and turning path.
i. Vehicle Dimensions
The vehicular dimensions which can affect the road and traffic design are mainly: width,
height, length, rear overhang, and ground clearance. The width of vehicle affects the width of
lanes, shoulders and parking facility.
The capacity of the road will also decrease if the width exceeds the design values. The height
of the vehicle affects the clearance height of structures like over-bridges, under-bridges and
electric and other service lines and also placing of signs and signals.
Another important factor is the length of the vehicle which affects the extra width of pavement,
minimum turning radius, safe overtaking distance, capacity and the parking facility.
The rear overhang control is mainly important when the vehicle takes a right/left turn from a
stationary point. The ground clearance of vehicle comes into picture while designing
ramps and property access and as bottoming out on a crest can stop a vehicle from
moving under its own pulling power.

Table 2.1: effect of vehicle dimension
S.No Dimension Effect
a) Lane width
1 Width of the vehicle b) Width of shoulder
c) Width of parking lanes
a) Design of horizontal alignment

2 Length of the vehicle b) Overtaking sight distance
c) Parking facilities
a) Clearance to be provided under

3 Height of the vehicle
the structure
a) Thickness of the pavement

4 Weight of the vehicle
b) Design of bridge
ii. Weight, axle configuration etc.
The weight of the vehicle is a major consideration during the design of pavements both flexible
and rigid. The weight of the vehicle is transferred to the pavement through the axles and so the
design parameters are fixed on the basis of the number of axles.
The power to weight ratio is a measure of the ease with which a vehicle can move. It
determines the operating efficiency of vehicles on the road.
The ratio is more important for heavy vehicles. The power to weight ratio is the major
criteria which determines the length to which a positive gradient can be permitted taking
into consideration the case of heavy vehicles.
iii. Turning radius and turning path
The minimum turning radius is dependent on the design and class of the vehicle.
The effective width of the vehicle is increased on a turning. This also important
at an intersection, roundabout, terminals, and parking areas.
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics of vehicles affecting road design are speed, acceleration and
braking characteristics, Power Performance and some aspects of vehicle body design.

i. Speed
The vehicle speed affects, (i) sight distances (ii) super elevation, length of transition curve
and limiting radius on horizontal curves (iii) length of transition curves on vertical valley
curves and humps (iv) width of pavement shoulders on straight and on horizontal curves
(v) design gradient (vi) capacity of traffic lane (vii) design and control measures on
intersections.
ii. Acceleration Characteristics

The acceleration capacity of vehicle is dependent on its mass, the resistance to motion and
available power. In general, the acceleration rates are highest at low speeds, decreases as speed
increases. Heavier vehicles have lower rates of acceleration than passenger cars. The difference
in acceleration rates becomes significant in mixed traffic streams. For example, heavy vehicles
like trucks will delay all passengers at an intersection. Again, the gaps formed can be occupied
by other smaller vehicles only if they are given the opportunity to pass. The presence of
upgrades make the problem more severe. Trucks are forced to decelerate on grades because
their power is not sufficient to maintain their desired speed. As trucks slow down on grades,
long gaps will be formed in the traffic stream which cannot be efficiently killed by normal
passing manoeuvres.
iii. Braking performance
As far as highway safety is concerned, the braking performance and deceleration

characteristics of vehicles are of prime importance. The time and distance taken to stop
the vehicle is very important as far as the design of various traffic facilities are
concerned. The factors on which the braking distance depends are the type of the road
and its condition, the type and condition of tire and type of the braking system.
iv. Power performance of vehicles
A knowledge of the power performance of a vehicle is necessary to determine the vehicle

running costs and the geometric design elements like grades.
Road user characteristics (or) Human factors affecting transportation
Road users can be defined as drivers, passengers, pedestrians etc. who use the streets and
highways. The physical, mental and emotional characteristics of human beings affect their
ability to operate motor vehicle safely or to service as a pedestrian. The various factors which
affect road user characteristics may broadly be classified into four heads:

1) Physical
2) Mental
3) Psychological and
4) Environmental
Physical characteristics
The physical characteristics of the road users may be either permanent or temporary. The
physical characteristics are the vision, hearing, strength and the general reaction to traffic
situations.
Vision: The perception-reaction time depends greatly on the effectiveness of driver’s vision in
perceiving the objects and traffic control measures. The PIEV time will be decreased if the
vision is clear and accurate. Visual acuity relates to the field of clearest vision. The most
acute vision (visual acuity or cone of vision) is within a cone of 3 to 5degrees, fairly
clear vision within 10 to 12 degrees and the peripheral vision will be within 120 to 180 degrees.
This is important when traffic signs and signals are placed, but other factors like dynamic visual
acuity, depth perception etc. should also be considered for accurate design. Glare vision and
color vision are also equally important. Glare vision is greatly affected by age. Glare recovery
time is the time required to recover from the effect of glare after the light. source is passed, and
will be higher for elderly persons. Color vision is important as it can come into picture in case
of sign and signal recognition.
Figure 2.3: Field of vision
Hearing: Hearing is required for detecting sounds, but lack of hearing acuity can be
compensated by usage of hearing aids. Lot of experiments were carried out to test the drive

vigilance which is the ability of a drive to discern environmental signs over a prolonged period.
The results showed that the drivers who did not undergo any type of fatiguing conditions
performed significantly better than those who were subjected to fatiguing conditions. But the
mental fatigue is more dangerous than skill fatigue. The variability of attitude of drivers with
respect to age, sex, knowledge and skill in driving etc. are also important.
The temporary physical characteristics of the road users affecting their efficiency are fatigue,
alcohol or drugs and illness. All these reduce alertness and increase the reaction and also affect
the quality of judgement in some situations.
Mental characteristics
Knowledge, skill, intelligence experience and literacy can affect the road user characteristics.
knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving practice, rules of road and
psychology of road users will be quite useful for safe traffic operation. Understanding the traffic
regulations and special instruction and timely action depends on intelligence and literacy.
Reactions to certain traffic situations become more spontaneous with experience.
Psychological Characteristics
These affect reaction to traffic situations of road users to a great extent. The emotional factors
such as attentiveness, fear anger, superstition impatience, general attitude towards traffic and
regulations and maturity also come under this.
Environmental Factors
The environmental factors like weather, visibility and other atmospheric conditions. The
various environmental conditions affecting the behaviour of road user are traffic stream
characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric conditions and the locality.
1.5.ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
The alignment of a highway or street produces a great impact on the environment, the fabric of
the community, and the highway user. The alignment is comprised of a variety of elements
joined together to create a facility that serves the traffic in a safe and efficient manner,
consistent with the facility’s intended function. Each alignment element should complement
others to produce a consistent, safe, and efficient design.
The design of highways and streets within particular functional classes is treated separately in
later chapters. Common to all classes of highways and streets are several principal elements of
design. These include sight distance, super elevation, travelled way widening, grades,

horizontal and vertical alignments, and other elements of geometric design. These alignment
elements are discussed in this chapter, and, as appropriate, in the later chapters pertaining to
specific highway functional classes. The characteristics of the highway to be discussed in this
section are related to stopping and passing because these have a more direct relationship to the
characteristics of the driver and the vehicle discussed earlier.
Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular time. The
sight distance available at each point of the highway must be such that, when a driver is
traveling at the highway’s design speed, adequate time is given after an object is observed in
the vehicle’s path to make the necessary maneuvers without colliding with the object. The two
types of sight distance are (1) stopping sight distance (SSD) and (2) passing sight distance
(PSD).
i. Stopping Sight Distance
The SSD, for design purposes, is usually taken as the minimum sight distance required for a
driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an object in the vehicle’s path without hitting that object.
This distance is the sum of the distance travelled during perception-reaction time and the
distance travelled during braking.
Figure 2.4: sight distance

ii. Passing Sight Distance
The PSD is the minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, two-way highway that will
permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver without colliding with an opposing vehicle and
without cutting off the passed vehicle.
Figure 2.5: Passing sight distance

References:
[4] Fredric& Mannering Principles of Highwayand Transport Engineering, McGraw-Hill
Exercise
1. write the two types of vehicle characteristics.
2. State the static and dynamic characteristics of vehicles.
3. The hearing, visibility and reaction time are covered in what type of factors?
4. What do you mean by “PIEV” theory? Write its significance on road.
5. How height of the vehicle mainly influences?

CHAPTER-THREE
TRANSPORT PLANNING
3.1.INTRODUCTION
Transportation: An act, process or instance of transferring, conveying or moving an object or

a passenger from one place to another.
Planning: is the first step in preparing programmes for any system. It is an organized,
rationally conducted process of collection, analysis and presentation of facts about all facets of
the system.
Transportation planning- is a process that develops information to help make decisions on the
future development and management of transportation systems, especially in urban areas.
3.2.BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
The transportation planning elements basically comprises planning of transport

systems/physical planning and financing.
The transportation planning process comprises seven basic elements to guide the planning:
 Situation definition  Evaluation of alternatives

 Problem definition  Choice of project
 Search for solutions  Specification and construction
 Analysis of performance
a) Situation Definition
The first step in the planning process is situation definition, which involves all of the activities
required to understand the situation that gave rise to the perceived need for a transportation
improvement. In this phase, the basic factors that created the present situation are described,
and the scope of the system to be studied is delineated. The present system is analyzed and its
characteristics are described. Information about the surrounding area, its people, and their
travel habits may be obtained. Previous reports and studies that may be relevant to the present
situation are reviewed and summarized.
b) Problem Definition
The purpose of this step is to describe the problem in terms of the objectives to be accomplished
by the project and to translate those objectives into criteria that can be quantified. Objectives
are statements of purpose, such as to reduce traffic congestion; to improve safety; to maximize
net highway-user benefits; and to reduce noise. Criteria are the measures of effectiveness that

can be used to quantify the extent to which a proposed transportation project will achieve the
stated objectives. For example, the objective “to reduce traffic congestion” might use “travel
time” as the measure of effectiveness.
c) Search for Solutions
In this phase of the planning process, consideration is given to a variety of ideas, designs,
locations, and system configurations that might provide solutions to the problem. This is the
brainstorming stage, in which many options may be proposed for later testing and evaluation.
Alternatives can be proposed by any group or organization.
The transportation engineer has a variety of options available in any particular situation, and
any or all may be considered in this idea-generating phase. Among the options that might be
used are different types of transportation technology or vehicles, various system or network
arrangements, and different methods of operation. This phase also includes preliminary
feasibility studies, which might narrow the range of choices to those that appear most
promising. Some data gathering, field testing, and cost estimating may be necessary at this
stage to determine the practicality and financial feasibility of the alternatives being proposed.
d) Analysis of Performance
The purpose of performance analysis is to estimate how each of the proposed alternatives
would perform under present and future conditions. The criteria identified in the previous steps
are calculated for each transportation option. Included in this step is a determination of the
investment cost of building the transportation project, as well as annual costs for maintenance
and operation. The number of persons or vehicles that will use the system is determined, and
these results, expressed in vehicles or persons/hour, serve as the basis for project design. Other
information about the use of the system (such as trip length, travel by time of day, and vehicle
occupancy) are also determined and used in calculating user benefits for various criteria or
measures of effectiveness. Environmental effects of the transportation project (such as noise
and air pollution levels and acres of land required) are estimated. These nonuser impacts are
calculated in situations where the transportation project could have significant impacts on the
community or as required by law.
e) Evaluation of Alternatives
The purpose of the evaluation phase is to determine how well each alternative will achieve the
objectives of the project as defined by the criteria. The performance data produced in the
analysis phase are used to compute the benefits and costs that will result if the project is

selected. In cases where the results cannot be reduced to a single monetary value, a weighted
ranking for each alternative might be produced and compared with other proposed projects.
If the benefit-cost ratio result is positive, the evaluation of alternative sites requires additional
comparison of factors, both for engineering and economic feasibility and for environmental
impact.
f) Choice of Project
Project selection is made after considering all the factors involved. In a simple situation, for
example, where the project has been authorized and is in the design phase, a single criterion
(such as cost) might be used and the chosen project would be the one with the lowest cost. With
a more complex project, however, many factors have to be considered, and selection is based
on how the results are perceived by those involved in decision-making. If the project involves
the community, it may be necessary to hold additional public hearings. A bond issue or
referendum may be required. It is possible that none of the alternatives will meet the criteria or
standards, and additional investigations will be necessary.
g) Specification and Construction
Once the transportation project has been selected, the project moves into a detailed design
phase in which each of the components of the facility is specified. For a transportation facility,
this involves its physical location, geometric dimensions, and structural configuration. Design
plans are produced that can be used by contractors to estimate the cost of building the project.
When a construction firm is selected, these plans will be the basis on which the project will be
built.
3.3.TRANSPORT PLANNING DATA COLLECTION
Data are an essential input to the effective planning and design of transport systems:
 directly by describing the current state of the system

 indirectly by allowing the calibration of models which yield insights into the processes
at work in the system or help to predict how the system is likely to perform in the future
with and without policy intervention.

Sources of Planning Data
There are two sources of data for transport planning:
a. Primary sources (direct surveying data) and

b. Secondary sources (existing data).
a. Primary sources (direct surveying data)
Assuming that, after careful consideration of all secondary sources of data, the need for further
data collection is established, the next stage is to produce a detailed specification of this
requirement. The specification must take account of the resources available since they may
seriously constrain what can be achieved in terms of accuracy or coverage. The primary data
can be collected in the following different methods.
➢ Observational surveys
➢ Household self-completion surveys
➢ Telephone interview surveys
➢ Road side interviews/Surveys
➢ Household personal interview surveys
➢ Group discussion surveys (focus group)
➢ In-depth interviews
Advantages
✓ The data may be accurate
✓ Can achieve up to date (current condition) data
Disadvantages
✓ It is time and money consuming
✓ The quality of data depend on personal
✓ The data may biased to the interest of data collector (specially at interviews)
b. Secondary sources (existing data)
Once the data requirements have been specified, it is important to consider whether they can
be met by making use of existing data, thereby avoiding the need for a special survey. So it is
the first step in data collection. The three main sources of data are:
➢ Publication database
➢ previous local area surveys
➢ data produced as a by-product of control or management system
▪ E.g. vehicle flow past at toll point

Advantages
➢ saves lots of time & money
➢ when a survey is likely to cause disruption and annoyance to the travelling public
➢ it is important for political reasons to be seen to be conducting a survey
Disadvantages
➢ (no) knowledge of how data was collected
➢ definitions & categories may be different
➢ different spatial aggregations
➢ disaggregation and cross classifications may not be available (privacy)
➢ access to raw data may be difficult/impractical (obsolete media, file formats, inadequate
documentation)
➢ client may want new data to be collected

Figure 3.1: Basic Elements in the Transportation Planning Process Applied to Consider
the Feasibility of a New Bridge.

3.4.TRANSPORT MODELING
Models are a simplified representation of a part of reality. Their function is to give insight into
complex interrelationships in the real world and to enable statements about what (most
probably) will happen if changes occur or put in that (part of) reality.
The four steps of travel demand modelling are:
i. Trip Generation iii. Modal Split and

ii. Trip Distribution iv. Trip Assignment
3.4.1. Trip Generation
It determines how many trips each activity will produce or attract.

Two types of trip-generation analysis are:
✓ Trip production and
✓ Trip attraction.
Trip Production: A production is the home end of any trip that has one end at the home (i.e.
of a home base trip), or is the origin of a trip with neither end home based (i.e. of a non – home
based trip).
Trip Attraction: An attraction is the non‐home end of a home‐based trip, and is the destination
of a trip with neither end home‐based (i.e. of a non‐home‐based trip).
Home‐ based trips: Home‐based trips are those trips having one end of the trip (either origin
or destination) at the home of the persons making the trip.
Non‐home‐based trips: Non‐home based trips are those trips having neither end at the home
of the person making the trip.
The total number of trips produced in any area should be equal to the total number of trips
attracted in that area. If trips produced are Pi in zone ‘i’ and trips attracted area Aj towards
zone ‘j’ then:
N M
∑ Pi = ∑ Aj
i=1 j=1
Total number of trips = 𝑻𝒊𝒋 = total number of trips produced + total number of trips attracted
𝑵 𝑴
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒔 = ∑ 𝑷𝒊 + ∑ 𝑨𝒋

𝒊=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏
Trip purpose: Trips are made with different purposes and a classification of trips by purpose
is necessary. Trip classifications that have been used in the major transport‐planning studies
for home-based trips are:
➢ Work ➢ Recreational and sports
➢ School ➢ Shopping
➢ Business ➢ Others
Factors Affecting Trip Production
▪ At the HH level, the following are used in several studies
✓ Income
✓ Car ownership
✓ Household structure (number of employed persons)
✓ Family size
▪ At an individual level, the following can be added to the above
✓ age
✓ gender
✓ employed
Factors Affecting Trip Attraction
✓ Roofed space available for industrial, commercial and other services
✓ Zonal employment, categorized in different groups (especially public attractive
and non-public attractive employment)
✓ Shopping centre
✓ schools, universities
✓ entertainment (theatres, cinemas, sport arenas etc)

METHODS OF TRIP GENERATION
There are three main methods of generating trips from the study area. They are:
• Expansion Factor Method (Growth Factor Models)
Growth factor model tries to predict the number of trips produced or attracted by a house hold
or a zone as a linear function of explanatory variables. The model has the following basic
equation:
𝑇𝑖=𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑖
Where Ti is the number of future trips in the zone and 𝑡𝑖 is the number of current trips in that
zone and 𝑓𝑖 is the growth factor.
The growth factor 𝑓𝑖 depends on the explanatory variable such as population (P) of the zone,
average house hold income (I), average vehicle ownership (V). The simplest form of 𝑓𝑖 is
represented as follows: 𝑓𝑖= (𝑃𝑖𝑑,𝐼𝑖𝑑,𝑉𝑖𝑑)/𝑓(𝑃𝑖𝑐,𝐼𝑖𝑐,𝑉𝑖𝑐)
Where the subscript "d" denotes the design year and the subscript "c" denotes the current year.
Least Square Regression Analysis Method
Regression methods can be used to establish a statistical relationship between the number of
trips produced and the characteristics of the individuals, the zone, and the transportation
network. The general from of the equation obtained is:
Yp = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3,…..+ bn Xn
Where Yp = number of trips for specified purpose p (dependent variable)
X1, X2, X3…… Xn = independent variables relating to various trip influencing factors
b1, b2, b3…, bn = multiplicative coefficients of the respective independent variables
X1, X2, X3,…Xn obtained by linear regression analysis, representing the relative
influence of the variables on the trips generated
a = Disturbance term, which is a constant, and represent that portion of the value of Yp
not explained by the independent variables and is additive in nature
Model parameters and variables vary from one study area to another and are established by
using base-year information.

Figure 3.2: household size vs. Number of trips
Once the equations are calibrated, they are used to estimate future travel for a target year. In
developing regression equations, the following is assumed:
❖ All the variables are independent of each other.

❖ All the variables are normally distributed.
The variables are continuous.
❖ A linear relationship exists between the dependent variable and the independent
variables.
Example:
Find the relationship between the two variables with all possible linear regression analysis in
the Table below.
Household 1 7 1 2 3 1 3 4 2 5 4 1 5 6 2 4
size
Total
10 15 12 7 11 8 7 15 14 31 11 7 14 20 11 17
number of
trips
Solution
Y = a +b x
Where,
Y = total number of trips
X = household size, a, b = constant terms

Household size
Total number of
XY X2
trips (Y)
X
1 10 10 100
7 15 105 49
1 12 12 1
2 7 14 4
3 11 33 9
1 8 8 1
3 7 21 9
4 15 60 16
2 14 28 4
5 31 155 25
4 11 44 16
1 7 7 1
5 14 70 196
6 20 120 36
2 14 28 196
4 17 68 289
Σx=51 Σy= 210 Σxy=777 Σx2=217
n=16, 𝑥̅ = 3.188, 𝑦̅=13.125
(Σx)(Σy)
Σxy −
𝑏= 𝑛
(Σx) 2
Σ𝑥 2 − 𝑛
𝑎 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑏𝑥̅

(51)(210)
777 −
𝑏= 16 = 1.977
(51)2
217 − 16
𝑎 = 13.125 − 1.977 × 3.188 = 6.823
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
𝐲 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟐𝟑 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝟕𝟕𝐱 , this is the equation of the two variables.
35
30
Number of Trips
y = 1.977x + 6.823
25
R² = 0.3843
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8
Size of HH
Category Analysis Method
Cross classification is a method developed by a Federal Highway Administration

(FHWA) to determine the number of trip that begin and end at the home.
Table 3.1: Trips/Household for Cross Classification
No. of trips, Auto/Car Ownership

HH size Vs. 0 1 2+
Auto/Car
ownership HH No Trips HH No Trips
HH No Trips
HH Size
1 1200 2520 2560 6144 54 130
2 874 3456 9676 5921 20165

2098
3+ 421 1137 2589 8026 8642 33704

Trip rates = Trips / No. of HH
House Hold Auto/Car Ownership
Size 0 1 2+
1 2.1 2.4 2.6
2 2.4 2.8 3.4
3+ 2.7 3.1 4.9
3.4.2. Trip Distribution
The trip-generation analysis provides the planner with the numbers of trip productions and trip
attraction that each zone will have. But where do the attractions in the zones come from and
where do the productions go? What are the zone-to-zone travel volumes?
Trip-distribution procedures determine where the trips produced in each zone will go- how they
will be divided among all other zones in the study area. The decision on where the trips go is
represented by comparing the relative attractiveness and accessibility of all zones in the area.
The major product of trip distribution models is an O-D matrix that shows the number of trips
originated in the study zone and where these trips are destined to. This is a two dimensional
array of cells where rows and columns represent each of the zones in the study area. 𝑇𝑖𝑗 is the
number of trips between origin 𝑖 and destination 𝑗. 𝑂𝑖 is the total number of trips originating in
zone 𝑖 and 𝐷𝑗 is the total number of trips attracted to zone 𝑗.

METHODS OF TRIP DISTRIBUTION
There are two categories of trip distribution methods, namely,
(i) Growth factor method
(ii) Gravity model
Growth factor method
– Uniform Factor Method
– Average Factor Method
– Fratar Method
a) Uniform Factor Method
This is the oldest of the growth factor methods and considers the growth rate for the whole
area. A single growth factor, F, for the entire study area is calculated by dividing the future
estimated number of trip ends for the design year by the trip ends in the base year. The future
trips between zone i and j, Ti‐j, are then calculated by applying the uniform growth factor F to
the base year trips between zones i and j, as,
Ti‐j = ti‐j x F
𝐅𝐮𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐩𝐬 (𝐏𝐣; 𝐀𝐣 )
Where: F= 𝐄𝐱𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐩𝐬 (𝐩
𝐣; 𝐚𝐣)
Example: An O-D trip matrix for four zones in an area is given below. The future trips
produced and attracted from or towards these zones are 360, 1260and 3120 respectively. It is
required to distribute the future trips among these zones.
O D 1 2 3
1 60 100 200
2 100 20 300
3 200 300 20
Solution:
From the above origin-destination matrix, we can the following in matrix form.
O D 1 2 3 pi Pi
1 60 100 200 360 360
2 100 20 300 420 1260
3 200 300 20 520 3120
Aj 360 420 520 1300
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740

4740
Uniform growth factor, F= = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒𝟔
1300
Iteration-I:
O D 1 2 3 pi Pi
1 218 365 729 1312 360
2 365 73 1094 1532 1260
3 729 1094 73 1896 3120
Aj 1312 1532 1896 4740
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740
4740
Uniform growth factor, F= 4740 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 STOP!
It can be noted that all the trips have been distributed among the zones. As the new growth
factor is equal to 1.0, the iteration can be stopped here.
b) Average Factor Method
In this method, an average growth factor between the two zones related to two trip ends is
calculated based on the growth factors of the zones at both the ends of the trip. This factor thus
represents the average growth associated both with the origin and the destination zones. The
trip values in the given matrix are then multiplied with the computed growth factor values
between the origin and destination zones. This can be given as:
Where, Ti‐j = future trips from zone i to zone j

ti‐j= present trips from zone i to zone j
Fi = Pi/pi = growth factor related to trips produced from zone i
Fj = Aj/aj = growth factor for trips attracted to zone j

Example: let us take the previous example

pi Pi 𝑃𝑖
𝐹𝑖 =
O D 1 2 3 𝑝𝑖
1 60 100 200 360 360 1
2 100 20 300 420 1260 3
3 200 300 20 520 3120 6
Aj 360 420 520 1300
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740
𝐴𝑗
𝐹𝑗 =
𝑎𝑗 1 3 6
Iteration-I:
Computing trips between pairs of zones using formula given above:
1+1
𝑇1−1 = × 60 = 60
2
1+3
𝑇1−2 = × 100 = 200
2
1+6
𝑇1−3 = × 200 = 700
2
3+1
𝑇2−1 = × 60 = 200
2
3+3
𝑇2−2 = × 20 = 60
2
3+6
𝑇2−3 = × 300 = 1350
2
6+1
𝑇3−1 = × 200 = 700
2
6+3
𝑇3−2 = × 0 = 1350
2
6+6
𝑇3−3 = × 20 = 120
2

The new O‐D trip matrix then becomes:

pi Pi 𝑃𝑖
𝐹𝑖 =
O D 1 2 3 𝑝𝑖
1 60 200 700 960 360 0.375
2 200 60 1350 1610 1260 0.783
3 700 1350 120 2170 3120 1.438
Aj 960 1610 2170 4740
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740
𝐴𝑗
𝐹𝑗 =
𝑎𝑗 0.375 0.783 1.438
Iteration-II: the second iteration can be done in tabular form:

pi Pi 𝑃𝑖
𝐹𝑖 =
O D 1 2 3 𝑝𝑖
1 22 116 635 773 360 0.466
2 116 47 1499 1662 1260 0.758
3 635 1499 173 2007 3120 1.555
Aj 773 1662 2007 442
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740
𝐴𝑗
𝐹𝑗 =
𝑎𝑗 0.466 0.758 1.555
Iteration-III:
pi Pi 𝑃𝑖
𝐹𝑖 =
O D 1 2 3 𝑝𝑖
1 10 71 642 723 360 0.498
2 71 36 1734 1841 1260 0.684
3 642 1734 269 2645 3120 1.180
Aj 723 1841 2645 5209
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740
𝐴𝑗
𝐹𝑗 =
𝑎𝑗 0.498 0.684 1.180

Iteration-IV:
pi Pi 𝑃𝑖
𝐹𝑖 =
O D 1 2 3 𝑝𝑖
1 5 42 539 586 360 0.614
2 42 25 1616 1683 1260 0.749
3 539 1616 317 2472 3120 1.262
Aj 586 1683 2472 4741
Aj 360 1260 3120 4740
𝐴𝑗
𝐹𝑗 =
𝑎𝑗 0.614 0.749 1.262
The iteration continuous till the growth factors of zones are exactly 1.0 or near to 1.0.
c) Fratar Method
According to this method, the total trips for each zone are distributed to the inter‐zonal
movements, as a first approximation, according to the relative attractiveness of each movement.
This relative attractiveness is considered in the form of Locational factor (L). The trips
distributed can be computed as follows:
Where Fi =growth factor for zone ‘i’

Fj =growth factor for zone ‘j’
Li = Location factor for zone ‘i’
Lj = Location factor for zone j

Example:
O D A B C D pi Pi Fi
A 0 25 50 25 100 300 3.0
B 25 0 150 75 250 1000 4.0
C 50 150 0 200 400 800 2.0
D 25 75 200 0 300 300 1.0
aj 100 250 400 300 1050
Aj 300 1000 800 300 2400
Fj 3.0 4.0 2.0 1.0
Solution:
Determine the location factor
Iteration-I:
100
𝐿1 = = 0.444
0 × 3 + 25 × 4 + 50 × 2 + 25 × 1
250
𝐿2 = = 0.556
25 × 3 + 0 × 4 + 150 × 2 + 75 × 1
400
𝐿3 = = 0.421
50 × 3 + 150 × 4 + 0 × 2 + 200 × 1
300
𝐿4 = = 0.387
25 × 3 + 75 × 4 + 200 × 2 + 0 × 1
0.444 + 0.444
𝑇1−1 = 0 × 3 × 3 ( )=0
2
0.444 + 0.556
𝑇1−2 = 25 × 3 × 4 ( ) = 150
2

0.444 + 0.421
𝑇1−3 = 50 × 3 × 2 ( ) = 130
2
0.444 + 0.387
𝑇1−4 = 25 × 3 × 1 ( ) = 31
2
0.556 + 0.444
𝑇2−1 = 25 × 4 × 3 ( ) = 150
2
0.556 + 0.556
𝑇2−2 = 0 × 4 × 4 ( )=0
2
0.556 + 0.421
𝑇2−3 = 150 × 4 × 2 ( ) = 586
2
0.556 + 0.387
𝑇2−4 = 75 × 4 × 1 ( ) = 141
2
0.421 + 0.444
𝑇3−1 = 50 × 2 × 3 ( ) = 130
2
0.421 + 0.556
𝑇3−2 = 150 × 2 × 4 ( ) = 586
2
0.421 + 0.421
𝑇3−3 = 0 × 2 × 2 ( )=0
2
0.421 + 0.387
𝑇3−4 = 200 × 2 × 1 ( ) = 162
2
0.387 + 0.444
𝑇4−1 = 25 × 1 × 3 ( ) = 31
2
0.387 + 0.556
𝑇4−2 = 75 × 1 × 4 ( ) = 141
2
0.387 + 0.421
𝑇4−3 = 200 × 1 × 2 ( ) = 162
2
0.387 + 0.387
𝑇4−4 = 0 × 1 × 1 ( )=0
2

O D A B C D pi Pi Fi
A 0 150 130 31 311 300 0.945
B 150 0 586 141 877 1000 1.140
C 130 586 0 162 878 800 0.911
D 31 141 162 0 334 300 0.898
aj 311 877 878 334 2400
Aj 300 1000 800 300 2400
Fj 0.945 1.140 0.911 0.898
The process is repeated to obtain a second iteration using values of new growth factors and
inter‐zonal movements obtained from the first iteration till the growth factors for different
production and attraction zones become equal to or nearly equal to 1.0.
Gravity Model
This is the most widely used trip distribution model which states that the number of trips
between two zones is directly proportional to the number of trip attraction generated by
the zone of destination and inversely proportional to a function of time of travel between
the two zones. Mathematically, the gravity model is expressed as:
Where:
Tij = number of trips that are produced in zone i and attracted to zone j
Pi = the total number of trips produced in zone i
Aj = number of trips attracted to zone j
Fij = a value which has an inverse function of travel time
Kij = socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij

The values of P and A have been determined in the trip generation process. The sum of the trip
i j
production for all zones must be equal to the sum of trip attraction for all zones.
Exercise: For study area consisting of three zones, the number of production, attraction, and
average travel times between each zone is given as shown in the following tables.
Travel time (min)

Trips
D produced
O A B C
5 2 3 140
A
2 6 6 330
B
3 6 5 280
C
300 270 180 750
Trips attracted
Impedance
2 3 5 6
(travel times)
(min)
52 50 39 26
Friction factor
Distribute trips, using the equation for gravity model.

Solution:
Equation of gravity model:
Assume Ki-j=1 for all zones

𝑃1 𝐴1 𝐹1−1
𝑇1−1 =
𝐴1 𝐹1−1 + 𝐴2 𝐹1−2 + 𝐴3 𝐹1−3
140𝑥300𝑥39
𝑇1−1 =
300𝑥39 + 270𝑥52 + 180𝑥50
1638000
= = 47
34740
𝑃1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐹1−2
𝑇1−2 =
𝐴1 𝐹1−1 + 𝐴2 𝐹1−2 + 𝐴3 𝐹1−3
140𝑥270𝑥52
= = 57
34740

140𝑥180𝑥50
𝑇1−3 = = 36
34740
𝑃2 + 𝐴1 + 𝐹2−1
𝑇2−1 =
𝐴1 𝐹2−1 + 𝐴2 𝐹2−2 + 𝐴3 𝐹2−3
330𝑥300𝑥52
𝑇2−1 =
300𝑥52 + 270𝑥26 + 180𝑥26
5148000
𝑇1−1 =
27300
𝑇2−1 = 188
2316600
𝑇2−2 = = 85
27300
1544400
𝑇2−3 = = 57
27300
4200000
𝑇3−1 = = 144
29040
1965600
𝑇3−2 = = 68
29040
1965600
𝑇3−3 = = 68
29040
O D B C TOTAL
A
A 47 57 36 140
B 188 85 57 330
C 144 68 68 280
Computed Aj 379 210 161 750
Given A 300 270 180 750
Note that the sum of productions in each zones the number of production in the statement.
However, the number of attractions estimated in the trip distribution phase differs from
the number of attractions given.
Hence, calculate the adjusted attraction factor according to the following formula

Where
Ajk = adjusted attraction factor, iteration k
Aj = desired attraction
Cjk = actual attraction, iteration k-1
Aj (k-1) = actual attraction factor, k-1
In this case, for the second iteration, k=2
Zones
A B C
Desired attraction (total) Aj
300 270 180
Actual attraction Cj(1) 379 210 161
Adjusted attraction factor Aj(2-1)=Aj(1) 300 270 180

300 270 180
× 300 × 270 × 180
Adjusted attraction factor Aj(m)=Aj(2) 379 210 161
= 237 = 347 = 201
Using the adjusted attraction factors obtained from the above
T1−1 = 34 T2−1 = 153 T3−1 = 116

T1−2 = 68 T2−2 = 112 T3−2 = 88
T1−3 = 38 T2−3 = 65 T3−3 = 76
The matrix becomes:
O D B C TOTAL
A
A 34 68 38 140
B 153 112 65 330
C 116 88 76 280
Computed Aj 303 268 179 750

Given A 300 270 180 750
Note that, in each case, the sum of attraction is much closer to the given value. The process
will be continued until there is a reasonable agreement between the A that is estimated
using the gravity model and the values that are furnished in the trip generation phase.
3.4.3. Modal Split
In this phase of travel-demand forecasting, we analyze people’s decisions regarding mode of

travel; auto, bus, train, and so on. Before we can predict how travel will be split among the
modes available to the travelers, we must analyze the factors that affect the choices that people
make. Three broad categories of factors are considered in mode usage:
(i) The characteristics of the trip maker (e.g. family income, number of autos
available, family size, residential density)
(ii) The characteristics of the trip (e.g. trip distance, time of day)
(iii)The characteristics of the transportation system (e.g. riding time, excess time)
Mode usage analysis can be done at various points in the forecasting process. Mode usage
analyses are sometimes done within trip-generation analyses. However, the most common
point is after trip distribution, because the information on where trips are going allows the mode
usage relationship to compare the alternative transportation services competing for users. Mode
choice models can also be done on both aggregate (Zonal) and disaggregate (Household or
individual) levels. In this course, we will concentrate on aggregate post-distribution models.
The most common of these aggregate post-distribution models is the family of the logit models
(binary logit, multinomial logit, nested logit etc.). A logit model is choice model that assumes
an individual maximizes utility in choosing between available alternatives. The logit model's
utility function comprises a deterministic component (which is a function of measurable
characteristics of the individual and of the alternatives in the individual's choice set) and a
stochastic component (or error term) assumed to have an extreme value distribution
The functional form of the logit model for k number of alternative modes is:
Where Pij1 is the proportion of trips travelling from 𝑖 to 𝑗 via mode 1. 𝐶𝑖𝑗1 is the generalized
cost of mode 1 and 𝛽 is a calibrated parameter. The logit function results in an S-shaped curve.

3.4.4. Trip Assignment
Traffic assignment is the step in traffic analysis in which inter-zonal trips are assigned to the
network. The traffic demand, as described in the origin-destination (OD) tables per trip purpose
and per travel mode (and sometimes per period), is confronted with the infrastructure supply,
which is a network of links and nodes having characteristics as capacity, maximum travel
speed, one-way streets, tolls and other factors of resistance.
Traffic assignment involves computing one or more optimal (usually shortest) routes between
each origin and destination and distributing travel demand over these routes. The sum of all
trips along these routes over all OD pairs results in a traffic load on all links and nodes. Usually,
there is a separate assignment for each mode, since the networks for each of the modes is very
different. For the sake of simplicity, we restrict ourselves to assignments of individual road
traffic (car, bike); the more complex assignments on public transportation networks will not be
discussed here.
The major aims of traffic assignment procedures are:

➢ To estimate the volume of traffic on the links of the network and obtain
aggregate network measures.
➢ To analyze the travel pattern of each origin to destination (O-D) pair.
➢ To identify congested links and to collect traffic data useful for the design of
future junctions
Necessary input for the assignment:
❖ an OD table of trips between the zones, usually all trip purposes combined;
❖ a (computer)representation of the network;
❖ characteristics of the network elements (links and nodes);
❖ a route choice model.
Direct output of the assignment computation:
❖ the routes (consecutive series of adjacent links and nodes);

❖ the route characteristics (travel times, distances, costs);
❖ route loads: the number of trips per route;
❖ link and node loads: the number of trips per unit time (flow) on each link and each
turn at junctions.

Technically, there are two broad assignment models: the minimum path assignment and the
congested assignment. The minimum path assignment models assume that the capacity and
travel cost of the links is unaffected by the volume of traffic and all the traffic will choose to
travel on the shortest path. Whereas, the congested assignment models address the fact that the
travel time and cost on a link increases as the volume of traffic on the link increases.
The all-or-nothing (AON) assignment is the basic form of the minimum path assignment
models while incremental assignment, capacity restraint assignment, user equilibrium
assignment (UE), stochastic user equilibrium assignment (SUE), system optimum assignment
(SO), etc are some forms of the congested assignment models.
All-or-Nothing Assignment
In an All-Or-Nothing (AON) assignment, all traffic between an O-D pair is assigned to just
one path (usually the shortest path) connecting the origin and destination. This model is
unrealistic in that only one path between every O-D pair is utilized even if there is another path
with the same or nearly the same travel time. Also, traffic is assigned to links without
consideration of whether or not there is adequate capacity or heavy congestion; travel time is
taken as a fixed input and does not vary depending on the congestion on a link.
However, this model may be reasonable in sparse and uncongested networks where there are
few alternative routes and they have a large difference in travel cost. This model may also be
used to identify the desired path: the path which the drivers would like to travel in the absence
of congestion. In fact, this model's most important practical application is that it acts as a
building block for other types of assignment techniques. It has a limitation that it ignores the
fact that link travel time is a function of link volume and when there is congestion or that
multiple paths are used to carry traffic.
One form of the AON is the shortest path all-or-nothing assignment. This is an assignment in
which for each OD pair the corresponding flow is assigned to a single path that, according to a
fixed set of link costs, has minimum path costs (congestion effects are not taken into account).
Finding the minimum path in the transportation network is an optimization problem. Several
numerical formulations such as Moore’s and Dijksta’s are available to solve this minimum path
problem. But this is outside the scope of this course.

References:
Exercise:
1. What are the various uses of origin and destination traffic studies?
2. what are the purposes of collecting the traffic survey data?
3. What are the objectives of traffic survey?
4. What are the various traffic surveys?
5. Define the following terms:
a) Home-based trips d) Trip Attraction
b) Non-home-based trips e) Origin
c) Trip Production f) Destination
6. Destination Determine the location factor for zone ‘A’ based on Frater Growth Factor
method if the productions at zone ‘A’ are 100 and attractions to zone ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ are
25, 50 and 25 respectively. The horizon year growth factors for the respective zones are
3.0, 4.0, 2.0 and 1.0.
7. List at least three growth factor methods of trip distribution.
8. Enumerate the factors which affect trip production.

CHAPTER-FOUR
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES

4.1. OVERVIEW
What is Traffic Engineering?

❖ Traffic engineering: “The phase of Transportation Engineering dealing with the planning,
geometric design and traffic operations of roads, street and highways, their networks,
terminals, abutting lands and relationships with other modes of transportation.
❖ “.. the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study of the basic laws relating to traffic
flow and generation, and the application of knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, designing and operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient movement
of persons and goods.”
❖ Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to
achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on roadways.
❖ It focuses mainly on research and construction of the infrastructure necessary for safe and
efficient traffic flow, such as road geometry, sidewalks and crosswalks, segregated cycle
facilities, shared lane marking, traffic signs, road surface markings and traffic lights.
Objective of Traffic Engineering:
 Achieve efficient ‘free and rapid’ flow of traffic

 Reduce the no. of accidents
3-Es of Traffic Engineering:
 Engineering (constructive i.e. geometric design of road)
 Enforcement (traffic laws, regulation and control)
 Education (publicity and through school and television)
Traffic flow analysis

Objectives
 To understand basic concept of traffic flow: speed, flow and density

 To understand the fundamental relationship of traffic flow theory
 To understand basic models of traffic streams

4.2. SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Spot speed is a point velocity at a given location. Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate
the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway.
The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the vehicle; it is usually expressed
in miles per hour (mi/h) or kilometres per hour (km/h). A spot speed study is carried out by
recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location.
Typical uses for spot speed are:
✓ To establish speed trends

✓ Traffic control planning-speed limits, safe speeds at curves, location for traffic signs...
✓ Before –and-after studies
✓ Accident analysis
✓ Geometric design-highway alignment and sight distance
Locations for Spot Speed Studies
The following locations generally are used for the different applications listed:
a) Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used
for basic data collection.
b) Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways are sites
for speed trend analyses.
c) Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

The time of day for conducting a speed study depends on the purpose of the study. In general,
when the purpose of the study is to establish posted speed limits, to observe speed trends, or to
collect basic data, it is recommended that the study be conducted when traffic is free-flowing,
usually during off-peak hours. However, when a speed study is conducted in response to citizen
complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the study reflects the nature of the
complaints.
The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds required
for statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size
is at least 30 vehicles.

Sample size for spot speed study
It is necessary to select a sample size that will give an estimated mean within acceptable error
limits by using statistical procedures. Accordingly we have to know what is the;
Average speed: this is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of
all spot speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds). It is given as:
∑ 𝒖 𝒊 𝒇𝒊 ∑ 𝒖𝒊
̅=
𝒖 ∑ 𝒇𝒊
̅=
or 𝒖
𝑵
Where;
𝑢̅=arithmetic mean
ui=speed of the ith vehicle
fi=number of observations in the class
N=number of the total observed vehicle
Median Speed: is the middle or 50 percentile speed. There are as many vehicles going faster
than this speed as there are ones moving slower.
Modal speed: is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of spot speeds.
85 Percentile Speed: is the speed below which 85% of the vehicles are moving at the point
considered on the highway. In other words, only 15% of the vehicles exceed this speed at the
point. This is considered to be the safe speed limit under the existing conditions in that zone.
15 Percentile Speed: is considered to represent the minimum speed on major highways. To
decrease delay and congestion and to prevent accidents, traffic which moves at a speed less
than this are generally prohibited. This provides good overtaking opportunities.
98 Percentile Speed: is the speed, below which 98 percentiles of the vehicles are being driven.
For the purpose of geometric design, 98 percentile speed is considered.
Depending upon the instruments and techniques used for measuring spot speeds, the two kinds
of average speeds, time-mean speed and space-mean speed, are obtained; these values give an
idea of the traffic speeds in a certain stretch of the road to enable the traffic engineer to plan
corrective measures, if necessary.
Standard deviation of speeds: is a measure of the spread of the individual speeds. It is
estimated as:
∑(𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢̅)2
𝑆=√
𝑁−1

For speed data presented in classes
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢̅)2
𝑆=√
𝑁−1
Where;
S=standard deviation
𝑢̅=arithmetic mean
ui=speed of the ith vehicle
fi=frequency of speed class in i
N=number of the total observed vehicle
Sample size
𝑍𝜎 2
𝑁=( )
𝑑
Where;
N=minimum sample size
Z=number of standard deviations corresponding to the required confidence level 1.96
for 95% confidence level
𝜎=standard deviation (kmph)
d=limit of acceptable error in the average speed estimate (kmph)
constant corresponding to level of confidence (Z)
Confidence
68.3 86.6 90 95 95.5 98.8 99 99.7
level (%)
Constant
1.00 1.50 1.64 1.96 2.00 2.50 2.58 3.00
(Z)
Example: The average speed of vehicles on a highway is being studied. A sample of 36 speed
observations yielded the sample mean of 75 kmph. Assume that the standard deviation of
vehicle speed is known to be 6.6 kmph. How many additional speed observations should be
collected if we want to be 90% confident that the true mean speed would be within ±1.5 kmph
of an estimated sample mean?
Solution
z-statistical value for 90% confidence level: 1.64
margin of error d=1.5km/h

𝑍𝜎 2
𝑁=( )
𝑑
1.64 × 6.6 2
𝑁=( ) = 52
1.5
To meet the minimum sample size requirement of 52, the additional 16 (52-36) observations
are needed.
Graphical Approach:
The speed test data are used to form a frequency distribution table showing details of groups
covering various speed ranges and number of vehicles in each range.
Figure 4.1. Frequency distribution of spot speed of vehicles

For normally distributed data, the frequency curve is bell-shaped as shown. The speed
corresponding to the peak is called the modal speed at which maximum number of vehicles
travel.
Cumulative Spot Speeds of Vehicles:
If a graph is plotted with the average values of each speed group on the x-axis and the
cumulative percentage of vehicles travelling at or below the different speeds on the y-axis, the
graph appears somewhat as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2. cumulative speed distribution
This is very useful in determining the speed above or below which certain percentages of
vehicles are moving.
Spot speed measurements
 Endoscope
 Pneumatic tubes
 Radar gun/camera
Example: the table below shows the data collected on a rural highway during a speed study.
Speed
limit 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
(kmph)
No of
12 18 68 89 204 255 119 43 33 9
vehicles
Develop the frequency histogram and the frequency distribution curve of the above data and
Determine:
a) Average speed d) Median speed

b) Standard deviation e) Safe speed
c) Modal speed f) Design speed for geometric design
Solution:
Sample average mean
∑ 𝑢𝑖 𝑓 𝑖 42970
𝑢̅ = ∑ 𝑓𝑖
= = 50.553 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
850
̅ )2
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑢𝑖 −𝑢
Sample standard deviation, 𝑆 = √ 𝑁−1
232390.1
√ =16.545
850−1

class frequency (number of observations in class)

300
250
Class Frequency, fi
200
150
100
50
0
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Class Speed 50-60
(kmph) 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
Histogram for observed vehicle Speed
Cumulative Distribution Curve

120.000
Cumulative Frequency %
100.000
80.000
60.000
40.000
20.000
0.000
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
Speed (kmph)
Modal speed is the one which most frequency occurred = 55 kmph
Median speed is the 50th percentile speed from cumulative frequency curve
3.47
=25+ 10.47 × 10 = 28 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
The 85th percentile speed used for safe speed
9
=55+ 14 × 10 = 61.43 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
The 98th percentile speed used for geometric design of road
2.941
=75+ 3.882 × 10 = 82.60 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ

Table 4.1: frequency distribution table set of speed data
Speed class Mid value (km/hr), Frequency,

Percentage of Cumulative Percentage 𝑓(𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢̅)2
𝑢𝑖 × 𝑓𝑖
(km/hr) 𝑢𝑖 frequency of frequency
𝑓𝑖
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)= 3/850x100 (6) (7)
0-10 5 12 60 1.412 1.412 24900.85
10-20 15 18 270 2.118 3.530 22752.21
20-30 25 68 1700 8.000 11.530 44400.79
30-40 35 89 3115 10.471 22.000 21528.56
40-50 45 204 9180 24.000 46.000 6290.372
50-60 55 255 14025 30.000 76.000 5042.965
60-70 65 119 7735 14.000 90.000 24837.38
70-80 75 43 3225 5.059 95.059 25699.32
80-90 85 33 2805 3.882 98.941 39157.8
90-100 95 9 855 1.059 100.000 17779.87

232390.1
Totals 850 42970 100

4.3. VOLUME STUDIES
Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians
that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time period. This time period varies from
as little as 15 min to as much as a year, depending on the anticipated use of the data. The data
collected may also be put into subclasses which may include directional movement, occupancy
rates, vehicle classification, and pedestrian age.
4.3.1. Purpose of traffic volume study
The purpose of volume study can be summarized as follows:

 To know the number and type of vehicle using a particular road
 To plan, design, and regulate the traffic factors in traffic engineering
 To establish relative importance of any road facility
 To help in the structural design
 To carry out the economic studies in highway financing
 To plan and design the new streets and new facilities
4.3.2. Presentation of traffic volume data
Depending on the requirements, the data collected during the traffic volume studies are presented
in any one of the following methods.
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
The average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the
total number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided by 365.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

AADT = [ ] 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
365
AADTs are used in several traffic and transportation analyses for:

 Estimation of highway user revenues
 Computation of accident rates in terms of accidents per 100 million vehicles per miles
 Establishment of traffic volume trends
 Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
 Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
 Development of improvement and maintenance programs

2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location for some period of time less than a
year. It may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a week, or as little as two days.
ADTs may be used for:
 Planning for highway activities
 Measurement of current demand
 Evaluation of existing traffic flow
3. Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)
The average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed
by dividing the total weekday traffic volume for the year by 260.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
AAWT = [ ] 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
260
4. Average Weekday Traffic (AWT)
An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays for some period of time
less than one year, such as for a month or a season.
5. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
Peak hour volume is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a
period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for:
 Functional classification of highways,
 Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes,
intersection signalization, or channelization,
 Capacity analysis, development of programs related to traffic operations, for example
street systems or traffic routing and
 Development of parking regulations.
The design hourly volume (DHV) is the average of 10th to 50th highest volume hours of the year
(depends on the types of the highway; rural, urban, suburban….), mostly used is 30th highest of
the year.
DHV=AADTxKi
Where, Ki: factor used to convert annual average daily traffic to a specified annual hourly volume

K20 = 0.126 12.6%
K30 = 0.12 12%
6. Peak Hour Factor (PHF)
Example-01:
Traffic volumes were observed at a road segment between 5:00 PM to 6:00 PM. The observed
volume for each 15-minute interval shown in the following Table. Determine PHF.
Time interval Volume (veh/15-min)
5:00-5:15 PM 923
5:15-5:30 PM 940
5:30-5:45 PM 929
5:45-6:00 PM 908
Solution:
Volume (veh/15- Rate of flow
Time interval PHF
min) (veh/hr)
5:00-5:15 PM 923 3692
5:15-5:30 PM 940 3760
5:30-5:45 PM 929 3716 0.984
5:45-6:00 PM 908 3632
Total 3700 (veh/hr)
Example-02:
On a major arterial traffic count study was conducted and the following data was gathered.
Determine the following:
a) Peak hour
b) Peak hourly volume
c) Peak hour flow rate within the peak hour
d) Peak hour factor (PHF)
Time interval Volume (veh/15-min)
4:00-4:15 425
4:15-4:30 450

4:30-4:45 475
4:45-5:00 500
5:00-5:15 525
5:15-5:30 550
5:30-5:45 510
5:45-6:00 390
Solution:
a) The highest hourly volume (within the study period) occurs between 4:45-5:45.
b) The hourly volume is the volume for this hour = 2085 vehicle per hour.
c) Peak flow rate is the 15-minute period within the peak hour with the highest 15-minute
volume. Flow rate = 550x4 = 2200 veh/hr
d) Peak hour factor (PHF)
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
PHF =( 𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 )
𝑉
PHF =(4×𝑉15) = 2085/2200= 0.948
Volume Hourly volume Rate of flow

Time interval PHF
(veh/15-min) (veh/hr) (veh/hr)
4:00-4:15 425 NA 1700
4:15-4:30 450 NA 1800
4:30-4:45 475 NA 1900
4:45-5:00 500 1850 2000
0.948
5:00-5:15 525 1950 2100
5:15-5:30 550 2050 2200
5:30-5:45 510 2085 2020
5:45-6:00 390 1975 1560
7. Vehicle Classification (VC) records Volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example,
passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks as per ERA-2013. VC is used in:
a) Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning radii requirements,
maximum grades, and lane widths, and so forth

b) Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks
c) Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d) Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
8. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product
of the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or ADT) and the length of roadway in
miles to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating
resources for maintenance and improvement of highways.
Expansion Factor: used to adjust periodic counts
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑓𝑜𝑟 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Hourly expansion factor (HEF) = [ ]
𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
Used to expand counts for duration less than 24hr to 24 hr. volumes by multiplying the hourly
volume for each hour during the count hour by the (HEF) for that hour and finding the mean of
these products.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘
Daily expansion factor (DEF) = [ ]
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Used to determine weekly volumes from counts of 24hr duration by multiplying the 24 hr volume
by the DEF.
𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
Monthly expansion factor (MEF) = [ ]
𝐴𝐷𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
Used to determine the AADT by multiplying the ADT for a given month by the MEF.

Example:
A traffic engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT on a rural primary road that has the
volume distribution characteristics shown in Tables. He/she collected the data shown below on a
Tuesday during the month of May. Determine the AADT of the road.
Time volume HEF

7:00-8:00 a.m 400 29.00
8:00-9:00 a.m 535 22.05
9:00-10:00 a.m 650 18.80
10:00-11:00 a.m 710 17.10
11:00-12:00 noon 650 18.52
Solution:
400×29.00+535×22.05+650×18.80+710×17.10+650×18.52
Tuesdays, 24-hour volume =
5
= 11959
Adjust the 24hr. volume of Tuesday to average day volume
11959×7.727
=
7
= 13201 this is in May
Adjust to AADT =13201x1.394
= 18402 vehicle per day

Hourly, Daily and Monthly Expansion Factor for a Rural Primary Road
Hourly Volume HEF Hourly Volume HEF
6:00-7:00 a.m 294 42.00 6:00-7:00 p.m 743 16.62
7:00-8:00 a.m 426 29.00 7:00-8:00 p.m 706 17.49
8:00-9:00 a.m 560 22.05 8:00-9:00 p.m 606 20.38
9:00-10:00 a.m 657 18.80 9:00-10:00 p.m 489 25.26
10:00-11:00
722 17.10 10:00-11:00 p.m 396 31.19
a.m
11:00-12:00
667 18.52 11:00-12:00 a.m 360 34.31
p.m
12:00-1:00 p.m 660 18.71 12:00-1:00 a.m 241 51.24
1:00-2:00 p.m 739 16.71 1:00-2:00 a.m 150 82.33
2:00-3:00 p.m 832 14.84 2:00-3:00 a.m 100 123.50
3:00-4:00 p.m 836 14.77 3:00-4:00 a.m 90 137.22
4:00-5:00 p.m 961 12.85 4:00-5:00 a.m 86 143.60
5:00-6:00 p.m 892 13.85 5:00-6:00 a.m 137 90.14
Day of week volume DEF
Sunday 7895 9.515
Monday 10,714 7.012
Tuesday 9722 7.727
Wednesday 11,413 6.582
Thursday 10,714 7.012
Friday 13,125 5.724
Saturday 11,539 6.510

Total 75122
Month ADT MEF
January 1350 1.756
February 1200 1.975
March 1450 1.635
April 1600 1.481
May 1700 1.394
June 2500 0.948
July 4100 0.578
August 4550 0.521
September 3750 0.632
October 2500 0.948
November 2000 1.185
December 1750 1.354
Total 28450

4.3.3. PCU (Passenger Car Unit)
It is common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to convert
the other vehicle classes and this unit is called passenger car unit or PCU.
Table 4.4: PCU as per ERA specification
Vehicle type PCU values
Passenger car 1.00
Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.20
Bajaji 0.40
Small animal drawn cart 0.70
Bus 3.50
4.3.4. Traffic Volume Count at Intersection/Turning Movement Traffic
✓ The intersection volume count consists of counting the number of vehicles entering from
each approach leg of the intersection at a fixed time interval of say 10 or 15 minutes.
✓ Turning movement traffic consists of:
a) RT: Right Turn
b) ST: Straight Turn
c) LT: Left Turn
4.3.5. Methods of Conducting Volume Counts
Traffic volume counts are conducted using two basic methods:
a) Manual Method
Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter. This
is the most reliable and best method to obtain the various volume of traffic and the direction of
traffic flow. This method is not suitable for observing the vehicle from a point for all 24 hours of
the day and on all the day around the year. Manual method: manual traffic counts require simply
counting of every vehicle seen to pass a fixed point on a road. Data is recorded on a specially
prepared field sheet. It is normally done with pen or pencil, making “Tally” of marks in groups of
5 like this

The following equipment is needed for manual count:
• A stop watch
• Pencils or pen
• Supply of blank field sheet with clip board
Advantages of manual counting method:
 It gives the classified volume of each category of the traffic

 The direction of each class of traffic and intersection is also recorded
Disadvantages of manual counting method:
 It cannot be adopted for all the 24 hours of the day
 It needs supervision and this method is tedious and costly
 Its result is not an accurate one
b) Automatic Method
The automatic counting method involves the laying of surface detectors (such as pneumatic road
tubes) or subsurface detectors (such as magnetic or electric contact devices) on the road. These
detect the passing vehicle and transmit the information to a recorder, which is connected to the
detector at the side of the road.
4.4. TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES
A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on
a given route. In conducting such a study, information may also be collected on the locations,
durations, and causes of delays. When this is done, the study is known as a travel time and delay
study. Data obtained from travel time and delay studies give a good indication of the level of
service on the study section. These data also aid the traffic engineer in identifying problem
locations, which may require special attention in order to improve the overall flow of traffic on the
route.
Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data

The data obtained from travel time and delay studies may be used in any one of the following
traffic engineering tasks:
➢ Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
➢ Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those delays

➢ Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation
improvements
➢ Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or
congestion indices
➢ Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment models
➢ Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate the changes
in efficiency and level of service with time
➢ Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that
reduce travel time
Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies
1. Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway
2. Running time is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a give section of
a highway.
3. Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.
4. Operational delay is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other traffic This
impedance can occur either as side friction, where the stream flow is interfered with by
other traffic (for example, parking or un parking vehicles), or as internal friction, where the
interference is within the traffic stream (for example, reduction in capacity of the highway).
5. Stopped-time delay is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest
6. Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic signals. This
delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or the impedance that may exist.
7. Travel-time delay is the difference between the actual travel time and the time that will be
obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at an average speed equal
to that for an uncontested traffic flow on the section being studied.

4.5. PARKING STUDIES
Types of Parking Facilities

There are two basic types of parking facilities:
• On-street parking and

• Off-street parking.
4.5.1. On-Street Parking Facilities
These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are provided alongside the curb on one or
both sides of the street. These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of parking
is unlimited and parking is free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is limited to
specific times of the day for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or may not
be free. Restricted facilities may also be provided for specific purposes, such as to provide
handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading bays. Angle parking or parallel parking may be
allowed in the kerb parking.
Common methods of on-street parking:

a) Parallel parking
b) 30 parking
c) 45 parking
d) 60 parking
e) 90 parking

4.5.2. Off-Street Parking Facilities
These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they include surface lots and garages. Self-
parking garages require that drivers park their own automobiles; attendant-parking garages
maintain personnel to park the automobiles.
Definitions of Parking Terms

a. A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a
period of 1 hr.
b. Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a
specific length of time, usually a day.
c. Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified
time. These data can be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against time, which
shows the variation of the parking accumulation during the day.
d. The parking load is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times.
It is usually given as the number of space-hours used during the specified period of
time.
e. Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay. When the
parking duration is given as an average, it gives an indication of how frequently a
parking space becomes available.
f. Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by dividing the
parking volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces.
4.6. ACCIDENT STUDIES

The traffic accidents may involve property damages, personal injuries or even
causalities. One of the main objectives of traffic engineering is to provide safe traffic
movements. Road accident cannot be totally prevented, but suitable traffic engineering
and management measures, the accident rate can be considerably decreasing. Therefore,
the traffic engineer has to carryout systematic accident studies to investigate the causes
of accidents and to take preventive measures in terms of design and control.
The objective of the accident studies may be listed below:

 To study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at potential

location,
 To evaluate the existing design
 To support the proposed designs
 To carry out the before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in
the problem
 To make computations of financial loss
There are four basic elements in a traffic accident:
 The road users
 The vehicles
 The roads and its condition and
 Environmental factor-traffic, weather etc.
Causes of accidents
Road users: excessive speed and rash driving, careless, violation of rules and regulations,
failure to see or understand the traffic situations, signs or signal, temporary effect due to fatigue,
sleep or alcohol.
Vehicles defects: Failure of brakes, steering system, and lighting system etc.,
Road condition: Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts and other damaged conditions of the
road surfaces.
Road design: defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper lighting and improper control devices.
Environmental factor: unfavourable weather condition like mist, fog, snow, dust, smoke and
heavy rainfall which restrict the normal visibility and render driving unsafe.
TYPES OF ACCIDENTS:
 Fatal accident
 Major injury accidents
 Minor injured accidents
 Only property damage (OPD)

References:
[5] High way Capacity Manual,2000
[6] Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA)Manual,2013
EXERCISE
1. The branch of engineering that deals with improvement of traffic performance, traffic
studies and traffic network is called ___________
2. Describe the objective of traffic engineering.
3. The “3-Es” of traffic engineering stand for?
4. The traffic that is prepared based on 365 days of the year is called?
5. What is the main cause of accidents in urban areas?
6. What are the methods of traffic volume counting?
7. What is the 98th percentile speed? State its significance.
8. The traffic volume is usually expressed in __________
9. How many types of traffic speed studies are conducted?
10. Explain the term traffic volume. Enumerate the different methods of carrying out traffic
volume studies. What are the uses of traffic volume?
11. Indicate how the traffic volume data are presented and the results used in traffic
engineering.
12. What is off street parking? Discuss the need for off-street parking. Explain briefly the types
of off- street parking facilities.
13. What is the difference between space mean speed and time mean speed? Which one is
greater?

CHAPTER FIVE
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TRAFFIC FLOW

5.1. INTRODUCTION
Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical relationships among the primary
elements of a traffic stream: flow, density, and speed. These relationships help the traffic
engineer in planning, designing, and evaluating the effectiveness of implementing traffic
engineering measures on a highway system. Traffic flow theory is used in design to determine
adequate lane lengths for storing left-turn vehicles on separate left-turn lanes, the average delay
at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas, and changes in the level of freeway
performance due to the installation of improved vehicular control devices on ramps. Another
important application of traffic flow theory is simulation, where mathematical algorithms are
used to study the complex interrelationships that exist among the elements of a traffic stream
or network and to estimate the effect of changes in traffic flow on factors such as accidents,
travel time, air pollution, and gasoline consumption.
5.2. TRAFFIC FLOW ELEMENTS
Let us first define the elements of traffic flow before discussing the relationships among them.
Before we do that, though, we will describe the time-space diagram, which serves as a useful
device for defining the elements of traffic flow.
The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the location of
vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway. Figure 6.1
shows a time-space diagram for six vehicles, with distance plotted on the vertical axis and time

on the horizontal axis, At time zero, vehicles 1, 2, 3, and 4 are at respective distances d1, d2,
d3, and d4 from a reference point, whereas vehicles 5 and 6, cross the reference point later at
times t5 and t6 respectively.
The primary elements of traffic flow are; flow, density and speed. Another element, associate
with density, is the gap or headway between two vehicles in a traffic stream.
Flow (q): - the rate at which vehicles pass at a fix point (vehicles per hour). Flow is defined as
the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given lane or direction of a highway
during a specific time interval.
Then the flow (q) expressed in vehicles/hour is given by:
𝐧 𝐧×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝐪= 𝐭= 𝐯𝐞𝐡⁄𝐡𝐫
𝐭
Example 1:
Time Volume (vehicles)

9:00-9:15 800
9:15-9:30 250
9:30-9:45 700
9:45-10:00 600
Flow(volume) =2350veh/hr
Types of flow
a) Uninterrupted flow: - is the flow of traffic in which there is no obstructions to the

movement of vehicles along the road, such as:
• Freeway,
• Multilane Highways
• Two-Lane Highways
b) Interrupted flow: - Interrupted flow refers to the condition when.
• Signalised Intersections
• Stop Signal
• Ramp Metering
Speed (U): - The speed of a vehicle is defined as the distance it travels per unit of time. Speed
is one of the most important characteristics of traffic and is measured frequently.

(i) Time mean speed (TMS):
• Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time or it is the average
of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.
• Arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway during an
interval of time. n
u i
ut = i =1
n
Where ui = speed of vehicle i at desiginated point x
n = number of mesured vehicle speeds at point x
(ii) Space mean speed (SMS):

• (Harmonic mean) average speed of vehicles in a certain road length at a given
instant.
• Average speed of vehicles measured at an instant of time over a specified stretch of
road.
n nl
us = n
= n
1
 u t
i =1 i i =1
i
Example 2: The spot speeds of eight vehicles observed at a certain location are 55, 40, 32,
48, 64, 53, 58, and 36 kmph.
Calculate:
a) TMS
b) SMS
Solution
55+40+32+48+64+53+58+36 386
a) TMS = = = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟐𝟓 kmph
8 8
8
b) SMS = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟕𝟕 kmph
+ + + + + + +
55 40 32 48 64 53 58 36
Density (K): - no. of vehicles (N) over a stretch of roadway (L) i.e. vehicles per kilometre
𝐧
𝐤= 𝐥

Example 3: Four vehicles are traveling at constant speeds between sections X and Y with
their positions and speeds observed at an instant in time. An observer at point X observes the
four vehicles passing point X during a period of 15 seconds. The speeds of the vehicles are
measured as 88, 80, 90, and 72 km/hr respectively. Determine:
i. Flow
ii. Density
iii. Time mean speed, and
iv. Space mean speed of the vehicles.
Solution
i. Flow
𝐧×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟒×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝐪= = = 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝐯𝐞𝐡⁄𝐡𝐫
𝐭 𝟏𝟓
ii. Density
n 4 × 1000
k= = = 𝟏𝟒𝟑 veh/km
l 28
88+80+90+72 330
iii. TMS, Ut = = = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟓 kmph
4 48
4
iv. SMS, Us = 1 1 1 1 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 kmph
+ + +
88 80 90 72

OR
t i=L⁄
Vi
t A = 28⁄88 × 1000 = 0.00032 sec
t B = 28⁄80 × 1000 = 0.00035 sec
t C = 28⁄90 × 1000 = 0.00031 sec
t D = 28⁄72 × 1000 = 0.00039
4×28
Us = (0.00032+0.00035+0.00031+0.00039)×1000 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟖𝟐 kmph
Time headway (h): is the time interval between the passes of rear bumpers of successive
vehicle at a point.
Average headway in a lane (h) in sec. = 3600/q
Space headway (s): is the distance between successive vehicles in a traffic lane measured from
common point on the vehicles (from bumper or front wheel).
Average spacing between vehicles in a lane (s) in km. = 1000/k
5.3. FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS OF TRAFFIC FLOW (u, k, q)
The relationship between the density (vpm) and the corresponding flow of traffic on a highway
generally is referred to as the fundamental diagram of traffic flow. The fol1owing theory has been
postulated with respect to the shape of the curve depicting this relationship.
(i) When the density on the highway is zero, the flow is also zero because there are no vehicles
on the highway.
(ii) As the density increases, the flow also increases.

(iii) However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as the jam density
(kj), the flow must be zero because vehicles will tend to line up end to end.
(iv) It follows that as density increases from zero, the flow will also initially increase from
zero to a maximum value. Further continuous increase in density will result in continuous
reduction of the flow, which will eventually be zero when the density is equal to the jam
density.
Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow
Greenshield’s Model: Relation between Flow, Speed and Density
As per Greenshields’s, the relationship between the speed and density should be linear
The general equation relating flow, density and space mean speed is:
Flow (q)= space mean speed (us) x density (k)

a) Speed-Density Relationships
Flow= speed x density
q= u x k
k
u = uf (1 − )
kj
b) Speed - Flow Relationships

u
k = k j (1 − ) (1)
uf
q=u×k (2)
q u
= k j (1 − )
u u f

u2
q = k j (u − ) *
uf
 In order to determine the speed at which maximum flow occurs,

differentiate above eqn w.r.t. u.
uf
um =
→ 2
c) Flow – Density Relationships

k
u = uf (1 − ) (1)
kj
q=u×k (2)
𝑞 k
= uf (1 − )
𝑘 k j
𝑘2
𝑞 = 𝑢𝑓 (𝑘 − ) **
𝑘𝑗

 In order to determine the density at which maximum flow occurs,

differentiate above eqn w.r.t k.
 Combining eqn* and eqn ** gives:
𝒌𝒋 ×𝒖𝒇
𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑪) = 𝒌𝒎 𝒖𝒎 =
𝟒
Example 4: A section of highway has the following flow-density relationship
q = 50k - 0.156k2
What is the capacity (qmax) of the highway section, the speed at capacity (Vm), and the
density (k) when the highway is at one-quarter of its capacity (qmax)?
Solution
Capacity? d(50k−0.156k2 )
=0
dk
u@capacity?
50 − 0.312k = 0
capacity
k= 50 veh
4 k = 0.312 = 160 km
dq
=0
dk
i. q cap = 50 × 160 − 0.156(1602 ) = 4006.4veh/hr

ii. q = u × k
qcap 4006.4
ucap = k = = 25 kmph
cap 160
qcap 4006.4
iii. q = = = 1001.6 veh/hr
4 4
1001.6 = 50k − 0.1561602

0.1561602 − 50k + 1001.6 = 0 By using quadratic equation:
k1 = 21.5 veh/km → (uncongested)
k 2 = 299 veh/km → (congested)

Example 5:
Develop traffic stream flow parameter diagrams for the following data using Greenshields’s
Model:
q =𝐚𝐤 + 𝐛𝐤 𝟐
Where, q= traffic flow
a & b = additive and multiplicative constants respectively
k = traffic density
Speed
75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20
(kmph)
Density
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
(vpkm)
Determine:
a) Plot the neat sketch of speed-density relationships
b) density at maximum flow
c) speed at maximum flow
d) maximum volume
e) the density and speed if a traffic volume of 1000 vehicles per hour.
Solution
q =𝐚𝐤 + 𝐛𝐤 𝟐
Where, a&b= additive and multiplicative constants
q = traffic flow
k= traffic density

Density (vpkm), K Speed (kmph), U uk k2
10 75 75 100
20 70 1400 400
30 65 1950 900
40 60 2400 1600
50 55 2750 2500
60 50 3000 3600
70 45 3150 4900
80 40 3200 6400
90 35 3150 8100
100 30 3000 10000
110 25 2750 12100
120 20 2400 14400
Σx=780 Σy= 570 Σxy=29900 Σx2=65000
a) sketch speed-density
80
70
60
Speed (u) kmph
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Density (k) vpkm

n=12, 𝑥̅ = 65, 𝑦̅=47.5
(Σk)(Σu)
Σuk −
𝑏= 𝑛
(Σk) 2
Σ𝑘 2 − 𝑛
𝑎 = 𝑢̅ − 𝑏𝑘̅
(780)(570)
29900 −
𝑏= 12 = −0.5
(780)2
65000 − 12
𝑎 = 47.50 + 0.5 × 65 = 80
(160×80)
b) density at maximum flow 𝑄𝑚 = 4
= 3200 𝑣𝑝ℎ
𝑢 = 80 − 0.5𝑘 e) the density and speed if traffic volume

1000 vph
q =80k − 0.5k 2 𝑢2
1000 = 160 (𝑢 − 80)
𝑑𝑞
for maximum flow, 𝑑𝑘 = 0
𝑢2
6.25 = (𝑢 − 80)
𝑑(80k−0.5k2 )
=0
𝑑𝑘
u2 − 80u + 500 = 0
Km= 80vpkm
80±√802 −4x500
c) speed at maximum flow u= 2x1
q= 160u − 2u2 u = 73,7

𝑑𝑞
for maximum flow, 𝑑𝑢 = 0 u1 = 73 kmph (uncongested)
𝑑(160u−2u2 )
=0 u2 = 7 kmph (congested)
𝑑𝑘
uf =40kmph k=160-2u
d) maximum volume 𝑘1 = 160 − 2𝑥73 = 14 𝑣𝑝𝑘𝑚

(uncongested)
(𝑘𝑗 ×𝑢𝑓 )
𝑄𝑚 = 4 𝑘2 = 160 − 2𝑥7 = 146 𝑣𝑝𝑘𝑚
(congested)
Example 6: section of a major highway has a speed-flow relationship of the form q =𝒂𝒖 +b𝒖𝟐 .
It is known that the capacity is 1800 vehicle per hour and the jam density is 200 vehicle per
km. Calculate the speed if a traffic volume of 1000 vehicles per hour.

Solution
q =𝑎𝑢 +b𝑢2 𝑢2 − 36𝑢 + 180 = 0
(𝑘𝑗 ×𝑢𝑓 ) 36±√362 −4𝑥180

𝑄𝑚 = 𝑢=
4 2𝑥1
1800 =
(200×𝑢𝑓 ) 𝑢 = 30,6
4
𝑢1 = 30 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ (uncongested)
𝑢𝑓 = 36
𝑢2 = 6 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ (congested)
𝑢2
1000 = 200 (𝑢 − 36)
𝑢2
5 = (𝑢 − 36)
References:
[6] Ethiopian Road Authority(ERA)Manual,2013
EXERCISE:
1. Differentiate between interrupted and uninterrupted flow with examples.

2. If the instantaneous speed of four vehicles are 35, 40, 45 and 50 kmph then compute
the time mean speed and space mean speed.
3. Using Greenshield’s traffic stream model, if the jam density of a particular roadway is
160 vehicles per kilometer, what is the density at capacity?
4. On a specific highway, the speed-density relationship follows the Greenshield’s model
𝑘
(𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 (1 − 𝑘 ), where, 𝑢𝑓 and 𝑘𝑗 are the free-flow speed and jam density
𝑗
respectively. When the highway is operating at capacity, what is the speed obtained as
per this model?

CHAPTER SIX
TRAFFIC-CONTROL DEVICES AND SYSTEMS

6.1.INTRODUCTION
The various aids and device used to control regulate and guide traffic may be called traffic
control devices. The general requirement of traffic control devices are attention, meaning, time
for response and respect of road users.
The most common traffic devices are:
 Traffic markings
 Traffic signs
 Traffic signals
The effective communication between traffic engineer and driver is a critical link if safe and
efficient traffic operations are to prevail. Traffic engineers have no direct control over any
individual driver or group of drivers.
The driver is accustomed to receiving a certain message in a clear and standard fashion, often
with redundancy. A number of mechanisms are used to convey messages. Redundancy of
message can be achieved in a number of ways. The STOP sign, for example, has a unique shape
(octagon), a unique color (red), and a unique one word legend (STOP). Any of the three
elements alone is sufficient to convey the message. Each provides redundancy for the others.
6.2.TRAFFIC MARKINGS
Traffic markings are the most plentiful traffic devices in use. They serve a variety of purposes
and functions and fall into three broad categories:
• Longitudinal markings:- centrelines, lane lines, pavement edge lines

• Transverse markings:- STOP line, zebra crossing, parking space, word massage
• Object markers and delineators
Colors and Patterns

Five marking colors are in current use: yellow, white, red, blue, and black. In general, they are
used as follows:
✓ Yellow markings separate traffic traveling in opposite directions.
✓ White markings separate traffic traveling in the same direction, and are used for all
transverse markings. In addition used as yellow markings.

✓ Red markings delineate roadways that shall not be entered or used by the viewer of the
marking.
✓ Blue markings are used to delineate parking spaces reserved for persons with
disabilities.
✓ Black markings are used in conjunction with other markings on light pavements. To
emphasize the pattern of the line, gaps between yellow or white markings are filled in
with black to provide contrast and easier visibility.
A solid line prohibits or discourages crossing. A double solid line indicates maximum or special
restrictions. A broken line indicates that crossing is permissible. A dotted line uses shorter line
segments than a broken line. It provides trajectory guidance and often is used as a continuation
of another type of line in a conflict area.
6.3.TRAFFIC SIGNS
In general, traffic signs are one of the traffic control devices.
Objectives of traffic signs
(i) To give timely warning of hazardous situations

(ii) To control the traffic
(iii)To give information regarding routes, directions and points of interest
(iv) To expedite the traffic
Classification of traffic signs
As per ERA, traffic signs are classified into the following three categories:
(i) Warning signs/Cautionary signs

(ii) Regulatory signs
(iii) Information signs/Guide signs
Warning signs/Cautionary signs
Warning signs are also known as Danger signs. They indicate condition that may be hazardous
to highway users. Regarding the shape of the board where this sign is plotted the UN protocol
recommends an equilateral triangle with one point upwards, having red boarder, white back
ground and black symbol is used.
The various warning signs commonly used:
(i) Zig zag road (ii) Left hand curve

(iii) Right hand curve (x) Cycle crossing
(iv) Cross road (xi) Roundabout
(v) Side road (xii) Men at work
(vi) Intersection (xiii) Slipping road
(vii) Pedestrian crossing (xiv) Narrow road ahead
(viii) School ahead (xv) Narrow bridge
(ix) Cattle
Figure 6.1: Warning signs

Regulatory signs
Regulatory signs are used to inform road users of certain laws and regulations to provide safe
and smooth movement of traffic.
The various warning signs commonly used:
(i) No entry (v) Axle load limit

(ii) Cycle prohibited (vi) Speed limit
(iii) No parking (vii) Load limit
(iv) Keep left
Figure 6.2: Regulatory signs
Information signs/Guide signs

Information signs are intended to guide the road user and to give information of intersecting
routes, cities, towns, other important destinations.
The commonly used information signs are:
(i) Parking sign (iv) Hospital
(ii) Cycle stand (v) First aid
(iii)Public telephone (vi) Eating place

Fig.6.3: Information signs
6.4.TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Traffic signals are a controlling device at intersections that applied to drivers, motorcycle
riders, bicyclists and pedestrians. Traffic signals are used to assign vehicular and pedestrian
right-of-way. They are used to promote the orderly movement of vehicular and pedestrian
traffic and to prevent excessive delay to traffic.
The installation of a traffic signal requires sound engineering judgment, and must balance the
following, sometimes conflicting, goals:
• Moving traffic in an orderly fashion;
• Minimizing delay to vehicles and pedestrians;
• Reducing crash-producing conflicts; and
• Maximizing capacity for each intersection approach.
Red light: At a red light, come to a complete stop before you reach the intersection, stop line
or crosswalk. Remain stopped unless turns are allowed on red.
Yellow light: A yellow light or arrow are cautions warning that the light is about to change. If
you have not entered the intersection, stop. If you are already in the intersection, go through it.
Do not speed up to beat the light.
Green Arrow: You are permitted to drive in a lane marked with a green arrow signal.
Advantages of traffic signals:
Properly designed traffic signals have the following uses:
 They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of
most of the intersections at grade.
 They reduce certain types of accidents, notably the right-angled collisions.

 Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at the signalized intersection.
 The signals allow crossing of the heavy traffic flow with safely.
 Signals provide a chance to crossing traffic of minor road to cross the path of
continuous flow of traffic stream at reasonable intervals of time
 Automatic traffic signal may work out to be economical when compared to manual
control.
Disadvantages of traffic signals:
 The rear-end collisions may increase.

 Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control system.
 Failure of the signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause
confusion to the road users.

Figure 6.4: Traffic signals
Type of traffic signal
The signals are classified into the following types:
1. Traffic control signals

a) Fixed-time signals
b) Manually operated signals
c) Traffic actuated (automatic) signal
2. Pedestrian signal
3. Special traffic signal

The RED light is meant for STOP, the GREEN light is meant for GO and the AMBER
or YELLOW light allows the CLEARABCE TIME for the vehicles which enter the
intersection area by the end of green time, to clear off.
FIXED-TIME SIGNALS or pre-timed signals are set to repeat regularly a cycle of
red, amber and green lights. The timing of each phase of the cycle is predetermined
based on the traffic studies and they are the simplest type of automatic traffic signals
which are electrically operated. The main drawback of the signal is that sometimes the
traffic flow on one road may be almost nil and traffic on the cross road may be quite
heavy.
TRAFFIC ACTUATED SIGNALS are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle are
changed according to traffic demand.
Vehicle Actuated Signal
In fully actuated traffic signals the detectors and a computer assigns the right of way for
traffic movements on the basis of demand and pre-determined programming. But these
are very costly to be installed at all intersections.
Semi vehicle Actuated Signal
In semi-actuated traffic signals the normal green phase of an approach may be extended
up to a certain period of time for allowing a few more vehicles approaching closely, to
clear off the intersection with the help of detectors installed at the approaches.
MANUALLY OPERATED SIGNALS
This type of signal operated by manually. normally traffic police can operate this type
signals.
PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL
Pedestrian signals are meant to give the right of way to pedestrians to cross a road during the
“walk period” when the vehicular traffic shall be stopped by red or stop signal on the traffic
signals of the road.

Webster’s Method
In this method, the optimum signal cycle time (co) corresponding to the least total delay
to the vehicle at the intersection (with signal) has been worked out. This is a rational
method and the field study for this method consists of the following:
1. The saturation flow “s” per unit time

2. The normal flow, on its approach during the design hour (fi)
Based on the higher value of normal flow and the ratio x1=f1/s1 and x2= f2/s2
are determined on the approach road-1 and road-2.
Isolated Traffic Signal Design Terms:

1. Sequence- 5. Inter green pd (i)
Green>Amber>Red>Red/ 6. Optimum cycle length (C0)
Amber 7. Lost time (L)
2. Phase 8. Effective green time (g)
3. Filter signals 9. All red pd.
4. Amber pd/clearance time (a) 10. Saturation flow (S)
Phasing
Conflicts are prevented by a separation in time by a procedure called phasing.
Definition:
A Phase is the sequence of conditions applied to one or more streams of traffic, which
during the cycle receive simultaneous identical signal indications. Examples
 2-phase system
 3-phase system
 4-phase system
 The number of phases should be kept to a minimum in order to minimize delay.
Cycle (cycle length): the time in seconds required for one complete colour sequence of
signal indication.

Signal aspects
 The indication given by a signal is known as the signal aspect.

 The usual sequence of signal aspects or indications is the UK is:
1. Red 3. Green and
2. Red/Amber 4. Amber
The amber period is given a standard duration of 3 seconds and the red/amber 2 seconds.
Inter-green period
1. The period between one phase losing right of way and the next phase gaining right
of way is known as the inter-green period. In other words, it is the period between
the termination of green on one phase and the commencement of green on the next
phase
2. The Department of Transport in the UK recommends an inter-green period between
5 to 12 s for a distance of 9 to 74m for straight ahead movements.
3. Signals are located on higher speed roads; in this case a longer inter-green period
provides a margin of safety for vehicles which are unable to stop on the termination
of green.

Lost time due to change of phases:
It is the time when all vehicle movement is prohibited. Lost time due to change of phases
=Inter-green period - 3 s (amber time) Thus, this lost time increases as the inter-green
period increases.
Saturation flow:
1. It is the maximum flow, expressed in PCU’s that can be discharged from a traffic
lane when there is a continuous green indication and a continuous queue on the
approach.
2. The saturation flow is independent of traffic and control factors.
Determination of the effective green time.
 The number of vehicles crossing the stop line depends on:

a) Traffic composition
b) Saturation flow
c) The effective green time.
 Definitions:
✓ Effective green time is the time during which the signal is effectively green.
✓ A cycle is a complete sequence of signal indications, green, red and amber.
 The concept of effective green time was introduced as a means of determining the
number of vehicles that could cross a stop line over the whole of the cycle.
 In practice flow cannot commence or terminated instantly. Note: During amber
time vehicles may cross the stop line!
Lost time
 Starting lost time: the time interval between the commencement of green and the
commencement of effective green.
 End lost time: the time interval between the termination of effective green and the
termination of the amber period.
 In practice:
✓ lost time per phase = starting lost time + end lost time
✓ 2 seconds Amber time = 3 seconds

Actual green time +amber period = Effective green time+ lost time
Effective green time = Actual green time + amber time – lost time
Effective green time = Actual green time + 3 sec. – 2 sec.
figure 6.5: shows typical lane groups used for analysis
Optimum Cycle Time for an Intersection (Co)
The O.C.T. depends on traffic conditions. The cycle time is longer when the intersection
is heavily trafficked
 Degree of trafficking
✓ The degree of trafficking of an approach (y)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ

𝑦=
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ
(1.5 L + 5)
𝐶𝑜 =
(1 − Y)
where,
C0 = Optimum cycle time (s)

L = Total lost time per cycle (s)
Y = y1 + y2 .... + yn, { y1 + y2 .... + yn are the maximum ratios of flow to saturation
flow for phases 1, 2,... n (i.e. q / s, where q is the flow and s is the saturation flow)}.
Examples: The average normal flow of traffic on cross road A and B during design period are
540 and 360 PCU per hr. the saturation flow values on the roads A and B are estimated as 1400
and 1180 PCU per hr. respectively. The All-Red time required for pedestrian crossing is 12
secs. Determine two-phase traffic signal by Webster’s method.
Solution:
YA= fA/sA =540/1400 = 0.3857
YB= fB/sB =360/1180 = 0.3051
Y=YA+YB = 0.3857+0.3051
= 0.690
Lost in time ‘L’
L = 2n+R
Where,
n-number of phases
=2
L=2x2+12= 16 secs.
Optimum cycle time (Co)

(1.5 L + 5)
𝐶𝑜 =
(1 − Y)
(1.5 x16 + 5)
𝐶𝑜 = =93.55 sec = 94 sec.
(1−0.690)
Calculate the green time in proportion to y values of the approaches:
Green time, GA = 0.3857x(94-16)/0.69 = 44 sec
Green time, GB = 0.3051x(94-16)/0.69 = 34 sec
Draw the cycle diagram as shown below:
Green = 44s Yellow=3s Red =47s R/Y=2s
Red = 44s R/Y=3s Green=34s Y=2s
References:
[6] Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA)Manual,2013

EXERCISE
1. List out any four regulatory signs

2. Discuss about various traffic control devices.
3. What are the various types of traffic markings commonly used? What are the uses of each?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of traffic signals? Briefly explain various types
of traffic signals.
5. Write down the formula to calculate optimum cycle time.

CHAPTER SEVEN
HIGHWAY CAPACITY
7.1. INTRODUCTION
The fundamental diagram of traffic flow was used in Chapter 6 to illustrate the relationship
between flow and density. It was shown that traffic flows reasonably well when the flow rate
is less than at capacity, but excessive delay and congestion can occur when the flow rate is at
or near capacity. This phenomenon is a primary consideration in the planning and design of
highway facilities, because a main objective is to design or plan facilities that will operate at
flow rates below their optimum rates. This objective can be achieved when a good estimate of
the optimum flow of a facility can be made. Capacity analysis therefore involves the
quantitative evaluation of the capability of a road section to carry traffic, and it uses a set of
procedures to determine the maximum flow of traffic that a given section of highway will carry
under prevailing roadway traffic and control conditions.
7.2. CAPACITY OF TWO-WAY HIGHWAY
Generally, HCM 2000 defines capacity as: “The capacity of the facility is the maximum hourly
rate at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or a uniform
section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic, and
control conditions”.
NB. HCM = Highway Capacity Manual – It is a standard for capacity analysis
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) has defined two categories of highway facilities
1) Uninterrupted flow facilities
 Expressways
 Freeways
 Multilane highways
 Two-lane highways
2) Interrupted flow facilities
 Urban streets with signalized or unsignalized intersections
Highway capacity has defined freeways, multilane highways and two-lane highways as given
below.
 Freeways- divided highway facility having 2 or more lanes with full access
controlled.

 Multilane highways- 4 or 6 lanes with physical medians in between but
sometimes it may be undivided also.
 Two-lane highways- undivided highway with only 2 lanes.
The two-lane, two-way rural highway is the only type of highway link on which traffic in one
direction has a distinct operational impact on traffic in the other direction. Rural two-lane
highways serve two primary functions in the nation’s highway network:
▪ Mobility
▪ Accessibility
Many two-lane rural highways, however, serve low volumes, sometimes under 100 veh/day.
The primary function of such highways is to provide for basic all-weather access to remote or
sparsely-developed areas. Because of the broad diversity of use on these highways, HCM 2000
has created two distinct classes of rural two-lane, two-way highways:
✓ Class I: These are highways on which motorists expect to travel at relatively high
speeds, including major intercity routes, primary arterials, and daily commuter routes.
✓ Class II: These are highways on which motorists do not necessarily expect to travel at
high speeds, including access routes, scenic and recreational routes that are not primary
arterials, and routes through rugged terrain.
The capacity of a two-lane highway under base conditions is now established as 3200 pc/h in
both directions, with a maximum of 1700 pc/h in one direction. The base conditions for which
this capacity is defined include:
❖ 3.6 m (or greater) lanes
❖ 1.8 m (or greater) usable shoulders
❖ Level terrain
❖ No heavy vehicles
❖ No traffic interruptions
❖ 50/50 directional split of traffic
As with all capacity values, these standards reflect "reasonable expectancy" (i.e., most two-
lane highway segments operating under base conditions should be able to achieve such
capacities most of the time). Isolated observations of higher volumes do not negate the
standard.

7.3. LEVEL OF SERVICE OF HIGHWAY [L-O-S]
Level of Service (LOS) expresses the performance of a highway at traffic volumes less than
capacity.
 Level of service’ describes in a qualitative way the operational conditions for traffic
from the viewpoint of the road user.
 The Highway Capacity Manual lists six levels of service ranging from A (best) to F
(worst).


 A: Free flow, low traffic, high speed
 B: Stable flow, noticeable traffic
 C: Stable flow, traffic interactions,
 D: Unstable flow, High density, movement restrictions
 E: Unstable flow, lower speed, volume is nearly equal to capacity, little
freedom
 F: Unstable flow, no freedom, traffic volume can drop to zero, stop & go
Figure 7.1 LOS Diagrams
Capacity and level of service for freeways

In order to find LOS of freeways and to check whether the road reaches its capacity or not, the
following steps are usually carried out according to HCM 2010.
Step-1: determine FFS for current traffic conditions
FFS for current traffic conditions can be determined using the equation given below.
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID
Where,
FFS = Estimated free-flow speed in (km/h)
BFFS = Estimated free-flow speed in (km/h), for base conditions
fLW = adjustment for lane width in (km/h)
fLC= adjustment for lateral clearance in (km/h)

fN = adjustment for number of lanes in (km/h)
fID =adjustment for interchange density in (km/h)
The base or ideal conditions of a freeway are given below:

 12 ft minimum lane widths
 6 ft minimum right shoulder clearance
 2 ft minimum median lateral clearance
 Only passenger cars in the stream
 5 or more lanes in each direction
 2 mi. or more interchange spacing
 Level terrain
 Driver population of mostly familiar users
Factors that affects LOS of a freeway section:
 Lane Widths  Grade
 Right Shoulder Clearance  Driver Population
 Traffic Composition  Interchange Spacing
Table 7.1: Adjustment of lane width, fLW
Lane width (m) Reduction in FFS, fLW (km/h)

3.6 0.0
3.5 1.0
3.4 2.1
3.3 3.1
3.2 5.6
3.1 8.1
3.0 10.6

Table 7.2: Adjustment in right side clearance, fLC
Right side Reduction in FFS, fLC (km/h), Lanes in one direction

lateral clearance
(m) 2 3 4 ≥5
≥ 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2
1.2 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.4
0.9 2.9 1.9 1.0 0.6
0.6 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.8
0.3 4.8 3.2 1.6 1.1
0.0 5.8 3.9 1.9 1.3
Table 7.3: Adjustment for Number of lanes on Urban Freeways, fN
Number of lanes
Reduction in FFS, fN (km/h)
(One direction)
≥5 0.0
4 2.4
3 4.8
2 7.3
Note: for all rural freeway segment fN is 0.00

Table 7.4: Adjustment for interchange density, fID
Interchanges per
Reduction in FFS, fID (km/h)
km
≤ 0.3 0.0
0.4 1.1
0.5 2.1
0.6 3.9
0.7 5.0
0.8 6.0
0.9 8.1
1.0 9.2
1.1 10.2
≥ 1.2 12.1

ET and ER can be determined from the following table
Table 7.5: passenger car equivalent (PCE) foe extended freeway segments
Types of terrain
Factor
level Rolling Mountainous
ET (trucks & buses) 1.5 2.5 4.5
ER (RVs) 1.2 2.0 4.0
Step-2: determine the 15 min. passenger car equivalent (PCE) flow rate
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝑃 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉
Where,
Vp= 15-min passenger car equivalent flow rate (veh/h/lane)

V= hourly volume (veh/h)
PHF= peak hour factor
N= number of lanes
fHV=heavy vehicle adjustment factor and
fp=driver population factor (usually use fp=1.00)
𝑉
𝑃𝐻𝐹 =
𝑉15 × 4
Where,
𝑉15=maximum 15-min flow rate within hour of analaysis and
4 =number of 15-min period per hour
1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 (𝐸𝑇 − 1) + 𝑃𝑅 (𝐸𝑅 − 1)
Where,
PT=proportion of trucks and buses in the traffic stream
PR= proportion of recreational vehicles in the traffic stream
ET=passenger car equivalent for trucks and buses
ER=passenger car equivalent for recreational vehicles

Step-3: determine level of service (LOS) using equation or graph
𝑉𝑝
𝐷=
𝑆
Where,
D= density (veh/km)
S= average traffic stream speed (kmph)
Vp = flow rate (veh/hr/lane)
Figure 7.6: Speed-flow curves and LOS for basic freeway segments

References:
[6] Ethiopian Road Authority(ERA)Manual,2013
EXERCISE
1. Differentiate between capacity and level of service.
2. How many levels of service are defined by HCM?
3. A rural freeway has an ideal free-flow speed of 120 km/h and two 3.6 m lanes in
each direction, with right shoulder lateral clearance of 1.2 m. Interchanges are
spaced approximately 5 km apart. Traffic consists of 10 percent trucks and buses
and 8 percent recreational vehicles. The adjustment for driver population factor is
estimated to be 0.80. If the maximum 15-min flow rate is 1,760 veh/h, what is the
level of service on a 1.7 km long 3.1 percent upgrade?

DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY of Technology
Semester-I: transport Engineering (CEng3181)
Assignment-i
Instructions:
❖ You have to submit this Assignment to concern the course instructors within after
completion of the chapter syllabus.
❖ No relaxation is allowed in any situation on submission date.
❖ Copying from others will ensure NEGATIVE POINTS. Assume missing data
1. Discuss two points related to the importance of transportation with examples.

2. Explain the role of transportation for the development of rural areas in Ethiopia and write
the different modes of transport.
3. How do the vehicle characteristics features affect road geometric elements?
4. Discuss the human factors governing road user behaviour.
5. Write in detail the various road user characteristics with Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA-
2013)
6. A city divided in three zones and the inter-zonal travel characteristics are given in table
below.
D Travel time (min)
O Trips
produced
1 2 3
2 4 6 140
1
4 2 8 330
2
6 8 2 280
3
300 270 180 750
Trips attracted
Impedance (travel
2 4 6 8
times (min))
10 7 6 5
Friction factor
Distribute the trips between the zones and adjust the attractions. Assume Kij = 1.0 for all
zones
7. Use Growth Factor Methods to estimate the trips being made from different zones to
within or outside the zones for the given network as below. The values in BOLD are growth
factors in the zone for horizon year.
55
50 Z-I Z-II
20 100
100
3
2
10 15 10
20
100
100 2
20 60
3
45
Z-IV Z-III


Assignment-ii
Instructions:
1. Write in short, the significance and scope of traffic engineering in today’s context.
2. Enlist different methods of spot speed study and explain with sketch any one method. What
are the applications of spot speed study?
3. The following data were obtained from spot speed studies carrying out a city road during a
certain period of time.
Speed Range
0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 >70
(kmph)
No of
45 230 275 500 680 525 430 290 110 25 8 2
vehicles
a) Draw a cumulative frequency graph

b) Determine most frequency occurring speed
c) Determine lower and upper values of speed limit
d) Determine design speed to check highway geometric elements
4. a) What are the factors that influence the PCU values for vehicles? Give at least four typical
values as recommended by ERA.
b) A four-legged intersection on level ground and with normal environment has peak
hourly volumes (pcu/hr) as shown below. Draw with neat sketch turning movement
traffic diagram.

North (N) South (S) East (E) West (W)
ST LT RT ST LT RT ST LT RT ST LT RT
550 50 100 370 30 300 430 40 150 365 35 100
5. Discuss briefly different causes of accidents. Explain various measures for the reduction in
accident rates.
6. Two sets of students are collecting traffic data at two sections, xx and yy, of a highway 460
m apart. Observations at xx show that five vehicles passed that section at intervals of 3, 4,
3, and 5 sec, respectively. If the speeds of the vehicles were 80, 70, 60, 55, and 50 km/h,
respectively, draw a schematic showing the locations of the vehicles 20 sec after the first
vehicle passed section xx. Also determine (a) the time mean speed, (b) the space mean
speed, and (c) the density on the highway.
7. Assume linear relationship exists between speed and density. If on an urban road it is noted
that the free mean speed is 80 kmph and the jam density is 72 vpkm.
(i) Determine the speed at maximum flow and the maximum flow expected on this
(ii) Develop speed-density, flow-density and speed-flow equations as per Geenshield’s
model
(iii)Sketch the relationships between the traffic flow parameters in (iii) and indicate
important traffic flow parameters on it. section of the road.
(iv) Suppose that flow is 75% of capacity, what are the possible flow speeds? Also find
out the headway distance in each case.
8. A two-lane urban road with one-way traffic has a maximum capacity of 1800 vehicles/hour
and the jam density is 200 vehicles/km. The speed versus density relationship is linear.
Calculate the density if a traffic volume of 1000 vehicles/hour.
9. A section of a major highway has a speed-flow relationship of the form q =𝒂𝒖 +b𝒖𝟐 . It is
known that the capacity is 2925 veh/hr and the corresponding speed of traffic is 30 kmph.
Determine the speed when the flow is 1400 veh/hr and the free flow speed.
10. Results of traffic flow studies on a highway indicate that the flow-density relationship can
be described by the expression: q =𝐚𝐤 + 𝐛𝐤 𝟐
Speed
5 10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 60
(kmph)
Density
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
(vpkm)

Determine:
a) Density at maximum flow
b) Speed at maximum flow
c) Maximum volume
d) Density and flow corresponding to a density of 55 kmph
e) The density when the flow is 75% of its capacity.
11. Develop traffic stream flow parameter diagrams for the following data using Speed-density
relationship:
−𝑘⁄𝑘
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 𝑒 𝑗
Where, u= space mean speed

𝑢𝑓 = free mean speed
𝑘𝑗 = jam density
Speed
80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20
(kmph)
Density
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
(vpkm)
Determine:
f) Free mean speed
g) Jam density
h) Capacity


Assignment-iii
Instructions:
1. Write any four object markings used for a road.

2. With neat sketches, explain the various types of road markings commonly used.
3. A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection having a North-South and
an East-West road where only straight-head is permitted. The design flow hours from the
various arms and the saturation flows for these arms are given in the following table.
Details on flow North South East West

Design hour
810 380 770 950
flow (PCU/ hr.)
Saturation flow
2500 1900 2800 3100
(PCU/ hr
Design the traffic signal with timing diagram and phase diagram. Assume relevant data.
4. A new 7.0 m segment of four-lane freeway facility with a right of way 50.0 m is being
planned. Considering the following design data:
o Base free-flow speed = 110 km/h
o Lane width =3.4 m
o Right side lateral clearance = 1.2 m
o Two cloverleaf interchanges in 4 km distance
o Proportion of trucks and buses =10%
o Proportion of recreational vehicles =5%

o Commuter traffic (regular users)
o Passenger car equivalent for truck % buses =2.5
o Passenger car equivalent for recreational vehicles =2.0
o PHF = 0.85
o Driver population adjustment factor =1.0
o Directional peak-hour demand volume = 2000 veh/h
Determine
✓ Free flow speed for this section of freeway (to the nearest kmph).
✓ The 15-minute passenger car unit flow rate (vp in vph).
✓ The freeway section LOS.

EXPERIMENTS FORMATS

Transport Engineering (CEng3181)
Field data sheet-I
CLASSIFIED TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNT SURVEY
Location: Direction: From: To:
Day and Date: Group: section:
Cars/mini Animal 10 min

Time Others PCU/10
bus /land Buses Trucks Bajaj Motorcycle drawn Cycle vehicle PH F
(min) (specify) min
cruiser vehicles count
2:00-2:10
2:10-2:20
2:20-2:30
2:30-2:40
2:40-2:50
2:50-3:00


Field data sheet-ii
TURNING MOVEMENT COUNT SURVEY
Location: Direction: From: To:
Day and Date: Group: section:
Leg A
Time Leg C Leg D

Leg B
(min)
Ca Baj 2W Pedestria Other Baj 2W Truck Pedestria Baj 2W Pedestria Other
Truck Car Others Car Truck
r aj H n s aj H s n aj H n s

Leg B
Time Leg C Leg D

Leg A
(min)
Ba 2W Pedestria Other Baj 2W Truck Pedestria Baj 2W Pedestria Other
Car Truck Car Others Car Truck
jaj H n s aj H s n aj H n s

Leg C
Time Leg B Leg D

Leg A
(min)
Ba 2W Pedestria Other Baj 2W Truck Pedestria Baj 2W Pedestria Other
Car Truck Car Others Car Truck
jaj H n s aj H s n aj H n s

Leg D
Leg B Leg C
Time Leg A
(min) Ca Baj 2W Pedestria Other Baj 2W Truck Pedestria Baj 2W Pedestria Other
Truck Car Others Car Truck
r aj H n s aj H s n aj H n s
*leg A, B, C and D can be specifying the Name also

ANSWERS
Answer for chapter-01

1.
Explanation:
 The main objective of a good transportation system is to provide safe, economical,
efficient transportation for the facility of passengers and the transport of goods.
2.
Explanation:
 The four main modes of transport are:
✓ Roadway transport-car, minibus, …
✓ Railway transport- bots
✓ Waterway transport-ships
✓ Airway transport-air plane, helicopters
3.
Explanation:
The advantages and disadvantages of roadway transport are:
 Door to door service  Seasonal nature (depends on
 Service in rural areas whether condition)
 Flexible service  Accidents and breakdowns
 Suitable for short distance  Unsuitable for long distance and
 Rapid speed bulky traffic
 Private owned vehicles  Luck of organization
 Feeder to other mode of
transport
4.
Explanation:
 The other 3 types of transport systems have to depend upon the roads to reach
their destination point from the terminals that is railway station, harbours and
airports.


1.
Explanation:
 The two types of vehicle characteristics are:
✓ Statics
✓ Dynamics
2.
Explanation:
 Statics characteristics  Dynamics characteristics
✓ Width ✓ Design speed
✓ Length ✓ Power of vehicle
✓ Height ✓ Braking
✓ Weight
3.
Explanation:
 The visibility, hearing and reaction time are related to the physical conditions of
the road, they are covered under physical type.
4. Explanation:
 The total reaction time of the driver has been split into four major parts of time, based
on PIEV theory.
Based on the PIEV theory, the reaction time of the driver is the sum of perception time,
intellection time, emotion time and volition time.
5.
Explanation:
 The clearance of structures like over bridges and under bridges mainly depends
on the height of the vehicle.


1.
Explanation
 The origin and destination survey carried out mainly due to:
✓ plan the road network facilities for vehicular traffic,
✓ plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the trip demand of
commuters
✓ to establish the design standards for the road, bridges and culverts along the
route
✓ to locate the terminals and plan the terminal facilities
✓ to plan the transportation system and mass transit facilities in cities including
routes and schedules of operation
✓ to judge adequacy of existing routes and to use in planning new networks of
roads.
2.
Explanation:
 Design of pavement
 Planning of road network
 Geometric design of highways
 Traffic controls and regulations
3.
Explanation:
 To obtain the details of nature of traffic (at present and in future)
 To determine the facilities provide on road
 To collect the data for the geometric design of highways
 To provide speed control arrangements etc..
4.
Explanation:
 Traffic volume studies  Traffic flow study
 Spot speed studies  Accident analysis study
 Origin and destination studies  Parking study

5.
Explanation:
 Home-based trips: a trip for which the purpose is to go from home to other trips or
from other trips to home.
 Non-home-based trips: a trip for which neither trip end is at home.
 Trip production: A production is the home end of any trip that has one end at the
home (i.e. of a home base trip), or is the origin of a trip with neither end home based
(i.e. of a non – home based trip).
 Trip attraction: An attraction is the non‐home end of a home‐based trip, and is the
destination of a trip with neither end home‐based (i.e. of a non‐home‐based trip).
 Origin: point at which a trip begins
 Destination: point at which a trip ends
6. 0.444
7.
Explanation
 The methods of growth factors of trip distribution are:
✓ Uniform growth factor
✓ Average growth factor
✓ Fratar method
8.
Explanation
Factors Affecting Trip Production
 At the HH and individual level, the following are used in several studies
✓ Income ✓ Family size
✓ Car ownership ✓ age
✓ Household structure ✓ gender
(number of employed ✓ employed
persons)


1.
Explanation:
 The branch of engineering that deals with improvement of traffic performance,
traffic studies and traffic network are called as traffic engineering, it also includes
geometric design and other specifications.
2.
Explanation:
 The objective of traffic engineering is:
✓ to achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic with fewer accidents and
pedestrians
✓ to increase the capacity of highways
✓ to reduce the delay in road transport and to improve the speed
✓ to reduce the traffic problems
3.
Explanation:
 The “3-Es” in traffic engineering represent Engineering, Education and
Enforcement.
4.
Explanation:
 The traffic that is prepared based on 365 days of the year is called as AADT or
annual average daily traffic.
5.
Explanation:
 The main cause of accidents in urban areas is improper planning, no adequate
facilities and increase of traffic.
6.
Explanation:
 Manual count
 Automatic count
7. Explanation:

8.
Explanation:
 In Ethiopia the traffic is heterogeneous so there are many types of vehicles, so
every vehicle is expressed with the same unit PCU which means passenger car
unit.
9.
Explanation:
 There are two types of studies conducted for speed, they are (i) spot studies (ii)
speed and delay studies.

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Debre-Tabor University CEng3181: Transport Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering 2020-2021

Module: Transport Engineering (CEng3181)

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) i

Teaching scheme Total credits Examination scheme

Legends: L-Lecture; T-Tutorial; P-Practical; FTE-Final Term Examination and CA-Continuous

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) i

Major learning outcomes

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) ii

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) iii

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) iv

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) v

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) vi

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

1.2. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT

Followings are the points of importance of transport.

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 1

1.3. MODES OF TRANSPORT

A mode of transport is a technological solution that used a fundamentally different vehicle,

The four main modes of transport are:

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 2

Figure 1.1: Roadway Transport

Table 1.1: The advantages and disadvantages of roadway transport

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 3

Figure 1.2: Railway Transport

Table 1.2: The advantages and disadvantages of railway transport

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 4

Figure 1.3: Waterway Transport

Table 1.3: The advantages and disadvantages of waterway transport

Figure 1.4: Airway Transport

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 5

1.4. PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

i. Infrastructure iv. Control

ii. Vehicles v. Communications

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 6

Figure 1.6: vehicles of different transportation modes

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 2

1. What are the main objectives of transportation?

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD AND ROAD USERS

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 4

Perception-reaction time is an important factor in the determination of braking distances, which

Perception Identification Emotion Volition

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 5

Figure 2.1: Pedestrian characteristics at crossing facilities in Addis Ababa

Figure 2.2: Bicycle facilities

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 6

Static characteristics of vehicle includes the vehicle dimensions, weight, axle

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 7

S.No Dimension Effect

a) Design of horizontal alignment

a) Clearance to be provided under

a) Thickness of the pavement

ii. Weight, axle configuration etc.

iii. Turning radius and turning path

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 8

ii. Acceleration Characteristics

As far as highway safety is concerned, the braking performance and deceleration

A knowledge of the power performance of a vehicle is necessary to determine the vehicle

Lecturer: Amare T. (M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering) 9