2021 - Ruijun Wang-A Critical Review On The Use of Copper Slag (CS) As A Substitute Constituent in Concrete

Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
A critical review on the use of copper slag (CS) as a substitute constituent

in concrete
Ruijun Wang, Qi Shi, Yang Li ⇑, Zhiliang Cao, Zheng Si
Institute of Water Resources and Hydro-electric Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710048, China
h i g h l i g h t s
The influences of substitution rate, substitution method and particle size on the performance of CS concrete are reviewed.
The influence of adding CS into concrete on the workability, mechanical properties and durability of concrete is evaluated.
The environmental impact of CS as a building material is evaluated.
On the basis of the gap analysis of previous studies, the development direction of CS concrete in the future is pointed out.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In recent decades, CO2 emissions from concrete production account for 5% of the global total carbon
Received 24 January 2021 emissions. At the same time, the amount of industrial waste is also increasing year by year. As a
Received in revised form 11 April 2021 non-toxic and harmless industrial waste, copper slag (CS) has been a great concern for researchers as a
Accepted 12 April 2021
type of building material in recent years. This paper mainly reviews the relevant literature published
Available online 30 April 2021
in the past decade; critically discusses the performance of CS and the influence of partial replacement
of CS on performance; and performs a global analysis, pointing out the direction for the future research
Keywords:
on CS concrete. To make the conclusion comprehensive and reliable, this paper has consulted more than
Copper slag
Aggregate
90 related studies. The fresh performance, mechanical property and durability of CS concrete are
Concrete discussed from three aspects of particle size, replacement rate and replacement method. In conclusion,
Strength as a partial replacement of cement or aggregate in concrete, CS can appropriately improve the strength,
Durability chloride ion corrosion resistance, sulphate corrosion resistance, carbonation resistance and
Environmental impact freezing–thawing resistance of concrete. On the basis of research that describes the durability and
compressive strength of CS concrete, the particle size and replacement ratio of CS in concrete preparation
should be below 10 mm and 40%, respectively. According to the environmental impact analysis, using CS
as a partial substitute can improve the environmental impact, although the production process still needs
to be improved. Global analysis of results indicates that the long-term mechanical properties and
durability of CS concrete need to be further studied.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Physical and chemical properties of CS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Fresh properties of concrete produced with CS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Mechanical properties of concrete produced with CS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Li).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123371
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371
4.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.2. Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4. Elastic modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5. Durability of concrete produced with CS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.1. Water absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2. Resistance to chloride ion penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.3. Sulphate and acid resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.4. Carbonation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.5. Freezing–thawing resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.6. Electrical conductivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6. Environmental impact of CS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7. Global analysis of results and future recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1. Introduction environmental pollution, greenhouse effect and other environmen-

tal protection issues [2]. Therefore, the impact of cement on the
Concrete has a hard structure and a long life in service. It is the environment can not be underestimated. With the deepening of
most widely used building material in recent years. CO2 emitted by this concept, the number of scholars studying the direction of
cement manufacturing has accounted for a significant portion of ‘green concrete’ has increased year by year.
greenhouse gases emissions [1]. In the manufacturing process of Alternative feedstocks for chemicals, materials and energy have
Portland cement, the combustion and calcination method of fossil turned into one of this century’s key challenges from the view of
fuel is an important factor that affects the emission of CO2. Since sustainable development [3]. The amount of natural resource con-
the 20th century, people have begun to pay more attention to verted into industrial waste is still increasing year by year. From
the perspective of sustainable development, the reuse of industrial
by-products is the most economic and safe measure [4]. For exam-
ple, copper slag (CS) can be used as aggregate in hot mix asphalt
pavements [5]. In comparison with other industries, the construc-
tion industry consumes more waste materials, which is undoubt-
edly the most promising market for the recycling of waste
materials. With the increase in the amount of replacement, the
compressive strength of concrete can be increased by the use of
certain industrial waste instead of concrete aggregate [6–9]. The
addition of such waste materials, such as steel slag and CS, to con-
crete can improve the compressibility and corrosion resistance of
the aggregate, thereby enhancing the durability of the concrete
[10]. These improvements have achieved sustainable development
and improved the performance of concrete to some extent [11].
Industrial by-products (e.g. waste sand, steel slag, CS, copper-
nickel slag, imperial smelting furnace slag, electric furnace fer-
ronickel slag (EAFs), blast furnace slag (BFS), bottom ash, furnace
bottom ash and low-calcium fly ash (FA)) have been extensively
studied by many researchers, and their effects have proven to be
advantageous compared with conventional materials [12–22].
The present paper focuses on the application of CS to concrete in
industrial waste by considering different aspects.
Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of use of CS in concrete-based materials [25,27–
28,31,55–57,68–70,95].
Advantages Disadvantages
Protect the environment and Smoother particle surface
reduce carbon dioxide emissions
Non-toxic and harmless industrial The smaller the particle size of
waste that can be widely used CS is, the longer the setting time
will be
Potential substitutes for concrete High density will bring adverse
materials, reducing consumption effects on the performance of
Fig. 1. Number of publications annually on the use of CS in concrete and mortar: (a)
of natural materials concrete
the total number of publications; (b) the breakdown in publications by application
Increased strength Low free lime content
in a concrete-based material. The data were obtained in 2020 using the current Web
Improved durability Hydration of extended cement
of ScienceDirect 1996 database. The keywords searched for three topics were
Reduce water consumption Fresh concrete vulnerable to
‘‘Copper Slag AND Concrete”, ‘‘Copper Slag AND Mortar” and ‘‘Copper Slag Concrete
bleeding and segregation
AND Mortar”.
2
Table 2
Properties summarised in previous review studies.
References Long-term Leaching Physical Chemical Microstructure Environmental Treatment

behavior test characteristics of characteristics of impacts of CS
Chemical Physical Physical and
raw material raw material
treatment treatment chemical
only only treatment
p p p p
[28] – – – – –
p p p
[24] – – – – – –
p p p p
[8] – – – – –
References Fresh properties Mechanical properties Pattern

Workability Bleeding Setting time Compressive Flexural and Elastic Cement Coarse Fine aggregate
strength tensile modulus aggregate
strength
p p p p p
[28] – – – –
p p p p p p p
[24] – –
p p p p p
[8] – – – –
References Durability related properties

Water Chemical Abrasion Shrinkage Freezing– Flame and heat Electrical Use in
absorption attack resistance thawing resistance resistivity geopolymer
resistance resistance
p p p p
[28] – – – –
p p p p p
[24] – – –
[8] – – – – – – – –
Table 3
Physical properties of CS.
Reference [25] [27] [28] [31] [29] [30] [24] [32]

Particle shape Irregular
Appearance Black and Glossy
Specific gravity 3.37 3.45 3.57 3.63 3.45 3.97 3.51
Percentage of voids (%) 43.20 40.00
Bulk density (g/cc) 2.08 3.16–3.87 1.89 2.20 2.80–3.50 2.98
Fineness modulus 3.43 2.73 3.33
Fineness (cm2/g) 1261 1261
Water absorption (%) 0.30–0.40 0.15–0.55 0.35 0.40 0.10 0.36
Initial setting (min) 250 250
Hardness (Mohs) 6–7 5–7
The past decade has seen an increase in the study of CS in con- output studies previous to 2016. Therefore, the research on CS con-
crete (Fig. 1). These studies have demonstrated that CS has become crete in the recent 5–10 years must be further summarised.
an effective material for improving the performance of concrete. Combined with more than 90 articles, this document presents
The use of CS to improve the performance of concrete extends an in-depth literature review that captures the current state of
the life of buildings and decreases the expense of the reconstruc- knowledge regarding the use of CS as different substitutes. The
tion of buildings. Moreover, the Portland cement manufacturing properties of CS remarkably influence its effect. Therefore, the fun-
industry is one of the major sources of carbon emissions (about damental physical and chemical properties were firstly reviewed.
5% of annual global carbon emissions) [23]. The addition of CS to Furthermore, the effect of the CS on the partial substitute of con-
cement-based materials can reduce the amount of cement used crete was examined in terms of the fresh, mechanical and durabil-
in concrete manufacturing, thereby achieving the goals of saving ity properties. CS is used as a replacement for sustainability. Hence,
resources and protecting the environment. This paper briefly sum- a review of the environmental effect in the use of CS was carried
marises the advantages and disadvantages of CS in the use of con- out. Finally, by quantifying the research status of CS concrete, the
crete materials, as shown in Table 1. It can be seen that CS is a clean degree of existing research of CS concrete and the future research
and healthy material. However, excessive or improper grinding focus of CS concrete were also highlighted based on a global
will decrease the performance of concrete, resulting in bleeding analysis.
or a long period of setting time.
Table 2 shows three representative studies on the properties of
CS concrete. However, certain essential properties of concrete (e.g. 2. Physical and chemical properties of CS
electrical resistance) are not included in these papers. Two of three
studies only summarised the substitution of CS for fine aggregate 2.1. Physical properties
[8,24], and none of the three papers involved the study of CS
replacing coarse aggregate. Only Dash et al. [8] summarised the In the current review, the researched physical properties are the
microscopic analysis of the concrete behaviour of CS by scanning specific gravity of CS, particle shape, appearance, bulk density,
electron microscopy (SEM). The latest review covers CS concrete fineness modulus, water absorption, initial setting and hardness.
3
Fig. 2. (a) Flowchart of CS production and use; (b) CS particles [33].
Table 4
Chemical composition of different industrial wastes.
Component CS Steel Slag BFS EAFs FNS Bottom Ash

[6,26,32,35,69] [37–40,53] [37,41–43] [43–45] [46–49] [20–21,51–52]
Fe2O3 46.37–68.29 26.36–35.00 0.46–0.89 35.00–37.60 7.13–40.02 5.50–12.10
SiO2 9.57–28.83 8.04–25.16 32.10–34.87 14.00–34.70 19.80–62.80 38.80–61.80
CaO 0.15–22.25 25.00–41.52 32.02–42.53 21.77–41.70 0.42–4.48 1.58–16.50
Al2O3 0.22–4.43 4.12–10.00 11.52–19.31 6.30–12.00 1.95–12.25 17.80–21.58
CuO 1.20–1.24 0.02
MgO 0.90–1.56 6.17–15.00 5.71–11.76 5.00–9.10 7.79–31.60 1.19–1.70
SO3 0.11–3.26 0.08–2.09 0.91–2.78 0.23 0.03–0.87 0.02–2.40
K2O 0.28–1.15 0.05–0.26 0.35–0.56 0.11 0.02–0.37 1.08–2.50
Na2O 0.58–1.47 0.14–0.20 0.14–0.22 0.20–0.43 0.09–0.33 0.14–1.32
Mn2O3 0.06–0.22
CI 0.018–0.01 0.01
TiO2 0.41–0.34 0.76 0.64–0.97 0.41–2.20 0.80–0.88
P2O5 0.50–1.26 0.02–1.49 0.21 0.20
MnO 2.50 0.001–0.32 2.10–6.00
ZnO 0.85 0.03
NiO 0.01 0.10–0.30
Cr2O3 0.03–0.14 1.83–3.50 1.08–2.75
Note: BFS = Blast Furnace Slag, EAFs = Electric Arc Furnace slag, FNS = Furnace Ferronickel Slag.
The physical properties of CS are presented in Table 3 [24–32]. After molten slag is rapidly cooled by pouring water, then it will form
cooling, CS is irregular in shape, with a dark, glassy look [33]. The a granular amorphous CS [34]. Air-cooled CS has good mechanical
flowchart of making CS and producing CS concrete is shown in properties, such as wear resistance and stability, whereas the por-
Fig. 2. The first part shows that CS can be produced from the manu- ous properties of granular CS dictate its higher water absorption
facturing process of copper; only one production method is shown in and lower unit weight [28]. Mirhosseini et al. [35] found that both
the figure. The second part demonstrates that various forms of CS had strong mechanical properties, such as flexibility and wear
concrete can be created by different grades of grinding CS. resistance.
The cooling mode influences the form of the CS. When the liquid The specific gravity of CS varies between 3.21 g/cm3 and 3.97 g/
3
slag is cooled slowly, it will form a dense and hard crystal; if the cm with different iron contents, which is higher than traditional
4
(continued on next page)

Reference
[59]
[56]
[32]
[62]
[63]
[75]
[75]
[31]
[26]
[35]
[76]
[58]
[54]
[70]
[60]
[60]
[60]
"15.0–21.9% ;1.1% (30% CS)
;0–16.3% (50–100% CS)a
"5.0–12.5% (20–40% CS)
"0–12.0% (0–40% CS)

;7.7% (30% CS)
"14.8–159.0%
"25.0–308.0%
;16.7–66.7%
;16.7–33.3%
;10.0–20.0%
;10.0–50.0%
;1.5–25.3%
;8.3–20.8%
"6.4–30.8%
"0–435.7%
"1.4–4.3%
"0.7–4.3%
"0.1–8.2%
"0–23.1%
"0–7.7%
Results
Fig. 3. EDS analysis of CS [26].
0.35 (Constant slump)

aggregate. The fineness modulus varies from 3.33 to 3.43. Peirovi
et al. [36] showed that the distribution of the size of CS and sand
grading particles is basically the same. As shown in Table 3, the
0.27–0.35
0.27–0.35
0.37–0.57
water absorption of CS is 0.1%–0.55%, which indicates that the
use of CS, instead of the conventional fine aggregate, will decrease
0.27
0.35
0.45
0.45
0.55
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.46
0.42
0.40
0.20
0.30
w/b
the water intake in concrete. The initial setting time is 250 min,
which is more than double the initial setting time for concrete.
OPC + FA + MK
OPC + FA + SF
Concrete type
OPC + GGBFS
The hardness of CS is 5–7 Mohs, which has strong mechanical
OPC + HCFA
OPC + FA
properties.
UHSC
HPC
OPC
OPC
OPC
OPC
OPC
OPC
OPC
HSC
HSC
HSC
2.2. Chemical composition
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight
Table 4 lists the main chemical composition of several common
industrial wastes [37–53]. Chemical constitution of industrial
wastes relies on the kind of metal. The primary oxides present in
50, 60, 80, 100 by weight
CS are Fe2O3 (45%–70%) and SiO2 (10%–30%). For other industrial
0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume

wastes, the sum of the percentages of Fe2O3 is lower than CS, but
0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 by weight

0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight
80, 100 by weight

80, 100 by weight
80, 100 by weight
0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight
0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight

SiO2 is higher than CS. Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) anal-
0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 by weight

100 by volume
0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by weight

ysis (Fig. 3) supports the contents described above, in which Fe3O4
CS replacement ratios (%)
and Fe2SiO4 are the main components in CS [54]. The higher iron
content explains why CS has higher density and hardness than
0, 20, 40 by weight
0, 20, 40 by weight
other industrial wastes. However, its CaO content is lower than

100 by weight
that in steel slag, BFS and EAFs; and Al2O3 is the least content.
75,
40,
60,
60,
70,
The lime content of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) reaches 63%,

50,
20,
40,
40,
50,
whereas the lime content of CS is < 10%. Hence, CS has no strong

25,
10,
20,
20,
30,
Fresh and mechanical properties of concrete using CS as aggregate replacement.
chemical activity as a gelling material [27].

0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
Although CS contains a large number of heavy metals, it is

coarse aggregate
coarse aggregate
recognised as nontoxic and non-reactive substances in several

fine aggregate
aggregate
aggregate
aggregate
aggregate
aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
Replacement
countries [26]. Moreover, in the entire life cycle appraisal con-

ducted, Gursel and Ostertag [55] reported that the environmental
cement
pattern
effect of aggregate is steadily being reduced with the rise in the

fine
fine
fine
fine
fine
rate of CS replacement. In conclusion, the physical and chemical

properties of CS would have a significant effect on the workability,
0.15–0.6 (untreated CS)
mechanical properties and durability of concrete.
3. Fresh properties of concrete produced with CS

CS size (mm)
0.075–4.75
0.15–4.75
0.075–10
0.075–10
0.075–10
0.075–10
0.06–10
0.06–30
0.01–10
0.01–10
0.2–2.5
3.1. Workability
0.1–1
0.1–5
0.1–6
In research investigations, slump is the major property used to

assess the workability of CS concrete (Table 5). As shown in Fig. 4,
Compressive strength
most research has demonstrated that the slump of concrete

Workability (slump
increases monotonously with CS through replacing sand as fine

aggregate. This result was due to the fact that the surface of CS is
(28-day)
Properties
values)
considerably smoother than sand, which decreased the shear

strength of concrete mixture and thus increased its fluidity
Table 5
[56,57]. Water, not absorbed by CS, is used as the lubricant for solid
particles, which decreases the friction between particles. Thus,
5
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.
Table 5 (continued)
Properties CS size (mm) Replacement CS replacement ratios (%) Concrete type w/b Results Reference
pattern
Tensile strength 0.15–4.75 fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 "7.9–11.8% [62]
(28-day)
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by weight HPC 0.35 "13.0–14.8% (20–50% CS) [56]
;3.7–18.5%
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.55 ;2.1–4.2% [63]
"0–6.3% (20, 60% CS)
0.1–1 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight HSC 0.27 ;4.0–30.0% [59]
cement 0, 5, 10, 15 OPC 0.50 ;5.8–9.1% [65]
by weight
0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 "1.5–14.7% [70]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight HSC 0.35 "11.5–57.7% [60]
(Constant slump)
coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume OPC 0.30 "7.9–17.9% [54]
Flexural strength 0.15–0.6 (untreated CS) fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight UHSC 0.20 "4.7–10.5% (0–40% CS) [31]
a
(28-day) & 0.1–1.5 (grinding CS) ;2.6–14.5% (50–100% CS)
"9.5–52.4%b
"2.3% (20% CS)
coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume OPC 0.30 "5.9–19.3% [54]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight HSC 0.27–0.35 "15.8–29.8% [60]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 by weight HSC 0.35 "7.4–33.3% [60]
(Constant slump)
0.1–10 fine aggregate 100 by weight UHPC 0.13 "15.4% [25]
cement 0, 5, 10, 15 by weight OPC 0.50 ;0.5–16.5% [65]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by weight HPC 0.35 ;11.0–30.8% [56]
Elastic modulus cement 0, 5, 13.5+ OPC + CBPD 0.5–0.7 "2–8% (w/b = 0.5, 5% CS; w/b = 0.6, 5% [27]
6
(28-day) 1.5 CBPD by weight CS; w/b = 0.7)

;4–20% (w/b = 0.5, 13.5% CS; w/
b = 0.6, 13.5% CS)
"4.4% (20% CS)
0.15–0.60 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC ;7.1–14.3% [61]
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.45 "0–4.3% [63]
0.15–4.75 fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 "1.7–7.9% [62]
Note:
Rate of change = [1 - (NAC)/CSC ] 100%.
NAC = Natural Aggregate Concrete.

UHPC = Ultra High Performance Concrete.
CBPD = Cement By Pass Dust.
HPC = High Performance Concrete.
HSC = High Strength Concrete.
Increase: "; Decrease: ;.
CSC = CS Concrete.
GGBFS = Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.
HCFA = High Carbon Fly Ash.
a
= data about unground CS heat-cured specimens.
b
= data about ground CS heat-cured specimens.
after the internal chemical reaction of concrete, water still remains heat treatment conditions, a steady increase was observed in the
in the aggregate [58,59]. Al-Jabri et al. [60] observed that the water workability of reactive powder concrete with the increase of CS
demanded for concrete to reach constant slump falls as the content. This result may be due to the smooth surface and poor
replacement rate increases. Although the slump obtained by Dos water absorption of CS glass. Najimi and Pourkhorshidi [65] found
Anjos et al. [61] decreased at a high mixing ratio, the overall work- that CS, as auxiliary cementitious material, had no significant effect
ability was improved due to the smooth surface and increased on its workability. The change of workability is not obvious, which
specific mass of CS particles. However, notably, an extremely high may be because the substitution degree is only between 0% and
CS content may lead to concrete bleeding and other adverse events 15%.
[56,57].
According to the statistical literature in Table 5, a number of
3.2. Bleeding
studies have reported that the workability of concrete with CS as
fine aggregate has no obvious change. Mithun and Narasimhan
Bleeding weakens the durability and strength of concrete [35].
[62] reported that the workability of the alkali-activated slag con-
For all other factors being the same, the specific gravity of CS is
crete (AASC) was slightly increased after being replaced by CS,
nearly 45% higher than normal sand [24]. The influence of the dif-
because the sand used was similar to CS particle size and fineness
ference between CS and natural aggregate density should be con-
modulus and the change of mix proportion and binder. However,
sidered in the design of concrete proportioning. A high CS
Mavroulidou [63] showed that the slump of most of the specimens,
content will lead to bleeding and segregation of fresh concrete
which partially or completely replaced the fine aggregate with CS,
and damage the efficiency of hardened concrete [56,57]. Therefore,
was lower than that of the control mixture due to the sharp shape
the higher the CS content is, the higher the risk of concrete bleed-
of CS aggregate.
ing will be. Gupta and Siddique [58] indicated that the safe replace-
Some researchers have selected CS as a partial replacement for
ment rate of CS for self-compacting concrete (SCC) is up to 60%. In
cement. In the study of Edwin et al. [64], under vacuum mixing and
view of water-to-binder ratio (w/b), air content and other factors,
the replacement rate should be < 40% to avoid bleeding
[24,57,66]. Given the similarities of CS and iron slag, the process
used to avoid the bleeding of iron slag concrete, such as adding sil-
ica fume or limestone as supplementary cementitious materials
into the mixture, is also applicable to CS concrete [67].
3.3. Setting time
Setting time is an important property of fresh concrete. Some

scholars have concluded that the effects of different CS particle
sizes on setting time are also different, and the smaller the particle
size is, the longer the setting time will be [28,68,69]. In addition,
the effect of CS on setting time is reduced by increasing the wash-
ing time [28]. Some scholars have concluded that CS can extend the
initial and final setting times of concrete instead of cement, which
is the reason for the existence of zinc, lead and other heavy metals
in CS [24,65]. Lye et al. [24] considered the retarding performance
Fig. 4. Slump of concrete with CS. of CS in concrete is beneficial for concrete pouring in hot weather.
Fig. 5. Debonding surfaces (D) of concrete specimens containing (a) limestone and (b) CS [74].
7
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of concrete with CS.
4. Mechanical properties of concrete produced with CS with various CS replacement ratios is shown in Fig. 5
[26,56,62,70–72]. From the figure, when the replacement rate is
4.1. Compressive strength less than the optimum level (40%), the compressive strength is
improved. Some studies have shown that when CS replaces fine
CS content has a great influence on the compressive strength of aggregate, the compressive strength increases with the CS substi-
concrete with CS. The 28-day compressive strength of concrete tution rate [31,36,60]. Al-Jabri et al. [60] found that the strength
Fig. 7. Microscopic view of concrete specimens at different CS replacement ratios (50 magnification) [59].
8
of high strength concrete can even be increased more than three decreased by 2%–30% with the addition of CS fine aggregate substi-
times by using CS aggregate. Compressive strength increases for tution rate from 0% to 100% [73,76]. The effect of CS content on
three reasons, as follows. (1) CS particles present high density, compressive strength is further quantified with relative values
abrasiveness and compressibility, which ensures that the concen- and gives a linear relationship (CR for compressive strength and
trated stress can be released in concrete [31,73]. (2) Given that PCs for CS replacement rate). Three reasons were reported for the
the surface of CS is smooth, the sharp edge of CS particles will reduction in strength. (1) As shown in the SEM in Fig. 7, pores,
increase the bond strength of concrete matrix [58,74,75]. (3) CS microcracks and capillary channels in the concrete increase with
can play a role as filler particles to fill the voids of mixture and the CS addition. The weakening of the binding force between the
improve the strength of concrete when the particles are small components in the specimen and the surface of the specimen dur-
[36]. As shown in Fig. 6, CS is used to replace limestone as coarse ing the loading process is due to the premature loss caused by
aggregate concrete. After comparing the representative failure sur- these weak links [59,61]. (2) Heavy metals in CS can delay hydra-
face of the specimen after a compression test, the debonding phe- tion and lead to excessive free water [77]. (3) Surface smoothness
nomenon of CS as coarse aggregate is not obvious compared with and poor water absorption of CS particles also have an adverse
limestone. In addition, compression loss does not extend cracks effect on compressive properties [54].
along the edge of CS aggregate [74]. Generally, cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate can be
As shown in Fig. 5, when the fine aggregate substitution rate is replaced according to different CS particle sizes. A rich set of liter-
higher than 40%, the compressive strength will be reduced [36,57]. ature on CS replacing fine aggregate is available. Therefore, to fur-
For example, researchers have found that the compressive strength ther understand the effects of CS characteristics on compressive
strength, Fig. 8 shows the statistical result on CS concrete compres-
sive strength with particle size and replacement rate under similar
w/b. From this diagram, the average relative compressive strength
of CS concrete with particle size of < 10 mm increases by 20%–50%
compared with that with particle size of < 5 mm. In addition, incor-
porating an appropriate CS content with a maximum particle size
of < 10 mm helps improve the compressive strength of CS concrete.
When the particle size is < 5, 5–12 and 12.5–30 mm, the
compressive strength decreases by 0%–50% [35], increases by
1.4%–159% [60,74] and increases by 3.2%–30.8% [75], respectively.
Therefore, generally, excessive grinding of CS (the maximum parti-
cle size is < 5 mm) will reduce the strength of the specimen,
whereas insufficient grinding (the minimum particle size
is greater than 12 mm) will make CS unable to play its best perfor-
mance. In sum, the best substitution particle size should be 5–
12 mm, and the best substitution rate should be not more than
40%.
Although not as well reported in the literature, CS, instead of
cementitious materials and coarse aggregate, has also shown the
capability to change strength. Researchers have reported that the
compressive strength of the specimens will be reduced by 6%–
50% as CS replaces cementitious materials [35,65]. The result
Fig. 8. Statistical data on the compressive strength of concrete as a function of CS may be caused due to the content of free lime in CS being far less
particle size and CS replacement ratios. Source: [30–32,35–36,56–63,70,75,78].
than Portland cement [27]. However, when finer CS is used as a
Fig. 9. Tensile strength of concrete with various CS replacement ratios.
9
Fig. 10. Relationship among 28-day compressive strength: (a) 28-day tensile strength; (b) 28-day flexural strength of concrete with CS as replacement.
Fig. 11. Flexural strength of concrete with various CS replacement ratios.
10
Fig. 12. Static modulus of elasticity tests: (a) static modulus of elasticity values; (b) correlation of static modulus of elasticity with cube compressive strength [63].
cement substitute for high strength concrete, the compressive decreases with the increase of substitution rate. Wu et al. [73]
strength of the mixture can be improved [68], because a higher considered that the tensile strength of high-strength concrete with
specific surface area can accelerate the hydration of cement. When CS as fine aggregate decreases with the increase of substitution
CS replaces the coarse aggregate, the compressive strength of con- rate, because the internal pores of concrete increase with the CS,
crete can be improved because CS has higher density and better which results in the failure of the weak surface of the structure.
wear resistance compared with natural aggregates [54]. Dos Anjos et al. [61] used sand blasting CS as the fine aggregate
of concrete. The decrease in strength is due to the more impurities
4.2. Tensile strength
Similar behaviours to compressive strength, tensile strength

can also be increased when the replacement rate is less than the
optimum level, as shown in Fig. 9 [60,70,78]. Sharma and Khan
[70] claimed that the tensile strength of SCC is higher than the con-
trol mixture when CS is used as fine aggregate and FA and meta-
kaolin (MK) as auxiliary cementitious materials. Enhancement in
the splitting tensile strength of concrete mixes as CS substitution
may be attributed to the angular shape of CS particles, which
increases the cohesion of the concrete matrix, resulting in an
improvement in the splitting tensile strength [70,78]. At a high
substitution rate, the strength decrease may be due to the increase
of pore volume caused by excessive free water. Generally, the ten-
sile strength of concrete reaches the maximum at a certain substi-
tution rate (40%–50%) [31,56,63]. According to the fitted linear
function given in Fig. 9, the relative tensile strength generally Fig. 13. Effect of CS replacement on water absorption.
11
Table 6
R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.

Durability properties of concrete using CS as aggregate replacement.
Properties CS size (mm) Replacement pattern CS replacement ratio (%) Concrete type w/b Results The optimum replacement Reference
Water absorption 0.1–1.5 (grinding fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, UHSC 0.20 ;4.8–12.5% 60% [31]
CS) 90, 100 by weight
0.15–4.75 fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 ;21.6–32.4% 100% [62]
0.01–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 by weight OPC + FA 0.42 ;1.5–12.3% 20% [58]
fine aggregate 100 by weight OPC 0.37–0.57 "1.2–16.7% [26]
;14.3% (Mix 4)
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by HPC 0.35 ;0–36.8% 40% [56]
weight "42–121% (60–100% CS)
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight HSC 0.35–0.27 ;5.1–23.1% "10.3% (100% CS) 50% [60]
0.075–10 fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by OPC ;18.9–35.1% "21.6–113.5% (100% 40% [57]
weight CS)
0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 ;2.2–23.9% "8.7–17.4% (80–100% 40% [70]
CS)
Chloride ion cement 0, 5, 10, 15 by weight OPC 0.50 ;0.2–2.0% 10% [65]
penetration
0.06–10 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;3.8–28.5% 40% [75]
0.06–30 coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;14.6% 40% [75]
0.1–1.5 (grinding fine aggregate 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, UHSC 0.20 ;3.3–13.3% 60% [31]
CS) 90, 100 by weight
fine aggregate 100 by weight OPC 0.37–0.57 "27.0–66.0% [26]
Sulfate and acid cement 0, 5, 10, 15 by weight OPC 0.50 Change in strength (50 g/L 15% [65]
resistance Na2SO4)
"40.0–56.1%
Expansion ;0.003–0.005%
0.15–4.75 Fine aggregate 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by volume OPC + GGBFS 0.40 Change in strength (10% Change in strength (10% [62]
Na2SO4) "1.6–7.9% (10% MgSO4) Na2SO4) 75% (10% MgSO4) 100%
12
"3.3–8.2% (H2SO4) ;1.6–16.7% (H2SO4) 0%

Change in mass (H2SO4) Change in mass (H2SO4) 100%
;14.3–166.7%
0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 Change in strength (5% Na2SO4) Change in strength [70]
;0–3.1% (5% Na2SO4)
"10.8–21.4% (0–80% CS) 40%
Change in mass Change in mass
"0.02–0.16% 0%
Carbonation 0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.55 "33.3–100% 60% [63]
resistance ;33.3% (80% CS)
0.2–2.5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC 0.45 "200–300% 40% [63]
;40% (40% CS)

0.1–5 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight OPC + FA + MK 0.45 ;5.6–27.8% 100% [70]
0.06–10 fine aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;16.7–66.7% 40% [75]
0.06–30 coarse aggregate 0, 20, 40 by weight OPC 0.45 ;16.7–33.3% 40% [75]
(such as rust) in it, and the higher the replacement rate is, the more
Reference
impurities there will be.

When CS is used as the substitute of coarse aggregate [54,74]
[36]
[75]
[75]
[76]
[70]
and cementitious material [65], the tensile strength change laws
are the same as compressive strength. Generally, a certain relation-
ship exists between the tensile strength and the compressive
strength. The tensile strength from the design point of view can
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
The optimum replacement
be approximately 0.45 f cu [56,57]. The strength of CS concrete in

several studies and the exponential relationship among compres-
sive strength, tensile strength and flexural strength are shown in
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fig. 10. The results obtained are similar to ft = 0.45 f cu .
4.3. Flexural strength

100%
100%
40%
40%
40%
As shown in Fig. 11, most of the results in the literature show

that flexural strength increases with the substitution rate within
a certain range and decreases at a high replacement rate
[25,36,60,63]. Some studies have considered that the addition of
Electrical conductivity
CS decreases flexural strength [56,63]. Al-Jabri et al. [56] observed

Electrical resistivity
;12% (80–100% CS)
that the decrease in the flexural strength of CS instead of fine

Surface scaled
aggregate is also attributed to the low water absorption of CS

;80.0–90.0%
and the high free water content in the mixture. Rajasekar et al.
"7.1–92.9%
Mass loss
"0–16.0%
"143.9%
[31] compared the effect of ground and unground CS on the

Results
"86.8%
strength of ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) under different

curing conditions. The results show that the flexural strength of
the ground CS as fine aggregate concrete increases monotonically,
and the effect of adding CS after grinding is better than that with-
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.46
0.60
out grinding [31].

w/b
Regardless whether CS is the replacement of fine or coarse

aggregate, research shows that, similar to tensile strength, the
OPC + FA + MK
Concrete type
flexural and compressive strengths of specimens have a direct

OPC + HCFA
relationship. Lori et al. [54] concluded that fr = 0.201 fcu, whereas

other scholars have concluded that the flexural strength of con-
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
OPC
OPC
OPC
crete can be approximately 0.75 f cu [57]. As shown in Fig. 10(b),

summarising the strength of CS concrete in several studies
0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight
0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight
indicates that fr = 0.1791 fcu1.0014. In comparison with the Eurocode

0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by weight
2 correlation curve [79], the flexural strength of concrete with CS is

CS replacement ratio (%)
better than ordinary concrete.

0, 20, 40 by weight
0, 20, 40 by weight
4.4. Elastic modulus
CS concrete has similar elastic modulus compared to control

mixture [27,62,63]. Some research results show a slightly increas-
ing trend. Mithun and Narasimhan [62] noted that the elastic mod-
ulus increases slightly by 7%–14.3% with all levels of CS content in
Replacement pattern
AASC. In this manner, it can be considered similar to the approach

proposed by Mavroulidou [63], as shown in Fig. 12(a). In addition,
coarse aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
fine aggregate
the elastic modulus of CS concrete has a correlation with compres-

sive strength, as shown in Fig. 12(b) [63]. The results of another
research show a marginal decreasing trend. Dos Anjos et al. [61]
found that the elastic modulus of concrete slightly decreases by
= data about unground CS heat-cured specimens.
= data about ground CS heat-cured specimens.
GGBFS = Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.
1%–8% when mixed with CS, which may be caused by impurities

contained in blasted CS.
Rate of change = [1 - (NAC)/CSC ] 100%.
CS size (mm)
5. Durability of concrete produced with CS

NAC = Natural Aggregate Concrete.
HPC = High Performance Concrete.

0.06–10
0.06–30
0.01–10
0.1–5
0.1–5
HSC = High Strength Concrete.
5.1. Water absorption

HCFA = High Carbon Fly Ash.
Increase: "; Decrease: ;.
Water absorption corresponds to the pore structure of materi-

als, and various CS particle sizes and replacement ratios result in
Table 6 (continued)
CSC = CS Concrete.
resistance
different water permeabilities of concrete [31,56–58,60,70,80].

resistivity
–thawing
Properties
The mathematical fitting reveals that the water absorption reaches

Electrical
Freezing
the minimum value at a substitution rate of 40%; when the substi-

Note:
tution rate exceeds 60%, the water absorption will be higher than
the control mixture (Fig. 13). Al-Jabri et al. [56] found that the
b
a
13
Fig. 14. Rapid chloride ion permeability of UHSC with ground CS [31].
water absorption of concrete with 40% CS is 40% lower than that of resistance to chloride ion attack. Najimi and Pourkhorshidi [65]
plain concrete when the particle size of CS is 0.075–10 mm. Raja- observed that the reduction in chloride ion permeability of cement
sekar et al. [31] reported that the porosity and water absorption with 0%–15% substitution rate CS is limited to 10%, and the effect is
of UHSC with 60% CS are 0.2% and 16.7% lower than those of plain more obvious in long-term curing. This result is mainly attributed
concrete, respectively, when the particle size of CS is 0.1–1.5 mm. to the pozzolanic activity and filling characteristics of CS rendering
The decrease in water absorption is due to CS fine particles filling the mixture of a dense structure.
and refining the pores of concrete. The presence of CS may also
increase the density of the mixture. When the substitution ratio 5.3. Sulphate and acid resistance
is high, the water absorption decreases, because the porosity
increases with the free water content in the mixture. However, On the basis of the weight and strength changes in Table 6, the
Mithun and Narasimhan [62] found that the water absorption of use of CS can be helpful for sulphate attack resistance; however, CS
AASC at 28 days and 90 days is significantly reduced at all CS concrete is more easily damaged in the acid solution compared
replacement levels. This result may be due to the existence of with the control mixture. Sharma and Khan [70] reported that
extremely refined, tortuous and blocked porosity in the AASC, the mass loss of SCC in 5% Na2SO4 solution decreases with an
which prevents the rapid infiltration of water and also resists the increase in CS content; the compressive strength loss of SCC after
hydration reaction in the elderly. immersion decreases with the increase of substitution amount.
From the effect of particle size, when CS is used as a replace- The results may be attributed to the following reasons. (1) The
ment for small particle size (0.001–4.75 mm), the water absorption sulphate solution penetrates the structure through the pores, and
rate decreases, because the particle filling properties and the con- the precipitate formed by the reaction with calcium hydroxide
crete structure are dense [31,58,62]. When the CS particle size is 5– (Ca(OH)2) results in the increase of mass. (2) As shown in Fig.
10 mm, the water absorption rate will increase under the condition 15(a)–(g), the dense structure of C-S-H gel is the main reason for
of high substitution rate (60%–100%) due to the high content of free resistance against sulphate attack. However, a reduction in
water. Therefore, the key factors affecting water absorption are CS strength of AASC (from Fig. 16.) when exposed to MgSO4 environ-
particle size and substitution rate [56,57,60]. ment was observed. This may be due to the absence of Ca(OH)2,
which limits the formation of protective brucite layer [62]. When
5.2. Resistance to chloride ion penetration CS acts as an auxiliary cementitious material, it is advantageous
for the sulphate resistance of concrete. Najimi and Pourkhorshidi
As shown in Table 6, the permeability of chloride has a similar [65] demonstrated that the mechanical properties’ loss and expan-
trend to water absorption. The results suggest that a reduced sion rate of concrete exposed in 50 g/L Na2SO4 solution are reduced
degree of chloride penetration is a result of the inclusion of CS in by using CS. As shown in Fig. 17, the CS mixture can detect a lower
concrete. However, at lower replacement ratios, the use of CS is sulphur content after 60 days of immersion.
reported as decreasing chloride ion penetration more significantly. CS concrete is easily destroyed under acid erosion [10,24,62].
[31,65,75]. De Schepper et al. [75] stated that the chloride ion This result is due to CS containing approximately 50% of ferrous
migration coefficient of concrete with CS as aggregate decreases compounds; the ferrous compounds in CS concrete converts into
at a low replacement rate level. Rajasekar et al. [31] compared ferrous salts, which disintegrate the concrete, thereby causing loss
the chloride ion permeability of UHSC obtained by replacing sand in mass and strength when the hardened concrete containing CS is
with CS of different substitution rates. As shown in Fig. 14, the immersed in sulphuric acid [10]. Mithun and Narasimhan [62]
results show that the addition of CS reduces the permeability of showed that the mass loss of AASC mixed with CS and the com-
concrete. The substitution of CS for cement is beneficial to the pressive strength loss increase with the CS content. AASC with
14
Fig. 15. SEM analysis after 120 days of sulphate exposure for (a) OF-CS0; (b) OFM-CS0; (c) OFM-CS20; (d) OFM-CS40; (e) OFM-CS60; (f) OFM-CS80; (g) OFM-CS100 (Note: O-
OPC; F-FA; MMK) [70].
sand shows better performance than CS as fine aggregate AASC and in Table 6 [63,70,75]. Some studies have found that the increase of
OPC concrete. Thomas et al. [10] found that CS concrete loses more carbonation depth is associated with the increase in rates of w/b
5%–6% in mass to the sulfuric acid solution than the control mix- and replacement. Mavroulidou [63] used water-cooled CS to
ture after exposure to the acid. replace natural fine aggregate and utilised two w/b rates of 0.45
and 0.55 for testing. The results revealed that the test of concrete
5.4. Carbonation resistance mixed with CS is nearly the same as OPC, and the carbonation
depth improves with the w/b and replacement rate. The study of
Limited research is available on the use of CS in the assessment De Schepper et al. [75] also reported similar results.
of changes to the carbonation resistance; the carbonation However, other studies have shown that CS can reduce the car-
resistance of CS concrete does not indicate a clear trend, as shown bonation depth of the mixture. Sharma and Khan [70] suggested
15
which may be due to the high content of iron oxide in CS that cre-
ates the matrix alkaline. The protective layer around the reinforce-
ment is composed of iron oxide, which is alkaline, and plays a role
in protecting the reinforcement from corrosion [81].
5.5. Freezing–thawing resistance
Some different views on the freeze–thaw resistance of CS as fine

aggregate concrete are shown in Table 6. Peirovi et al. [36] found
that the use of CS, instead of fine aggregates, can significantly
enhance the freeze–thaw resistance with a minimum mass loss
at 40% CS replacement rate. As shown in Fig. 18 [36], after 40%
CS replaces the fine aggregate, the pore scale and pore spacing of
the specimen surface are relatively better than other specimens.
If the CS content is further increased, the free water in the mixture
will increase, resulting in the increase of pores and decreased resis-
tance to frost. However, De Schepper et al. [75] observed that the
surface spalling of concrete using CS as aggregate increases by
144% in the de-icing agent freeze–thaw research. The reason is
related to the physical properties of CS, that is, the low water
absorption and glassy surface create a water excess. For these rea-
sons, air entraining agent and water-reducing agent can be used to
improve the defects of concrete specimen.
5.6. Electrical conductivity
Although the literature on the use of CS in concrete is limited,

various studies have shown the differences in the influence on
electrical conductivity. Lim et al. [76] found that the electrical con-
ductivity of concrete can be improved by 7.1%–92.9% using high
carbon FA and CS, and the growing trend is bilinear. When the sub-
stitution rate of CS is < 50%, the electrical conductivity increases
slightly until the substitution rate is greater than 50%, and the elec-
trical conductivity increases rapidly. However, Sharma and Khan
Fig. 16. Compressive strength of AASC mixes in (a) 10% Na2SO4 solution; (b) 10%
[70] used MK and FA as auxiliary cementitious materials, and the
MgSO4 solution [62].
resistance of concrete made of CS as fine aggregate increases by
0%–16% with the change of substitution rate from 0% to 60%,
that the carbonation depth decreases with the increase in the whereas the resistivity decreases by 12% when the substitution
degree of CS replacing sand. However, the carbonation level rate exceeds 80%. This result may be due to the reduction of resis-
decreases more significantly with the increase in curing time, tivity caused by the increase of water in concrete [70] .
Fig. 17. EDS of concrete specimens at (a) CS-0 and (b) CS-10 (maximum percentages indicated) [65].
16
Fig. 18. SEM micrograph of concrete specimens at different CS replacement (100 magnification): (a) control concrete; (b) specimen with 40% substitution amount of CS; (c)
specimen with 100% substitution amounts of CS [36].
Fig. 19. Energy consumption and CO2 emission for OPC mixes with varying amount of CS [63].
6. Environmental impact of CS of concrete production [84]. However, as the main component of

concrete, aggregate accounts for 60%–70% of the total volume
The rapid development of the construction industry has a high [85]. The ways to produce natural aggregates will lead to the
demand for cement and aggregate, which causes environmental degradation of the natural environment [60,86]. At present,
problems, such as greenhouse gas emissions and natural resource industrial waste is facing a large number of landfills and environ-
depletion [82,83]. The results show that the emission of cement mental problems and cannot be used [87]. To coordinate the con-
accounts for 8.6% of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 in the process tradiction between development and environment, using
17
Table 7
Global analysis and ranking of the reviewed studies based on the research aspects of CS*.
Aspect No. Studies Availability (R1) Importance (R2) Total

Long-term behavior 5 5 5 25
Leaching test 7 5 5 25
Abrasion resistance 8 5 5 25
Chemical treatment only 0 5 4 20
Freezing-thawing resistance 4 5 4 20
Chemical attack resistance 14 4 5 20
Physical treatment only 11 4 4 16
Shrinkage 3 5 3 15
Setting time 7 5 3 15
Bleeding 8 5 3 15
Workability 25 3 5 15
Elastic modulus 9 4 3 12
Water absorption 15 4 3 12
Use in geopolymer 1 5 2 10
As a coarse aggregate replacement 3 5 2 10
Electrical resistivity 4 5 2 10
As a cement replacement 5 5 2 10
Microstructure 20 3 3 9
Flexural and tensile strength 31 2 4 8
Environmental impacts of CS 33 2 3 6
Compressive strength 40 1 5 5
As a fine aggregate replacement 33 2 2 4
Chemical characteristics of raw material 42 1 1 1
Physical characteristics of raw material 42 1 1 1
Note:
R1: 1 (35–42 studies): widely available, 2 (26–34 studies) & 3 (17–25 studies): sparse and/or questionable, 4 (9–16 studies) & 5 (0–8 studies): scarce and/or unavailable.
R2: 1: relevant but not essential, 2 & 3: important, 4 & 5: critical.
*Sorted by total score (R1 R2).
reasonable substitutes, which also include industrial wastes, is an of concrete is lower than approximately 100 kg/m3, and it can meet
effective method. For any alternative material, an environmental the standards requirements of environmental safety quality [91].
impact assessment must be conducted to quantify the potential The environmental impact of copper production and recovery
benefits or disadvantages of use [88]. has also been analysed. Northey et al. [92] claimed that the copper
A large number of studies have shown that CS as building mate- content of ore is the key factor that affects the energy and water
rials can significantly reduce energy consumption and the impact demand for copper mining. The priority of mining high content
on the environment. Gursel and Ostertag [55] found that the ores will require more energy and emit more greenhouse gases
impact of concrete on the environment decreases with the increase [93]. Moreover, in comparison with the greenhouse gas produced
of CS replacement rate. The replacement of CS with 40% and 100% by pyrometallurgical process, the production rate in the mining
in concrete can reduce 8% and 40% of intrinsic energy, 8% and 41% and beneficiation stages of the hydrometallurgical process is rela-
of acidification, 12% and 30% of global warming potential and 7% tively small [94]. Research shows that the massive accumulation of
and 35% of particulate matter formation, respectively. As shown copper tailings has an adverse effect on the surrounding human
in Fig. 19, Edwin et al. [64] used secondary CS to replace a part beings and the environment [95]. Song et al. [96] found that
of cement to prepare reactive powder concrete, which reduces through the comparison of open-loop recovery process, CS
energy consumption and carbon emission. The higher the replace- flotation recycling for cement has higher environmental and eco-
ment rate is, the more significant the effect will be. Through life nomic benefits than the recovery of unfired brick.
cycle inventory assessment, Kua [89] found that replacing cement In conclusion, the use of CS as a building material can effectively
with CS will reduce the emissions of Co, CO2, CO, NOx, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg reduce the energy consumption and the environmental impact.
and SO2, and the use of CS can reduce the environmental impact. Considering the effect of solid waste on environmental safety qual-
The above literature mainly analyses the environmental impact ity, the proportion of CS aggregate should be < 30%. A large number
of CS on the greenhouse effect. However, the effect of waste on the of cheap and clean CS can be regarded as one of the alternatives to
environment should involve more aspects. The research on envi- concrete mixture materials; however, it is still a direction to seek a
ronmental safety quality includes the impact of waste on soil, method with lower energy consumption to produce copper.
groundwater and seawater. The effect of the use of solid waste
on environmental safety quality has attracted the attention of 7. Global analysis of results and future recommendation
many scholars, and some scholars have reported relevant research
results on Steel Slag [53], BFS [23] and EAFs [44]. Limited research- A global analysis is used to evaluate the importance and degree
ers have published research results on CS. The Japan Society of Civil of existing research on CS concrete, and the results can help
Engineers has introduced the environmental safety quality researchers point out the focus of the next stage of research. Such
requirements for the design and construction of CS aggregate con- analysis is measured by frequency and quality. It refers to the num-
crete with the corresponding standards and limits. According to ber of studies (frequency) and the depth and importance of
Japanese Industrial Standards JIS A 5011–3-2003 [90], the CS pro- research (quality). The research on CS concrete is not further as
duced by each manufacturer shows that the contents of Cd, Pb and OPC. Several references do not analyse the results deeply enough
As are higher than the limit value. Therefore, the content of these and merely discuss the data obtained from laboratory tests. Global
three factors can serve as basis for the environmental safety quality analysis of results provides the basis for further research. Such
detection of CS. The recommendations state that if the mixing ratio analysis may not provide a comprehensive comparison of the
of CS aggregate is < 30%, the increase of the mass per unit volume aspects and factors of the report but should be indicative.
18
The research aspects and characteristics listed in Table 7 worthy of attention. Physical treatment (11 studies) is more com-
describe the research status of CS as an alternative building mate- mon than chemical treatment (0 studies) in the studies; however,
rial. A 5-point Likert scale is used to score the usability and impor- no study has combined physical and chemical treatments. No more
tance of 42 studies. The availability of data (R1) is assessed optimised treatment is available other than grinding [56,57] and
according to the number of studies: 1 point (35–42 studies) is washing [28]. The treatment of CS raw materials is not discussed
widely available, 2 points (26–34 studies) denotes available, 3 in most literature, and the waste residue collected from incinerator
points (17–25 studies) and 4 points (9–16 studies) are sparse is directly used. The reuse of CS, which has been used as landfill as
and 5 points (0–8 studies) indicates unavailable. The importance a substitute for building materials, has not been studied.
of the study (R2) is the opposite: 1 indicates the aspect that pro- Through the global analysis of results, the aspects that require
vides additional information about the use of CS, but has little to further research can be identified. Although CS is a potential sus-
no impact on its use in construction; whereas 5 points refers to tainable building material, it is still in the stage of exploration
the aspect that has a significant impact on the utilisation rate of and development. In addition, in comparison with traditional con-
CS in the building; and the value between the two is based on judg- crete, CS concrete research is less, lacking quantitative data of
ment [97]. The total score is obtained by the multiplication of durability and mechanical properties. After decades of develop-
usability and importance (R1 R2). After ranking according to ment, on the basis of a number of engineering application experi-
the total score, the priority of research is determined. The results ence, traditional concrete has more comprehensive specifications
are sorted by the total score to prioritise the areas of research, such and standards. Therefore, before the practical application of CS
that the highest ranked aspect is believed to be critically important concrete, in-depth and comprehensive research from the different
and least researched. aspects must be conducted. The freeze–thaw resistance and elec-
After the global analysis, as shown in Table 7, the long-term trical conductivity of CS concrete need further study. In addition
behaviour of CS as an alternative to concrete is considered to to the use of alkali activators and the grinding of CS, the treatment
require the most attention. Gupta and Siddique [58] evaluated method of CS should be optimised and studied. At present, con-
the mechanical properties, water absorption and chloride ion cor- ducting extensive durability research, especially long-term perfor-
rosion resistance test of CS concrete for one year. Notably, it is the mance exploration, is necessary. These studies will be a reliable
only document that evaluates the duration of long-term behaviour. basis for formulating relevant standards in the future. Further
In 36 studies, the short-term durability of concrete containing CS is study on the influence of CS output characteristics in different
studied from the aspects of water absorption, chemical corrosion countries will also be beneficial to future research.
resistance and wear resistance. Construction and manufacturing
industries are conservative in the use of new products [98].
According to the direction given by the global analysis, research 8. Conclusion
needs to focus on improving the characteristics of new materials
and discussing the long-term durability of CS concrete alternative In the past decade, a large number of papers have studied the
materials, which is conducive to the application of CS as building performance of concrete containing CS. This paper has presented
materials and provides confidence for material selection. For a critical summary of more than 90 articles on the topic. The prop-
example, for the long-term application of concrete, the effect of erties of CS and concrete containing CS are discussed in detail.
acid rain on the durability of concrete should be considered. Based on this review, the following conclusions can be drawn:
In view of the sustainability of resource conservation, CS has
great potential as a fine aggregate geopolymer concrete. In 42 stud- (1) When compared with natural aggregates, most CS has
ies, only one research examines geopolymer concrete with CS as a higher specific gravity and smoother surface. CS generally
partial substitute of fine aggregate. Sreenivasulu et al. [29] studied has lower water absorption and more prone to bleeding than
geopolymer concrete using CS as a partial substitute of fine aggre- normal aggregates due to the glassy nature and irregular
gate. The microstructures of gel permeation chromatography were surface and shape of CS. The key components of CS are
studied by SEM and EDS. The mechanical properties were deter- Fe2O3 and SiO2; however, its lime content is considerably
mined at the macroscopic level, and the prediction model was less than OPC. In addition, although CS contains many metal
developed. The substituted geopolymer concrete performs better elements, CS is a non-toxic and non-reactive material.
in the microstructure and mechanical properties of gel permeation (2) When CS is used as a substitute for concrete composition,
chromatography than traditional concrete. workability generally increases with the CS content. How-
Among the 42 reviewed studies, only 7 have discussed the ever, high CS content may lead to concrete bleeding and
leaching process of concrete. CS concrete leaches only a small other adverse events. To avoid bleeding, the replacement
amount of harmful elements [61]. However, these tests are limited rate should be < 40%, and some auxiliary cementitious mate-
to mortar or concrete, where CS is used to replace cement or fine rials can also be added. The smaller the CS particle size is, the
sand. The research on CS replacing coarse aggregate and geopoly- longer the setting time will be. The effect of CS on the setting
mer has not been reported. To widely apply CS in the construction time is reduced by increasing the washing times.
industry, relevant environmental protection policies must be for- (3) Generally, the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of
mulated. The study of CS chemical treatment and concrete chemi- the specimen will be reduced by excessive grinding (particle
cal corrosion resistance is helpful to formulate relevant policies. Of size is < 5 mm), whereas inadequate grinding (particle size
course, the physical and chemical properties of CS are different due is greater than 12 mm) will make CS unable to give full play
to different sources. to its best performance. The optimum CS replacement rate is
Other research aspects, such as freezing–thawing resistance, 40%. When the substitution rate is < 40%, the strength of
drying shrinkage, setting time, bleeding, elastic modulus, water concrete increases with the degree of partial CS replacing
absorption, flexural and tensile properties, are different in terms aggregate. The results show that the tensile and flexural
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
of availability and importance. Strengthening the research on the strength of concrete is normally considered as 0.45 f cu
1.0014
performance of building materials can describe the advantages and 0.1791 fcu , respectively. The elastic modulus of con-
and disadvantages of materials more comprehensively. The crete obtained from the use of CS has no obvious effect.
research on CS raw materials have been widely investigated. In (4) Generally, when the substitution rate is < 60%, the water
addition, the effect of raw material treatment on the results is also absorption of CS concrete is lower than that of OPC. The
19
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The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- [25] P.S. Ambily, C. Umarani, K. Ravisankar, P.R. Prem, B.H. Bharatkumar, N.R. Iyer,
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2021 - Ruijun Wang-A Critical Review On The Use of Copper Slag (CS) As A Substitute Constituent in Concrete

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Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

A critical review on the use of copper slag (CS) as a substitute constituent

4.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1. Introduction environmental pollution, greenhouse effect and other environmen-

References Long-term Leaching Physical Chemical Microstructure Environmental Treatment

References Fresh properties Mechanical properties Pattern

References Durability related properties

Reference [25] [27] [28] [31] [29] [30] [24] [32]

Fig. 2. (a) Flowchart of CS production and use; (b) CS particles [33].

Component CS Steel Slag BFS EAFs FNS Bottom Ash

(continued on next page)

"0–12.0% (0–40% CS)

0.35 (Constant slump)

CS are Fe2O3 (45%–70%) and SiO2 (10%–30%). For other industrial

0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100 by volume

0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 by weight

80, 100 by weight

80, 100 by weight

0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 by weight

0, 30, 50, 70, 80, 100 by weight

0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 by weight

0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by weight

other industrial wastes. However, its CaO content is lower than

The lime content of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) reaches 63%,

whereas the lime content of CS is < 10%. Hence, CS has no strong

chemical activity as a gelling material [27].

Although CS contains a large number of heavy metals, it is

recognised as nontoxic and non-reactive substances in several

countries [26]. Moreover, in the entire life cycle appraisal con-

effect of aggregate is steadily being reduced with the rise in the

rate of CS replacement. In conclusion, the physical and chemical

mechanical properties and durability of concrete.

3. Fresh properties of concrete produced with CS

In research investigations, slump is the major property used to

most research has demonstrated that the slump of concrete

increases monotonously with CS through replacing sand as fine

considerably smoother than sand, which decreased the shear

(28-day) 1.5 CBPD by weight CS; w/b = 0.7)

Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

3.3. Setting time

Setting time is an important property of fresh concrete. Some

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of concrete with CS.

Fig. 9. Tensile strength of concrete with various CS replacement ratios.

Fig. 11. Flexural strength of concrete with various CS replacement ratios.

4.2. Tensile strength

Similar behaviours to compressive strength, tensile strength

R. Wang, Q. Shi, Y. Li et al.

"3.3–8.2% (H2SO4) ;1.6–16.7% (H2SO4) 0%

Construction and Building Materials 292 (2021) 123371

impurities there will be.

be approximately 0.45 f cu [56,57]. The strength of CS concrete in

4.3. Flexural strength

As shown in Fig. 11, most of the results in the literature show

CS decreases flexural strength [56,63]. Al-Jabri et al. [56] observed

;12% (80–100% CS)

that the decrease in the flexural strength of CS instead of fine