Geography Oceanography
Geography Oceanography
Geography Oceanography
Polymetallic Nodules
Rock concretions formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core
Also contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, rare earths
Can occur at any depth, but highest concentrations are between 4000 and 6000 m
Mostly in North Central pacific, Peru Basin and North Indian Ocean basin
Gas Hydrates - Mannar, Micro manganese - Lakshadweep Sea, Phosphate - Karwar
Area of almost stagnant water between rising currents caused by rough topography and geothermal heat source
Also traps nutrients and carbon which have a direct impact on capacity of ocean to modify climate
Geothermal currents loop back, leaving surface water untouched
Shadow zone in Indian Ocean is less stagnant due to proximity to freshwater from Antarctica
Submergence of land
Relative rise in sea level
Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers and glaciers
Continental Shelf
Greenland - Glaciated shelf
Queensland - Coral Reef shelf
Nile - Shelf of a large river
Hudson - Shelf with dendritic valleys
Hawaii - Shelves between Hawaiian islands
Importance
Deepest Points
Two chains of mountains separated by a large depression - Divergent Boundary (Tectonic Origin)
Iceland is a part of the mid-Atlantic ridge
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
Provide evidence in support of plate tectonics
Running for 75000 km, they form the largest mountain systems on earth
Sea Mount - Volcanic origin, Does not reach the surface of the sea, e.g. Emperor Sea Mount (extension of
Hawaiian Islands)
Guyots - Flat topped sea mount
Abyssal Hills
Volcanic Island
Low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central depression
Atoll
Maybe a part of a lagoon, or enclose a body of fresh, brackish or highly saline water
Shoal Project out of water with moderate heights - dangerous for navigation
Predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that forms a mound or rocky elevation like
ridge
Reef
In Pacific, they are associated with seamounts and guyots
Dangerous for navigation
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Marginal Seas
Arctic Ocean Beaufort Sea, Baffin Bay, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Latev Sea, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea (W-E)
Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Irish Sea, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Scotia
Atlantic Ocean Sea
Mediterranean Sea - Adriatic, Aegean, Tyrrhenian
Indian Ocean Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Java Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea
Bering Sea, Celebes Sea, Yellow Sea, Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, East China Sea, South China Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of
Pacific Ocean
Okhotsk
Human Impact - Marginal Seas are more vulnerable than open ocean
Overfishing
Industrial and Domestic Sewage Disposal - detergents, plastics, radioactive waste
Offshore oil drilling
Accidental release of pollutants (oil spills)
Agricultural run off rich in Nitrogen and phosphate - leading to algal blooms (in Black Sea)
Productivity
Marginal Seas have intermediate productivity - highest near coastal upwelling regions and lowest towards open sea
Near the coast, river runoff and water column mixing introduces dissolved nutrients, trace elements and suspended particles into the
photic zones
Addition of suspended matter —> Turbidity —> Decreased sunlight penetration —> Decreased productivity
Water Circulation
Small body of water set off from a larger body of water where the land curves inwards - 3 sides land, 4th side ocean
Bay Bay is smaller and less enclosed than Gulf
Largest - Bay of Bengal
Large body of water with a narrow mouth, almost completely surrounded by land
Gulf
Gulf of Mexico - World’s largest gulf
Size - Pacific > Atlantic > India > Southern > Arctic
Largest, Deepest - 1/3 of earth’s surface
Roughly triangular in shape with its apex at Bering Strait in north
Largest number of deeps, trenches, islands
Pacific
Mariana and Mindanao trenches are the deepest
South East Pacific (West coast of South America) - Marginal seas are absent
Trenches (N-S) —> Aleutian, Kuril, Japan, Mariana, Philippines, Mindanao, Tonga, Kermadec
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Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs north to south along the S shape of the ocean (14000 km long)
Seamounts that form islands - Cape Verde, Canary
Volcanic Islands - St. Helena
Coral Islands - Bermuda
Trenches - Romanche, South Sandwich,
Submarine ridges divide the ocean bottom into many basins - Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge (reunion hotspot),
Socotora-Chagos ridge, Seychelles Ridge, South Madagascar Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge
Most islands are continental islands
Indian
Continental Shelves are narrow - But shelf off Australia’s north coast is wide
Trenches - Sunda Trench, Diamantina Trench
Straits are important trade routes
Sources of heat - Sun (supports life in the photic zone), inner heat of earth itself (negligible compared to Sun, but important in deep ocean
where bacteria can use it to produce food)
Diurnal range of temperature in oceans is very small because - vertical and horizontal mixing of water, high specific heat of water
Latitude - Decreases from equator towards poles as among of insolation decreases (0.5° C per latitude)
Unequal distribution of land and water - Oceans in Northern Hemisphere receive more heat due to contact with larger extent of land -
Highest temperatures are recorded slightly north of equator
Prevailing Wind - Winds from land to sea, drive warm water away from the coast resulting in upwelling of cold water from below.
Onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and raise the temperature
Ocean Currents - Warm ocean currents increase the temperature in cold area, cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean seas
Enclosed seas in low latitudes record higher temperature than open seas, enclosed seas in higher latitudes have lower temperature than
open seas
Heat loss - evaporation, radiation, scattering
Thermocline
In polar regions, the surface temperatures are close to 0°C, so there is not much temperature gradient with depth
Maximum temperature is at oceans, and heat is transferred to deeper layers by convection
Pycnocline
Thermohaline Circulation
Circulation of deep ocean currents caused by differences in water density due to temperature and salinity differences
Also called Ocean Conveyor Belt
Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermo-haline circulation
Rate of decrease of temperature with depth is higher at equator than in the poles
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Oceans get heated and cool down slower than land - attain maximum temperature at 2pm though maximum isolation is at noon
Diurnal temperature range is barely 1°C in oceans
Temperature changes are more pronounced if cloud cover is absent and atmosphere is calm
CURRENTS
Influenced by two types of forces - primary forces that initiate the movement of water, secondary forces that influence currents to flow
Heating causes water to expand —> Water near the equator is 8cm higher in level than in middle latitudes
Insolation
Creates a gradient down which water flows - flow is from east to west
Cold currents - Cold water at pole sinks and moves towards the equator
Temperature
Warm currents - Warm water from equator flows on the surface towards the poles to replace the sinking cold water
Surface Currents - 10% of water volume
Deep Sea Currents - 90% of water volume
Cold Currents - West coast of continents in low and middle latitudes (both hemispheres), east coast in higher latitudes (northern hemisphere)
Warm currents - East coast of continents in low and middle latitudes (both hemispheres)
General movement in northern hemisphere is clockwise, in Southern Hemisphere is anti-clockwise —> caused due to Coriolis force
Follows circulation of winds, transports heat across latitude belts
Warm currents move towards cold seas, Cold currents towards warm seas
Shape and position of coasts play an important role in guiding the direction of currents
Currents have greater speeds at the surface than at deeper levels
Cold Ocean currents play a role in formation of deserts on the west coast of tropical and subtropical continents - arid due to dessicating
effect
Warm currents bring rain to coastal areas - e.g. summer rainfall in British type climate
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Moderation of climate on the coasts - North Atlantic Drift brings warmth to England coast, Canary current brings cooling effect to
Spain
Fishing grounds where warm and cold currents meet - Newfoundland (Labrador + Gulf Stream) - mixing of warm and cold water
replenishes oxygen and favours the growth of plankton
Mixing of warm and cold currents creates fog and precipitation in form of drizzle
Pile up warm waters in tropics, which is the major force behind tropical cyclones
Warm and rainy climates on east coast of tropical and subtropical latitudes, cold and dry on west coast
Ships choose routes aided by currents and winds
Desert Formation
Major hot deserts of the world are located on western coasts of continents between latitudes 15° and 30° N/S
Lie along horse latitudes or sub tropical high pressure belts - air descending, not favourable for precipitation
Rain bearing trade winds blow off shore and Westerlies that reach on-shore blow outside desert limits
Atlantic Ocean
Equatorial Currents - South Eq. Current bifurcates into two branches in North Brazil - northern branch joins the
North Eq. Current (a part of it flows into Antilles Current and another part into Gulf of Mexico) and southern
part form Brazilian Current
Near Grand Banks - Gulf Stream + (Labrador + East Greenland Current) —> Moves west as the North Atlantic
drift under influence of Westerlies
Mixing of Gulf Stream and Labrador Current produces Newfoundland Fog and one of the most important
fishing grounds
Rise of water in Gulf of Mexico - drainage of Mississippi + water brought in by equatorial currents
North Atlantic Drift - Northward as Norwegian Current, south ward as Canary Current
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Norwegian Current - Keeps the ocean to north of Norway partly free of ice - Barents Sea is navigable in
summer
Sargasso Sea is within the North Atlantic Gyre - large quantities of sea weed - surrounded by Canary Current,
North Atlantic Equatorial Current, Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift
Falkland Current passes between Argentina and Falkland Islands, splitting off from West Wind Drift - mixes
with warm Brazil current at southern Brazil
Phytoplankton
In colder climates, the air is colder than the water - Air cools the upper layers which sink and nutrient rich water upwells
SALINITY
Vertical Distribution
More saline water is dense - subsides below less saline water - stratification by salinity
Salinity generally increases with depth
Deeper layers - salinity is less variable as water isn’t lost and salt isn’t added
Halocline - Region where salinity increases sharply
WAVES
The energy and not the water moves on the ocean surface
Water particles only travel in a circle as the wave passes
Wave approaches - upward and forward, wave passes - down and back
Wind generates waves, and the energy is released on the shorelines - waves grow larger as they absorb energy from the wind
Steep waves are mostly formed by local wind
When the wave approaches the coast, it slows down
Maximum wave height is determined by strength of wind, area over which it blows in a single direction
When the depth of water is less than half of the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks
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TIDES
Horizontal tide generating forces are more important than vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges
Tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have greater height
When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands, they become low
Shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can magnify the intensity of tides - funnel shaped bays change tidal magnitudes
Tidal currents - When tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries
Tides can be predicted in advance
Surges - Irregular movements of water caused by local winds and pressure changes
Tide generating force = Difference between attraction of moon and centrifugal force
Relative position of moon, earth and sun controls the nature and magnitude of tides
Spring Tide: Sun, Moon, Earth in straight line - twice a month on full moon and new moon
Neap Tide: Sun and Moon are at right angle - Forces counteract
Moon at Perigee/Earth at Perihelion - Unusually high and low tides (tidal range greater than normal)
Moon at Apogee/Earth at Perihelion - 2 weeks later, tidal ranges are less than normal
Tidal Bore
When a tide enters a narrow and shallow estuary, front of the tidal wave appears to be vertical due to piling up of water of the river against the
tidal wave and the friction of the bed
Favourable conditions - Strong tide, Thin river channel, large tidal range
Always occur during flow tide and mostly never on neap tides
Tidal bores form in Amazon even though the mouth is wide because mouth is shallow and has many low lying islands and sand bars
Most powerful tidal bores in Qiangtang River, China
Unpredictable and dangerous - disrupt ecology, affect shipping
Importance of Tides
High tides help in navigation - raise water level which allows vessels to approach shores more easily overcoming the shallow bars - Due
to tidal nature of mouths of Thames and Hooghly, London and Kolkata have become important ports
Fishing - more fish come to shore during high tide
Desilting sediments and removing polluted water from river estuaries
Tidal electricity - Canada, France, Russia, China, Durgaduani in Sundarbans
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OCEAN RESOURCES
Ocean Deposits
Terrigenous
Pelagic
Mineral Resources
Manganese nodules - contain cobalt, nickel, manganese, copper - found in areas of low sedimentation rates like abyssal plains
Polymetallic sulphides in Western Indian Ocean
Metalliferous sediments
Energy
Tidal Energy - Rise and fall of tides - During high tide, a reservoir is filled and the falling water during ebb can be used to rotate a
turbine
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion - Exploit temperature difference between surface and sub-surface waters - expensive - used in Cuba,
Belgium - Proposed at Kulsekaripattinam in TN
Geothermal Energy - Heat from fracture zones and active volcanos under sea
Desalinisation Technologies
Biotic Resources
Fish, crustaceans, molluscs, sea weed - sea food is high in nutritional value
Marine plants and animals are used in curative medicine
Whale blubber - hardening agents, cosmetics, lubricants
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Krill - small shrimp like organisms near Antarctic waters - food for whales, sea birds, seals - Krill decompose quickly so catcher vessels must
be able to process them quickly
Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons
Benthos - live on the sea sediments
Aquaculture - Oysters, Mussels, Clams - well developed in Europe
Algae and Kelp used as fodder, seasoning agents, mulch
Brown algae - Algin - Used in paints and ceramics
Red algae - Agar and Carrageenan - important medium for bacterial research
Calculated from a series of continuous records of tidal oscillations over a considerable period of time
Relative rise in sea level could be due to subsidence of land or actual rise in sea level
Eustatic Change - Volume of water changes due to global warming, melting of ice sheets or spread of ice
Isostatic Changes - Takes place due to addition or removal of load (land subsides due to load of glaciers) - Scandinavia is still rising
after the ice deposited during last ice age
Epeirogenic Changes - Broad scale tilting of continents
Orogenic Changes - Folding and flexuring of the lithosphere which creates mountains - relative fall in sea level
Flandrian Transgression - ready rise in sea level since the last glaciation (when sea levels were 100-150m lower) and large areas of
continental shelves were dry
Exact age of changes in sea level - radiometric dating techniques on materials found in raised beaches
Submarine Canyons are evidence that there was a relative rise in sea level as they are formed only in submerged conditions
Oxygen isotopes preserved in calcareous deposits of microfossils
Peat formed in inter tidal zones can be dated radiometrically
Tracing changes in shorelines
Depth of sediments indicates the possible duration of submergence
Accumulation of sediments/Carbonate deposition activities by marine organisms lead to rise of sea level by reducing volume of basin
Orogenesis causes a shortening and thickening of continental crust - corresponding increase in volume of basin and fall of sea level
Low temperature, High salinity —> Dense water —> low volume —> Lower Sea Level
Low pressure —> Water is sucked in by upward moving airmass —> Sea level is higher
Fast flowing ocean currents when taking a curved path cause a rise in sea level on outer fringes
Condensation into ice reduces sea level
Piling up of water due to winds/currents
Thermal expansion due to global warming - rise in sea level
Ice cap melting due to global warming - 15% of Greenland ice cap has melted
Changes in base level of rivers - Rivers cut their channels deeper than before - Rejuvenated landforms
River channels become longer as shore extends outwards into the sea
Drying of continental shelves - desiccation of coral reefs
In temperate and high latitudes, fall in sea level can cause extension of ice caps - glacial landforms like glacial till and fjords
Low lying coastal areas and small islands will be submerged - damage port, industries etc
At current level of sea level rise due to global warming, 33% of croplands could be submerged
Accelerated coastal erosion
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Gorundwater resources affected due to saline water intrusion in coastal areas
Affects delta ecosystems
Defines rights and responsibilities of nations with regard to use of ocean waters - businesses, environment, natural resources
UN does not play a direct part in implementation
International Maritime Organisation and International Whaling Commission have a role to play
Consensus process rather than majority vote
US has signed but not ratified
Coastal state can take action against offenders who break the law within territorial waters
Contiguous Zone
24 miles from the coast
Within EEZ coastal state has right to exploit all economic resources - fish, minerals, oil and gas
Introduced to halt clashes over fishing and oil extraction
EEZ Land locked and geographically disadvantaged states can participate in an equitable basis in exploiting a part of the
surplus
Coastal states are expected to grant consent to other states for peaceful work such as scientific research
Free for navigation, laying submarine cables, airspace, fishing (with some restrictions to control overfishing)
High Seas
States must share with the international community part of the revenue derived from exploiting economic resources
London Convention - Dumping of wastes in sea
Does not cover wastes from exploration and exploitation of marine mineral deposits
Provisions do not apply when there is a need to secure safety of life or vessels
Amendments to prevent incineration of wastes at sea, dumping of low level radioactive wastes at sea
IMO is responsible for Secretariat activities with respect to the Protocol
1996 Protocol
Appropriate preventive measures to be taken when wastes thrown into the sea are likely to cause harm even when there is no conclusive
evidence to prove a cause relation between inputs and their effects
Polluter Pays principle
Protocol should not result in pollution being transferred from one part of the environment to another
No export of wastes to other countries
2006 Protocol
UNCLOS
Obligations for safeguarding marine environment and protecting freedom of scientific research on the high seas
International Seabed Authority - legal regime for mineral resource exploitation in deep sea bed areas beyond jurisdiction
Can hold states liable for violation of international obligations
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