Environment and Ecology

Krishn Tupe
krishn @upscprep.com
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 Syllabus
UPSC Prelims:
General issues on Environmental Ecology, Biodiversity and Climate Change

UPSC Mains:
Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact
Assessment.

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Let’s look into History

Let’s look into History

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Lessons from PYQs

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Example of logical reasoning in UPSC Prelims

Which of the following statements best describes "carbon fertilization”? (UPSC 2018)
A. Increased plant growth due to increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
B. Increased temperature of Earth due to increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
C. Increased acidity of oceans as a result of increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
D. Adaptation of all living beings on Earth to the climate change brought about by the increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

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Sources

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Basic Strategy

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 Environment and Ecology
• Broad Division
1. Ecology
2. Pollution
3. Biodiversity
4. Climate Change
5. Agriculture

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 Ecology
Ecology is de ned “as a scienti c study of the relationship of the living organisms
with each other and with their environment.”

Environment: The environment is de ned as ‘the sum total of living, non-living

components; in uences and events, surrounding an organism’.

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 Components of Environment
Abiotic Biotic
Energy Green plants
Radiation Non-green plants
Temperature & heat ow Water Decomposers
Atmospheric gases and wind Parasites
Fire Symbionts
Gravity Animals
Topography Man
Soil
Geologic substratum
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Levels of organisation in Ecology

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 Ecosystem
• Structural and functional unit of biosphere
• Components of Ecosystem -
• Abiotic and
• Biotic - Producers (Autotrophs), Consumers (Heterotrophs/phagotrophs)
• Macro vs Micro consumers (saprotrophs/detrivores)

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 Ecosystem
• Ecotone

• Edge e ect

• Edge species

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 Ecosystem
• Ecological Niche - range of resources and conditions allowing the species to
maintain a viable population

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 Biome
A biome is a large area characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.

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Biome
Biome

Google images of each

of these biomes

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 Aquatic Ecosystem (Life Zones)
1. Fresh water ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
3. Estuaries
4. Coral reefs
5. Mangroves

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 Biosphere
• A part of the earth where life can exist.

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Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

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 Food Chain and Food Web
A sequence of organisms
that feed on one another,
form a food chain.

Food Chain
1. Grazing Food Chain
2. Detritus Food Chain

 Food Chain and Food Web

“A food web illustrates, all
possible transfers of
energy and nutrients
among the organisms in
an ecosystem,

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 Ecological Pyramids
• Pyramid of Numbers

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 Ecological Pyramids
• Pyramid of Biomass

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 Ecological Pyramids
• Pyramid of Energy

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 In order for biomagni cation to
occur, the pollutant must be:
• long-lived,
• mobile,
• soluble in fats,
• Insoluble in water
• biologically active.

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Biotic Interactions

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 Nutrient Cycling
It describes how
nutrients move from
the physical
environment to the
living organisms,
and subsequently
recycled back to the
physical
environment.

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 Ecological Succession
Succession is a progressive series of changes which
leads to the establishment of a relatively stable
climax community.

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Pollution

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 Environmental Pollution
• What is Pollution?
• Pollutants -
• Natural vs Anthropogenic
• Primary vs. Secondary
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• Biodegradable vs. non-biodegradable

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 Air Pollution
• Major Air Pollutants —
• CO
• CO2
• CFCs
• Lead
• Ozone
• NOx, SOx
• Particulate matter
• Smog
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In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidlines, consider the following statements
1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 ug/m³ and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed
5 µg/m³.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.
4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4
(b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 2 only

 Air Pollution Monitoring Systems

National Air Quality Index (AQI)
• Six categories of air quality:
Good, Satisfactory,
Moderately Polluted, Poor,
Very Poor and Severe with
distinct colour scheme.
• Considers eight pollutants
(PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO,
O3, NH3 and Pb)(up to 24-
hourly averaging period)
• National Ambient Air Quality
Standards are prescribed.

 Air Pollution Monitoring Systems

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
• CPCB is executing a nation-wide programme of ambient air quality
monitoring.
• Monitors four air pollutants viz ., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen
as NO2, Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10) and Fine
Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
• The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and
wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature
• It is carried out in 115 cities.

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 Air Pollution Monitoring Systems

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for 12 Pollutants:
• SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, Ozone, NH3, Lead, CO, Arsenic, Nickel, Benzene &,
Benzopyre

National Clean Air Programme (NCAP):

• 122 cities
• Reduce PM by 20-30% by 2024 (no annual targets)
• Uses NAAQS
• Nodal Agency: CPCB
• Multi-stakeholder programme involving various ministries and civil societies

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 Air Pollution Monitoring Systems

SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research)
• (Ministry of Earth Sciences) (IITM, PUNE) 
• 72-hour advance forecast
• Implemented in: Delhi, Pune, Mumbai and Ahmedabad
• Tracks - PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury.
• Monitored Meteorological Parameters: UV Radiation, Rainfall,
Temperature, Humidity, Wind speed, Wind direction, solar

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 Air Pollution Monitoring Systems

Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) 
• Only for Delhi and adjoining areas
• Uses AQI
• Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) monitors it

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 Commission for Air Quality Management

• For better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems
related to air quality in the Delhi NCR and adjoining areas.
• Statutory body!
• Dissolves the Environment Pollution Prevention and Control Authority (EPCA)
• Composition:
• Chairperson (who has been a Secretary to the GoI, or a Chief Secretary to a
State government) - 3 years or until s/he attains the age of 70 years.
◦ It will have members from several Ministries as well as representatives from
the stakeholder States.
◦ It will have experts from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Civil Society.

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 Commission for Air Quality Management

Functions:
◦ Coordinating actions taken by concerned state governments (Delhi, Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh).
◦ Planning and executing plans to prevent and control air pollution in the NCR.
◦ Providing a framework for identification of air pollutants.
◦ Conducting research and development through networking with technical
institutions.
◦ Training and creating a special workforce to deal with issues related to air
pollution.
◦ Preparing various action plans such as increasing plantation and addressing
stubble burning.

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 Water Pollution
Addition of substances which degrade the quality of water making it unfit for
use. 
Regulating authority: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the amount of dissolved oxygen
needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes present in water. It is
expressed in milligrams of oxygen per liter of water. The higher value of BOD
indicates low DO content of water i.e. High pollution
Chemical oxygen demand (COD): It is the measure of oxygen equivalent of
the requirement of oxidation of total organic matter (i.e. biodegradable and
non-biodegradable) present in water.

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 Water Pollution
• Sources - Point source, Diffuse or non point source
• Thermal Pollution
• Underground water pollution
• Marine Pollution

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Eutrophication

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Eutrophication

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 Water Pollution
• National Mission for Clean Ganga
• Registered as a society under the Societies Registration Act 1860. 
• National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection and Management of River
Ganga (referred as National Ganga Council)
• It is headed by PM, Union Minister for Jal Shakti is ex-officio Vice-
Chairman, All state CMs along Ganga River Basin are it's members
• Its role is largely to fund projects to implementing organisations. 
• Power to fine the polluters (derived from Environmental Protection Act) 

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 Diseases due to Pollution

• Minamata disease: Due to Mercury
• Itai-Itai or ouch-ouch disease: Cadmium Contamination
• Blue Baby Syndrome or methaemoglobinemia: Excess Nitrates
• Fluorosis: Floride
• Black Foot Disease: Chronic exposure to Arsenic

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 Other types of pollutions

• Soil pollution
• Noise pollution
• Radio-active pollution
• E-waste

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 The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

• Statutory organisation, constituted in September, 1974 under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
• Further, CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. 
• CPCB acts as a state board for Union Territories. 
• It is under MoEFCC
Functions
• To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States
by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and
• To improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in
the country.

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 National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• Statutory body (National Green Tribunal Act 2010)
• Handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. 
• It guided by principles of natural justice —> not bound by Code of Civil
Procedure, 1908
• Provide speedy environmental justice —> reduce the burden of HC
• It is mandated to dispose applications or appeals within 6 months 
• New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and
Chennai shall be the other four place of sitting of the Tribunal.
•
•
Appeal lies directly in supreme court

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 National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• Members
• Chairperson: Retired Judge of the SC. (appointed by center in consultation
with CJI)
• Each bench of the NGT will comprise of at least one Judicial Member and
one Expert Member.
◦ Judicial members are serving or retired Judges of High Courts or sc.
◦ Expert members should have a professional qualification and a minimum
of 15 years experience in the field of environment/forest conservation and
related subjects.
• Structure: (Chairman + 10 to 20 Judicial members + 10 to 20 Expert members)
• All Holds office for 5 years. Can't be re-appointed.

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 National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• Powers
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
Importantly, the NGT has not been vested with powers to hear any matter relating to
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, the Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest Rights Act,
2006 and various laws enacted by States relating to forests, tree preservation etc.

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 Bioremediation
• Use of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to degrade the environmental
contaminants into less toxic forms.

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Biodiversity

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 Biodiversity
“The variability among living organisms from all sources”

Levels of Biodiversity
• Genetic diversity - variation in genes within a particular species.
• Species diversity - variety of living organisms
• Ecosystem diversity - This refers to the different types of habitats.

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 Measurement of Biodiversity
• Species richness
• Species evenness

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 Services Provided by Biodiversity

• Ecosystem Services
• Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)
• Biological services
• Social Services

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 Biodiversity Conservation
• Modes
• Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation

 Red Data Book

• Volume of information on the status of many kinds of species.
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• Pink , Green Pages

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Red Data Book

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The ‘Red Data Books’ published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for conservation of nature & natural resources in various countries.
Which of the statement given above is/are correct? (UPSC 2011)
a) 1 & 3
b) 2 only
c) 2 & 3
d) 3 only

 IUCN
• Composed of both government and civil society organisations.
• Provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge
and tools that enable human progress, economic development and nature
conservation to take place together.
• Founded in 1948 as the International Union for the Protection of Nature (or IUPN) —
> changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources in 1956
• Only environmental organisation with official UN Observer Status
• IUCN congresses (held once in 4 years) have produced several key international
environmental agreements including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the World
Heritage Convention, and the Ramsar Convention on wetlands.

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 Biodiversity in India
• With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded
species
• India is the first country in the world to have made provisions for the
protection and conservation of environment in its constitution. (Art. 51A, Art.
48A)
• India Represents —
• Five Biomes - Tropical Humid Forests, Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests
(including Monsoon Forests), Warm deserts and semi-deserts,
Coniferous forests and Alpine meadows.
• Ten Bio-geographic Zones

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 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (WPA)
Schedules
• Schedule I and Schedule II (part 2)
◦ Absolute protection, highest penalties
• Schedule 3 and schedule 4
◦ Penalties less than 1
• Schedule 5: Vermins (Now, the State Governments are not empowered to declare any
wild animal a vermin) — Mice, rat, common crow and flying fox (fruit eating bats) are
the list of animals (only 4 nos)
◦ Can be hunted
• Schedule 6: Plants
◦ Prohibition on cultivation, collection, extraction, trade, etc. of Plants and its derivatives.

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 WPA, 1972
National Board for Wild Life
Members
• PM as Chairman
• MoEFCC as vice-chairman
Function?

State Board for Wild Life (Constituted in states as well as UTs)

Members
• Chief Minister - Chairperson;
• Minister in-charge of Forests and Wild Life - Vice-Chairperson;

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 WPA, 1972
Protected Areas
Sanctuaries
• State Government can declare any area to be Sanctuary. (except area in
reserve forest or territorial waters)
• any part of the territorial waters or reserve forest can be included in
sanctuary after prior concurrence of the Central Government
• State government can alter the boundaries of a sanctuary only after a
recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife

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National Parks
• Declared by State Government
• State government can alter the boundaries of a sanctuary/NP only after
a recommendation of the National Board.

The Central Government may also declare, Wild Life Sanctuary and National
Park under certain conditions

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 National Park Wildlife Sanctuary

Human activity greatly prohibited Limited human activity allowed

Greater degree of protection Lesser degree of protection

Fixed Boundaries (requires 2/3rd majority in Boundaries are not sacrosanct (requires 50%
state assembly to change the boundary) majority)

Private entity/person can not own property People are allowed to own “immovable” property
within a National Park like land within a wildlife sanctuary

The Chief Wildlife Warden can authorize the killing/

Killing of animals is strictly not allowed hunting of an animal/group of animals under
special circumstances within a wildlife sanctuary.

A wildlife sanctuary is generally larger than a national park, and can even contain multiple
national parks within its premises.
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 WPA, 1972
Declaration and management of a conservation reserve
•The State Government may, after consultations with the local communities, declare any
area owned by the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and
sanctuaries and those areas which link one protected area with another, as a
conservation reserve
•They are declared for protecting landscapes, seascapes, ora and fauna and their
habitat
•It is managed through Conservation Reserve Management Committee

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 WPA, 1972
Declaration and management of community reserve
• The State Government may declare any private or community land not comprised
within a National Park, sanctuary or a conservation reserve, as a community reserve
◦ Provided that the members of that community or individuals concerned are
agreeable to o er such areas for protecting the fauna and ora as well as their
culture and traditions
• The declaration of such an area is aimed at improving the socio-economic conditions
of the people living in such areas as well as conserving wildlife.
• Community Reserve Management Committee

Conservation Reserve and Community reserves were created by Amendment of WPA in 2003.

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 WPA, 1972
Central Zoo Authority
• Constituted by Central Government
• Members including chairman appointed by center; Tenure- 3 years
• It recognises or derecognises zoos, sets standards for zoos
National Tiger Conservation Authority  (NTCA)
• Constituted by Central Government
• Members:
◦Chairperson: Minister of Environment
◦Vice-Chairperson: Minister of State in MoEF&CC
• State government notify an area as a tiger reserve on recommendation of NTCA.
• The State Government shall prepare a Tiger Conservation Plan.
Steering Committee- May be formed by State Government for coordinating tiger conservation. It is headed by CM of
respective state.

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 Sacred Grooves in India
• Patches of forests or natural vegetation usually dedicated to local folk
deities.
• Protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs
• They are often the last refuge of endemic species

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 Biodiversity Hotspots
• To qualify as a hot spot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
• Species endemism - it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular
plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics, and
• Degree of threat - it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.

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 Biosphere Reserves
• These are representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending
over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination
thereof and representative examples of bio-geographic zones/provinces.

Criteria for designation of BR

• A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature
conservation.
• The core area should be typical of a bio-geographical unit and large enough to sustain viable populations
representing all tropic levels in the ecosystem.
• The management authority to ensure the involvement/cooperation of local communities to bring variety of
knowledge and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and  socio-economic development while
managing and containing the conflicts.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of environment.

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Biosphere Reserves

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 Biosphere Reserves
International Status of Biosphere Reserves (BR)
• The UNESCO has introduced the designation ‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural
areas to minimize conflict between development and conservation.

• BRs are nominated by national government which meet a minimal set of

criteria and adhere to minimal set of conditions for inclusion in the world
network of Biosphere reserves under the Man and Biosphere Reserve
Programme of UNESCO.

• Each Biosphere Reserves are protected areas of land and/or coastal

environments wherein people are an integral component of the system.

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 Biosphere Reserves
Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme 
• Intergovernmental scientific program aiming to set scientific basis for the
improvement of relationships between the people and their environment
globally. 
• MAB combined natural and social sciences, economics and education to
improve human livelihoods and safeguard natural ecosystems.

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Biosphere Reserves

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 Project Tiger
• Launched in 1973 (Centrally Sponsored Scheme)
• Constituted on a core/buffer strategy.
• Aim: to foster an exclusive tiger agenda in the core areas of tiger
reserves, with an inclusive people oriented agenda in the buffer.

Tiger Reserves:
• Areas that are notified for the protection of the tiger and its prey
• State government notifies an area as a Tiger Reserve on recommendation of NTCA.
• Tiger reserve boundaries cannot be altered without recommendation from NTCA
and approval from National Board for Wildlife

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 Other Important Initiatives

• Elephants
• Project Elephant
• Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme
• Elephant Corridors
• Vultures
• Vulture Safetey Zones
• Vulture Restaurants
• India Rhino Vision 2020
• Project Snow Leapord
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Climate Change

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 Climate Change
• Climate vs Weather
• ‘climate change’ represents a change in the long-term weather patterns
• Global Warming
• an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere, which can
contribute to changes in global climate patterns.

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Greenhouse effect

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 Global Warming
• Greenhouse gases
• Water vapour
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Florinated gases —> HFCs, PFCs, SF6, CFCs, HCFCs
CFCs, HCFCs —> Ozone depleting —> banned in Montreal Protocol —> Kigali Amendment

• Black carbon

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 Global Warming
• Global Warming Potential (GWP)

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 Ocean Acidi ication
When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur
that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of
biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. These chemical reactions
are termed "ocean acidification"

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Ozone (O3) Depletion

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 Ozone Depletion
• CFCs, HCFCs
• Nitric Oxide (NO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

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Ozone depleting substances

• CFCs, HCFCs, N2O, NO, NO2, Bromine
• Note: HFC are not ozone depleting but they cause global warming

Global Warming gases

• N2O, HFCs
• NO2 doesn't cause global warming

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 Montreal Protocol
• A protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
• Concept of common but differential responsibility— developing countries
were given more time to phase out Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
• It was the first international treaty to be universally ratified. 

Kigali agreement to amend Montreal Protocol (2016)

• It aims to phase out HFCs by 2040s (Note that HFCc are not ozone depleting
but they cause global warming)
• binding on countries from 2019.

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 Mitigating Climate Change

• Carbon Sequestration

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 Mitigating Climate Change
• Carbon Sink - Green Carbon and Blue Carbon
• Carbon credit - a tradeable certificate or permit representing the right to
emit one tonne of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent
• Carbon offsetting - credits for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
made at another location
• Carbon tax
• Geo-engineering: modifying and cooling Earth’s environment

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Climate Change
Organisations

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 UNFCCC
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 
• International Environmental Treaty for reducing greenhouse gases 
• Adopted on 9 May 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro (UN Summit Conference on Environment and Development, UNCED) 
• The framework sets non binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for countries
• It contains no enforcement mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how
specific international treaties (called "protocols" or "Agreements") may be
negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC

UNCCD, CBD, UNFCCC, Agenda 21- all were established in Rio earth summit

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 UNFCCC
Objective: To stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system.

Conference of the Parties (COP): The nations, who’ve signed UNFCCC convention,

meet every year to discuss climate change strategy. 

Operating Mechanism of UNFCCC

• COP: all members countries
• CMP: of parties to Kyoto Protocol
• CMA: of parties to Paris Agreement

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 Environmental Financing
Global Environment Facility (GEF) is a financial mechanisms established under
Rio Summit to help tackle our planet's most pressing environmental problems.
• It is managed by World Bank 
• Fund under GEF is Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) 
• GEF serves as a financial mechanism for the-
1. CBD
2. UNCCD
3. UNFCCC
4. Stockholm Convention on POPs
5. Minamata Convention 
6. Montreal protocol 

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 Environmental Financing
Green Climate Fund (GCF): Fund established within the framework of the
UNFCCC.  It is an operating entity of the Financial Mechanism to assist developing
countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change. 
• It's objective was to raise $100 million per year upto year 2020
• It was formally established in 2010 (Cancun) and launched in 2011 (Durban).
• It is governed by GCF Board
• The GCF is based in Incheon, South Korea

Marrakech (COP-7)
Adaptation Fund- to help developing countries build resilience & adapt to climate
change. It gets 2% of carbon credit under CDM of Kyoto Protocol.

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Environmental Financing

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 Kyoto Protocol
• Adopted in 1997 and entered into force on 2005.
• Operationalised the UNFCCC
• to reduce green house gas emission (CO2)
• Binding on developed countries to reduce emissions
• Common but Differential responsibility 
• Joint implementation mechanism 
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
• Carbon Trading  (Emission Trading) 
◦ Carbon credit (India's Multi Commodity Exchange, MCX is first exchange in
Asia to trade carbon credits) 
◦ Offset trading 

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 Paris Agreement (COP 21) - 2015

• To limit global warming below 2°C of pre-industrial level. 
• To peruse efforts for limiting temperature to 1.5°c above.
• Intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) - non binding
• Under the Agreement, developed countries are required to help raise funds for
developing countries, aid in efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change,
and help transfer clean technologies.
• India’s INDCs
• to reduce Emissions Intensity of its GDP by 45 percent by 2030, from 2005
level
• Achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from
non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.

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 Talanoa Dialogue
COP 23 Bonn, Germany (Chaired by Fiji)
• The Talanoa Dialogue- process designed to help countries implement and
enhance their Nationally Determined Contributions.

• Gender Action Plan: for gender-responsive climate policy.

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 COP 27, Sharm el-Sheikh (Egypt)

• Agreed to create a ’Loss and Damages’ fund
• compensate the most vulnerable countries for their losses due to climate-
related disasters.
• 5 year work program launched to promote climate technology solutions in
developing countries.
• Sharm-El-Sheikh Adaptation Agenda: outlines 30 Adaptation Outcomes to
enhance resilience
• Action on Water Adaptation and Resilience Initiative (AWARe)
• African Carbon Market Initiative (ACMI)
• The Global Renewables Alliance
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 REDD and REDD+

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) under
UNFCCC 

• REDD - Incentive for developing countries to protect, better manage and save
their forest resources
• REDD+ - includes incentives for positive elements of conservation, sustainable
management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.

• India’s Nationally Determined Contribution under Paris Agreement - To capture

2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.

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IPCC (Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change)

• An intergovernmental body of the UN
• Dedicated to providing the world with an objective, scientific view of climate change,
its natural, political and economic impacts and risks, and possible response options
• Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and later endorsed by the UNGA.
• The IPCC is an organization of governments that are members of the UN or WMO.
• The IPCC produces reports that contribute to the work of the UNFCCC
• IPCC has received Noble Peace Prize in 2007
• The IPCC does not carry out original research, nor does it monitor climate or related
phenomena itself. Rather, it assesses published literature including peer-reviewed
and non-peer-reviewed sources.

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Green Economy

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Important Acts and Policies

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 Environment Protection Act, 1986
◦ It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged
with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms
and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to
different parts of the country.
◦ It establishes the framework for studying, planning, and implementing
long-term requirements of environmental safety and laying down a
system of speedy and adequate response to situations threatening the
environment.’
◦ The Act implements the decisions made at the Stockholm Conference
(1972). Enacted under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution.

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 Environment Protection Act, 1986

◦ Restriction on Pollutant Discharge
◦ The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to
protection and improvement of the environment.
◦ The Act prescribes a special procedure for handling hazardous
substances
◦ It relaxed the rule of “Locus Standi”
◦ Under the Act, there will be supremacy of provision

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 Forests
The Indian Forest Act, 1927:
• Largely based on the Indian Forest Act of 1878.
• Both the 1878 act and the 1927 one sought to consolidate and reserve the
areas having forest cover, or significant wildlife, to regulate movement
and transit of forest produce, and duty leviable on timber and other forest
produce.
• It also defines the procedure to be followed for declaring an area to be a
Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village Forest.
• It defines what a forest offence is, what are the acts prohibited inside a
Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the
Act.

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National Forest Policy, 1988:

Emphais on Protection, conservation, regeneration and development of forests. 
Features:
• Maintenance of environmental stability through the preservation and restoration of
ecological balance.
• Conservation of forests as a national heritage with vast varieties of flora and fauna.
• Control of soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
• Check on the extension of sand-dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along sea-coasts.
• Increasing forest cover to 33% through massive afforestation and social forestry
programmes.
• To meet the needs of fuel-wood, fodder and minor forest products for the rural and tribal
people.
• Augment the productivity of the forests to meet national needs.
• Encouragement of efficient utilisation of forest produce and optimum substitution of wood.
• Steps to create massive movement of people with the involvement of women folk to achieve
these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests.
• Involvement of people in forest management under joint forest management.
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Forest Rights Act 2006

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act, 2006- enacted to balance the right to environment with their right to life
and livelihood.
• Nodal Agency: Ministry of Tribal Affairs (!)

SIGNIFICANCE
• FRA recognises and secures Community Rights in addition to their individual rights. 
• Right of ownership, access to collect, use, and dispose of Minor Forest Produce
◦ MFP include all non-timber forest produce of plant origin, including bamboo,
brush wood, stumps, cane, tussar, cocoons, honey, wax, lac, tendu or kendu
leaves, medicinal plants and herbs, roots, tubers and the like.
• Conversion of all forest villages, old habitation, un-surveyed villages and other
villages in forests into revenue villages

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Forest Rights Act 2006

• Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest
resource which the communities have been traditionally protecting and
conserving for sustainable use
• Right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity
and cultural diversity
• Rights of displaced communities
• The maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest land is 4 ha.
• Rights over developmental activities
◦ permission of gram sabha is necessary for undertaking such activities
• This act is applicable to tribals as well as non-tribal forest dwelling communities.
• Rights conferred under the Act shall be heritable but not alienable or transferable
• This act played important role in strengthening local self governance in tribal
areas.

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 Biodiversity
Convention on Biodiversity (CBD)

Opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992
(United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED))
• It is an international legally-binding treaty.
• It recognises the sovereign rights of states to use their own biological
resources 
• CBD covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic
resources.
• It also covers biotechnology, included through the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety.

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Objectives
1. The conservation of biological diversity
2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization
of genetic resources

Global Environment Facility (GEF)- Financing of CBD along with UNFCCC

The submission of national reports is a mandatory obligation on parties to

international treaties, including the CBD

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 Biological Diversity Act in 2002

• Enacted for giving effect to the provisions of the CBD.

• The National Biodiversity Authority —> statutory body
• Objectives:
• Conservation of biodiversity
• Sustainable use of its components
• Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of utilization of genetic
resources
• Three tier regulatory structure-
National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) and
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at the local level

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 Biodiversity
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the CBD is an international agreement which aims to
ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting
from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking
also into account risks to human health

Nagoya Protocol  to the CBD- aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of
genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.

‘Aichi Targets’ were adopted by the CBD at its Nagoya conference. It is a short term plan
provides a set of 20 ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively known as the Aichi Targets.

Sharm El-Sheikh Declaration on Investing in Biodiversity for People and Planet

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 Go through these…
• Solid waste management rules
• Hazardous waste management rules
• Bio-medical waste management rules
• E-waste management rules
• Plastic Waste management rules

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 Important Organisations
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau
• Statutory multi-disciplinary
body - WPA, 1972
• Under the MoEF&CC
• to combat organized wildlife
crime in the country

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International Conventions

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 UNCED
United Nations Conference On Environment And Development (UNCED)
Also known as the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, Earth Summit (held in Rio de Janeiro in
June 1992)
Resulted in the following documents:
• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
• Agenda 21
• Forest Principles
Important legally binding agreements signed
1. Convention on Biological Diversity
2. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
3. UN Conference to combat dessertification (UNCCD)

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 CITES
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES)
• Only treaty to ensure that international trade in plants and animals does
not threaten their survival in the wild.
• CITES is administered through the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).

Ramsar Convention - Youtube

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 Conventions
Basel Convention on control of trans-boundary movements of hazardous wastes
and their disposal 
It aims at preventing and minimising the generation of wastes including those
ending up in ocean.
It does not cover radioactive waste.
(Not in My Backyard, Nimby syndrome) 

Basel Ban Amendment:

The Ban Amendment prohibits all export of hazardous wastes, including electronic
wastes and obsolete ships from 29 wealthiest countries of the OECD to non-OECD
countries.
India have not ratified this amendment. 

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Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 

Legally Binding. Under UNEP. Total 30 POPs
Dirty Dozen: 12 POPs that are the most dangerous. It includes Dioxins

Rotterdam Convention on Hazardous chemicals

The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on
exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions
on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans.
Created 'Prior Informed Consent' process.

Honolulu strategy — a framework for a comprehensive and global

collaborative effort to reduce the ecological, human health, and economic
impacts of marine debris worldwide.

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“Colombo Declaration” Ambition to halve nitrogen waste by 2030.

(Sustainable Nitrogen Management), UNEP.

The Nairobi Convention is a partnership between governments, civil society

and the private  sector, working towards a prosperous Western Indian Ocean
Region with healthy rivers, coasts and oceans.

Minimata Convention on Mercury is an international treaty designed to

protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions
and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.

Vienna Convention - Ozone

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Convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals (CMS)

(Bonn Convention)
• 13th COP @  Gandhinagar 
• Under the aegis of UNEP.
• It provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of
migratory animals and their habitats
• It brings together the States through which migratory animals pass, the
Range States
• CMS is only global and UN-based intergovernmental organization
established exclusively for conservation and management of terrestrial,
aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range.
• India has signed a non-legally binding MoU with CMS on conservation and
management of Siberian Cranes (1998), Marine Turtles (2007), Dugongs
(2008), and Raptors (2016).

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UN Conference to combat dessertification (UNCCD)

Key Points
• It is a sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to
sustainable land management
• The convention addresses speci cally drylands (the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas)
• Goals:  to maintain and restore land and soil productivity, and to mitigate the effects of
drought.
• Bottom-up approach:  encouraging the participation of local people in combating
deserti cation and land degradation
• UNCCD collaborates closely with the other two Rio Conventions; CBD & UNFCCC
• Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) is the nodal Ministry
• Bonn Challenge - It is a global effort towards bringing 150 million hectares of world’s
degraded and deforested land under restoration by the year 2020 and 350 million hectares by
2030 

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Environmental Impact
Assessment
(EIA)

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 EIA
As per UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) EIA is a tool used to identify
the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making.

Objectives of Environmental Impact Assessment

1. Identifying, predicting, and evaluating economic, environmental, and social
impacts of development activities.
2. Providing information on the environmental consequences for decision making.
3. Promoting environmentally sound and suitable development by identifying
appropriate alternatives and mitigation measures.

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 ◦ Screening: determines whether the EIA is required.

◦ Scoping: identi es the key issues and impacts that should be further
investigated.
◦ Impact analysis: identi es and predicts the likely environmental and
social impact
◦ Mitigation: recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the
potential adverse environmental consequences
◦ Reporting: presents the result of EIA in a form of a report.
◦ Public hearing: public and environmental groups living close to
project site may be informed and consulted.
◦ Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and e ectiveness of the
EIA report
◦ Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected,
approved or needs further change.
◦ Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is
commissioned. It checks to ensure that the impacts of the project do
not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation
measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report.

Steps in EIA
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