Psych Stats
Psych Stats
Psych Stats
People in the early period believed that thoughts came from the gods in the heaven. Such
belief led them to think that humans have little control over their emotions and actions. The
Great Greek triumvirates Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle believed otherwise. The influence of
Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) in psychology is his belief that thoughts and knowledge come from
within us and the understanding of self allows one to live a virtuous life. Plato (427-347B.C.E.)
introduced to us that human is a rational being, that we are born with the ability to understand
the relationship of the events around us. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) stressed on the importance
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of experience rather than reasons, that man’s reasoning is a form of making generalizations
from experiences and observations made. Today they are considered the predecessors of a
much modern perspective in psychology.
The origin of experimental psychology can be traced back to 1796, when the then Reverend
Dr. Nevil Maskelyne (1732-1811C.E.) the fifth British Astronomer Royal of the Greenwich
Astronomical Observatory, dismissed his 24 year old assistant David Kinnebrook, on the ground
that Kinnerbrook differed from him by 800 milliseconds in judging stellar transits – that is, in
estimating the moment a given star passed the meridian wire in the Greenwich telescope.
Kinnerbrooks mistake was proven serious statistically.
Upon reading the incident report in 1816, Friedrich Bessel (1784-1846 C.E.), an
astronomer from Königsberg, prompted to conduct a study in 1820. He wanted to know the
differences between himself and other well-practiced observers in their observations and
recording. He introduced the concept of “personal equation’ an attempt to correct for the
constant errors of particular observers, and his measurement led to the general realization that
perceptual and cognitive processes took a quantifiable time.
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psychophysics, Fechner formulated his famous principle that the intensity of a sensation
increases as the log of the stimulus (S = k log R) to characterize outer psychophysical relations.
In doing so, he believed that he had arrived at a way of demonstrating a fundamental
philosophical truth: mind and matter are simply different ways of conceiving of one and the
same reality. His reputation as a well-trained, systematic experimentalist and a competent
mathematician made a great impact to other scientists who further pursue the scientific manner
of studying human behavior.
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exerted a major impact on his contemporaries and reaction-time was installed, along with
psychophysics, as a method of choice in the early experimental laboratory.
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Francis Galton
Hermann Ebbinghaus
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In 1843 the Scottish physician James Braid proposed the term hypnosis for a technique
derived from animal magnetism; today this is the usual meaning of mesmerism. Later, with the
work of an Austrian physician Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a new branch of medical psychology
was born.
Between 1910 and 1550, a number of psychological schools or systems of theories were
developed, and opposing viewpoints on the nature and functions of psychology continued to
arise among the group psychologist and researchers
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Psychology like other scientific field has general goals that guide its investigation about
human nature. These main goals of psychology are the following.
1. To describe the different ways of how people behave. It is the accurate and detailed
record of behavioral observations.
2. To explain the various causes of why certain processes and behavior occurs.
3. To predict and determine how the organism will behave in a certain situation.
4. To control or change an organism’s behavior and mental processes by learning how to
modify or alter undesirable behavior.
There are many important factors worth mentioning referring to the relevance of
statistics in the field of psychology. To mention a few, the following are considered important for
the purpose of this book.
What is Statistics?
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The word statistics often awaken the awareness of the images of numbers assembled
upon numbers in a vast table. In common understanding the word statistics is synonymous with
the word data.
Interpretation of data refers to the activities that involve explanation of the meaning of
the statistical finding for the formation of valid conclusions and inferences. Such methods
involve testing the significance of the results. Correct interpretation of results will lead to a valid
conclusion of the study and hence can aid in taking correct decisions.
Categories of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics refers to the field of statistics that includes the methods of collecting,
classifying, graphing, and averaging the data. The objective is simply describing and
summarizing the important features, properties or characteristics of the data on hand without
attempting to give inference. For example, getting the census of the IQ level of the
psychology student in a university is or of little value if it is just a mass of numerical data. It
can be meaningful if it can be organized into sort of table called frequency distribution or of
some kind of bar or pie graph that will give the IQ level and description when grouped
according to year level and gender. The following are example of descriptive statistics.
a. All participants, 100% reported an experience to at least one traumatic event that can be
considered as equivalent to the objective components of the stress or criterion A of DSM
IV-TR Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
b. The internal consistency of the Perceived Academic Control of the students utilizing the
Academic Control Scale (ACS) was assessed using the Cronbach’s Alpha and the result
showed that the ACS has adequate reliability. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
results for one-factor structure of ACS yield a good fit.
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out an inference, the researcher is equipped to employ appropriate and correct descriptive
measures to bring out valid and reliable result. The area of inferential statistics called
hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for evaluating the statements about a
population, based on the information gathered from the samples. The following are
examples of inferential Statistics.
a. The rate of clinically significant Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) scores of the
respondents did not significantly differ in the three regions (Luzon, Visayas and
Mindanao), x2 (2, N=1794) =2.048, p>.05. Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted.
b. The finding indicates there is a significant difference on the moral judgment of the
respondents according to sex group. The means of the female and male respondents
were 1.23 and 1.13 respectively, with a mean difference of .10. The mean difference is
considered significant at .10 confidence level in favor of the respondents coming from
the female group.
Exercises
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A. Select the best answer. Write the letters on the space provided for before the number.
_______ 1. The early men who are considered wise and rational gain their knowledge through what
manner?
a) natural observation c) experimentation
b) laboratory study d) divine revelation
_______ 2. The origin of the pure scientific endeavor of psychology was motivated by the event that
happened and effort done by what field of science?
a) Medicine c) Astronomy
b) Anthropology d) Physiology
_______ 3. Statistics demands activities that will supplement the rigid requirement of the field. What
statistical activity which refers to the manner of describing the properties, characteristics or
behavior of the data?
a) Data collection c) Data presentation
b) Data analysis d) Data testing
_______ 4. Statistics involved awareness of numbers assembled and arranged to project a
comprehensible
and reader friendly presentation. What statistical activity refers to the exposition and
arrangement of data in an appropriate manner?
a) Data presentation c) Data collection
b) Data analysis d) Data survey
_______ 5. Which among the statement is true in an inferential statistics?
a) It has a raw material which the statistician can work on.
b) The variables are classified according to numerical value.
c) It demands a higher order of critical judgment.
d) It can assume values at specific point in a scale.
_______ 6. It can be found through survey, experiment, archival records and other modes of data
gathering.
It is very important for the researcher in order to come up with a productive study.
a) Statistics c) Hypothesis
b) Data d) Conclusion
_______ 7. The manner of identifying what the characteristics of descriptive statistics is.
a) By looking at the objective which is simply describing and summarizing the important
values.
b) By looking at the predictive inferential manner.
c) By finding if it answers the hypothesis.
d) If it employs appropriate and correct methods and procedures.
_______ 8. All scientist needs a laboratory to work on his research or experiment, who is the first
scientist
that converted a room into experimental laboratory and where was the place?
a) Fechner – Leipzeg c) Freud – Autria
b) Wilhelm Wundt – Leipzeg d) Helmholts - Germany
_______ 9. Committing an errors is not a good issue to start with, however, the error that was
committed
by this person is the geneses of experimental psychology. Who is this person?
a) Maskelyne c) Lindeneau
b) Bessel d) Kinnebrook
______10. After Leipzig experimental laboratory serves it purpose to the students and to the world.
Who is
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the first American Psychologist who put up his experiential laboratory for real research
purpose
and not only for academic demonstration and at what university did he ?
a) William James – Harvard University c) Stanley Hall – John Hopkins
University
b) James Cattell – University of Pennsylvania d) Edward Titchener - Cornell University
B. Classify whether the situation belongs to the area of descriptive statistics (DS) or inferential statistics
(IS). Indicate your answer on the space provided before the number.
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5 6
1 c e
e
4 9
p
2 8
A i
o 10 c e
e
3
c s o
1. Statistics provides methods and _________ that will aid the psychologist and researchers
on how and what are the important factors to gather in conducting psychological research.
4. It is one of the goals of psychology which help clarifies the various causes of behavior.
5. Statistics enables the researcher to draw general conclusions: the process of extracting
_____________ is carried out according to accepted rules.
6. It refers to the category of statistics that includes the methods of collecting, classifying,
graphing, and averaging the data.
7. The systematic inquiry and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
come up with new conclusions. It is also an academic requirement for the acquisition of a
degree.
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8. The goal of psychology that aims to minimized the negative effect on organism’s behavior
and mental processes by learning how to modify or alter undesirable behavior.
9. The goal of psychology which refers to have a forecast on how the organism will behave in a
certain situation.
10. The result can supply valid and reliable conclusions that will clarify and determine the cause
and effect on the _____________ of behavior.
Chapter 2
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Be familiar with the basic SPSS and Excel Operations
2. Be able to apply the operations and use them appropriately
3. Explore application of SPSS and Excel in Statistical Operations
4. Identify symbols used in statistics and apply them
In this portion, this will give us information of the basic functions and uses of SPSS. At the end
of the chapter you are expected be able to perform basic SPSS functions like entering variables,
entering data, generating table of statistics and be able to save your file.
Type in
Data
Click OK
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In this data you have 12 students represented by ID, the scores are 34, 30, 36, 35, 34, 36, 34,
35, 31, 27, 29 and 34
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Analyze Descriptive
Statistics
then
Frequencies
7. In the frequency you will see the encoded information on the left box, transfer the data to
be analyzed at the right box. In this case the Scores.
Click on Test
Scores
8. Transfer the Tests scores by highlighting in and clicking the arrow pointing to the right
box. Then Click Statistics
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Click on
Statistics
Click on Mean,
Median, Mode
Click on
Standard
Deviation and
Variance
Click Continue
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Statistics
The result of the
Test Score analysis showing
the central
Valid 12 tendency and
N variation
Missing 0
Mean 32.92
Median 34.00
Mode 34
Variance 8.629
11. Save your file by clicking the save icon and type in desire file name.
1. To create a graph base on frequency distribution, enter all the scores in one column
2. Click Data analysis, click frequencies, then frequencies. Move the scores from left to
right table then click charts.
Click Charts
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Test Score
Tota
12 100.0 100.0
l
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Statistical Notations
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1. Encode Data, the click the fx or function bar, look for average, the click go. This will
appear, then highlight the data to get the mean from. Then Press OK.
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Function bar
2. Compute for the median, click fx or function bar, then go to median, highlight the data to
get the median from, the click ok.
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3. For the mode, click fx or function bar, then go to mode, highlight the data to get the
mode from, then click ok.
Click fx o
function Click fx o
bar function
bar
Go
Go
Ok
Ok
Exercise 3.1
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a. ∑x b. ∑x² c. ∑x + 5 d. ∑(x-2)
Solution:
x x² X-2
a. To solve this, just add up all
9 81 7 the scores (x)
7 49 5 b. In solving this, square all the
scores, then add them up.
8 64 6 c. To compute for this, just add
5 to the sum of all scores.
6 36 4 d. To solve for this, subtract 2
from all the scores then add
4 16 2 them up.
9 81 7
7 49 5
3 9 1
∑x = 53 ∑x² = 385 ∑(x-2) = 37
1. X 7 4 6 5 3
a. ∑x b. ∑x² c. ∑ (x-1) d. ∑x+3 e. (∑x)²
2. X 2 3 2 4 3 4 5
a. ∑x b. ∑x² c. ∑ x-2 d. ∑(x+4)² e. (∑x)²
3. X 6 5 7 6 7 8 5
Y 3 6 5 2 1 5 3
a. ∑x b. ∑y² c. ∑ xy d. ∑(xy)² e. ∑xy²
Chapter 3
Descriptive Statistics
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Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Differentiate inferential and descriptive statistics
2. Explore descriptive statistics
3. Classify distribution shape
4. Create frequency distribution
5. Compute central tendencies
6. Apply SPSS and Excel for descriptive statistics
Frequency Distributions
Example:
The following are set of scores (N = 30) which was obtained from a 10 points Psych
Statistics test. We will organize these scores by constructing a frequency distribution table.
Scores: 9 8 9 8 6 8 4 9 5 10
7 9 6 5 4 7 5 6 7 8
3 9 7 5 6 7 6 4 7 4
1. The highest score is X = 10 and the lowest score is X = 3. The first column of the table lists
the categories or scores that make up the scale of measurement (X values) from 10 to 3.
X f 2. Notice that all of the possible scores are listed in the table, and the
10 1 frequency associated with each scores is recorded in the second
9 5 column.
8 4 3. As you can observe, there is only one student who got a perfect
7 6
score and most of the scores are 7 with 6 as its frequency,
6 5
5 4 followed by 9 and 6 with both 5 as frequency.
4 4 4. The frequency can also be used to find the total number of scores.
3 1 N = ∑f
∑f 30
Using SPSS:
1. Encode the scores in the first column or the first var and label it as Scores.
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Highlight the scores Then click the arrow to the right, Then Click OK
Scores Obtained
The output of the SPSS will look like
Scores Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
this, similar to our data done
Percent Percent
manually.
3 1 3.3 3.3 3.3
You can even make a graph by
4 4 13.3 13.3 16.7
clicking the charts and choose a
5 4 13.3 13.3 30.0 specific chart type then click OK
6 5 16.7 16.7 46.7
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Symmetrical Distribution
If the right hand side of the graph is a mirror image of the left hand side then it is said to
be symmetrically distributed. A distribution that is perfectly symmetrical has a median that is
exactly at the center of the distribution, thus a perfectly symmetrical distribution has the same
mean, median and mode.
In skewed distribution, there is a tendency that the mean, median and mode are located
in different positions.
As in graph above, a positively skewed distribution has a peak or highest score or
frequency at the left side. This is the position of the mode in which its vertical line does not
divide the distributions in two equal parts; the median is at the right side of the mode and the
mean at the right side of the median. Thus, a positively skewed distribution has from smallest to
large value (left to right) is the mode, median and the mean.
A negatively skewed distribution is disproportionate in the opposite direction, with the
scores piling up to the right side. The smallest to highest value in the negatively skewed
distribution is mean, median and mode.
A positive or negative value of skewness is described as not normal distribution.
Nonparametric test are used when distribution are not normal, that can be utilized in both
nominal and ordinal data
Where:
Sk = Skewness = mean
3 = Constant Md = Median
SD = Standard Deviation
Kurtosis
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Some symmetrical curves may look just like normal bell shape curve, but some are
either excessively steep or flat compared to a normal bell curve. Kurtosis is the term to describe
the shallowness or steepness of a distribution. A steep kurtosis is called leptokurtic, a normal
curve is called mesokurtic and a flat curve is called platykurtic. A positive value of kurtosis
means that the curve is steep. A zero value of kurtosis means that the curve is middling and a
negative value of kurtosis is a flat curve.
We use parametric test when the distribution is normal. To determine this we compute
for the skewness and kurtosis. A normal distribution has a skewness equal to zero and the
kurtosis is 0.265. When the distribution is not normal then use nonparametric test with ratio and
interval data.
where
Central Tendency
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Supposed you had your quizzes and you scored 8/10 in one of them. Would you be
happy for your score? At its face value you had a very decent score and you would consider
yourself you have done a great job. But looking at your classmates’ scores you see that most of
them scored 9/10 and 10/10. Would you still be happy? Sometimes our performance in any quiz
is not just dependent on how we did, but we also consider how others did in the same test. In
the Math quiz your percentage is 80, while your classmates are between 90-100 percent. Would
you be happy with your score given the scenario? So how do you decide then? What additional
information would you like?
If you are like most students, you will immediately ask your classmates of their scores. To
compare your scores to a distribution of scores is fundamental to statistics. So let's explore it
further, using the same example (the quizzes you took with your classmates).
Based on the table shown to which subject did you do better than the others, and which
subject did you perform below them? The table shows that you did well in Science, English and
Filipino since you scored above the mean or average and median, while you did poorly in Math
because you fell below the mean and median.
A statistical measure that determines a single score that defines its center of the distribution is
the central tendency. This aims to determine the most typical or usual score in a distribution.
The Mean
The mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It is simply the sum of the scores
divided by the number of scores. The symbol “μ” is used for the mean of a population. The
symbol “M” is used for the mean of a sample.
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∑X
N
Add all the scores in a selection and then divide it by the number of population.
Median
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint
of a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. Simply it is the
middle score. When is median a valuable alternative to the mean? We use median if the
resulting mean is produces a value that is not representative of the distribution. This means that
one or more values are extreme that can influence the mean or displace it. We also use median
for ordinal data.
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When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number.
When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers.
For example, the median of 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, and 18 is 10.5.
Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. Count the number of times each scores
occurs and pick the score with most occurrences. When we use nominal scales and discrete
variables it is better to use the mode.
In the table above the mode for Math is 9 since it occurs 4 times or most frequently from
among the math scores. The subject science has number 4 as its mode since it occurred 3
times or most frequently from among the scores. The subjects Filipino and English have no
mode since none of the scores were repeated.
Variability
Supposed you have 12 members in your group what would be the range of their score
considering the following value.
Scores: 9 8 9 8 6 8 4 9 5 10
7 9 6 5 4 7 5 6 7 8
3 9 7 5 6 7 6 4 7 4
The range is the distance between the highest score and the lowest score.
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The Range is 10 – 3 = 7
Standard deviation is the most important measure of variability. It is also the most commonly
used. The standard deviation is the distance of the scores from the mean.
Deviation is the distance from the mean. As in 10 – 6.6 = 3.4, the result is the distance of score
from the mean.
For Example:
9 8 7 5 1
The Variance=SD
2
squared
value of the
standard
deviation is
the
variance
X
∑ (40)
9
8
X-
9–6=3
(X -
9
)²
SD=
√ 5−1
8–6=2 4 SD=√ 10
7
7–6=1 1
5
5 – 6 = -1 1
1
1 – 6 = -5 25
∑ = 30
∑ (X - )²=40
SD=3.16
=6
STANDARD SCORES
Standard scores are universally understood units in testing that allow test users to evaluate
a person’s performance in reference to other persons who took the same or similar test.
Transformed Scores
Are most often used with standardized test of aptitude, achievement, and personality and
are designed to help us compare individual scores with group norms. They also help us
compare one individual’s score on one test with the same individual’s score on another test.
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LINEAR TRANSFORMATION- change the unit of measurement but do not change the
characteristics of the raw data in any way.
Percentages
- To calculate a percentage, you divide a raw score by the total possible score.
Standard deviation units
- Refer to how many standard deviations an individual score falls away from the mean.
Z scores
- Are very similar to standard deviation units except that they can be represented in whole
numbers and decimal points.
x−x́ ( x− x́ )2
z=
sd sd =
√ n−1
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A 14 -1 -0.37
B 15 0 0.00
C 11 -4 -1.47
D 17 2 0.74
E 14 -1 -0.37
F 16 1 0.37
G 17 2 0.74
H 12 -3 -1.10
I 12 -3 -1.10
J 17 2 0.74
K 20 5 1.84
∑x 165
mean 15
sd 2.72
T scores
T score is a transformed score that always have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation
of 10.This is computed by multiplying the z-scores by 10 and then adding 50.
T =( z x 10 ) +50
Percentiles
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To calculate an individual’s percentile rank, you must first find the number of individuals
who scored below the individual’s score and the number of individuals who scored exactly the
same score. You then take the number of individuals who scored below a specific raw score,
add half (.5) of those who scored exactly the same raw score, and divide it by the total number
of people who took the test. You then multiply this number by 100 to make the decimal a whole
number.
Rank−0.05
PR= x 100
number of cases
Temporary
Rank Score True Rank Percentile
1 11 1 4.55
2 12 2.5 18.18
3 12 2.5 18.18
4 14 4.5 36.36
5 14 4.5 36.36
6 15 6 50.00
7 16 7 59.09
8 17 9 77.27
9 17 9 77.27
10 17 9 77.27
11 20 11 95.45
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Percentile ranks – is very common type of norm ; it provides us with a way to rank individuals
on a scale from 1% to 100% , making it relatively easy to interpret. With percentile rank norms,
scores can range from the 1st percentile to the 99th percentile, with the average individual’s
score set at the 50th percentile.
11 98
10 96
9 85
8 75
7 62
6 48
5 34
4 23
3 18
2 10
1 4
0 1
Age norms and Grade norms – are also common types of norms, they allow us to
determine at what age level or grade level an individual is performing. They allow us to
determine whether an individual’s test score is similar to, below, or above the scores of
others at the same age or grade level.
Example: 10-year-olds or fourth graders as well as to test takers with ages and grades
immediately below and immediately above the targeted age or grade.
SUMMARY OF Role of Norms
Percentile rank – tell us the percentage of the norm group that scored less than or equal to an
individual.
Age and Grade norms – tell us whether individuals scored below, similar to or above their age
and grade levels.
*Tests users should be careful to select the appropriate norm group, ensure that the norms they
use to date, and to ensure that the size of the norm group is large enough to be represented of
the target population.
Exercises 4.1
A. Compute the following:
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1. For the following data compute for the variance and the standard deviation.
12 17 15 10 11 19
2. For the following scores find the mean, median and range
80 87 80 90 85 84
3. For the following data
7 0 1 3 6
a. find the mean and standard deviation
b. now change the score x=7 to 17, find the new mean and standard deviation
c. describe how the an extreme score affects the mean and the standard
deviation
4. Organize the following scores by constructing a frequency distribution.
8 9 7 6 5 7 9 6 8 6
6 9 7 8 5 6 8 7 9 4
Compute for the mean, median, mode, variance, standard deviation and range.
Exercises 4.2
Express the Mean, Standard Deviation, Z-scores and T-Scores of the following Scores:
Temporary True
Rank
Score x−x́ ( x−x́ )2 Rank
z - scores T - Score Percentile
1 3
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 5
6 6
7 6
8 6
9 6
10 6
11 7
12 7
13 8
14 8
15 9
Chapter 4
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Testing Hypothesis
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Formulate a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis.
2. State the procedure for hypothesis testing.
3. Differentiate between one-tailed and two-tailed tests.
4. Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors.
5. Explain the meaning of effect size.
6. Compute z-test and use SPSS and Excel
A generally considered most important instrument in research is the Hypothesis. Its main
function is to suggest new functions and ideas. Various authors define hypothesis as follows:
“A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”.
(Kerlinger, 1956)
“Hypotheses are tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising theory or
planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”. (Eric
Rogers, 1966)
“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)
A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It provides a
tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation." (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001).
Characteristics of a hypothesis
Categorizing Hypotheses
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The Null Hypothesis, H0 states the claim or assertion to be tested; it is always about a
population parameter, not about a sample statistic. Begin with the assumption that the null
hypothesis is true. This is similar to the notion of innocent until proven guilty. Refers to the status
quo and always contains “=” , “≤” or “” sign which may or may not be rejected. It states that
independent variable has no effect and there will be no difference between the two groups.
The Alternative Hypothesis, H1 is the opposite of the null hypothesis that challenges the
status quo. It never contains the “=” , “≤” or “” sign which may or may not be proven. It is
generally the hypothesis that the researcher is trying to prove and states that independent
variable has an effect and there will be a difference b/w the two groups.
This is simply based on the wording of the hypothesis that we can tell the difference
between directional and non-directional. If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a
difference between the two groups, then it is a non-directional hypothesis. It is non-directional
because it predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ.
If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as “greater”, “less”,
“better”, or “worse” then it is a directional hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that
there will be a difference between the two groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ
One-tailed or directional test is done when the null hypothesis states that one mean is
greater or lesser than the other mean; the direction is specified: Example: Science majors differ
from mass communication majors in terms of mean scores on sociability.
Two-tailed or non-directional test is done when the null hypothesis states that the two
means are equal or there is no difference between the two means. Example: Boys and girls do
not differ in mathematics ability.
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This is theory building and theory testing classified in terms of how they were derived:
The alternative hypothesis is one which one wants to prove. The consideration is given
to the null hypothesis. This is due to the fact that the null hypothesis relates to the statement
being tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be accepted if /
when the null is rejected.
The final conclusion once the test has been carried out is always given in terms of the
null hypothesis. We either 'reject H0 in favour of Ha' or 'do not reject H0'; we never conclude
'reject Ha', or even 'accept Ha'. If we conclude 'do not reject H0', this does not necessarily mean
that the null hypothesis is true, it only suggests that there is not sufficient evidence against H0 in
favour of Ha; rejecting the null hypothesis then, suggests that the alternative hypothesis may be
true.
Type I Error – occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when it is true, designated by alpha
(α).
Type II Error – occurs when we accept the null hypothesis when it is false, designated by (β).
Decision
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• In a hypothesis test, a type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is
in fact true; that is, H0 is wrongly rejected.
• A type I error is often considered to be more serious, and therefore more important to
avoid, than a type II error. The hypothesis test procedure is therefore adjusted so that
there is a guaranteed 'low' probability of rejecting the null hypothesis wrongly; this
probability is never 0. This probability of a type I error can be precisely computed as,
p(type I error) = significance level = The exact probability of a type II error is generally
unknown.
• If we do not reject the null hypothesis, it may still be false (a type II error) as the sample
may not be big enough to identify the falseness of the null hypothesis (especially if the
truth is very close to hypothesis).
• For any given set of data, type I and type II errors are inversely related; the smaller the
risk of one, the higher the risk of the other.
• In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not rejected
when it is in fact false.
• A type II error would occur if it was concluded that the two drugs produced the same
effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they
produced different ones.
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• A type II error is frequently due to sample sizes being too small. The probability of a type
II error is symbolised by and written: p(type II error) = (but is generally unknown).
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
Alpha (α) – is set at the beginning of the research and is the level to which the
researcher wishes to limit the probability of making a Type I error. It is also the area of
the rejection region. Typical values of α are .05, .01 or .001.
• It is the probability of a type I error and is set by the investigator in relation to the
consequences of such an error. That is, we want to make the significance level as small
as possible in order to protect the null hypothesis and to prevent, as far as possible, the
investigator from inadvertently making false claims.
One-sided Test
• A one-sided test is a statistical hypothesis test in which the values for which we can
reject the null hypothesis, H0 are located entirely in one tail of the probability distribution.
In other words, the critical region for a one-sided test is the set of values less than the
critical value of the test, or the set of values greater than the critical value of the test.
• Either of these two alternative hypotheses would lead to a one-sided test. Presumably,
we would want to test the null hypothesis against the first alternative hypothesis since it
would be useful to know if there is likely to be less than 50 matches, on average, in a
box (no one would complain if they get the correct number of matches in a box or more).
Yet another alternative hypothesis could be tested against the same null, leading this time to a
two-sided test:
Two-Sided Test
• A two-sided test is a statistical hypothesis test in which the values for which we can
reject the null hypothesis, H0 are located in both tails of the probability distribution.
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• In other words, the critical region for a two-sided test is the set of values less than a first
critical value of the test and the set of values greater than a second critical value of the
test
• The choice between a one-sided test and a two-sided test is determined by the purpose
of the investigation or prior reasons for using a one-sided test.
EFFECT SIZE- refers to the measure of the size of the treatment effect in terms of the standard
deviation. There are different effect sizes depending on the different hypothesis test. The most
common and simple measure of effect size is Cohen’s d, which is the mean difference divided
by the standard deviation.
Z-Test
Z-Test is a parametric test that is used when normal distribution is observed. It uses two
population parameters, the mu ( μ) and sigma (σ ) . This is used to compare the two
means – the sample mean and the perceived population mean. It is also used in comparing two
sample means taken from the same population.
Z-Test is also used when the samples are equal or greater than 30. This can be applied
in one-sample mean test and two sample mean test.
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In an instance a certain car company asserts that the lifespan of their breakpads will last
43,000 kilometers. To check the claim sample breakpads were tested by getting their sample
mean.
To solve this we use the Z-Test for one sample mean using the formula below:
Example:
The BRKPD company asserts that the average lifespan of their breakpads is at least
43,000 km. To acertain the accuracy of this assertion, a jeepney operator puts these breakpads
to their 50 jeepneys which got the average lifespan of breakpads at 41,800 km. With the
standard deviation of 2, 580 km. Use the Z-Test at 0.05 level of signiifcance to determine if the
claim is true.
1. Detrmine the mean of the sample and the standard deviation if the population is not
known.
2. Get the difference the sample mean and the population mean and multiply it by the
square root of sample mean (n).
3. Determine the quotient of the step by the population standard deviation if it is known.
4. Compare the result to the table or the tabular value using the set level of significance.
Level of Significance
Test 0.01 0.05
One-tailed ± 2.33 ± 1. 645
Two-tailed ± 2.575 ± 1.96
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is the assertion true that the average lifespan of the breakpad is at least
43,000 km.
Hypotheses: Ho : The average lifespan of the breakpad is 43,000 km.
Ha : The average lifespan of the breakpad is NOT 43,000 km.
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.645 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for one tailed test
Solution:
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( 41,800−43,000 ) √ 50
z=
2,580
(−1,200 ) 7.07
z=
2,580
−8484
z=
2,580
Zcv = - 3.29
Decision If the Zcv (Z computed value) is greater than the ztv (tabular value) reject the
Rule null hypothesis. ( ± Zcv > ± ztv ∴ Ho ); otherwise accept the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion Since the z computed value (Zcv -3.29) is greater than the tabular value of (ztv
± 1.645) at 0.05 level of significance the null hypothesis is rejected, which
means that the average lifespan of the breakpad is NOT 43,000 km
This is used to compare the means of two independent groups of samples drawn from a
normal population. This is used if there are more than 30 samples for every group.
Formula in Computing the Test Statistic Using Z Test (Two Sample Mean Test)
when the given means are sample means.
x´₁− x´ ₂ Where:
z= x́ 1 = the mean of 2
n1 = size sample 1
s ₁² s ₂² s1 = the variance of
√ +
n ₁ n₂
sample 1
x́ 2 = the mean of
sample 2
sample 1
2
s2 = the variance of
n2 = size sample 2
sample 2
Example:
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Level of Significance
Test 0.01 0.05
One-tailed ± 2.33 ± 1. 645
Two-tailed ± 2.575 ± 1.96
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference between the means of the two groups.
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no significant difference between the means of the two groups
Ha : There is a significant difference between the means of the two groups
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.96 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for two sample means
x´₁− x´ ₂ Where:
z= x́ n1 = 100
s ₁² s ₂² 1 = 85 s 21 = 35
√ +
n ₁ n₂
x́ 2 = 80
s2
2
= 30
n2 = 100
85−80
z=
35 30
√ +
100 100
5
z=
√ 0.35+ 0.30
5
z=
0.806
Zcv = 6.20
Decision If the Zcv (Z computed value) is greater than the ztv (tabular value) reject the
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Rule null hypothesis. ( ± Zcv > ± ztv ∴ Ho ); otherwise accept the null
hypothesis.
Conclusion Since the z computed value (Zcv 6.20) is greater than the tabular value of (ztv
1.96) at 0.05 level of significance the null hypothesis is rejected, which means
that there is a significant difference between the sample means
1. Enter the data (in this case 1-100 – note that the rest of the data were just hidden), then
click Data and data analysis and choose z-test two sample mean the click OK
2. Enter the range for two variables, then encode the variances, then click ok
3. Include the label in the range and be sure that the label box is checked.
Psychology Broadcasting
Mean 85 80
Known Variance 35 30
Observations 100 100
z 6.20 z- test computed
value
P(Z<=z) one-tail 0.00
z Critical one-tail 1.64
P(Z<=z) two-tail 0.00
z- tabular
z Critical two-tail 1.96 value
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Exercise 5.1
1. A psychometrician review center claims that the reading comprehension test of their
reviewee has an average of 87.6 with a standard deviation of 8.9. If 40 randomly
selected reviewees have an average of 85.8 use the Z-Test to test the null hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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3. Antonio works as a janitor supervisor for a psychiatric clinic that has 70 guest (patient).
Every day he goes to work he feels like the janitors he supervises is cleaning a great
deal of human waste and he wants to know if the amount of waste that he disposes of
on average is different than the normal amount dispose of. On any given day 150 kilos of
waste, with a standard deviation of 50 kilos, are removed from these types of facilities
across the country; however janitors in John’s facilities shovel 170 pounds of waste a
day. Is John’s facility shoveling significantly more human waste than the average facility?
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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4. CARLA is a “hair removal technician” at MIDAS Touch beauty salon. She began taking
an intro stat course and it led her to notice that for women who regularly come in for any
kind of Bikini wax (e.g. regular, Brazilian, Playboy, Lex Luther) their distribution is normal
with an average of 10 waxes a year with a standard deviation of 3. A new Hormone
Therapy clinic opened up next door and she wonders if the women receiving treatment
there will need more waxing than the typical clientele. She randomly selects 9 of them
and on average they come in 14 times over the next year. Do these women receiving
hormone therapy need significantly more waxing?
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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5. The mean number of close friends for the population of people living in the Philippines is
6.7. An investigator predicts that the mean number of close friends for introverts will be
significantly less than the mean of the population. The mean number of close friends for
a sample of 26 introverts is 5.5. The standard deviation of scores in this sample is 1.1.
Do these data support the investigator's prediction? Use an alpha level of .05.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses:
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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Exercise 5.2
1. Working students from a State University works 20 hours per week for pay on the
average, with a standard deviation of 15.5. At private universities, the average for
freshman is 15 hours, with a standard deviation of 10.5 hours. The sample size for each
is 1,000. Is the difference between the averages real or is it just chance variation.
Perform a level 0.05 independent two-sample test to find out.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference between the means of the two groups.
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no significant difference between the means of the two groups
Ha : There is a significant difference between the means of the two groups
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.96 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for two sample means
x´₁− x´ ₂ Where:
z= x́ 2 n1 = ____
s ₁² s ₂² 1 = ____ s1 = ___
√ +
n ₁ n₂
x́ 2 = ____ 2
s2 = ___
n2 = ____
Decision
Rule
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Conclusion
2. A researcher wants to determine whether or not a given drug has any effect on the
scores of human subjects performing a task of ESP sensitivity. He randomly assigns his
subjects to one of two groups. Nine hundred subjects in group 1 (the experimental
group) receive an oral administration of the drug prior to testing. In contrast, 1000
subjects in group 2 (control group) receive a placebo.
For the drug group, the mean score on the ESP test was
9.78, S.D. = 4.05, n = 900
For the no-drug group, the mean = 15.10, S.D. = 4.28, n= 1000
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference between the means of the two groups.
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no significant difference between the means of the two groups
Ha : There is a significant difference between the means of the two groups
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.96 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for two sample means
x´₁− x´ ₂ Where:
z= x́ 2
n1 = ____
s ₁² s ₂² 1 = ____ s1 = ___
√ +
n ₁ n₂
x́ 2 = ____ 2
s2 = ___
n2 = ____
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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3. Is there a significant difference in the average IQ level of male children born in different
cities in NCR. Random sampling yields the following results: Use 0.05 level of
significance
x́ 1 = 105 2
s1 = 3.46 n1 = 220
x́ = 90 2 n2 = 200
2
s2 = 3.59
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference between the means of the two groups.
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no significant difference between the means of the two groups
Ha : There is a significant difference between the means of the two groups
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.96 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for two sample means
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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4. A forensic psycholgist wants to know if the location of jail post significant difference on
the average stay of convicted illegal drug users. Is there a significant difference number
of months of stay of convicts in different cities in NCR. Random sampling yields the
following results: Use 0.05 level of significance
x́ 1 = 15.5 s1
2
= 2.63 n1 = 130
x́ = 8.5 n2 = 180
2
s 22 = 2.19
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference between the means of the two groups.
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no significant difference between the means of the two groups
Ha : There is a significant difference between the means of the two groups
Level of ∝ = 0.05
Significance ztv = 1.96 ztv = z-test tabular value
Statistics Z-Test for two sample means
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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Chapter 6
TESTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Give meaning of hypothesis
2. Apply t-test in appropriate problems
3. Perform t-test using SPSS and Excel
The t tests are used to determine the significance of the difference between two means. It is
useful when samples are less than 30 and the standard deviation is unknown. The following
assumptions have to be met: Data are normally distributed and the level of measurement are
expressed in interval and ratio scales.
1. The t test for independent samples is used when the samples are drawn from
different populations.
2. The t test for correlated samples is used when the samples come from the same
population or the same set of samples is subjected to two different experimental
conditions.
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Example: To find out which method of teaching is more effective in improving performance, two
groups of trainees were randomly chosen for the study. The following scores reflect their
performance after the training.
Ho: The two methods of teaching do not significantly differ in improving performance.
Ha: The two methods of teaching significantly differ in improving performance.
Experiential Lecture
X1 X12 X2 X22
8 64 5 25
10 100 6 36
12 144 3 9
6 36 4 16
6 36 7 49
7 49 8 64
9 81 6 36
8 64 5 25
7 49 4 16
11 121 8 64
ƩX1 = 84 ƩX12= 744 ƩX2 = 56 ƩX22 = 340
n1=10 n2=10
X1 =8.4 X2 = 5.6
2
2 (∑ x1 )
SS 1=∑ x − 1
n1
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( 84 )2
SS 1=744−
10
2
2 (∑ x2 )
SS 2=∑ x − 2
n2
( 56 )2
SS 2=340−
10
❑1−❑2
t=
SS1 + SS2
√( n1+ n2−2 )( 1 1
+
n1 n2 )
8.4−5.6
t=
(√ 38.6+ 26.5 1 1
10+10−2 )( 10 10 )
+
2.8
t=
√( 3.6 )( 0.2 )
2.8
t=
0.85
t.05,18 = 2.01
Conclusion
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1. Enter the data for the two groups in column A (for experiential method) and column B
( for lecture method). Start at row 2.
2. Label the 2 columns, using row 1 for the labels – X1 for experiential method and X2
for lecture method.
3. Click tools on the menu bar and select data analysis.
Data
Analysis
t-test two
samples
assuming equal
variances
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t-Test: Two-
Enter Range Sample
Variable Variable
here
1 2
Mean 8.40 5.60
Variance 4.27 2.93
Observations 10 10
Pooled
Variance 3.6
Alpha level
df 18
at 0.05
t Stat 3.30
P(T<=t) one-
tail 0.00
t Critical
one-tail 1.73
P(T<=t) two-
tail 0.00
t Critical
two-tail 2.10
7. To display results, click anywhere in the blank worksheet and click OK.
Ď
t=
2
√ 2 (∑ D )
∑D − n
n ( n−1 )
Where:
∑D2 = the sum of the squares of the difference between pre-test and post test
∑D = the summation of the difference between the pre-test and the post test
Ď = the mean difference between the pre-test and the post test
n = sample size
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Example: The researcher tested the hypothesis that the amount of rest during practice has no
effect on performance.
5.3
t=
2
( 53 )
√ 379−
10
10 ( 10−1 )
5.3
t=
379−280.9
√ 90
5.3
t=
1.04
t=5.08
t computed = 5.08, df = 10-1=9 t table =2.262
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Since the computed t (5.08) is greater than the t in the table (2.262), the null
hypothesis if rejected. The amount of rest given during practice has a beneficial effect
on performance.
Using Microsoft Office Excel Program for obtaining t for Correlated groups
Enter the data, then click DATA and Data Analysis and Click t-test Paired Sample for
means
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Enter Data, Click Analyze, go to compare means then click paired sample t-test
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Move the data from left table to right table using the arrow, then click OK
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Exercise 6.1
1. Two manufacturing companies of soap each claim that their product is superior in
whitening one’s complexion. A researcher did an experiment by randomly choosing two
groups and assigning each group to use the product for one month. Results are shown
below where the higher the number, the more effective the product in skin whitening.
At .05 level, is there a significant difference between the two products’ effectiveness in
skin whitening?
Product (Soap A or B)
A 10 12 13 13 15 15 15 17 18 22 24 25 25 25 27 28 30 30
B 8 9 11 15 16 16 16 19 20 21 25 25 26 28 29 30 30 32 33 33
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics T-Test Independent
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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2. Are girls more emotional than boys? An experimenter decided to run a study on groups
of boys and girls. Tests, observations and interviews were conducted and the scores on
all the three instruments were combined. The higher scores would reflect a more
emotional disposition. Alpha is set at 0.05.
Girls 2 3 5 7 7 8 8 8
Boys 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics T-Test Independent
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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1. Two matched groups were formed to determine how music affects one’s ability to solve
algebra problems. The experimental (E) group listened to music while solving algebra
problems. The control group (C) had no music to listen to. At alpha = 0.05, determine
whether music had an effect on the number of problems solved.
With music 8 6 5 2 2
No music 10 9 6 6 5
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: Is there a significanct difference
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics T-Test Dependent
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Chapter 7
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Correlation
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Test significant correlations
2. Perform relationship determination
3. Interpret r or relationship
4. Use SPSS and Excel to present relationship
5. Apply appropriate correlation measure on difference
A variety of Correlation Coefficient has been developed over the years for
different combinations of types of scales. These are the following.
A correlation describes and measures the characteristics of two variables. There are
some characteristics of the relationship.
1. The direction of the relationship. The sign of the correlation that is either positive or
negative would describe the relationship direction.
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a. Positive Relationship. This results when one value increases the other value also
increases – meaning that the two variables are moving in the same direction.
This is the direct correlation or the positive correlation
Daily 120
Student Allowance GPA
A 50 65 100
B 70 70
C 100 80 80
D 120 82
E 150 85 60
F 175 87
G 200 90 40
H 250 92
I 300 95 20
J 400 97
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Pearson’s r 0.90
Strong Positive Correlation
In this example, as the daily allowance of the students increases and so is their Grade
Point Average. This shows a positive relationship between the daily allowance and grade point
average.
Studen Daily
t Allowance GPA
6.00
A 50 5.00
B 70 4.50 5.00
C 100 3.00
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In this example, as the daily allowance of the student increases, their Grade Point
Average decrease. This shows a negative relationship or inverse relationship between the daily
allowance and grade point average.
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1622650−1530045
r=
√ [ 4374250−3294225 ][ 720410−710649 ]
92605
r=
√ [ 1080025 ][ 9761 ]
92605
r=
√ 10542124025
92605
r=
102674.85
r=0.90
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Click fx or
function key
Type in
Pearson
Be sure you
place your
cursor to a
blank cell
before
clicking in fx
key
Array 1 is for x
column
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3. Highlight the variables then move to the 4. The Result is similar to manual
right box and click Pearson the click OK and excel computation
Correlations
Daily Grade
Allowance Point
Average
Pearson
1 .902**
Daily Correlation
N 10 10
Pearson
Grade .902** 1
Correlation
Point
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Average
N 10 10
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The Spearman Rho is a non-parametric test of correlation for it does not require
normality in distribution. It is used to look into the significant relationship of two variables when
ranking is used.
The formula for Spearman Rho is:
Where:
r = is the relationship
∑D² = sum of squares of the difference
between the ranks of x and y
n = number of observation or
respondents
6 = constant
1 = constant
Create a temporary rank column and arrange the score from highest to lowest. The highest
score gets the rank 1. In case of similar scores, add the RANKS (not the scores) and divide it by
the number of similar scores. The temporary ranks will guide you as to what rank is next.
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Exam
Students Cups of Coffee Grade Rx Ry 1 92 1
A 1 80 14.5 11.5 2 90 2.5
B 5 90 2 2.5 3 90 2.5
C 4 83 5.5 10 4 89 4
D 3 86 9.5 7.5 5 88 5
E 5 79 2 13 6 87 6
F 4 87 5.5 6 7 86 7.5
G 2 85 12.5 9 8 86 7.5
H 3 89 9.5 4 9 85 9
I 1 75 14.5 14.5 10 83 10
J 2 80 12.5 11.4 11 80 11.5
K 3 88 9.5 5 12 80 11.5
L 4 75 5.5 14.5 13 79 13
M 3 90 9.5 2.5 14 75 14.5
N 4 92 5.5 1 15 75 14.5
O 5 86 2 7.5
Student Exam
s Cups of Coffee Grade Rx Ry D
A 1 80 14.5 11.5 3
B 5 90 2 2.5 -0.5
C 4 83 5.5 10 -4.5
D 3 86 9.5 7.5 2
E 5 79 2 13 -11
F 4 87 5.5 6 -0.5
G 2 85 12.5 9 3.5
H 3 89 9.5 4 5.5
I 1 75 14.5 14.5 0
J 2 80 12.5 11.4 1.1
K 3 88 9.5 5 4.5
L 4 75 5.5 14.5 -9
M 3 90 9.5 2.5 7
N 4 92 5.5 1 4.5
O 5 86 2 7.5 -5.5
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s Grade
A 1 80 14.5 11.5 3.00 9.00
B 5 90 2 2.5 -0.50 0.25
C 4 83 5.5 10 -4.50 20.25
D 3 86 9.5 7.5 2.00 4.00
E 5 79 2 13 -11.00 121.00
F 4 87 5.5 6 -0.50 0.25
G 2 85 12.5 9 3.50 12.25
H 3 89 9.5 4 5.50 30.25
I 1 75 14.5 14.5 0.00 0.00
J 2 80 12.5 11.4 1.10 1.21
K 3 88 9.5 5 4.50 20.25
L 4 75 5.5 14.5 -9.00 81.00
M 3 90 9.5 2.5 7.00 49.00
N 4 92 5.5 1 4.50 20.25
O 5 86 2 7.5 -5.50 30.25
∑D² = 399.21
6. Determine the n
7. Use the formula given
6(399.21)
r s =1−
15(152−1)
2395.26
r s =1−
15(225−1)
2395.26
r s =1−
3374
r s =1−0.71
r s =1−0.71
r s =0.29
The point biserial correlation coefficient (r pbi) is a statistics used to estimate the
degree of relationship between a dichotomous and an interval or ratio scale. If a
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researcher want to find out the degree of relationships between gender (male and
female) and IQ score (scale) the point biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate. The
interpretation of which is similar to Pearson r – that can range -1 to +1.
To find the point biserial correlation, the dichotomous or binomial variable is
converted to numerical values. We can assign a value of zero (0) to one category and a
value of one (1) to the other category. Then use the regular Pearson Correlation formula
to convert the data. It is customary to use zero (0) and one (1) but using other two
different numbers would work equally well and would not affect the value of the
correlation.
Example: A researcher wants to determine if gender is related to IQ. Since IQ is continuous data
and gender is dichotomous, the point biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate.
Participant IQ Gender
s (x) (y) x² y² xy
A 86 1 7396 1 86
B 87 1 7569 1 87
C 91 1 8281 1 91 12 ( 558 )− (1064 ) (6)
r=
D 97 1 9409 1 97 √ [ 12 ( 94836 )−(1064) ² ] [12 ( 6 )−(6) ² ]
E 98 1 9604 1 98
F 99 1 9801 1 99 6696−6384
r=
G 85 0 7225 0 0 √ [ 1138032−1132096 ][ 72−36 ]
H 79 0 6241 0 0
312
I 83 0 6889 0 0 r=
J 86 0 7396 0 0 √ [ 5936 ][ 36 ]
K 81 0 6561 0 0
312
L 92 0 8464 0 0 r=
106 9483 462.27
4 6 6 6 558
r=0.67
Since the computed value is 0.67, it shows that IQ and Gender has strong relationship
Enter the data, click the function (fx) cell then select pearson
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Enter range of
x and y data
Result
Select the X data for array 1 and Y data for array 2, then click OK.
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Using SPSS
Enter in data, then click analyze, select correlate and bivariate
Move the data from left box to the right, then click OK
Correlations
IQ Gender
N 12 12
*
Pearson Correlation .675 1
N 12 12
Phi-Coefficient
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This statistics is used for variables that are both nominal and dichotomous. In this
statistics, contingency table is used to present the data. It is a two dimensional table containing
frequencies by categories. It is more appropriate for two by two since each variable only take
two values.
As an example, let us consider this data that is organized by gender and position.
Position\Gender Female (0) Male (1) Total
Staff (1) 20 12 22
Faculty (0) 13 18 31
Total 33 30 55
Contingency tables are often coded as below to simplify calculation of the Phi coefficient.
Y\X 0 1 Totals
1 A B A+B=E
0 C D C+D=F
Totals: A + C = G B+D=H N
( 20 18 )−( 12 13 )
∅=
√ ( 22|31 ) ( 33|30 )
360−156
∅=
√ 675180
360−156
∅=
√ 675180
204
∅=
821.69
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The simple linear regression analysis is used when there is a relationship between x and
y variables. This is used to predict the value of y given the value of x. We use linear regression
analysis for forecasting and prediction.
The formula is:
n ∑ xy −∑ x ∑ y
b= 2
n ∑ x 2− ( ∑ x )
a= ý−b x́
1. Use the data as computed using the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
r or Pearson’s r.
2. Compute for b, by computing the following first: ∑xy, ∑x, ∑y, ∑x²
3. Then solve the b using the formula for b.
4. Compute for a by finding the mean of y, ý and then mean of x, x́ .
Example: A research looks into the relationship of the number of hours that the students
reviewed (x) and the grades (y) the got in their Statistics Exam. Find if there is a significant
relationship between the number of hours reviewed and their grades.
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D 4 80 16 6400 320
E 6 85 36 7225 510
F 1 86 1 7396 86
G 3 81 9 6561 243
H 4 79 16 6241 316
I 6 90 36 8100 540
J 7 87 49 7569 609
K 4 79 16 6241 316
L 3 83 9 6889 249
M 5 87 25 7569 435
N 4 90 16 8100 360
O 7 96 49 9216 672
∑y²=10659
∑x = 64 ∑y = 1262 ∑x² = 316 2 ∑xy = 5465
n = 15 n = 15
x́ = 4.27 ý = 84.13
1. Use the data as computed using the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
r or Pearson’s r.
r=0.60
2. Compute for b, by computing the following first: ∑xy, ∑x, ∑y, ∑x²
∑y²=10659
∑x = 64 ∑y = 1262 ∑x² = 316 2 ∑xy = 5465
n = 15 n = 15
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n ∑ xy −∑ x ∑ y
b= 2
n ∑ x 2− ( ∑ x )
15 ( 5465 )− ( 64 ) ( 1262 )
b=
(15 )( 316 )−64 2
81975−80768
b=
4740−4090
1207
b=
650
b=¿ 1.86
x́ = 4.27 ý = 84.13
Supposed we want to predict the grade (y) of a student who reviewed for 6 hours (y), get the
value of y by computing the simple linear regression. Solve for the a then the y.
a is :
a= ý−b x́
a=84.13−8.9199
a=75.21
y is :
y=a+bx
y=75.21+1.86 ( 6 )
y=75.21+1.86 ( 6 )
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Exercise 7.1
1. Rosalie is studying for a test, and she wonders if her friend, Laney, is also studying for
the test. She calls Lanie and asks her how long she has been studying. Lanie has been
studying for her test all week, approximately 8 hours total. Roslaie has only been
studying for her test for a couple of hours. The next week, Olivia and Laney get their test
scores back. Lanie got an A on her test, and Rosalie got a C. Olivia wonders if there is a
correlation between the number of hours spent studying and the grade a student earns.
Take a look at the data Rosalie collected from her classmates, and see if you can find a
correlation.
X 7 6 4 9 2
Y 78 83 90 74 85
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
2. Carla is talking to a friend about a new television show. She notices that some of her
classmates aren't familiar with the show, but they are carrying around a lot of library books.
She wonders if the more library books a student owns, the less television they watch. She
collects data from her friends about how many library books they own and how much
television they watch. Can you use her data to find a correlation?
X 1 4 3 5 2
Y 8 3 9 4 5
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
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Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Exercise 7.2
1. An investigator wants to arrange the 15 items on her scale of language impairment on
the basis of the order in which language skills appear in development. Not being entirely
confident that she has selected the correct ordering of skills, she asks another
professional to rank the items from 1 to 15 in terms of the order in which he thinks they
should appear.
The data are given below: Investigator:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Y 1 3 2 4 7 5 6 8 10 9 11 12 15 13 14
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
2. In a study of diagnostic processes, entering clinical graduate students are shown a 20-
minute videotape of children’s behavior and asked to rank-order 10 behavioral events on
the tape in the order of the importance each has for a behavioral assessment. (1 = most
important.) The data are then averaged to produce an average rank ordering for the
entire class. The same thing was then done using experienced clinicians.
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Exercise 7.3
X 85 78 89 86 87 86 81 80 93 82 79
75
Y 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
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Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
One question asks “Do you experience pain while performing the assembly task? Yes No”
The second question asks “What is your gender? ___ Male ___ Female”
Male Female
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Yes 15 45
No 35 10
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho : There is no relationship between the gender of the worker and if they feel
pain while performing the task.
Ha : There is a relationship between the gender of the worker and if they feel
pain while performing the task.
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Exercise 7.4
1. A student sells hotdog in the school. For the past few weeks from 12nn – 5pm. Each day
he has a tracking of the time and the number of hotdog sales for each hour.
X 12 1 2 3 4 5
Y 25 13 10 14 28 17
With this data, predict his sale for 2pm the next day. That is x = 2
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Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
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Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Chapter 8
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Explain when ANOVA is used
2. Read and interpret SPSS and Excel ANOVA print out result
3. Perform ANOVA using SPSS and Excel
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One hypothesis testing procedures that is used to evaluate mean differences between
two or more treatments (or population) is analysis of variance commonly known as ANOVA. This
is an inferential procedure that uses sample data as the basis for drawing general conclusions
about population.
This seems similar to t-test, but t-test is limited to situations in which there are only two
treatments to compare. ANOVA has a tremendous advantage over t-test, that it can be used to
compare two or more treatments. It provides researchers with much greater flexibility in
designing experiments and interpreting results.
The goal of ANOVA is to determine whether the mean differences observed among the
samples provide enough evidence to conclude that there are differences in the mean among the
three populations. In analysis of variance the variable (independent) that designates the groups
being compared or factors. The individual conditions or values that make up a factor called
levels of factors.
The one-way ANOVA or single factor ANOVA is used when the researcher seeks to
make comparisons among three, four, five or more groups. The F test or ANOVA is a parametric
test used to compare more than two independent samples.
ANOVA
Sources of F - Value
df SS MS
Variation Computed Tabular
Between BSS MSB
K–1 BSS See table
Groups df MSW
WSS
Within Groups (N-1) - (K-1) WSS
df
Total N-1 TSS
2
(∑ x1 + ∑ x 2 + ∑ x 3 +∑ x 4 )
CF=
n1 +n 2+ n3+ n4
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X 23 +¿ ∑ X 24
X 22 +¿ ∑ ¿
X 21 +¿ ∑ ¿ ) – CF
∑¿
TSS=¿
WSS=TSS−BSS
Example: A professor wanted to find out if color affects amount of learning. 20 students were
randomly selected and placed in 4 groups of 5 students per group. Each group was placed in a
room with a particular color (blue, green, yellow and pink). They studied a material for two
hours. Rest of 15 minutes was given and then a test was administered. Test the hypothesis that
color has no effect on the amount learned.
Blue Yellow Pink Green
50 75 65 80
55 60 55 65
65 55 60 80
75 60 50 60
45 70 40 75
Solution
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2
(∑ x1 +∑ x 2 +∑ x 3 +∑ x 4 )
CF=
n1 +n 2+ n3+ n4
X 23 +¿ ∑ X 24
X 22 +¿ ∑ ¿
X 21 +¿ ∑ ¿ ) – CF
∑¿
TSS=¿
17400+20750+14950+26250
) – 76880
TSS=¿
TSS=79350 – 76880
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TSS=¿ 2470
3. Determine the Between Sum of Squares (BSS)
2 2 2 2
( ∑ X 1 ) ( ∑ X 2) ( ∑ X 3 ) ( ∑ X 4 )
BSS= + + + −CF
n1 n2 n3 n4
WSS=TSS−BSS
ANOVA TABLE
Sources of F - Value
df SS MS
Variation Computed Tabular
Between
3 920 306.7 3.16 See table
Groups
Within
16 1550 96.88
Groups
Total 19 2470
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2. Select the Range of data from the column label, check label in first row, then place
alpha at 0.05, then click OK.
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Exercises 8.1
1. Three groups of patients with a particular disorder are treated differently. Is there a
difference in the effectiveness of the three treatment programs? (α=0.01)
Treatment
A 90 74 90 86 75
B 81 90 90 90 85
C 14 20 33 5 12
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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2. To test the hypothesis that type of residence affects happiness, a study was done on
three groups of students. A psychological test on personal happiness was given. The
lower the score on the test, the more unhappy the student. (α = 0.05)
Type of Residence
Dorms 8 9 7 8
Apartments 2 1 3 3
At Home 5 4 3 4
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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3. The following are the data that represents the time spent by students computing
statistics exam using different version of excel. Is there a significant difference in the
time spent by students using different versions of excel using 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
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4. The data from an experimental study evaluating the effects of different types of
distraction on the performance of a visual detection task.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem:
Hypotheses: Ho :
Ha :
Level of
Significance
Statistics
Decision
Rule
Conclusion
This type of analysis of variance is used to find out if there is an interaction effect
between two variables. This involves, two variables, the column and the row variables.
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Example:
There are 45 Korean students who were randomly assigned to three different methods
of teaching. Achievement exam was given and the results were recorded at the end of the
lecture series. Using two-way ANOVA, test if there are interaction effects among the three
methods.
Hypothesis Testing
Problem: 1. Is there a significant difference in the performance of students under
the three different teachers?
2. Is there a significant difference in the performance of students under
the three different methods of teaching.
3. Is there an interaction effect between teacher and method of teaching
factors?
Hypotheses: 1. Ho : There is no significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different teachers
Ha : There is a significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different teachers
2. Ho : There is no significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different methods of teaching.
Ha : There is a significant difference in the performance of students
under the three different methods of teaching.
3. Ho : Thereis no interaction effect between teacher and method of
teaching factors
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A B C
Visual 35 48 50
40 42 46
28 38 19
37 45 24
Total 140 173 139 452
Auditory 28 41 46
25 38 32
32 35 36
30 45 41
Total 115 159 155 429
Combination 46 48 43
45 49 38
35 45 41
38 41 46
Total 164 183 168 515
304 356 307 1396
2
( 1396 )2 1948816
CF= ¿
( )
CF= CF=
N 36 36
CF=54133.78
SS T =( 35 )2 + ( 40 )2 … ( 41 )2 + ( 46 )2−CF
SS T =56204−54133.78
SS T =2070.22
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Decision
Rule
Conclusion
Chapter 9
Using Non Parametric Statistics
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
1. Know when to use non parametric test
2. Compute non parametric test using SPSS and Excel
3. Present data using non parametric test
The nonparametric tests are used when there is an abnormal distribution of scores, and
when the level of measurement is expressed in either ordinal or nominal data. Nonparametric
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tests are used because conditions are not stringent or controlled; and typically a smaller sample
size.
2 N (ad−bc )2
X =
klmn
Where:
2
X = Chi-square test
N = grand total
Klmn = the product of the rows and columns
If you are interested in comparing the counts of categorical responses between two
independent groups, you can develop a two-way contingency table as shown in table 1 which
has two rows and two columns also known as 2x2 contingency table. The cells in the table
indicate the frequency for each row and column combination.
Example:
Situation: The researcher wishes to find out whether there is a difference between the views of
males and females toward same-sex marriage. With 80 participants in this study, the researcher
would like to test his null hypothesis, stated as:
Null Hypothesis:
H 0 = There is no significant difference between the views of males and females on the issue
of same sex marriage.
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Level of Significance:
α = .05
df = (c-1)(r-1)
= (2-1)(2-1)
= (1)(1)
=1
2 2
x .05 = 3.841(See the appendix for the critical value of x )
80[300−500]2
=
2520000
80(−200)2
=
( 2520000)
2
x = 1.270
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Decision Rule: If the chi-square computed value is greater than the chi-square tabular value,
reject the null hypothesis.
Results: Since the X 2 computed value is 1.270 is lesser than the critical value of 3.841 the
null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the views of
males and females on the issue of same-sex marriage.
Exercises 9.1
Chi-Square Test of Homogeneity
Case 1: The professor would like to find out if there is a difference among his junior and senior
students on their satisfaction on the use of facebook. The data are shown in table 1. Compute
the score and interpret the results.
Table: Satisfaction frequencies of students on Facebook
Senior 15 35
Case 2: The researcher would like to determine if there is a difference in the views of parents in
using democratic approach to discipline their children.
Table: Views of Parents on Democratic Discipline
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O = observed square
E = the expected frequencies
Situation:
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the observed (actual experiment) and the
expected (theory) frequencies?
H 0 = There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Level of Significance:
α = .05
df = h-1
= 4-1
=3
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46.36 X 5 = 231.8
46.36 X 2 = 92.72
46.36 X 3 = 139.08
46.36 X 1 = 46.36
O−E
¿
X2 =∑ ¿ 2
¿
¿
¿
2 2 2 2
(200−231.8) (120−92.72) (115−139.08) (75−46.36)
= + + +
231.8 92.72 139.08 46.36
= 4.363 + 8.026 + 4.169 + 17.693
2
X = 34.251
Decision Rule: if the chi-square computed value is greater than the chi-square reject the null
hypothesis.
The chi-square computed value of 34.251 is greater than then the chi-square tabular
value of 7.815 at .05 level of significance with 3 degrees of freedom, so the null hypothesis is
rejected. This means that there is a significant difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies. In other words, the theory is not true because the result accepted the null
hypothesis.
Exercise 9.2
Chi-square test of Goodness-of-Fit
Situation 1:
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the observed (actual experiment) and the
expected (theory) frequencies?
H 0 = There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
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Depression 10 50
Anxiety 7 79
Phobia 5 26
Substance Abuse 5 30
Situation 2:
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the observed (actual experiment) and the
expected (theory) frequencies?
H 0 = There is no significant difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
Situation: Five hundred students comprised of biology and psychology majors were asked about
their learning styles. However, only 330 students have completed the questionnaires. The
results are shown in table.
Ho : There is no significant difference in the learning styles of junior and senior students.
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80 70 50 200
Senior students (Cell 4) (Cell 5) (Cell 6)
60 30 40 130
Total for scores Total number of
participants (n)
140 x 200
Cell 1: E = = 84.85
330
100 x 200
Cell 2: E = = 60.61
330
90 x 200
Cell 3: E = = 54.55
330
140 x 130
Cell 4: E = = 55.15
330
100 x 130
Cell 5: E = = 39.39
330
90 x 130
Cell 6: E = = 35.45
330
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E
O−¿
2
= ¿
x
¿2
¿
∑¿
2
x = 5.35
The critical value for p < 0.05 is 5.99. Since the computed value is lesser than the
critical value of 5.99, therefore the null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant
relationship between year levels and their levels of stress.
Remember:
Chi-square is based on predicted relationships between two variables represented as
categories.
Categories are identified for each variable.
The measured data are nominal, which involves counting the number of participants in each of
the categories.
To calculate chi-square observed frequencies are compared with expected frequencies.
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Exercise 9.3
Chi-square test of independence
Case 1
Situation: Five hundred students comprised of biology and psychology majors were asked about
their learning styles. However, only 330 students have completed the questionnaires. The
results are shown in table.
Table: students and their level of stress
Aggression Level
Participants High Moderate Low
Children exposed to
video games 80 70 50
Case 2
Situation: Five hundred students comprised of biology and psychology majors were asked about
their learning styles. However, only 330 students have completed the questionnaires. The
results are shown in table.
Table: students and their level of stress
Levels of Motivation
Tenure Very Low Low Moderate High Very High
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Regular 10 15 20 20 15
Probationary 20 15 10 15 10
Contractual 10 17 14 12 12
Step 2: Click the “Statistics” button. The statistics button is to the right of the Crosstabs window.
A new pop up window will appear.
Step 3: Click “Chi Square” to place a check in the box and then click “Continue” to run to the
Crosstabs window.
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Step 4: Select the variables you want to run (in other words, choose two variables that you want
to compare using the chi square test). Click one variable in the left window and then click the
arrow at the top to move the variable into “Row(s)”. Repeat to add a second variable to the
“Column(s)” window.
Step 5. Click “cells” and then check “Rows” and “Columns”. Click “Continue.”
Step 6. Click “OK” to run the Chi Square Test. The Chi Square tests will be returned at the
bottom of the output sheet in the “Chi Square Tests” box.
Step 7: Compare the p-value returned in the Chi-square area.
The Kruskal-Wallis H test (sometimes also called the “one-way ANOVA on ranks”) is a
rank-based nonparametric test that can be used to determine if there are statistically significant
differences between two or more groups of an independent variable on a continuous or ordinal
dependent variable. It is considered the nonparametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA and
an extension of the Mann-Whitney U test to allow the comparison of more than two independent
groups.
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The Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated) should be used for an unrelated design when
different participants are doing three (or more) conditions and the data are ordinal.
Research Hypothesis:
The prediction was that the number of illustrations in a text would affect participants’ recalls of
ideas from the text.
2 2 2
H=
[ 12
(27.5 38.5 39
14 (15) 4
+
5
+
5 )] – 3 x 15
H = 45.01 – 45
H = 0.013
4. Calculate the degrees of freedom: The number of conditions (C) minus one.
df = C -1
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= 3-1
=2
The calculated H of 0.013 is lesser than the value of 5.99. The null hypothesis is accepted. This
means that there is no significant difference in the three conditions.
The Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated) can only test whether there are overall differences between
conditions.
In unrelated designs the scores in all three conditions are produced by different participants.
Individual scores are assigned overall ranks across all conditions.
The totals of ranks are added separately for each condition.
The appropriate non-parametric statistical test for analyzing unrelated ordinal data for three
conditions is the Kruskal-Wallis test (unrelated)
Related tests have just one name: Wilcoxon (related) for two conditions; Friedman (related) for
three conditions.
Exercise 9.4
KRUSKAL-WALLIS
CASE 1: An experiment on attention span under three different room temperatures. The results
are indicated in the table below.
Table: Attention span on various room temperatures
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10 4 5
9 4 6
9 7 3
5 7
3 8
CASE 2: A student was interested in comparing the effects of four kinds of reinforcement on
children’s performance on a test of reading comprehension. The four reinforcements used were:
(a) praise for correct responses; (b) a jelly bean for each correct response; (c) reproof for
incorrect responses; and (d) silence. Four independent groups of children were tested, and
each group received only one kind of reinforcement. The measure of performance given below
is the number of errors made during the course of testing
a b c d
30 22 29 12
26 25 28 10
25 24 26 20
20 21 25 30
27 25 32
28
30
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The research predicted that children would rate some materials as being more appealing than
others as shown in table 1 below.
Rank totals 11 21 16
Means 2.25 4.25 3.50
You will notice that some of the ranked score are the same and are assigned the
average of the tied ranks they would have been entitled to.
The rank totals for each condition are added to produce rank totals for each of the three
conditions.
2
4. Calculate the value of Xr using the formula:
12
2
Xr = [ NC (C +1)
∑T 2
] - 3 N (C+1)
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12
X 2r = [ ( 8 x 3 ) (3+1)
(11 2+212 +16 2)
] – 3 x 8 (3+1)
12
2
Xr = [ 24 x 4
(121+ 441+ 256)
] – (24 x 4)
12
2
Xr = [ 96
x 818 ] – 96
2
X r = 6.25
The calculated 6.25 is greater than the value of 5.99 for p < 0.05. The null hypothesis
can be rejected. It is essential to look at the means in table to check which of the materials was
preferred by the children.
It appears from the means in table above that the children preferred wooden material,
since this received the highest ratings, with paper next and plastic last. The Friedman test
(related) can only test whether there are overall differences between conditions.
Exercise 9.5
Friedman Test
Case1
Table 1. Rating scores for three presentations.
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1 2 5 4
2 1 5 3
3 3 5 5
4 3 5 2
5 2 3 5
6 1 4 4
7 5 3 2
8 1 4 3
Case 2
Table: Rating scores for four books.
1 2 5 4 5
2 1 5 3 4
3 3 5 5 5
4 3 5 2 3
5 2 3 5 3
6 1 4 4 5
7 5 3 2 1
8 1 4 3 1
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2 4 5 -1 2 (-)2
3 3 2 +1 2 (+)2
4 1 5 -4 8.5 (-)8.5
5 5 4 +1 2 (+)2
6 2 5 -3 7 (-)7
7 3 5 -2 5 (-)5
8 4 4 0 (tie)
9 1 5 -4 8.5 (-)8.5
10 3 5 -2 5 (-)5
Exercise 9.6
Table: Attention span with light and with heavy colors.
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1 3 5
2 4 5
3 3 2
4 1 5
5 5 4
6 2 5
7 3 5
8 4 4
9 1 5
10 3 5
Exercise 9.7
Table: Anxiety level under the following conditions: Single task, Dual tasks, Multitasks.
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Select variable 1 and variable 2 for the Test Pairs List. Select Wilcoxon for Test Type. Then,
click Ok. The output follows.
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n1 ( n 1+1 )
U= n1 n2 + - T1
2
6 ( 6+1 )
U= 6+8 + – 24.5
2
42
U = 48 + – 24.5
2
U = 48 + 21 – 24.5
U = 44.5
4. Next substitute the values of U, n1 and n2 in the following formula and calculate U’
U’ = n1 n2 – U
U’ =6 x 8 – 44.5
U’ = 3.5
Locate 6 along the top and 8 down the column. Where these two meet the value of U is
10. Our calculated U is 3.5 is smaller than this so the null hypothesis can be rejected. It
can be concluded that participants will recall more of a text when given an appropriate
title was supported (p<0.01).
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Exercise 9.8
Table: Recall scores for numbers with and without colors
Exercise 9.9
Table: Score for verbal and non-verbal responses
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Select the dependent variable of interest from the list at the left by clicking on it, and then move
it to the Test Variable List by clicking on the upper arrow button.
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Select the independent variable of interest from the list at the left by clicking on it, and then
move it into the grouping variable box by clicking on the lower arrow button.
Next, we must define the groups of the independent variable. Click on the Define Groups button
that is just below the Grouping Variable box. The Two Independent Samples: Define Groups
Dialog box appears:
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Enter the value that corresponds to one level of the independent variable in the Group 1 box
and the value that corresponds to the other level of the independent variable in the Group 2 box.
Click on the Continue button in the two independent samples: Define groups dialog box. The
two independent samples test dialog box should be on top now. Make sure that the Mann-
Whitney U option is selected in the Test Type Frame. That is, there should be a check mark next
in the box to the left of Mann-Whitney U:
Click on the options button. The two-independent-samples: Options dialog box appears:
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Select the Descriptive statistics option by clicking in the box to the left of Descriptives if it does
not already have a check mark in it:
Click on the continue button in the two-independent-samples: Options dialog box. Click on OK in
the two-independent-samples tests box to perform the Mann-Whitney U test. The SPSS output
viewer will appear. It should contain three setions:
The first section gives the descriptive statistics for dependent variable and (less usefully) for the
independent variable.
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The second section of the output shows the number of people in each condition
2 (b−c)2
x =
b+c
x 2 = chi-square test
b = is the first cell of the 2nd column in a 2x2 table
c = is the first cell in the 2nd row in a 2x2 table
Example:
Consider the data below on their response before and after the intervention program for a
sample of 100 trauma victims.
Problem: Is there a significant difference in the response of the trauma victims before and after
the intervention program?
Hypotheses:
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H 0 : There is no significant difference in the response of the trauma victims before and after
the intervention program.
H 1 = There is a significant difference in the response of the trauma victims before and after
the intervention program.
Level of significance:
α= .05
df = (c-1)(r-1)
= (2-1)(2-1)
=1
x 2.05 = 3.841
Computation:
2 (b−c)2
x =
b+c
2
2 (6−19)
x =
6+19
2
2 (−13)
x =
25
2 169
x =
25
2
x = 6.76
2 2
Decision Rule: If the x computed value is greater than the x tabular value, reject the
null hypothesis.
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Conclusion:
Since the computed x 2 is 6.76 larger than the tabular value of 3.841 at .05 level of
significance with 1 degree of freedom, the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the research
hypothesis that there is a significant difference in the response of the trauma victim before and
after the intervention program. It implies that there is increase in seat belt use after involvement
in automobile accident.
Exercise 9.10
Example:
A market researcher wanted to determine whether the proportion of wine drinkers who preferred
Brand A increased as the result of an advertising campaign. A random sample of 200 wine
drinkers was selected. The results indicating preference for Brand A or Brand B prior to the
beginning of the advertising campaign and after its completion are shown in the following table:
a. At the 0.05 level of significance, is there evidence that the proportion of coffee drinkers
who prefer Brand A is lower at the beginning of the advertising campaign than at the end
of the advertising campaign?
b. Compute the p-value in (a) and interpret its meaning.
Exercise 9.11
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Two senior psychology students participated in a school research presentations. There were
500 students who voted for their preferred presenter before and after the actual delivery of their
researches:
Sign Test for two independent samples (Median test two-sample case)
This test is known as the median test, another test under nonparametric statistics. It is
used to compare the median of two independent samples.
This is the counterpart of the t-test under parametric test.
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2
2 N (ad−bc )
x =
klmn
2
x = Chi-square test
Example:
Consider the test scores of 12 female and 9 male students in a spelling test.
Female: 12 26 25 10 10 10 22 20 19 17 17 15
Male: 6 22 19 7 8 12 16 8 19
x 2.05 = 3.841
Computation:
The median of the female and male observations is 16. Assigning a + to values above
the median and a – to values at or below it, we have the following result.
Female: - + + - - - + + + + + -
Male: -++-----+
These data may be tabulated in the form of a 2’2 table as follows:
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+ - Total
Female a 7 b 5 k 12
Male c 3 d 6 l 9
Total m 10 n 11 N 21
2
N (ad−bc )
x2 =
klmn
2 21(42−15)2
x =
(12 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) (11)
2 21(27)2
x =
11880
2 21(729)
x =
11880
2 15309
x =
11880
2
x = 1.288
2 2
Decision Rule: If the x computed value is greater than the x tabular value, reject the
Ho
Conclusion: Since the x 2 computed value of 1.2888 is lesser than the x 2 tabular value of
3.841 at .05 level of significant with 1 degree of freedom, the null hypothesis of no significant
difference in the performance of the two groups is confirmed.
Activity 1
Example:
Consider the test scores of 10 female and 8 male students in abstract reasoning.
Female: 15 20 25 10 10 10 22 20 19 17
Male: 6 20 19 17 18 12 16 8
Exercise 9.12
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Example:
Consider the test scores of 13 female and 10 male students in a spelling test.
Female: 10 20 25 9 10 9 22 20 19 17 17 15 20
Male: 6 22 19 17 18 12 16 8 19 20
This test is under nonparametric statistics. It is the counterpart of the t-test for correlated
sample under the parametric test. The sign test is one of the simplest nonparametric tests. It is
for use with 2 repeated (or correlated) measures, and measurement is assumed to be at least
ordinal.
The Fisher Sign Test compares two correlated samples and is applicable to data
composed of N paired observations.
The difference between each pair of observations is obtained. This test is based on the
idea that half the difference between the paired observations will be positive and the other half
will be negative.
|D|−1
Z=
√N
Example:
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Consider the pretest and the posttest results before and after the implementation of the
program.
Pretest Posttest
x y
15 19
19 30
31 26
36 8
10 10
11 6
19 17
15 13
10 22
16 8
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students?
Hypotheses:
H 0 : There is no significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students.
H 1 = There is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students.
Level of significance:
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α= .05
z .05 = ± 1.96
In this example, there are all 6 + signs, 3 – signs, and 1 zero. Zero is disregarded. It may be
shown that –
|D|−1
Z=
√N
|6 3|−1
Z=
√9
2
Z=
3
Z = .67
Decision: if the Z computed value is greater than the Z tabular value, reject the Ho .
Conclusion:
Since the Z computed value of .67 is less than the Z tabular value of 1.96 at .05 level of
significance, the null hypothesis is confirmed which means that there is no significant difference
between the pretest and the posttest results of the ten students.
Exercise 9.13
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 10
students?
Hypotheses:
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H 0 : There is no significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 20
students.
H 1 = There is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 20
students.
Level of significance:
α= .05
z .05 = ± 1.96
x y D
15 19 -
19 30 -
31 26 +
36 8 +
10 10 0
11 6 +
19 17 +
15 13 +
10 22 -
16 8 +
Exercise 9.14
Problem: Is there a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 30
participants?
Hypotheses:
H 0 : There is no significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 30
participants.
H 1 = There is a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results of the 30
participants.
Level of significance:
α= .05
z .05 = ± 1.96
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x y D
15 19 -
19 30 -
31 26 +
36 8 +
10 10 0
11 6 +
19 17 +
15 13 +
10 22 -
16 8 +
Scheffe’s Test
To find out where the differences lies, another test must be used. Let us assume that these are
the data derived from ANOVA-One way:
CASES
A B C D
7 9 2 4
3 8 3 5
5 8 4 7
6 7 5 8
9 6 6 3
4 9 4 4
3 10 2 5
Given: SW 2 = 3.02
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The F test tell us that there is a significant difference in the average sales of the 4 brands of
shampoo but as to where the difference lies, it has to be tested further by another test, the
Scheffe’s test formula:
X́ 1− X́ 2 ¿ 2
F’ = ¿
¿
¿
Where:
F’ = Scheffe’s test
X́ = mean of group 1
X́ 2 = mean of group 2
n1 = number of samples in group 1
A vs. B A vs. C
2 2
5.28−8.14 ¿ 5.28−3.71 ¿
F’ = ¿ F’ = ¿
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
8.1796 2.4649
=
= 42.28 .86
49 F’ = 2.87
8.1796
=
.86
F’ = 9.51
A vs. D B vs. C
2
5.28−5.14 ¿ 8.14−3.71 ¿2
F’ = ¿ F’ = ¿
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
.0196 19.6249
= =
.86 .86
F’ = .02 F’ = 22.82
B vs. D C vs. D
8.14−5.14 ¿2 3.71−5.14 ¿ 2
F’ = ¿ F’ = ¿
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
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9 2.0449
= =
.86 .86
F’ = 10.46 F’ = 2.38
The above tale shows that there is a significant difference in the sales between brands A and
brand B, brand B and brand C and also brand B and brand D. however, brands A and C, A and
D and C and D do not significantly differ in their average sales.
This implies that brand B is more saleable than brands A, C and D.
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Exercise 9.15
To find out where the differences lies, another test must be used. Let us assume that these are
the data derived from ANOVA-One way:
Theories
A B C D
9 9 2 5
3 8 5 5
9 5 4 7
6 7 5 8
9 6 6 3
4 9 4 4
3 10 2 5
2
Given: SW = 3.02
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Exercise 9.16
To find out where the differences lies, another test must be used. Let us assume that these are
the data derived from ANOVA-One way:
Models
A B C D
5 5 2 4
3 8 3 5
5 5 5 7
6 7 5 8
9 6 6 3
4 9 4 4
3 10 2 5
Given: SW 2 = 3.02
Chapter 10
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There are various types of statistical analysis. Choosing the correct analytical approach for your
situation can be a daunting process. In this section you’ll get an overview of the statistical
procedures that are potentially available and under what circumstances they are used.
You should plan your statistical approach at the start of your project, before you collect any
data. Different statistical tests have different requirements and planning in advance has various
benefits:
1. Knowing the statistical approach will allow you to plan the way you collect your data.
2. You will save time because you’ll only collect relevant data.
3. You will save effort.
Knowing what type of project you have and what sort of data you will collect can be useful in
determining the best analytical approach.
Types of project
Knowing what kind of project you are undertaking can be a big help in working your way
towards the most appropriate statistical approach. The following list covers a range of
possibilities:
1. In terms of differences – you split your data into groups.
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Statistics serves as a means for communicating the results of the study. It is important
therefore to study statistics for the purpose of arriving at a reliable and valid results. The
following are some of the applications of statistics to research:
1. Descriptive Research like survey, most likely the researcher would need to describe his
data using the mean, standard deviation, percentage or percentile. It is also necessary
the researcher should determine the sample size that he would be needing in his study,
the margin of error and even the sampling error. In terms of correlation, the researcher
should determine the strength and direction of the relationship between variables using
statistical tests like Pearson r (Parametric test) or Spearman (Nonparametric). In the
case of comparative study, the researcher may utilize t-test of independence
(Parametric) or chi-square (nonparametric)
2. Experimental Research may involve the use of independent and dependent variables. In
this case, the researcher can manipulate the IV and measure the DV, and could make
use of control and experimental groups. In such condition, the experimenter may use t-
test of homogeneity to determine if an intervention for example may have an impact on
the dependent variable. However, in dealing with multiple variables, there are statistical
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tools like ANOVA, MANOVA, or ANCOVA that may be used to analyze the relationships
or differences between or within groups of data.
3. In Test Construction, the test developer may consider various tests to determine the
reliability and validity of an instrument. For example, in terms of reliability the researcher
may utilize test of correlation to determine if there is consistency in the results of data
which may signify the level of reliability, in the same way that the research may correlate
the new test to other existing tests to determine the validity of the instrument.
4. Small n studies, there are some studies that may require a small number of participants,
in this case, nonparametric tests are ideal as long as it meets the major requirement
such as the type of data (ordinal or nominal), assuming that the scores are not normally
distributed. Statics that may be used are Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney, etc.
5. Predicting behaviors thru analysis of data, example could be simple and multiple
regression analysis.
Decision Tree
Difference Correlation
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Chapter 11
Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
One of the challenges faced by Psychology Students is establishing the reliability and validity of
a scale – whether it is an instrument for research or test developed by the student. We will be
introduced on the basic statistics that you will encounter in test construction and development in
this chapter.
Reliability is simply the ability of the instrument to yield similar results as it is administered in
different instances. It is the consistency of the result of the test as taken by respondents.
Supposed you have taken a test in your class and got a score of 72 or 27, what would this mean
to you? The scores on a test have several elements – observed and true scores. What you
actually got in you test is your observed score. What you really know is your true score;
unfortunately it cannot be measured directly since it is a theoretical reflection of the actual
amount you possessed. The observed and true scores are different because we cannot create a
perfect test or measure and even set conditions where and when test are to be administered.
The formula above illustrates that the observe score is the combination of your true score and
the error score. Let us say that you got 72 on a test, but your true score (this cannot be
determined but we can theorize it) is 65. This means that there is a 7 point difference between
the observed and the true scores, which difference is what we referred to as the error score.
This error is due to many factors like, room temperature while taking the test, the time the test is
administered, personal factors like fatigue, anxiety and other emotions and other conditions
rather than the traits or qualities you intend to measure. These would certainly have an impact
on the performance of the respondents or test taker’s score.
One of the roles of statistics in test development is to reduce errors by increasing the reliability
to match the observed and the true score. It is as simple as saying that “It is more reliable if
there is less error”.
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Internal Consistency This is used to know Cronbach Alpha You have a test and
Reliability if the items on a test determines whether it
assess one and only assesses the same
one dimension construct
Interrater Reliability This is used when Interrater reliability You have a test and
you want to know coefficient ask experts to assess
whether there is the test
constancy in rating of
some outcome
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Test – Retest Reliability is used when you want to examine the test reliability over time.
Excel Computation
SPSS Computation
This means that the test taken by the above respondents has very high test – retest reliability
Parallel Forms Reliability is used when you want to examine the equivalence or similarity
between two different forms of test at the same occasion.
Excel Computation
SPSS Computation
This means that the test taken by the above respondents has weak parallel form reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability is used when you want to know whether the items on a test are
consistent with one another in that they represent one and only one dimension, construct or
area of interest. Cronbach alpha is used in this type of measure. This is a special type of
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measure where the more consistently individual item scores vary with the total score on the test,
the higher the value. The higher the value the more confidence you have that this is a test that
is internally consistent. That it measures one thing and that one thing is the sum of each items
evaluates.
5. 3 + 5 = ?
6. Who is the shortest in the three little pigs?
7. 7 – 1 = ?
8. What is the color of the brick house?
9. 6 + 2 = ?
This test is obviously measuring different dimension or area of interest, thus is internally
inconsistent.
1. 4+8= ?
2. 3+2= ?
3. 9–3= ?
4. 1+5= ?
5. 6+2= ?
All the items seem to be measuring the same area of interest and scores of the respondents in
this test would seem to have internal consistency.
where:
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This means that the test taken by the above respondents is not reliable.
Excel Computation
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SPSS Computation
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Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's N of Items
Alpha
.219 5
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VALIDITY
Validity is the property of a tool that indicates that the tool measure what intends to measure. A
valid test is a measure of the accuracy of the test
The developer of the tests items go through Item Analysis. It is a general term which refers to
all techniques used to assess the quality and the characteristics of test items. It involves the
difficulty of the items, the discriminating power, and the distractors used.
4. Check the test papers and arranged the scores from highest to lowest.
5. Determine the upper and lower group by multiplying the total number of test takers to 27
percent. Supposed that the test takers are 120. The 27% of 120 is 34. Therefore the top 34
students would be placed in the upper group, and the bottom 34 would be the lower group.
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N
f =¿ ¿
D¿
N upper −¿ N lower
1
N
2
s=¿ ¿
D¿
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References
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Abao, Zenon R. et al (2009) Statistics. Mandaluyong City: Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Balayan,Roel, et al (2000). Biostatistics: A foundation to the Medical & Health Sciences. Rev.
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Bolaños, Alex B. (1997). Probability and Statistical Concepts: An Introduction. Quezon City: Rex
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Electronic Data
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Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911). Compiled by Stela Gega (May 2000). Retrieved August 31,
2015 from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/galton.htm
Wilhelm Wundt's Theory & Structuralism: Overview. Retrieved August 31, 2015 from
http://study.com/academy/lesson/wilhelm-wundts-theory-structuralism-lesson-quiz.html
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