Effect of diatomaceous earth on parasite load, egg production,

and egg quality of free-range organic laying hens

D. C. Bennett,^ A. Yee,2 Y.-J. Rhee,^ and K. M. Cheng

Avian Research Centre, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia,
2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T IZ4 Canada

ABSTRACT The effectiveness of diatomaceous earth Heterakis worm burden than control BB hens. Both
(DE) as a treatment against parasites and to increase BB and LB hens fed the diet containing DE were sig-
feed efficiency and egg production of organically raised nificantly heavier, laid more eggs, and consumed more
free-range layer hens was evaluated in 2 breeds of com- feed than hens fed the control diet, but feed efficiency
mercial egg layers [Bovan Brown (BB) and Lowmann did not differ between the 2 dietary treatments. Ad-
Brown (LB)] that differ in their resistance to internal ditionally, BB hens consuming the DE diet laid larger
parasitic infections. Half the hens of each breed were eggs containing more albumen and yolk than hens con-
fed diets supplemented with DE (2%). Their inter- suming the control diet. In a subsequent experiment,
nal parasite loads were assessed by biweekly fecal egg the effectiveness of DE to treat a Northern fowl mite
counts (FEC) and by postmortem examination of the {Ornithonyssus sylviarum) infestation was tested. Rela-
gastrointestinal tract. Supplementing DE in diets of LB tive to controls, both breeds of hens that were dusted
hens, the more parasite-resistant breed, did not signifi- with DE had reduced number of mites. The results of
cantly affect their EEC and adult parasite load. How- this study indicate the DE has the potential to be an ef-
ever, BB hens treated with dietary DE had significantly fective treatment to help control parasites and improve
lower Capillaria EEC, slightly lower Eimeria EEC, few- production of organically raised, free-range layer hens.
er Ijirds infected with Heterakis, and significantly lower
Key words: organic layer production, diatomaceous earth, parasite control, egg quality, egg production
2011 Poultry Science 90:1416-1426
cloi:10.3382/ps.2010-01256

INTRODUCTION farming, the routine uses of prophylactic medications

are not allowed. Heavy loads of external and intesti-
Consumers are increasingly concerned with the safe nal parasites can pose health implications for the hens
and ethical production of their food. The demand for or- such as impaired weight gain and growth, decreased
ganically produced animal products, including organic egg production, increased mortality, and possibly ane-
poTiltry eggs, has been steadily increasing (Berg, 2001; mia (Reid and Carnion, 1958; Ruff, 1999; Perniin et
Patterson et al., 2001; Kouba, 2003; Oberholtzer et al, al., 2006). Therefore, an effective and safe method is
2006; Bejaei and Cheng, 2010). This has led to an in- needed for the treatment of parasites in organic animal
crease in the production of both free-range and organic production.
poultry in many countries. In organic poultry produc- One proposed treatment to control external and in-
tion, standards ban the use of synthetic chemicals and ternal parasites is to add diatomaceous earth (DE;
require birds to have access to the outdoors. However, Macy, 2000) to the diet of production animals (Ca-
free-range production of poultry has a highei^ risk of nadian Organic Crowers, 2000). Diatomaceous earth
parasitic infections (Permin et al., 1999). In organic consists of fossilized diatoms and is made up of almost
pure amorphous silicon dioxide. Diatomaceous earth
has been recognized as an effective insecticide. It works
©2011 Poultry Science Association Inc. mainly by absorbing the waxy outer cuticle of insects
Received November 24, 2010.
Accepted April 12, 2011. upon contact, causing death by desiccation (Quarles,
Corresponding author: [email protected] 1992; Eields, 2000). To a lesser extent, the abrasive
-Present address: Western College of Veterinary Medicine, Univer- property of DE also aids in the damage of the cuticle
sity of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5B4 Canada.
•'Present address: Livestock Research Center, National Agricultural (Quarles, 1992; Korunic, 1998). It is commonly used as
Cooperative Federation, San54, Sindu-ii, Gongdo-eup, Anseong-si, a protectant against invertebrate pests in grain storage.
Gyeonggi-do, 456-824 Korea. Diatomaceous earth has been shown to decrease the

1416
 USE OF DIATOMACEOUS EARTH IN ORGANIC PRODUCTION 1417
number of ectoparasites in Tree Swallow ( Taehycineta Source of DE
bicolor) nests (Dawson, 2004) and to reduce poultry red
mite {Dermanyssus gallinae) survival in vitro (Maurer The source of DE used in this study was Red Lake
et al., 2009). Diatoinaceous earth with less than 7% Earth (Absorbent Products, Kamloops, British Colum-
composition of crystalline silica is generally recognized bia, Canada), which contains 65% DE and 35% mont-
as a safe food additive in Canada and the United States niorillonite. This product was chosen because it is ap-
(Fields, 2000). For controlling internal parasites, DE is proved for use in animal feeds in both Canada (CEIA
often i^romoted by testimonies and product claims to registration no. 999094) and the United States (EDA
be effective and safe for livestock, but little scicnitific registration no. 10370895308) and is listed by the Or-
research has been preformed to judge its efficacy. It has ganic Materials Review Institute (Eugene, OR).
been suggested that DE may provide trace minerals
that help the host cope with parasite burdens (McLean
et al., 2005). The use of DE to control internal para- Expérimentai Birds
sites in ruminants has been tested with mixed results
(Fernandez et al., 1998; McLean et al., 2005) and no A total of 57 BB and 62 LB hens, both commer-
research has been performed to evaluate its efficacy in cial brown egg layers, were used in this study. These
poultry. were obtained as 1-d-old chicks from local commercial
hatcheries. Chicks were raised in floor pens at the UBC
It has also been claimed that feeding DE to laying farm and fed ad libitum with an all-purpose certified
hens can increase feed efficiency and egg production organic poultry grower mash (In-Seasoii Farms Inc.,
(Eshleman, 1966). Mathis and McDougald (1995) found Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada). Chicks were
that feeding DE significantly improved feed conversion beak trimmed shortly after hatching and vaccinated for
in broilers. In the present study, we evaluated the ef- Newcastle and bronchitis at 2 wk of age.
fectiveness of DE as a supplement against external and
At 11 wk of age (first week of May 2008), all birds
internal parasites of organically raised free-range layer
were wing-banded and divided into 4 treatment groups:
hens and at the same time evaluated its effects on egg
29 BB and 31 LB were placed in the experimental
production and egg quality. Two commercial breeds of
groups, and 28 BB and 32 LB remained in the control
brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (BB) and Lohm-
groups. The experimental groups were fed diets sup-
ann Brown (LB), were used for the experiment. Previ-
plemented with 2% DE. AU 4 groups were transferred
ous studies have shown that LB hens are genetically
to hen houses that provided at least 0.2 m^ of floor
more parasite resistant than other breeds (Permin and
space and 0.25 m of roost space/bird. The pasture was
Ranvig, 2001; Gauly et al., 2002. 2008).
sectioned by an electric fence. Birds were given daily
access to pasture, with about 7.5 m^/bird, from ap-
MATERIALSAND METHODS proximately 0830 to 2100 h. Eeed was provided only in
the pasture but was refilled every morning and emptied
This study was conducted at the Centre for Sustain- at night to discourage rodents. Water was provided ad
able Food Systems of the University of British Colum- libitum inside the hen house via a nipple drinker system
bia (UBC; Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada) and and outside via a bell waterer. At 18 wk of age, all hens
was conducted during the sunnner and fall months. were switched from the grower mash to an organic layer
Hens were maintained in accordance with the guide- mash (Ill-Season Earms Inc.; Table 1), and the experi-
lines of the Canadian Council of Animal Care, and all mental groups continued to receive DE supplements in
procedures were approved by the UBC Animal Care the diet. The hens were also given access to dust baths
Conunittee (certificate no. A08-0110). and shelters in the pasture. The groups receiving DE
in the diet were also provided with DE mixed in their
dust baths (20%) and in the shavings in the nest boxes
(10%).
Table 1. Nutrient composition of layer diet (as fed basis)'
Item Coutrol- Di:'
Parasite Study
Moisture (%-emfeel) 11.8 ± 0.3 10.2 dz 0.6
Protein (% DM) 18.1 ± 0.3 18.9 ± 0.6 Fecal Egg Counts and External Examination.
Fat (% DM) 6.1 ± 0.8 5.3 ± 0.3
Carbohydrates (% DM) 62.3 ± 2.5 59.6 ± 2.2 Forty hens (10 hens/diet per breed) were randomly se-
Ash (% DM) 13.7 ± 1.5 16.1 ± 1.9 lected and repeatedly examined at biweekly intervals
Gro.s.s energy (kcal/kg) 3,757 ± 18 3,617 ± 94 between 16 and 28 wk of age (June-September 2008)
^Proximate analysis of diet determined according to AOAC (2000). and again at time of killing (33-38 wk of age; Octo-
^All-purpose certified organic poultry grower nia.sh supplied by In- ber-November 2008). Fecal collection was performed
Season Farms Inc. (Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada). by placing hens into raised, individual wire cages with
^Layer diet supplied with 2% diatomaceous earth (DE). Source of DE
was Red Lake Earth (Absorbent Products, Kamloops, British Columbia,
wax paper below before feeding in the morning. Typi-
Canada), which contains 65% DE and 35% montniorillonite. cally, hens excreted within 10 to 20 min of being placed
1418 BENNETT ET AL.
into the cage. Approximately 4 g was collected into to collect mites from the base of the thigh feathers on
preweighed 50-mL centrifuge tubes. Hens were then one side of each hen. Taped mites were then examined
visually examined for any signs of external parasites and coimted vmder a dissecting microscope. Many of
before being returned to their enclosures. Particular at- the birds were heavily infested and emaciated; it was
tention was paid to the legs, comb, wattles, inside the felt that subjecting the birds to further stress was un-
mouth, under the wings, and under the vent area. Eecal wise. Hence, lilood samples were not obtained for he-
samples were transported to the laboratory, where they matological and immune parameters.
were weighed, preserved in 10% formalin using a 1:1 Phytohemagglutinin Skin Test. At 31 to 32 wk of
ratio of volume to fecal mass, and refrigerated at 4°C age, the immune status (T cell-mediated immunity) of
until being examined (within 1 wk). all 40 focal hens was assessed by the phytohemaggluti-
Parasite eggs were quantified using a modified Wis- nin (PHA) skin test (Cheng and Lamont, 1988; Kean
consin sugar flotation method (Cox and Todd, 1962; and Lamont, 1994; Smits et al., 1999). Briefly, a small
Cox and Lemiski, 1989). The formalized samples were patch of skin on the web (patagia) of both wings was
diluted with distilled water to 35 mL, vortexed, and plucked and marked. The hens were injected with 50 |j,g
centrifuged at 500 x g for 7 min. Most of the super- of PHA (L8754, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) in 50
natant was then decanted, and Sheather's solution \xL of Dulbecco's PBS (D8537, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Lou-
(specific gravity = 1.2) was added at a volume 11.5 is, MO) into the marked site of one wing. The marked
times the mass of excreta. This mixture was then ho- site of the other wing was injected with the same vol-
mogenized with a glass rod, vortexed, and the contents ume (50 |xL) of Dulbecco's PBS to control for nonspe-
were inverted several times immediately before loading cific inflammation. The thickness of the wing web of
into both chambers of a McMaster slide. The slide was each marked site was measured 3 times immediately
left to stand 2 to 3 lnin before viewing under a light before injection and again 24 h after injection with mi-
microscope. Parasite eggs were identified according to crocalipers (accuracy 0.01 mm). Wing web swelling was
Soulsby (1982), Eoreyt (2001), and Zajac and Conboy calculated as the difference between the thickness of
(2006). the wing web before and after (24 h) injection. The cell-
Because no external parasites were detected in all mediated immune response (wing web index) was cal-
the hens in 2008, a supplemental study was conducted culated as the difference in wing web swelling between
in 2009 when heavy infestation of northern fowl mites the PHA-injected aud saline-control sites.
occurred. A total of 26 BB and 35 LB hens in their Postmortem Examination. Between 33 and 38 wk
second laying cycle (82 wk of age) were used. All hens of age, all 40 of the focal hens (10 from each group)
were naturally infested with northern fowl mites {Or- that were closely followed with EEC were killed and
nithonyssus sylviarum) at the start of the experiment. a postmortem examination was performed to assess
Hens were housed as described in the 2008 study (see the adult parasite load. After an overnight fast, 3 to
previous) aud were fed a certified organic poultry layer 4 individual heus per day were randomly selected ai:id
mash (In-Season Earms Inc.) that was not supplement- placed into cages for collection of their excreta. They
ed with DE. were then transported to the laboratory, weighed, and
Each hen was individually weighed and scored for killed by decapitation. Trunk blood was collected into
mites (see below) independently by 2 investigators heparinized vacutainers (Becton Dickinson and Co.,
(DCB and YJR). Hens were then divided into 2 ex- Eranklin Lakes, NJ). The gastrointestinal tract was
perimental groups, each containing equal numbers of exposed and segmented into the esophagus, crop, pro-
both breeds, and placed into adjacent pens. After 4 d, ventriculus, ventriculus, small intestine, cecum, and
to allow hens to adjust to new pen mates, hens were in- rectum. Incisions were made to expose the contents,
dividually dusted with either fine sand (control group) and any visible parasites were extracted with forceps.
or DE (experimental group) and retm'ned to the ap- Contents in the organs were flushed under tap water
propriate pen. Hens were dusted by placing them into over a 60 mesh sieve with 250-|-tm aperture. Reténtate
a bin and rubbing either sand or DE into feathers on was then backwashed into a Petri dish and further
the thighs, abdomen, back, and vent area. The roosts, examined for more worms under a stereo microscope.
nest boxes, and floor litter were also dusted with either All extracted parasites were preserved in 70% ethanol.
fine sand (control group) or DE (experimental group). Adult parasites were viewed imder stereo and light
One week later, hens were individually weighed, scored microscopes and identified according to Dunn (1969)
for mites, and dusted again. The roosts, nest boxes, and and Grist (2004).
floor litter were also dusted. Individual hens were again Blood smears were made from the trunk blood col-
weighed and scored for mites 1 wk later. lected. Smears were allowed to dry and then stained
Hens were scored for degree of mite infestation using using a Hemacolor staining kit (EMD Chemicals
2 methods. Eirst, a subjective visual score (0-5) based Inc., Gibbstown, NJ). Differential white cell counts
on the presence and concentration of mites was inde- were conducted using 1,000 x microscopy. Eor each
pendently assigned by the same 2 investigators. Second, blood smear, 100 white cells were counted and the
a piece of tape (approximately 3.5 cm x 5 cm) was used heterophihlyniphocyte (H:L) ratio was determined.
 USE OF DIATOMACEOUS EARTH IN ORGANIC PRODUCTION 1419

Production observed with the LB hens (Figure 3). Ascaridia egg

counts in LB hens remained low throughout the season.
Between 16 and 32 wk of age, BW of individual hens The FEC of Heterakis remained low throughout the
and pen feed intake were measured at 4-wk intervals. season and did not differ between LB and BB, nor were
Body weight was measured in the morning before the they affected by dietary treatments.
hens were released into the outdoor pens, and hence Postmortem Examination. Postmortem examina-
before the hens were fed. Daily egg production per pen tions are summarized in Table 2. Only adult Ascaridia
was recorded for 5 d/wk. Once every 4 wk, between 20 spp. and Hetarakis spp. n e m a t o d e s were recovered. Al-
and 32 wk of age, all the eggs laid on 1 d were collected, t h o u g h Capillaria spp. eggs were detected in some of
weighed, and stored overnight at 4°C. Eggs were broken t h e excreta collected on t h e day of t h e p o s t m o r t e m ex-
out onto a level glass surface and the height of the albu- aminations (Figure 2), no adult Capillaria worms were
men was measured using a standard tripod micrometer. recovered (likely small enough t o pass t h r o u g h t h e sieve
The yolk was weighed and its color was measured with
screen). Ascaridia was found predominantly in t h e up-
a Roche yolk color fan scale. Shells were washed, dried,
per portion of t h e intestine and on few occasions in t h e
and weighed. The albumen mass was then calculated
rectum, a n d once in t h e cecum of a bird. Heterakis was
by difference.
found only in the cecum.
Between 33 and 38 wk of age, 10 hens from each T h e number of hens infected with Ascaridia and Het-
group were killed and a postmortem examination was erakis did not differ between breeds, nor was it affected
performed to assess the adult parasite load (see pre-
vious section) and bone mineralization. The BW, egg
production, and egg quality were again measured at 38
wk of age. ^ 1 1 1 1 1
2000
Bovan
Statistical Anaiyses
1500 - -
Data are reported as means ± SE and were analyzed
using JMP statistical software (version 7, SAS Institute
Inc., Cary, NC). Individual FEC and worm counts were 1000 - -
transformed by logio (count -f- 1) transformation before
statistical analysis to normalize the distribution. The
BW of individual hens, transformed FEC, and mite
500 - (
scores were analyzed by 2-way ANOVA with repeated
measures. Differences between treatments and breeds 55
in the number of hens infected with worms and in the O)
transformed worm counts were assessed by Fisher's ex- 0 1 I—^p=«—•-f*—•---| Y~
act test. Wing web index, H:L ratio, egg production,
and egg size were analyzed by ANOVA. Relationships
r-eca eggci

1 1 1 1 1
among parameters were assessed by simple correlation. 2000
Significance was accepted when P < 0.05. Lohmann
1500 - -
RESULTS
Effect of Dietary DE on internai Parasites
1000 - -
FEC. Eggs from 1 protozoan, Eimeria spp., and 3
helminths, Escandía spp., Hetarakis spp., and Capillar-
ia spp., were identified in the FEC. Eimeria FEC were
highest at the start of the experiment and subsequently
500 - T -

declined by the second fecal exam {P = 0.00004; Figure

1). Control BB hens tended to have higher Eimeria 0 [i'-^iS<S~~^ • • •
FEC than DE-treated BB hens, but DE did not affect
Eimeria FEC in LB hens (breed x diet interaction, P 15 20 25 30
r
= 0.07). Age (wk)
Control BB hens had significantly (P = 0.003) higher
Capillaria egg counts than DE-treated BB hens (Figure Figure 1. Effect of dietary diatomaceous earth on fecal egg coimts
2). However, the same difference was not observed with of Eimeria spp. in free-range organic laying hens. Two breeds of com-
mercial brown-egg-laying heus, Bovan Brown (circles) and Lohmann
LB hens. As the season progressed, Ascarid,ia egg counts Brown (squares), were fed a certified organic layer mash supplemented
increased significantly {P = 0.02) in BB hens regardless with (filled symbols) or without (open symbols) diatomaeeous earth.
of dietary treatment, but no significant increase was Hens were killed (S) between 33 and 38 wk of age.
1420 BENNETT ET AL.
Table 2. Comparison of adult nematodes recovered after postmortem examinations between hens
supplemented with diatomaceous earth (DE) and those on the control ^
Bovan Lollinianii

Item Conti-ol DK Control ÍW.

Ascaridia spp.
Birds infected^ (%) 70 70 30 50
Worm burden' 14.6 ± 9.0 17.5 ± 4.8 5.0 ± 3.5 2.6 ± 1.0
Heterakis spp.
Birds infected^ (%) 70 30 60 70
Worm burdor' 20.2 ± 10.5 1.7 ± 0.7 3.3 ± 0.8 10.4 ± 2.6
Two brccds of chickens w(.'re compared (Bovan Brown and Lohmann Brown), with 10 liens tested under each
treatment and breed.
•^Determined on a basis of whether the parasites were present or absent.
number of worms per infected hen.

1 1 1 1 1
150
Bovan 800 -
125

100 - - 600 -

75
400 -
50

25 200 -
O)
0 cn
14-«

8
O) 1 1 1 1
05
800
Lohmann
8
<D
600 - -

400 - \—
1

200

15
0 •
l"
15
•
•
•
¥
20
•
•
• H^
" l " •
25
r 1
30
i
•
"•

Age (wk)
Figure 2. Effect of dietary diatomaceous earth on fecal egg counts Figure 3. Effect of dietary diatomaceous earth on fecal egg counts
of Capillaria spp. in free-range organic laying hens. Two breeds of com- of Ascaridia spp. in free-range organic laying hens. Two breeds of com-
mercial brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (circles) and Lohmann mercial brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (circles) and Lohmann
Brown (squares), were fed a certified organic layer mash supplemented Brown (squares), were fed a certified organic layer mash supplemented
with (filled symbols) or without (open symbols) diatomaceous earth. with (filled symbols) or without (open symbols) diatomaceous earth.
Hens were killed (S) between 33 and 38 wk of age. Significant differ- Hens were killed (S) between 33 and 38 wk of age. Significant differ-
ences (P < 0.05) between treatments are indicated by asterisks (*). ences (P < 0.05) between treatments are indicated by asterisks (*).
 USE OE DIATOMACEOUS EARTH IN ORGANIC PRODUCTION 1421
Table 3. Comparison of piiytohemagglutinin (PHA) skin test and heterophils:lyiriphocyte (H:L) ratio
between liens supplemented with diatomaceous earth (DE) and those on the control ^
Bovan Lohniaiiu

Item Controi DE Controi DE

PHA 0.070 ± 0.012 0.039 ± 0.009 0.062 ± 0.014 0.068 ± 0.010
H:L ratio 0.31 ± 0.05 0.37 ± 0.04 0.34 ± 0.04 0..36 ± 0.04
Two breeds of cliickens were compared (Bovan Brown and Lohmaim Brown), with 10 liens tested under each
treatment and breed.

by DE treatment. When comparing the worm bui'den,

BB appeared to be more susceptible to Ascaridia infec-
tions than LB given that significantly {P < 0.05) more
BB were infected and tended {P = 0.10) to have a
higher mean worm burden than LB. 2000
PHA Skin Test and H:L Ratio. Wing web index and
H:L ratio did not differ between breeds nor between
treatments (Table 3) and were not correlated (r = 1900 -
—0.21; P = 0.15). Both parameters were also unrelated
to EEC and worm l)urden (data not shown).

Effect of Externally Applied DE

on Northern Fowl Mites
Body weight (Eigure 4) and mite scoi'es (Eigure 5)
did not differ significantly between breeds or treat-
ments at the start of the experiment. After dusting
with DE, hens of both breeds were significantly [P =
0.02) heavier and had significantly (P = 0.005) fewer
mites compared with control hens that were dusted
with sand. The DE was equally effective in reducing
mite counts on both BB and LB hens. Significant inter-
actions between dietary treatment and age were found
for BW, egg production, and egg quality parameters.

Effect of DE on BW and Egg Production

Rreiay Period. Regardless of dietary treatment and
breed, BW (Figure 6) and egg production (Eigure 7)
increased sharply between 16 and 20 wk of age, with
hens reaching 50% production between 18 and 19 wk
of age. These parameters exceeded the recommended
management targets (Centurion Poultry, 2008; Lohm-
ann Tierzucht CniBH, 2008).
Laying Period. Both BB and LB hens fed the diet
containing DE continued to increase BW and egg pro-
duction up to 32 wk of age. However, control hens ini- 1600 -
tially lost weight and had reduced egg production. As
a result, hens fed the diet containing DE were signifi-
cantly heavier (Eigure 6) and laid more eggs (Eigure 7) 1500
than hens fed the control diet. In addition to higher egg 1
production, BB hens consuming the DE diet also laid
Time (wk)
larger eggs containing more albumen and yolk than BB
hens consuming the control diet (Eigure 8). Albumen Figure 4. Effect of externally applied diatomaceous earth on BW
height and yolk color were unaffected. The DE did not of free-range organic laying hens infested with northern fowl mites.
Two breeds of commercial brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (cir-
affect egg size or egg quality of LB hens. cles) and Lohmann Brown (squares), were fed a certified organic layer
The BW of control hens began increasing after 28 wk mash. Hens were dusted with either sand (open symbols) or diatoma-
of age, such that by 38 wk of age the differences attrib- ceous earth (filled symbols).
1422 BENNETT ET AL.
Bovan Lohmann
2200 _ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ""
Bovan

2000 - d)

1800
f %^
M~^ T
1600 m
w *
f* *
1400 ^ 1 1 1 Í 1 1 ~

in 1 1 1
2200 -
Lohmann

2000 -

1800
Figure 5. Effect of externally applied diatomaceo\is earth on mean
mite scores (visual index, tape mite count) of free-range organic lay-
ing hens infested with northern fowl mites. Two breeds of commercial
brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (circles) and Lohmann Brown 1600
(squares), were fed a certified organic layer mash. Hens were dusted •k -k -k
with either sand (open symbols) or diatomaceous earth (fñled sym-
bols). Significant differences [P < 0.05) between treatments are indi-
cated by asterisks (*). 1400 " 1 1 1 ! 1 1 ~
15 20 25 30 35 40
utable to dietary DE had either disappeared (LB hens) Age (wk)
or were reversed (BB hens). Between 20 and 28 wk of
age, egg shell weight and thickness were significantly Figure 6. Effect of dietary diatomaceous earth on BW of free-
greater in both BB and LB hens fed the diet containing range organic laying hens. Two breeds of commercial browu-egg-laying
hens, Bovan Brown (circles) and Lolimauu Brown (squares), were fed
DE (Eigure 9). However, after 28 wk of age, egg shell a certified organic layer mash supplemented with (filled symbols) or
quality improved for hens fed the control diet whereas without (open symbols) diatoinaceous earth. Significant differences (P
it declined for hens fed DE. By 38 wk of age, egg shell < 0.05) between treatments are indicated by asterisks (*).
weight and thickness were significantly greater in hens
fed the control diet.
The average feed intake of control hens was 137 g/ Compared with control BB hens, control LB hens
hen per day (Eigure 10), which is within the range of had lower EEC for most of the internal parasites de-
that expected for free-range hens (Bubier and Brad- tected as well as fewer birds infected and a, lighter worm
shaw, 1998; Hegelund et al., 2006; Horsted et al., 2007). burden in postmortem examination. This is consistent
Hens fed the DE diet consumed significantly (P < with previous observations that LB hens are geneti-
0.006) more feed than those fed the control diet (Eig- cally more parasite resistant than several other com-
ure 10), averaging 145 g/hen per day. Eeed efficiency (g mercial and indigenous breeds examined (Permin and
of feed/g of egg) did not differ between the 2 dietary Ranvig, 2001; Cauly et al, 2002, 2008). Supplementing
treatments (Figure 10). 2% DE in diets of LB hens did not significantly af-
fect their EEC and adult parasite load. On the other
DISCUSSION hand, BB hens treated with dietary DE had significant-
ly lower Capillaria EEC, slightly lower Eimeria FEC,
This study tested the claim that feeding DE to laying fewer birds infected by Heterakis, and a significantly
hens can increase resistance to internal parasites, feed lower Heterakis worm burden than control BB hens.
efficiency, and egg production. Two breeds of commer- Each individual parameter may not be strong, but to-
cial hens (BB and LB), maintained under a free-range gether they provide convincing evidence. We therefore
organic management system, were fed a diet containing conclude that the effect of DE on internal parasites
2% Red Lake Earth (product contains 65% DE and was not robust. It did not improve resistance in birds
35% montniorillonite) during the egg laying season. that were genetically more resistant but may help birds
 USE OE DIATOMACEOUS EARTH IN ORCANIC PRODUCTION 1423

100 al., 1999) and foimd that it was unrelated to parasite

load. This result is perhaps not surprising given that
the PHA assay assesses the cell-mediated immune
80 response. Previous studies have tried to connect the
PHA response to intestinal nematode loads, with con-
tradictory results. The PHA response of Red Jungle
60 — T Fowl {Gallus gallus) parasitized by Asearidia galli was
lower than that of nonparasitized birds (Johnsen and
40 - Zuk, 1999). In contrast, the immune responsiveness of
red grouse {Lagopus lagopus) was not correlated with
Triehostrongylus tenuis load, although the response was
20 increased when the parasitic infection was experimen-
Bovan tally reduced (Mougeot and Redpath, 2004).
0 No difference in BW was found between BB and LB
I 1 1 1 ~
o hens. Interestingly, hens fed a DE-supplemented diet
••G maintained their BW throughout the laying season
•o
2 100 whereas those on the control diet experienced a de-
Q.

80
Bovan Lohmann
60 _ -n? T 70 1 1 1 i 1

40 f ' - S 65 -
CD 60
'(D / /
§ 55
20 O
O)
Lohmann LU 50 -
*

0 1 1 1 ~ 45 1 i

15 20 25 30 35 40
^ 44
Age (wk) r 42
Figure 7. Effect of dietary diatomaeeous earth on egg production #40
of free-range organic laying hens. Two breeds of commercial brown-
egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (eireles) and Lohmann Brown (sqnares), .Ç 38
were fed a certified organic layer mash supplemented with (filled sym- E
bols) or without (open symbols) diatomaceous earth. Significant dif- 5 36
ferences (P < 0.05) between treatments are indieated by asterisks (*). i * *
34 -^1 1 1

that were less resistant to lower their parasite load. We

have also confirmed that DE is effective in controlling
northern fowl mites in both BB and LB when applied
externally.
In this study the H:L ratio was used to assess long-
term stress (Gross and Siegel, 1983) in the hens. This
ratio did not differ between the 2 breeds or between the
controls and DE treatment (Table 3) and was unrelated
to the parasite burdens of the hens. The relatively low 10
H:L ratio observed in this study probably is indica- 20 25 30 35 40 20 25 30 35 40
tive that the hens were not unduly stressed (Gross and
Age (wk)
Siegel, 1983; Singh et al., 2009). However, because this
ratio was assessed only at the end of the experiment, Figure 8. Effeet of dietary diatomaceous earth on egg weight and
habituation or adaptation to chronic stress cannot be weight of albumin and yolk of eggs produced by free-range organic
ruled otit. laying hens. Two breeds of eommercial brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan
Brown (left) and Lohmann Brown (right), were fed a certified organic
We also assessed the immunocompetence of the layer mash supplemented with (filled symbols) or without (open sym-
free-range hens by examining PHA response (Cheng bols) diatomaceous earth. Significant differenees [P < 0.05) between
;uid Lamont, 1988; Kean and Lamont, 1994; Smits et treatments are indicated by asterisks (*).
1424 BENNETT ET AL.
Bovan Lohmann 150
6.5 F

S 6.0 145 -

•£
•o
s. 140 -
<D
0
Q)
LL
CD

0.34 -
20 25 30 35 40 20 25 30 35 40
Age (wk)
Figure 9. Effect of dietary diatomaceous earth on shell weight
and thickness of eggs produced by free-range organic laying hens. Two
breeds of commercial brown-egg-laying hens, Bovan Brown (left) and
Lohmanu Brown (right), were fed a certified organic layer mash sup- O)
plemented with (filled symbols) or without (open symbols) diatoma- >< en
ceous earth. Significant differences (F < 0.05) between treatments are ü 0)
indicated by asterisks (*). 9 o
.9 O)
"O <D
crease in BW. This was found more in BB hens than O ^

in LB hens. In addition to having heavier BW, hens LL °

O)
supplemented with DE consumed 8 ± 2 g/hen per day
more and laid more and bigger, better quality eggs,
with a 92% hen day production, compared with 81%
for the control hens during the laying season. It is not
uncommon for free-range hens to lose weight when they
start laying eggs (J. P. Jacob, University of Kentucky;
personal communication), especially in situations in Control
which they were moved to a new area for the laying Diet
season. Increased soil intake (estimated to be 14-32 g/d
for free-range hens; van der Meulen et al., 2008) could Figure 10. Effect of dietary diatomaceous earth on feed intake and
be a major source of nutrient diluent, van der Meulen feed efficiency of free-range organic laying hens. Two breeds of com-
mercial brown-egg-laying hens. Bovan Brown (circles) and Lohmann
et al. (2008) reported that hens increased their feed Brown (squares), were fed a, certified organic layer mash supplemented
intake in response to increasing amount of sand in their with (filled symbols) or withovit (open symbols) diatomaceous earth.
diet. This compensation allowed them to maintain their
egg production and egg weight but BW gain was still
compromised. It is not clear how DE could help hens feed efficiency (Quisenberry, 1967). It has been sug-
to maintain their BW and better egg production. Hens gested that these compounds increase the absorption
fed the DE-supplemented diet consumed more and the of nutrients by slowing gastric passing (Quisenberry,
increased feed intake could be a significant factor. It 1967; Mallet et al, 2005). Therefore, perhaps DE also
may be possible that DE offers essential trace elements
slows gastric passing and may increase absorption of
or may improve absorption of nutrients. Diatomaceous
nutrients that may prevent weight loss in hens dur-
earth consists of 86 to 94% sihca, with the remainder
ing high egg production. One also must consider that,
containing alumina, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, po-
besides DE, the Red Lake Earth supplement contains
tassium, magnesium, iron, sulfur, and other trace ele-
ments (Korunic, 1998; Mclean et al, 2005). The use of 35% montmorillonite. Chemically, montmorillonite is
absorbent clay supplements in the form of phyllosili- hydrated sodium calcium aluminum magnesium sili-
cates, such as bentonite and kaolinite, has been shown cate. For internal use, montmorillonite is effective in
to have some direct benefits in poultry by improving the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (Ducrotte et
al., 2005) and for the prevention of aflatoxicosis (Phil-
 USE OE DIATOMACEOUS EARTH IN ORGANIC PRODUCTION 1425
lips et al., 2002). Its copper bearing form has also been Cheng, S., and S. J. Lamont. 1988. Genetic analysis of immunocom-
shown to improve growth performance in piglets and petence measures in a White Leghorn chicken line. Poult. Sei.
67:989-995.
farm tilapia (Hu et al., 2005; Xia et al., 2005) and ef- Cox, D. D., and A. C. Todd. 1962. Survey of gastrointestinal parasit-
fectively remove lead from ingested contaminated feed ism in Wisconsin dairy cattle. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 141:706-
in pigs (Yu et al, 2006). The combination of DE and 709.
montmorillonite may therefore improve the general Cox, W. R., and D. Lemiski. 1989. Prevalence of gastrointestinal
nematodes in dairy heifers in Western Canada. Can. Vet. .1.
health of the free-range hens and indirectly boost their 30:666-668.
resistance to internal parasites. Dawson, R. D. 2004. Efficacy of diatomaceous earth at reducing
Based on the current price of organic table eggs, the populations of nest-dwelling ectoparasites in tree swallows. .1.
cost of certified organic poultry feed, and the cost of the Eield Ornithol. 75:232-238.
Ducrotte, P., M. Dapoigny, B. Bonaz, and L. Siproudhis. 2005.
Red Lake Earth supplement, balancing the increased Symptomatic efficacy of beidellitic montmorillonite in irritable
feed cost with the increase in egg sales, we estimated bowel syndrome: A randomized, controlled trial. Aliment. Phar-
that supplementing DE in the diet increased the profit- macol. Ther. 21:435-444.
ability of BB hens by $0.06/hen per day and LB hens Dunn, A. M. 1969. Veterinary Helminthology. William Heinemann
Medical Books Ltd., London, UK.
by $0.03/hen per day. Eshleman, J. C. 1966. Poultry feed containing about 1% chatoma-
Future studies may want to consider experimentally ceous earth. US Pat. No. 3,271,161.
induced infections with consistent dosages of parasite Fernandez, M. L, B. W. Woodward, and B. E. Stromberg. 1998.
Effect of diatomaceous earth as an anthelmintic treatment on
eggs to analyze the effects of DE on Eimeria, Ascaridia, internal parasites and feedlot performance of beef steers. Anim.
Heterakis, and Capillaria species in a laboratory set- Sei. 66:635-641.
ting. It would also be worthwhile to separate the effects Elelds, P. G. 2000. Diatomaceous earth: Advantages and limitations.
of DE and montmorillonite in the diet. Pages 781-784 in Proc. 7th International Working Conference on
Stored-Product Protection. Sichuan Publishing House of Science
and Technology, Chengdon, China.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Eoreyt, W. J. 2001. Veterinary Parasitology: Reference Manual. 5th
ed. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA.
This research was supported by funds from the Brit- Gauly, M., G. Bauer, R. Preisinger, and G. Erhardt. 2002. Genetic
ish Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (Vic- differences of Ascaridia galli egg output in laying hens following a
single dose infection. Vet. Parasitol. 103:99-107.
toria, British Columbia, Canada), administered by the Gauly, M., A. Kanan, H. Brandt, S. Weigend, E. Moors, and G.
UBC Speciality Birds Research Committee. J.-Y. Rhee Erhardt. 2008. Genetic resistance to Heterakis gallinarum in two
was supported by a Korean Fellowship and A. Yee was chicken layer lines following a single dose infection. Vet. Parasi-
tol. 155:74-79.
partially supported by a Jacob Biely Memorial Schol- Grist, A. 2004. Poultry Inspection: Anatomy, Physiology and Dis-
arship. We thank Rod Reid (In-Season Farms Inc., ease Conditions. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, UK.
Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada) for supplying Gross, W. B., and H. S. Siegel. 1983. Evaluation of the heterophil/
us with the organic diets and for advice on organic lymphocyte ratio as a measure of stress in chickens. Avian Dis.
27:972-979.
poultry production, Stewart Paulson (British Colum- Hegelund, L., J. T. S0rensen, and .1. E. Hermansen. 2006. Welfare
bia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands), Bill Cox (The and productivity of laying hens in commercial egg production
Animal Health Centre, British Columbia Ministry of systems in Denmark. NJAS 54:147-155.
Agriculture and Lands), and Murray Kennedy (Alberta Horsted, K., J. E. Hermansen, and H. Ranvig. 2007. Crop content in
nutrient-restricted versus non-restricted organic laying hens with
Agriculture Food and Rural Development, Edmonton, access to different forage vegetations. Br. Poult. Sei. 48:177-184.
Alberta, Canada) for valuable input. Deepa Menon, Ar- Hu, C. H., Z. R. Xu, and M. S. Xia. 2005. Antibacterial effect of
dalan Ahmad, and the staff of the UBC farm, notably Cu2-I—exchanged montmorillonite on Aeromonas hydrophila and
Mark Bomford (Centre for Sustainable Food Produc- discussion on its mechanism. Vet. Microbiol. 109:83-88.
Johnsen, T. S., and M. Zuk. 1999. Parasites and tradeoffs in the
tion), Gavin Wright, Tim Carter, and Gemma McNeill, immune response of female red jungle fowl. Oikos 86:487-492.
provided technical assistance. This paper is an exten- Kean, R. P., and S. J. Lamont. 1994. Effect of injection site on cuta-
sion of an undergraduate thesis submitted by A. Yee. neous basophil hypersensitivity response to phytohemagglutinin.
Poult. Sei. 73:1763-1765.
Korunic, Z. 1998. Diatomaceous earths, a group of natural insecti-
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