Week 1 Introduction To Construction Materials and Testing

CE 133 – CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING (LEC)
Course Description:
The course deals with the physical properties of common construction materials primarily
metals, plastics, wood, concrete, coarse and fine aggregates, asphalt and synthetic materials;
examination of material properties with respect to design and use of end product, design and
control of aggregates, concrete and asphalt mixtures, principle of testing; characteristics of test;
properties of materials testing equipment.
Instrucional Material 1: INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the material, the students should be able to:
- Recognize the different types of civil engineering
- Determine the types of projects civil engineers work on and the characteristics of a civil
engineer
- Recognize the top ten most impressive civil engineering projects
- Understand stress and deformation and analyze the stress/strain diagram for concrete,
steel and wood
Topics for this Material:

1. Definition of Construction Materials and Testing and its Importance
2. Different Types of Civil Engineering
3. What does civil engineers do?
4. Characteristics of civil engineers
5. Top Ten Most Impressive Civil Engineering Projects
6. Stress and Deformation
7. Stress and Strain diagrams for concrete, steel and wood
8. Stress / Strain Curve for Mild Steel
9. Stress / Strain of wood
Topic 1. Construction Materials Testing and its importance
Construction materials testing includes a wide range of tests and observations performed in the
laboratory and the field during construction to determine compliance with the plans, specifications,
and referenced industry standards.
Construction materials testing involves the essential examination of all structural materials used
in the construction of a project. Industry players need to ensure that their products can withstand
certain conditions and comply with increasingly complex national and international building
standards and regulations. If they are unable to do so, building projects may be delayed and
quality may be compromised, resulting in increased liability risks and shortened lifespan of their
assets.
CE 133 – Construction Materials & Testing | Instructor: Engr. Romel B. San Diego Jr. 1
Testing services can generally be divided into two areas: Field Testing and Laboratory Testing.
 Field Testing:
Field testing CMT services take place at the site. Roadways, airports, utility projects, building
developments: All typically involve CMT processes carried out by certified professionals.
In the field, construction materials testing can involve:
 Soils
 Concrete/Asphalt
 Steel
 Masonry
 Timber
What does Field Testing look for? Compaction, moisture, air content, and more, most of which is
evaluated through visual inspection and/or non-destructive techniques. Steel structures, retaining
walls, and soil foundations are prime examples of construction that are evaluated during Field
Testing.
In instances where Field Testing is inconclusive or exploratory in nature, samples of various

materials may be sent off for further lab testing.
 Laboratory Testing:
When Field Testing indicates further study is needed, Lab Testing is then recommended as the
next phase of a comprehensive CMT regimen. Laboratory testing is usually performed on an as-
needed basis. Common lab-tested construction materials include:
Soil – Modified/Standard Proctor, Bearing Ratios, Classification Tests, Swell Testing, Compressive
Strength Testing, pH Testing, Chloride/Sulfide Testing, Hydraulic Conductivity, Consolidation,
Permeability Testing, Shear Testing, and more.
Asphalt – Mix Evaluation, Stability, Flow, Bulk Specific Gravity, Gradation, Density (Marshall), and
more.
Masonry/Concrete – Flexural Strength Testing, Compression Strength Testing, Unit Weight,

Tensile Testing, Absorption, Efflorescence Testing, Mix Design, Structural Masonry Testing, and
more.
Why is CMT So Important?
Because it is critical for the viability and safety of a construction project. CMT can reveal any
number of issues related to construction quality. It can highlight future risks, help classify a
building site, and assist with engineering decisions. Without CMT, engineers and builders may not
know if the quality of the construction meets the requirements.
Reference Standards:
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI - American Concrete Institute
AISC - American Institute of Steel Construction Handbook
NSCP - National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015
DPWH - Department of Public Works and Highways: Standard Specifications for Highways,
Bridges and Airports 2013
Topic 2. Different Types of Civil Engineering

Civil Engineering is a field that deals more with the practical aspects of construction projects.
Construction engineers learn some of the design aspects similar to civil engineers as well as
project site management aspects.
Construction Engineering is a professional discipline that deals with the designing, planning,
construction and management of infrastructures such as roads, tunnels, bridges, airports,
railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects.
The five (5) types of civil engineering projects are construction and management, geotechnical,
structural, transport, water, and architecture. Each of these projects requires extensive knowledge
of math, mechanics, and physics as well as the ability to solve problems creatively.
1. Construction and management engineering is about creating things like bridges, buildings,
roads, and railways.
- The purpose of engineering construction is to build these structures in the most efficient,
safe, sustainable, and environmentally friendly way possible.
- Following the construction phase is an asset management phase. In this phase, you
outline the maintenance, operation, and refurbishment over the lifespan of the project.
- These things need to be managed so that the owner of the project can make sure that
there is value in return for money spent on the project.
2. Geotechnical Engineering is concerned with understanding how a project interacts with the
ground out of the five types of civil engineering projects.
- People in the geotechnical engineering field deal with structures such as tunnels, bridges,
roads, railways and more.
- Geotechnical engineers deal with a different type of ground for every project. Whether it’s
made out of soil or rock, it is the job of the geotechnical engineer to figure out how it will
interact with the project. This excites most geotechnical engineers because no two
grounds are the same.
3. Structural Engineering
- Analyzing and designing the construction of bridges, towers, buildings, dams and more is
the job of a structural engineer. These structures need to build in a way that makes them
safe, sustainable, economical, and somewhat pleasing to the eye. Just like construction
and management engineering, structural engineering uses math and physics to do the
job.
- Using math and physics, engineers can see if all parts of the project have enough
strength to take loads, determine the structures service life, and see if the structure is
stable.
- Of 5 types of civil engineering projects, structural engineering plays the biggest part in
designing and selecting materials for a project.
4. Transportation Engineering is the planning, designing, and operation of large transport

systems. Whether public or private, everybody needs to have access to some form of
transportation to get around in the world we live in. We have many ways of transportation
today such as air, water, road, and railway.
- A transport engineer’s job is to make sure these forms of transportation meet certain
standards. Standards like sustainability and safety need to be met.
- With the technology we have now, transport engineers are trying to reduce emissions
and energy use with the goal of becoming environmentally friendly. Of the five types of
civil engineering projects, transport engineering is about always looking for a way to
improve our transportation systems.
5. Water Engineering/ Water Resource Engineering
- Water engineering is about understanding why natural water systems such as rivers and
coasts behave the way they do. Water engineering also involves designing ways to store
or direct water.
- Understanding how water works can create a way for us to conserve water. Water
engineering is focused on dealing with floods, groundwater, and the nature of coastal
waters.
Topic 3. What does Civil Engineers do?
Civil engineers are highly trained professionals who plan public works projects and supervise
their implementation. Most work in the private sector, but a good portion of them work in
government. Their work is all around us. The infrastructure that moves people and commerce
around the country was designed and implemented under the guidance of generations of civil
engineers.
Civil engineers design and supervise construction of major public works projects such as
buildings, highways, airports, bridges, and dams. They can either work for a government
organization or in private industry competing for government contracts.
Since there are so many different types of projects a civil engineer can undertake, many of
them specialize in a type of project or branch of the profession such as transportation engineering,
structural engineering or geotechnical engineering.
Much of the work is done in an office, but civil engineers also go to project sites to monitor
construction. They ensure projects are going according to plan and answer any questions
construction superintendents raise.
From time to time, civil engineers speak about projects to governing boards and the general
public. They also write documents about the project like responses to requests for proposals,
status updates, and technical reports. Civil engineers in the private sector work closely with
government contract managers.
In addition to a college degree in civil engineering or one of its specialties, civil engineers who
sign off on project plans or supervise other civil engineers must be licensed according to rules
enacted by state governments. Licensing processes include several exams and require years of
work experience. In the end, licensed civil engineers earn the designation of a professional
engineer (or PE).
Topic 4. Characteristics of Civil Engineers
Civil engineering requires a broad skill set. One of the most critical elements to succeeding is
project management. Some plans can be drawn in relative isolation, but bringing plans to life
requires a team, and a civil engineer is the leader of such a team. Where team members’
individual work meets with that of others, the civil engineer makes sure it all fits together.
All the skills that must be brought to any project must be applied to public works projects. Civil
engineers hold others accountable while ensuring a public works project is completed on time, on
budget and up to quality expectations.
Civil engineers are good problem solvers. When documented plans do not match reality, civil
engineers devise solutions that keep within a project’s framework. They answer questions about
the project when those executing parts of the project need clarification.
Proficiency in advanced mathematics is essential to civil engineering. Geometry and calculus

are obvious necessities. Of course, computer programs can solve equations in a matter of
milliseconds, but civil engineers must know what those figures mean and apply them to plans.
People outside the core group working on a public works project do not understand these
mathematical areas to the extent civil engineers do, but those who make decisions about a public
works project’s direction understand business math.
Civil engineers provide cost estimates and devise budgets. They need buy-in from decision
makers on the money side of things so they can actually put their geometry and calculus skills to
productive use.
Projects often have many governmental entities involved. Work on an interstate highway
could involve entities in federal, state and local governments. On some projects, more than one
government organization provides financial support. Elected officials and public administrators pay
more attention to projects they back financially than to those merely happening in their
geographical proximity. For instance, a city council is aware of road projects in the county, but it is
involved in road projects within the city limits.
Topic 5. Top 10 Most Impressive Civil Engineering Projects
Topic 6. Stress and Deformations
 What is Stress?
When the deforming force is applied to an object, the object deforms. In order to bring the
object back to the original shape and size, there will be an opposing force generated inside the
object. This restoring force will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied
deforming force. The measure of this restoring force generated per unit area of the material is
called Stress.
Thus, Stress is defined as “The restoring force per unit area of the material”. It is a tensor
quantity. Denoted by Greek letter σ. It is measured using Pascal or N/m2. Mathematically
expressed as –
σ = F/A
Where,
 F is the restoring force measured in Newton or N.

 A is the area of cross section measured in m2.
 σ is the stress measured using N/m2 or Pa.
 Stress Units
Stress can be expressed using multiple units. Refer to the table given below for Stress
units.
System of units Stress units
SI (derived units) N/m2
SI (derived units) Pa or pascal
SI (mm)(derived units) M.Pa or N/(mm)2
US unit (ft) lbf/ft2
US unit (inch) Psi (lbf/inch2)
 Types of Stresses
There are several different types of stress in physics but mainly it is categorized into two forms that
are Normal Stress and Tangential or Shearing Stress. Some stress types are discussed in the
points below.
o Normal Stress
Stress is said to be Normal stress when the direction of the deforming force is
perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the body. The length of the wire or the
volume of the body changes stress will be at normal. Normal stress can be further
classified into two types based on the dimension of force and they are the following:
 Longitudinal stress
 Bulk or Volumetric stress
Longitudinal Stress:
Consider a cylinder. When two cross-sectional areas of the cylinder are
subjected to equal and opposite forces the stress experienced by the cylinder is
called longitudinal stress.
Longitudinal Stress = Deforming Force / Area of cross section = F/A
As the name suggest, when the body is under longitudinal stress:

The deforming force will be acting along the length of the body.
 Longitudinal stress results in the change in the length of the body, Hence,
it affects slight change in diameter.
The Longitudinal Stress either stretches the object or compresses the object
along its length. Thus, it can be further classified into two types based on the
direction of deforming force
 Tensile stress
 Compressive stress
 Tensile Stress
If the deforming force or applied force results in the increase in
the object’s length then the resulting stress is termed as tensile stress.
For example: When a rod or wire is stretched by pulling it with equal
and opposite forces (outwards) at both ends.
 Compressive Stress
If the deforming force or applied force results in the decrease in
the object’s length then the resulting stress is termed as compressive
stress. For example: When a rod or wire is compressed/squeezed by
pushing it with equal and opposite forces (inwards) at both ends.
Bulk or Volumetric Stress:

It is when the deforming force or applied force acts from all dimension,
resulting in the change of volume of the object; such stress in called bulk or
volumetric stress. In short, when the volume of body changes due to the deforming
force it is termed as volumetric stress.
o Shearing Stress or Tangential Stress

When the direction of the deforming force or external force is parallel to the cross-
sectional area, the stress experienced by the object is called shearing or tangential
stress. This results in the change in the shape of the body
In short, stress can be visualized as:
 Mechanical properties of materials: Stress and strain
Every component in a linear motion system experiences some form of loading due to
applied forces or motion. The component’s reactions to these loads are described by its
mechanical properties.
For components subjected to tension or compression — such as load-carrying balls and
rollers, shafts mounted vertically, or fastening and joining hardware — the mechanical properties
of stress and strain play an important role in determining whether the component can withstand the
application’s loading conditions.
There are five fundamental types of loading: compression, tension, shear, torsion, and
bending.
Stress is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s cross-sectional area.
σ = stress (N/m2, Pa)

F = force (N)
A0 = original cross-sectional area (m2)
Strain is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress.
ε = strain
L = length after load is applied (mm)
L0 = original length (mm)
Note: A material’s change in length (L – L0) is sometimes represented as δ.
The most common way to analyze the relationship between stress and strain for a particular
material is with a stress-strain diagram.
The stress-strain diagram provides valuable information about how much force a material
can withstand before permanent deformation or failure occurs.
Many materials exhibit a proportional relationship between stress and strain up to certain
point, referred to as the proportional limit, shown here as point “A.” This stress-strain relationship is
known as Hooke’s Law, and in this region, the slope of the stress-strain curve is referred to as the
modulus of elasticity (aka Young’s modulus), denoted E.
The modulus of elasticity is essentially a measure of stiffness and is one of the factors used
to calculate a material’s deflection under load. Just beyond the proportional limit is the elastic limit,
at which point the material transitions from elastic behavior, where any deformation due to applied
stress is reversed when the force is removed, to plastic behavior, where deformations caused by
stress remain even after the stress is removed.
As long as the applied stresses are below the proportional limit, stress-strain relationships are the
same whether the material is under tension or compression.
The yield point shown as point “C,” is the point where strain increases faster than stress
(referred to as “strain hardening”), and the material experiences some amount of permanent
deformation.
For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, or whose yield point is difficult to
determine, offset yield strength — shown here as point “B” — is used. Offset yield strength is the
stress that will cause a specified amount of permanent strain (typically 0.2 percent). It is found by
drawing a line that crosses the X (strain) axis at 0.002 and runs parallel to the stress-strain line
(slope = E). The point where this line intersects the stress-strain curve is the offset yield point.
Finally, at point “D,” where the curve begins to fall, the material’s ultimate tensile strength
has been reached. This point denotes the maximum stress that can be applied to a material in
tension before failure occurs.
The term “strength” can be used with various material properties (tensile strength, yield strength,
shear strength, etc.). But regardless of the property being described, “strength” typically refers to a
material’s resistance to failure, either through fracture or excessive deformation.
Note that in the discussion above, the original cross-sectional area and length (before any
deformation had taken place) were used to calculate stress and strain, respectively. Thus, the
diagram is referred to as an “engineering stress-strain diagram.” But as a material deform its cross-
sectional area and length change. A stress-strain diagram that takes the instantaneous values of
cross-sectional area and length to determine stress and strain is referred to as a “true stress-strain
diagram.”
For most applications, the engineering stress-strain diagram is sufficient, since the
differences between the engineering and true versions are very small below the material’s yield
point.
DEFORMATION
When a force is applied to a body then that body will be deformed. This is true for any material,
including polymers. The picture below shows a rod that is deformed by a compression force (left)
and by a tensile force (right). The original not deformed rod is shown in the middle.
A body subjected to a force will be deformed.

We define the deformation or strain as the change of length of the body divided by the original
length of the body (l0):
Example: When a body with a length of 100 mm is stretched by 2 mm then the strain is 2 / 100 =
0.02.
Instead of the force (F) it is common to use stress instead, which is the force per unit area (A) in
the body:
Example: A force of 100 N on a body with a surface of 1000 cm2 (= 0.1 m2 ) will cause a stress of
100 / 0.1 = 1000 N/m2, which is the same as 1000 Pa.
In case of a small deformation the stress is proportional to the deformation. This fact is known as
Hooke’s law. It says that the stress is equal to the deformation times the elasticity modulus (E):
The elasticity modulus is also called Young’s modulus. It is a material property.
Example: Steel has an elasticity modulus of 210,000 MPa (1 MPa = 10 6 N/m2). In order to create a
strain of 0.02 in the bar a stress equal to 210,000 x 0.01 = 2,100 MPa is needed.
With this set of equations the stresses and strains in many situations are well described as long as
the strain is small: not more than something like 0.03. When a body is deformed more than a few
percent than Hooke’s law is not valid anymore.
Most polymers can be deformed much more than a few percent, especially when they are in the
rubber phase. Think of a rubber band that can be stretched five to ten times before it breaks.
Therefore, we need another way to describe the relation between stress and deformation in
polymers.
It is common to specify the deformation of the polymer by the stretch ratio ( ), which is the new
length (l) divided by the original length (l0):
Example: A body has an original length of 10 cm. If the body is stretched to a length of 15 cm then
the stretch ratio is 15 / 10 = 1.5. If that same body would have been compressed to 5 cm then the
stretch ratio is 5 / 10 = 0.5.
In case of large deformations, where Hooke’s law is not valid, the relation between stress and
stretch ratio is as follows:
In this equation G is the shear modulus of the body. Like the elasticity modulus it is a material
property. Usually the shear modulus is about 1/3 of the elasticity modulus (G = E/3).
Example: Rubber has a shear modulus of about 10 MPa. If the rubber is stretched 2 times then the
stress in the rubber will be 10 x (22 – ½) = 35 MPa. In case of undeformed rubber the stretch ratio
is 1 and the stress will be 10 x (1 – 1) = 0 MPa.
Important notes:
 A stress will cause a deformation in a body.

 In case of small deformations the stress is proportional to the strain (Hooke’s law).
 Hooke’s law says that the stress is equal to the elasticity modulus times the strain.
 In case of large deformations the stress is better described by using the stretch ratio and the shear
modulus.
 Both the shear modulus and the elasticity modulus are material properties. In a good
approximation the shear modulus is 1/3 of the elasticity modulus.
Topic 7: Stress / Strain Curve for Concrete

Stress strain curve of concrete is a graphical representation of concrete behavior under
load. It is produced by plotting concrete compress strain at various interval of concrete
compressive loading (stress). Concrete is mostly used in compression that is why its compressive
stress strain curve is of major interest.
The stress and strain of concrete is obtained by testing concrete cylinder specimen at age
of 28 days, using compressive test machine. The stress strain curve of concrete allows designers
and engineers to anticipate the behavior of concrete used in building constructions.
Finally, the performance of concrete structure is controlled by the stress-strain curve

relationship and the type of stress to which the concrete is subjected in the structure.
Fig. 1: Set of Stress Strain Curve for Normal Density Concrete
Fig. 2: Stress Strain Curve for Lightweight Concrete
Fig. 3: Stress Strain Curve of Concrete Varies Based on Speed of

Testing
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 shows strain stress curve for normal weigh and lightweight concrete, respectively.
There is a set of curves on each figure which represents the strength of the concrete. So, the
higher curves show higher concrete strength. Fig. 3 shows how the shape of concrete stress-strain
curve changes based on the speed of loading.
Despite the fact that, speed of testing and concrete density influences the shape of the stress-
strain curve, but it can be noticed that, all curves show nearly the same character. i.e. they
undergo the same stages under loading. Various portions of concrete stress stain curve are
discussed below:
1. Straight or Elastic Portion

Initially, all stress strain curves (Fig.1 and Fig. 2) are fairly straight; stress and strain are
proportional. With this stage, the material should be able to retain its original shape if the load is
removed. The elastic range of concrete stress strain curve continues up to 0.45 fc’ (maximum
concrete compressive strength).
The slope of elastic part of stress strain curve is concrete modulus of elasticity. The modulus of
elasticity of concrete increases as its strength is increased. ACI Code provides equations for
computing concrete modulus of elasticity.
2. Peak Point or Maximum Compress Stress Point

The elastic range is exceeded and concrete begin to show plastic behavior (Nonlinear), when a
load is further increased. After elastic range, the curve starts to horizontal; reaching maximum
compress stress (maximum compressive strength).
For normal weight concrete, the maximum stress is realized at compressive strain ranges from
0.002 to 0.003. However, for lightweight concrete, the maximum stress reached at strain ranges
from 0.003 to 0. 0035. The higher results of strain in both curves represent larger strength.
For normal weight concrete, the ACI Code specified that, a strain of 0.003 is maximum strain that
concrete can reach and this value used for design of concrete structural element. However, the
European Code assumes concrete can reach a strain of 0.0035, and hence this value is used for
the design of concrete structural element.
3. Descending Portion
After reaching maximum stress, all the curves show descending trend. The characteristics of the
stress strain curve in descending part are based on the method of testing.
Long stable descending part is achieved if special testing procedure is employed to guarantee a
constant strain rate while cylinder resistance is decreasing. However, if special testing procedure
is not followed, then unloading after peak point would be quick and the descending portion of the
curve would not be the same.
Topic 8: Stress / Strain Curve for Mild Steel
When steel is curved, it is important to keep the stress-strain curve ratio for mild steel in mind.
Below is a stress-strain graph that reviews the properties of steel in detail.
If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have some elongation. If the force is small enough,
the ratio of the stress and strain will remain proportional. This can be seen in the graph as a
straight line between zero and point A – also called the limit of proportionality.
If the force is greater, the material will experience elastic deformation, but the ratio of stress and
strain will not be proportional. This is between points A and B, known as the elastic limit.
Beyond the elastic limit, the mild steel will experience plastic deformation. This starts the yield
point – or the rolling point – which is point B, or the upper yield point. As seen in the graph, from
this point on the correlation between the stress and strain is no longer on a straight trajectory. It
curves from point C (lower yield point), to D (maximum ultimate stress), ending at E (fracture
stress).
Now, we’ll look at each individual measure on the graph above and explain how each is derived.
 Stress: If an applied force causes a change in the dimension of the material, then the
material is in the state of stress. If we divide the applied force (F) by the cross-sectional
area (A), we get the stress.
The symbol of stress is σ (Greek letter sigma). For tensile (+) and compressive (-) forces. The
standard international unit of stress is the pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. The formula to derive
the stress number is σ = F/A.
For tensile and compressive forces, the area taken is perpendicular to the applied force. For sheer
force, the area is taken parallel to the applied force. The symbol for shear stress is tau (τ).
 Strain: Strain is the change in the dimension (L-L0) with respect to the original. It is denoted
by the symbol epsilon (ε). The formula is ε = (L-L0) / L0. For a shear force, strain is
expressed by γ (gamma)
 Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of the material which enables the material to return to its
original form after the external force is removed.
 Plasticity: This is a property that allows the material to remain deformed without fracture
even after the force is removed.
The definitions below are important for understanding the Stress-Strain interactions as seen in the
graph.
 Hooke’s Law: Within the proportional limit (straight line between zero and A), strain is
proportionate to stress.
 Young’s modulus of elasticity: Within the proportional limit, stress = E × strain. E is a

proportionality constant known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus of elasticity.
Young’s modulusis a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in length
when under lengthwise tension or compression. E has the same unit as the unit of stress
because the strain is dimensionless. The formula is E = σ / ε Pa.
 Modulus of Resilience: The area under the curve which is marked by the yellow area. It is
the energy absorbed per volume unit up to the elastic limit. The formula for the modulus of
resilience is 1/2 x σ x ε = 0.5 x (FL/AE).
 Modulus of toughness: This is the area of the whole curve (point zero to E). Energy
absorbed at unit volume up to breaking point.
Topic 9: Stress / Strain of Wood
Behavior of Wood
The most important point in wood bending is that wood is both plastic (it can be deformed
permanently, without breaking, like a piece of soft wax) and elastic (it can be stretched slightly and
when the force is removed it will return to its original shape). A graphic way to illustrate these
characteristics is with a stress-strain diagram (Figure 71-1).
Below the proportional limit,

wood behaves elastically.
Above the proportional limit,
wood behave plastically. An
increase in force results in a
permanent deformation even
when the force is removed
(Figure 71-1). Of course, too
much force results in failure.
(There is also a time effect
called "creep" that we are
overlooking for now.)
How does this relate to bending? If we bend wood, we want to operate in the plastic range; if we
stayed in the elastic range the bend would not be permanent. Likewise, if we exceed the plastic
range, the bend would result in failure.
There is one property of wood that makes it possible for us to make severe bends. That property is
that when wood is steamed (high moisture and high heat), the plastic range in compression is
extended and becomes extremely large (up to ten times the dry range). On the other hand,
steaming does not affect the tension properties.
I should mention at this time, however, that steaming does cause an overall loss in strength after
the piece is dried, so we do want to keep the steaming time to a necessary minimum.
Anatomy of a Bend
Consider a flat piece of wood 10 in. long and 1 in. thick. As we bend this piece, the outside of the
arc will be longer than the inside (Figure 71-2). A flat piece of wood when bent can normally
absorb a difference between outside and inside radius of 2 to 3% (without using end pressure or
steaming) before breaking. This means a 1-in.-thick piece, 20-in.-long, could be bent on a 24.7 in.
radius. The rule of thumb is that the radius cannot be less than 20 to 30 times the wood's thickness
without steaming and end pressure.
When we steam wood, it becomes more plastic in compression and is, therefore, able to accept
more deformation without failure. However, wood does not become much more plastic in tension;
the steam only increases plasticity in compression. Returning to the bend in Figure 71-2 we must
understand that the outside radius, which is in tension, is the limiting factor in any bend, even after
steaming-although after steaming, the severity of the bends may, in certain cases, be increased
without failure.
So the key to severe bends is to control or reduce the tension in the outer radius. The most
effective method is to push on the ends, generating a compression force that will offset the tension
force from the bend. How hard do we push? We know that the outer (tension) radius cannot
elongate by more than 3% before failure is likely. Therefore, we push hard enough to keep the
outer radius at nearly a constant length-that is, its length when it was flat.
Traditional method is the use of a clamp or bar as shown in Figure 71-3, or a variation of this idea,
with the distance between the end blocks exactly the length of the piece. Let me repeat: Exactly
the length! If there were play between the end blocks and the piece to be bent, it is likely that the
3% elongation limit would be exceeded and failure would result. (In fact, it has been my experience
that short miss cut lengths are the second most frequent cause of bending failure. The leading
cause is poor material selection for bending stock. The third cause is improper moisture content.)
In practice, there are two correct ways to cut the ends of the stock so it will fit between the block:
Flush and bevel (Figure 71-3, top and bottom respectively). I am not aware on any practical
difference between these two acceptable methods.
One additional consideration in bending wood: it does take a moment or two for the wood to
absorb the stresses being generated in bending. So the bend must be made relatively slowly.
Now that we have the basic ideas behind successful bending, let's examine bending stock
selection, preparation, drying, steaming, and redrying.
Stock Selection
The U.S. Forest Service has evaluated 25 hardwood species for relative bending quality. In their
testing, the best 17 woods were:
Hackberry (Best)
White oak
Red oak
Chestnut oak
Magnolia
Pecan
Black walnut
Hickory
Beech
Elm
Willow
Birch
Ash
Sweetgum
Soft maple
Yellow-poplar
Hard maple (Worst)
This ranking represents the results from one evaluation; variation in the results can be expected
from tree to tree and site to site.
A further test of 20 different white oak trees showed that the specific gravity (or density) and the
rate of growth had no effect on bending failure. Likewise, the amount of end pressure (in excess of
that required) was not related to the number of bending failures. (In other words, a piece that is
going to fail will fail even if additional end pressure is exerted.) HOWEVER, bending quality was
related to certain strength-reducing defects:
- Cross-grain wood is more likely to break than straight grain. the rule of thumb is that the grain
should slope no more than 1:15 along the piece. Occasionally, there can be "local cross grain"
(near a knot, for example) that can result in failure. A special form of cross grain is the interlocked
grain, which is especially weak.
- Knots are accompanied by distorted grain and represent weak areas.
- Shake is a separation within the wood parallel to the annual rings. This separation encourages
shear failures.
- The pith (or exact center of the tree) is very weak and failures there are likely.
- Surface checks, due to improper drying conditions early in drying, are small separations in the
wood. In bending, they can result in small bumps or slivers.
- Brash wood is probably found in all species and results in very short (along the grain) breaks
rather than longer slivers. Wood that is exceptionally light in weight, compared to the average for
the species is especially prone to brashness. Brashness can, therefore, be a natural phenomenon.
On the other hand, brashness can result because of overheating wood, because of decay, or
because of earlier failure.
- Decayed wood is weaker than normal wood, even if decay has not progressed very far.
References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_engineering
https://esub.com/5-types-of-civil-engineering-projects/
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/government-job-profile-civil-engineer-1669624
https://byjus.com/physics/stress/
https://www.linearmotiontips.com/mechanical-properties-of-materials-stress-and-strain/
http://www.viscoelasticity.info/6-stress-and-
deformation/#:~:text=Summary%3A,elasticity%20modulus%20times%20the%20strain
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/stress-strain-curve-concrete/6159/
https://www.cmrp.com/blog/faq/analysis-design/exploring-stress-strain-curve-mild-
steel.html#:~:text=When%20steel%20is%20curved%2C%20it,for%20mild%20steel%20in%20mind
.&text=If%20the%20force%20is%20small,called%20the%20limit%20of%20proportionality.
https://www.woodweb.com/knowledge_base/Rx_For_Bending_Wood.html
“Don’t worry about failures, worry about the

chances you miss when you don’t even try.”
– Jack Canfield

Week 1 Introduction To Construction Materials and Testing

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CE 133 – CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING (LEC)

Instrucional Material 1: INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

Topics for this Material:

Topic 1. Construction Materials Testing and its importance

In the field, construction materials testing can involve:

In instances where Field Testing is inconclusive or exploratory in nature, samples of various

Masonry/Concrete – Flexural Strength Testing, Compression Strength Testing, Unit Weight,

Why is CMT So Important?

ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

Topic 2. Different Types of Civil Engineering

4. Transportation Engineering is the planning, designing, and operation of large transport

Topic 3. What does Civil Engineers do?

Topic 4. Characteristics of Civil Engineers

Proficiency in advanced mathematics is essential to civil engineering. Geometry and calculus

 F is the restoring force measured in Newton or N.

System of units Stress units

SI (derived units) N/m2

SI (derived units) Pa or pascal

SI (mm)(derived units) M.Pa or N/(mm)2

US unit (ft) lbf/ft2

US unit (inch) Psi (lbf/inch2)

Bulk or Volumetric Stress:

o Shearing Stress or Tangential Stress

In short, stress can be visualized as:

 Mechanical properties of materials: Stress and strain

σ = stress (N/m2, Pa)

A body subjected to a force will be deformed.

The elasticity modulus is also called Young’s modulus. It is a material property.

 A stress will cause a deformation in a body.

Topic 7: Stress / Strain Curve for Concrete

Finally, the performance of concrete structure is controlled by the stress-strain curve

Fig. 1: Set of Stress Strain Curve for Normal Density Concrete

Fig. 3: Stress Strain Curve of Concrete Varies Based on Speed of

1. Straight or Elastic Portion

2. Peak Point or Maximum Compress Stress Point

Topic 8: Stress / Strain Curve for Mild Steel

 Young’s modulus of elasticity: Within the proportional limit, stress = E × strain. E is a

Topic 9: Stress / Strain of Wood

Below the proportional limit,

“Don’t worry about failures, worry about the

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