How People Learn II Chapter 6 v070220 PDF

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How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures
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109
HOW PEOPLE LEARN II, CHAPTER 6
How People
Learn II,
Chapter 6
6
Motivation to Learn
Motivation is a condition that activates and sustains behavior toward a goal.

It is critical to learning and achievement across the life span in both informal
settings and formal learning environments. For example, children who are
motivated tend to be engaged, persist longer, have better learning outcomes,
and perform better than other children on standardized achievement tests
(Pintrich, 2003). Motivation is distinguishable from general cognitive func-
tioning and helps to explain gains in achievement independent of scores on
intelligence tests (Murayama et al., 2013). It is also distinguishable from states
related to it, such as engagement, interest, goal orientation, grit, and tenacity,
all of which have different antecedents and different implications for learning
and achievement (Järvelä and Renninger, 2014).
HPL I1 emphasized some key findings from decades of research on mo-
tivation to learn:
• P eople are motivated to develop competence and solve problems by

rewards and punishments but often have intrinsic reasons for learning
that may be more powerful.
• Learners tend to persist in learning when they face a manageable chal-
lenge (neither too easy nor too frustrating) and when they see the value
and utility of what they are learning.
• Children and adults who focus mainly on their own performance
(such as on gaining recognition or avoiding negative judgments) are
1 As noted in Chapter 1, this report uses the abbreviation “HPL I” for How People Learn: Brain,
Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition (National Research Council, 2000).
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
How People Learn II, Chapter 6 1

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How People Learn II: Learners, FOR
and Cultures EFFECTIVE LEARNING
110 How PeoPle learn II
less likely to seek challenges and persist than those who focus on How People
learning itself. Learn II,
• Learners who focus on learning rather than performance or who have Chapter 6
intrinsic motivation to learn tend to set goals for themselves and regard
increasing their competence to be a goal.
• Teachers can be effective in encouraging students to focus on learning
instead of performance, helping them to develop a learning orientation.
In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on re-

search in this area. We begin by describing some of the primary theoretical
perspectives that have shaped this research, but our focus is on four primary
influences on people’s motivation to learn. We explore research on people’s
own beliefs and values, intrinsic motivation, the role of learning goals, and
social and cultural factors that affect motivation to learn. We then examine
research on interventions and approaches to instructional design that may
influence motivation to learn, and we close with our conclusions about the
implications of this research.
The research we discuss includes both laboratory and field research from
multiple disciplines, such as developmental psychology, social psychology,
education, and cognitive psychology.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Research on motivation has been strongly driven by theories that overlap
and contain similar concepts. A comprehensive review of this literature is
beyond the scope of this report, but we highlight a few key points. Behavior-
based theories of learning, which conceptualized motivation in terms of
habits, drives, incentives, and reinforcement schedules, were popular through
the mid-20th century. In these approaches, learners were assumed to be pas-
sive in the learning process and research focused mainly on individual differ-
ences between people (e.g., cognitive abilities, drive for achievement). These
differences were presumed to be fixed and to dictate learners’ responses to
features in the learning environment (method of instruction, incentives, and
so on) and their motivation and performance.
Current researchers regard many of these factors as important but have
also come to focus on learners as active participants in learning and to pay
greater attention to how learners make sense of and choose to engage with
their learning environments. Cognitive theories, for example, have focused
on how learners set goals for learning and achievement and how they main-
tain and monitor their progress toward those goals. They also consider how
physical aspects of the learning environment, such as classroom structures
(Ames, 1986) and social interactions (e.g., Gehlbach et al., 2016), affect learn-
ing through their impacts on students’ goals, beliefs, affect, and actions.
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Motivation to Learn 111

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How People Motivation is also increasingly viewed as an emergent phenomenon,

Learn II, meaning it can develop over time and change as a result of one’s experiences
Chapter 6 with learning and other circumstances. Research suggests, for example, that
aspects of the learning environment can both trigger and sustain a student’s
curiosity and interest in ways that support motivation and learning (Hidi and
Renninger, 2006).
A key factor in motivation is an individual’s mindset: the set of assump-
tions, values, and beliefs about oneself and the world that influence how one
perceives, interprets, and acts upon one’s environment (Dweck, 1999). For
example, a person’s view as to whether intelligence is fixed or malleable is
likely to link to his views of the malleability of his own abilities (Hong and
Lin-Siegler, 2012). As we discuss below, learners who have a fixed view of
intelligence tend to set demonstrating competence as a learning goal, whereas
learners who have an incremental theory of intelligence tend to set mastery
as a goal and to place greater value on effort. Mindsets develop over time as a
function of learning experiences and cultural influences. Research related to
mindsets has focused on patterns in how learners construe goals and make
choices about how to direct attention and effort. Some evidence suggests that
it is possible to change students’ self-attributions so that they adopt a growth
mindset, which in turn improves their academic performance (Blackwell et
al., 2007).
Researchers have also tried to integrate the many concepts that have been
introduced to explain this complex aspect of learning in order to formulate
a more comprehensive understanding of motivational processes and their ef-
fects on learning. For example, researchers who study psychological aspects
of motivation take a motivational systems perspective, viewing motivation
as a set of psychological mechanisms and processes, such as those related
to setting goals, engagement in learning, and use of self-regulatory strategies
(Kanfer, 2015; Linnenbrink-Garcia and Patall, 2016; Yeager and Walton, 2011).
LEARNERS’ BELIEFS AND VALUES

Learners’ ideas about their own competence, their values, and the pre-
existing interests they bring to a particular learning situation all influence
motivation.
Self-Efficacy
When learners expect to succeed, they are more likely to put forth the
effort and persistence needed to perform well. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura,
1977), which is incorporated into several models of motivation and learning,
posits that the perceptions learners have about their competency or capabilities
are critical to accomplishing a task or attaining other goals (Bandura, 1977).

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According to self-efficacy theory, learning develops from multiple sources, How People
including perceptions of one’s past performance, vicarious experiences, Learn II,
performance feedback, affective/physiological states, and social influences. Chapter 6
Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits
of several strategies for strengthening students’ sense of their competence
for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult
goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with
information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to
their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). A sense of competence may also
foster interest and motivation, particularly when students are given the op-
portunity to make choices about their learning activities (Patall et al., 2014).
Another important aspect of self-attribution involves beliefs about whether
one belongs in a particular learning situation. People who come from back-
grounds where college attendance is not the norm may question whether they
belong in college despite having been admitted. Students may misinterpret
short-term failure as reflecting that they do not belong, when in fact short-term
failure is common among all college students. These students experience a
form of stereotype threat, where prevailing cultural stereotypes about their
position in the world cause them to doubt themselves and perform more
poorly (Steele and Aronson, 1995).
A recent study examined interventions designed to boost the sense of
belonging among African American college freshmen (Walton and Cohen,
2011). The researchers compared students who did and did not encounter
survey results ostensibly collected from more senior college students, which
indicated that most senior students had worried about whether they belonged
during their first year of college but had become more confident over time.
The students who completed the activity made significant academic gains,
and the researchers concluded that even brief interventions can help people
overcome the bias of prior knowledge by challenging that knowledge and
supporting a new perspective.
Another approach to overcoming the bias of knowledge is to use strategies
that can prevent some of the undesirable consequences of holding negative
perspectives. One such strategy is to support learners in trying out multiple
ideas before settling on the final idea. In one study, for example, researchers
asked college students either to design a Web page advertisement for an online
journal and then refine it several times or to create several separate ones (Dow
et al., 2010). The researchers posted the advertisements and assessed their
effectiveness both by counting how many clicks each generated and by ask-
ing experts in Web graphics to rate them. The authors found that the designs
developed separately were more effective and concluded that when students
refined their initial designs, they were trapped by their initial decisions. The
students who developed separate advertisements explored the possibilities
more thoroughly and had more ideas to choose from.

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How People Values

Learn II,
Learners may not engage in a task or persist with learning long enough
Chapter 6
to achieve their goals unless they value the learning activities and goals.
Expectancy-value theories have drawn attention to how learners choose goals
depending on their beliefs about both their ability to accomplish a task and
the value of that task. The concept of value encompasses learners’ judgments
about (1) whether a topic or task is useful for achieving learning or life goals,
(2) the importance of a topic or task to the learner’s identity or sense of self,
(3) whether a task is enjoyable or interesting, and (4) whether a task is worth
pursuing (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000).
Research with learners of various ages supports the idea that those who
expect to succeed at a task exert more effort and have higher levels of per-
formance (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002). However, some studies have suggested
that task valuation seems to be the strongest predictor of behaviors associated
with motivation, such as choosing topics and making decisions about partici-
pation in training (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2008). Such research illustrates
one of the keys to expectancy-value theory: the idea that expectancy and
value dimensions work together. For example, a less-than-skilled reader may
nevertheless approach a difficult reading task with strong motivation to per-
sist in the task if it is interesting, useful, or important to the reader’s identity
(National Research Council, 2012c). As learners experience success at a task
or in a domain of learning, such as reading or math, the value they attribute
to those activities can increase over time (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002).
Interest
Learners’ interest is an important consideration for educators because they
can accommodate those interests as they design curricula and select learning
resources. Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students
and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absentee-
ism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001).
Two forms of learner interest have been identified. Individual or personal
interest is viewed as a relatively stable attribute of the individual. It is char-
acterized by a learner’s enduring connection to a domain and willingness to
re-engage in learning in that domain over time (Schiefele, 2009). In contrast,
situational interest refers to a psychological state that arises spontaneously
in response to specific features of the task or learning environment (Hidi and
Renninger, 2006). Situational interest is malleable, can affect student engage-
ment and learning, and is influenced by the tasks and materials educators use
or encourage (Hunsu et al., 2017). Practices that engage students and influence
their attitudes may increase their personal interest and intrinsic motivation
over time (Guthrie et al., 2006).

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Sometimes the spark of motivation begins with a meaningful alignment How People
of student interest with an assignment or other learning opportunity. At other Learn II,
times, features of the learning environment energize a state of wanting to know Chapter 6
more, which activates motivational processes. In both cases, it is a change
in mindset and goal construction brought about by interest that explains
improved learning outcomes (Barron, 2006; Bricker and Bell, 2014; Goldman
and Booker, 2009). For instance, when learner interest is low, students may
be less engaged and more likely to attend to the learning goals that require
minimal attention and effort.
Many studies of how interest affects learning have included measures of
reading comprehension and text recall. This approach has allowed researchers
to assess the separate effects of topic interest and interest in a specific text on
how readers interact with text, by measuring the amount of time learners spend
reading and what they learn from it. Findings from studies of this sort suggest
that educators can foster students’ interest by selecting resources that pro-
mote interest, by providing feedback that supports attention (Renninger and
Hidi, 2002), by demonstrating their own interest in a topic, and by generating
positive affect in learning contexts (see review by Hidi and Renninger, 2006).
This line of research has also suggested particular characteristics of texts
that are associated with learner interest. For example, in one study of col-
lege students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with
both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, and
valued; (2) the information was unexpected; (3) the text supported readers
in making connections with prior knowledge or experience; (4) the text
contained imagery and descriptive language; and (5) the author attempted
to relate information to readers’ background knowledge using, for example,
comparisons and analogies (Wade et al., 1999). The texts that students viewed
as less interesting interfered with comprehension in that they, for example,
offered incomplete or shallow explanations, contained difficult vocabulary,
or lacked coherence.
A number of studies suggest that situational interest can be a strong pre-
dictor of engagement, positive attitudes, and performance, including a study
of students’ essay writing (Flowerday et al., 2004) and other research (e.g.,
Alexander and Jetton, 1996; Schraw and Lehman, 2001). These studies suggest
the power of situational interest for engaging students in learning, which has
implications for the design of project-based or problem-based learning. For
example, Hoffman and Haussler (1998) found that high school girls displayed
significantly more interest in the physics related to the working of a pump
when the mechanism was put into a real-world context: the use of a pump in
heart surgery.
The perception of having a choice may also influence situational interest
and engagement, as suggested by a study that examined the effects of class-
room practices on adolescents enrolled in a summer school science course

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How People (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013). The positive effect learners experience as
Learn II, part of interest also appears to play a role in their persistence and ultimately
Chapter 6 their performance (see, e.g., Ainley et al., 2002).
Intrinsic Motivation
Self-determination theory posits that behavior is strongly influenced by
three universal, innate, psychological needs—autonomy (the urge to control
one’s own life), competence (the urge to experience mastery), and psycho-
logical relatedness (the urge to interact with, be connected to, and care for
others). Researchers have linked this theory to people’s intrinsic motivation
to learn (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motiva-
tion is the experience of wanting to engage in an activity for its own sake
because the activity is interesting and enjoyable or helps to achieve goals one
has chosen. From the perspective of self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan,
1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000), learners are intrinsically motivated to learn
when they perceive that they have a high degree of autonomy and engage in
an activity willingly, rather than because they are being externally controlled.
Learners who are intrinsically motivated also perceive that the challenges of
a problem or task are within their abilities.
External Rewards
The effect of external rewards on intrinsic motivation is a topic of much
debate. External rewards can be an important tool for motivating learning
behaviors, but some argue that such rewards are harmful to intrinsic motiva-
tion in ways that affect persistence and achievement.
For example, some research suggests that intrinsic motivation to persist
at a task may decrease if a learner receives extrinsic rewards contingent on
performance. The idea that extrinsic rewards harm intrinsic motivation has
been supported in a meta-analysis of 128 experiments (Deci et al., 1999, 2001).
One reason proposed for such findings is that learners’ initial interest in the
task and desire for success are replaced by their desire for the extrinsic reward
(Deci and Ryan, 1985). External rewards, it is argued, may also undermine the
learner’s perceptions of autonomy and control.
Other research points to potential benefits. A recent field study, for
example, suggests that incentives do not always lead to reduced engage-
ment after the incentive ends (Goswami and Urminsky, 2017). Moreover,
in some circumstances external rewards such as praise or prizes can help
to encourage engagement and persistence, and they may not harm intrinsic
motivation over the long term, provided that the extrinsic reward does not
undermine the individual’s sense of autonomy and control over her behavior
(see National Research Council, 2012c, pp. 143–145; also see Cerasoli et al.,

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2016; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). Thus, teaching strategies that use rewards How People
to capture and stimulate interest in a topic (rather than to drive compliance), Learn II,
that provide the student with encouragement (rather than reprimands), and Chapter 6
that are perceived to guide student progress (rather than just monitor student
progress) can foster feelings of autonomy, competence, and academic achieve-
ment (e.g., Vansteenkist et al., 2004). Praise is important, but what is praised
makes a difference (see Box 6-1).
Other work (Cameron et al., 2005) suggests that when rewards are
inherent in the achievement itself—that is, when rewards for successful
completion of a task include real privileges, pride, or respect—they can spur
intrinsic motivation. This may be the case, for example, with videogames in
which individuals are highly motivated to play well in order to move to the
next higher level. This may also be the case when learners feel valued and
respected for their demonstrations of expertise, as when a teacher asks a
student who correctly completed a challenging homework math problem to
explain his solution to the class. Extrinsic rewards support engagement suf-
ficient for learning, as shown in one study in which rewards were associated
with enhanced memory consolidation but only when students perceived the
material to be boring (Murayama and Kuhbandner, 2011). Given the prevalence
BOX 6-1 What You Praise Makes a Difference
Praise received after success influences students’ later achievement

motivation but perhaps not in the way intended. Mueller and Dweck (1998)
conducted two studies in which students received praise for their perfor-
mance on a reasoning test. Some students were praised for their ability
(“well done for being so smart”) and others for their effort (“well done
for working so hard”). Students who received praise for ability were more
likely to adopt performance goals on a subsequent test, whereas those
praised for effort were more likely to adopt mastery goals. Further, when
given the choice, a higher proportion (86%) of students praised for ability
chose to examine a folder they were told contained average scores of other
test takers, rather than a folder they were told contained new interesting
strategies for solving similar test problems. In stark contrast, less than one-
quarter (24%) of those praised for effort opted for performance information.
Students praised for ability engaged in behaviors that may have boosted
their self-esteem but were not likely to facilitate more learning or preparation
for test-taking in the future.

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How People of different performance-based incentives in classrooms (e.g., grades, prizes),

Learn II, a better, more integrated understanding is needed of how external rewards
Chapter 6 may harm or benefit learners’ motivation in ways that matter to achievement
and performance in a range of real-world conditions across the life span.
Effects of Choice
When learners believe they have control over their learning environment,
they are more likely to take on challenges and persist with difficult tasks,
compared with those who perceive that they have little control (National
Research Council, 2012c). Evidence suggests that the opportunity to make
meaningful choices during instruction, even if they are small, can support
autonomy, motivation, and ultimately, learning and achievement (Moller et
al., 2006; Patall et al., 2008, 2010).2
Choice may be particularly effective for individuals with high initial inter-
est in the domain, and it may also generate increased interest (Patall, 2013).
One possible reason why exercising choice seems to increase motivation is
that the act of making a choice induces cognitive dissonance: a feeling of be-
ing uncomfortable and unsure about one’s decision. To reduce this feeling,
individuals tend to change their preferences to especially value and become
interested in the thing they chose (Izuma et al., 2010). Knowing that one has
made a choice (“owning the choice”) can protect against the discouraging
effects of negative feedback during the learning process, an effect that has
been observed at the neurophysiological level (Murayama et al., 2015). The
perception of choice also may affect learning by fostering situational interest
and engagement (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013).
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOALS

Goals—the learner’s desired outcomes—are important for learning
because they guide decisions about whether to expend effort and how to
direct attention, foster planning, influence responses to failure, and promote
other behaviors important for learning (Albaili, 1998; Dweck and Elliot, 1983;
Hastings and West, 2011).
Learners may not always be conscious of their goals or of the motivation
processes that relate to their goals. For example, activities that learners per-
ceive as enjoyable or interesting can foster engagement without the learner’s
2 The 2008 study was a meta-analysis, so the study populations are not described. The 2010
study included a total of 207 (54% female) high school students from ninth through twelfth
grade. A majority (55.5%) of the students in these classes were Caucasian, 28 percent were
African American, 7 percent were Asian, 3 percent were Hispanic, 1.5 percent were Native Ameri-
can, and 5 percent were of other ethnicities.

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conscious awareness. Similarly, activities that learners perceive as threaten- How People
ing to their sense of competence or self-esteem (e.g., conditions that invoke Learn II,
stereotype threat, discussed below3) may reduce learners’ motivation and per- Chapter 6
formance even (and sometimes especially) when they intend to perform well.
HPL I made the point that having clear and specific goals that are chal-
lenging but manageable has a positive effect on performance, and research-
ers have proposed explanations. Some have focused on goals as motives or
reasons to learn (Ames and Ames, 1984; Dweck and Elliott, 1983; Locke et
al., 1981; Maehr, 1984; Nicholls, 1984). Others have noted that different
types of goals, such as mastery and performance goals, have different effects
on the cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes that underlie learning
as well as on learners’ outcomes (Ames and Archer, 1988; Covington, 2000;
Dweck, 1986). Research has also linked learners’ beliefs about learning and
achievement, or mindsets, with students’ pursuit of specific types of learning
goals (Maehr and Zusho, 2009). The next section examines types of goals and
research on their influence.
Types of Goals
Researchers distinguish between two main types of goals: mastery
goals, in which learners focus on increasing competence or understanding,
and performance goals, in which learners are driven by a desire to appear
competent or outperform others (see Table 6-1). They further distinguish
between performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals (Senko
et al., 2011). Learners who embrace performance-avoidance goals work
to avoid looking incompetent or being embarrassed or judged as a failure,
whereas those who adopt performance-approach goals seek to appear more
competent than others and to be judged socially in a favorable light. Within
the category of performance-approach goals, researchers have identified both
self-presentation goals (“wanting others to think you are smart”) and norma-
tive goals (“wanting to outperform others”) (Hulleman et al., 2010).
Learners may simultaneously pursue multiple goals (Harackiewicz et
al., 2002; Hulleman et al., 2008) and, depending on the subject area or skill
domain, may adopt different achievement goals (Anderman and Midgley,
1997). Although students’ achievement goals are relatively stable across the
school years, they are sensitive to changes in the learning environment, such
as moving from one classroom to another or changing schools (Friedel et al.,
2007). Learning environments differ in the learning expectations, rules, and
3 When an individual encounters negative stereotypes about his social identity group in the
context of a cognitive task, he may underperform on that task; this outcome is attributed to
stereotype threat (Steele, 1997).

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How People TABLE 6-1 Mindsets, Goals, and Their Implications for Learning
Learn II,
Mindsets
Chapter 6
Fixed mindset—you are born Growth mindset—intelligence can be
with a certain amount of acquired through hard work
intelligence
Goals
Performance goal—works to look Mastery goal—works to learn/ master the
good in comparison to others material or skill
Learning Behaviors
Avoids challenges—prioritizes Rises to challenges—prioritizes areas of
areas of high competence new knowledge
Quits in response to failure— Tries harder in response to failure—puts

expends less effort forth more effort
Pursues opportunities to bolter self- Pursues opportunities to learn more—

esteem—seeks affirming social seeks more problem-solving strategies
comparisons
structure that apply, and as a result, students may shift their goal orientation
to succeed in the new context (Anderman and Midgley, 1997).
Dweck (1986) argued that achievement goals reflect learners’ underlying
theories of the nature of intelligence or ability: whether it is fixed (something
with which one is born) or malleable. Learners who believe intelligence is
malleable, she suggested, are predisposed toward adopting mastery goals,
whereas learners who believe intelligence is fixed tend to orient toward
displaying competence and adopting performance goals (Burns and Isbell,
2007; Dweck, 1986; Dweck and Master, 2009; Mangels et al., 2006). Table 6-1
shows how learners’ mindsets can relate to their learning goals and behaviors.
Research in this area suggests that learners who strongly endorse mas-
tery goals tend to enjoy novel and challenging tasks (Pintrich, 2000; Shim et
al., 2008; Witkow and Fuligni, 2007; Wolters, 2004), demonstrate a greater
willingness to expend effort, and engage higher-order cognitive skills during
learning (Ames, 1992; Dweck and Leggett, 1988; Kahraman and Sungur, 2011;
Middleton and Midgley, 1997). Mastery students are also persistent—even
in the face of failure—and frequently use failure as an opportunity to seek
feedback and improve subsequent performance (Dweck and Leggett, 1988).
Learners’ mastery and performance goals may also influence learning and
achievement through indirect effects on cognition. Specifically, learners with
mastery goals tend to focus on relating new information to existing knowledge
as they learn, which supports deep learning and long-term memory for the

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information. By contrast, learners with performance goals tend to focus on How People
learning individual bits of information separately, which improves speed of Learn II,
learning and immediate recall but may undermine conceptual learning and Chapter 6
long-term recall. In this way, performance goals tend to support better im-
mediate retrieval of information, while mastery goals tend to support better
long-term retention (Crouzevialle and Butera, 2013). Performance goals may
in fact undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. When learners
with mastery goals work to recall a previously learned piece of information,
they also activate and strengthen memory for the other, related information
they learned. When learners with performance goals try to recall what they
learned, they do not get the benefit of this retrieval-induced strengthening of
their memory for other information (Ikeda et al., 2015).
Two studies with undergraduate students illustrate this point. Study par-
ticipants who adopted performance goals were found to be concerned with
communicating competence, prioritizing areas of high ability, and avoiding
challenging tasks or areas in which they perceived themselves to be weaker
than others (Darnon et al., 2007; Elliot and Murayama, 2008). These students
perceived failure as a reflection of their inability and typically responded to
failure with frustration, shame, and anxiety. These kinds of performance-
avoidance goals have been associated with maladaptive learning behaviors
including task avoidance (Middleton and Midgley, 1997; sixth-grade students),
reduced effort (Elliot, 1999), and self-handicapping (Covington, 2000; Midgley
et al., 1996).
The adoption of a mastery goal orientation to learning is likely to be
beneficial for learning, while pursuit of performance goals is associated with
poor learning-related outcomes. However, research regarding the impact of
performance goals on academic outcomes has yielded mixed findings (Elliot
and McGregor, 2001; Midgley et al., 2001). Some researchers have found
positive outcomes when learners have endorsed normative goals (a type of
performance goal) (Covington, 2000; Linnenbrink, 2005). Others have found
that achievement goals do not have a direct effect on academic achievement
but operate instead through the intermediary learning behaviors described
above and through self-efficacy (Hulleman et al., 2010).
Influence of Teachers on Learners’ Goals

Classrooms can be structured to make particular goals more or less salient
and can shift or reinforce learners’ goal orientations (Maehr and Midgley,
1996). Learners’ goals may reflect the classroom’s goal structure or the values
teachers communicate about learning through their teaching practices (e.g.,
how the chairs are set up or whether the teacher uses cooperative learning
groups) (see Kaplan and Midgley, 1999; Urdan et al., 1998). When learners
perceive mastery goals are valued in the classsroom, they are more likely

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How People TABLE 6-2 Achievement Goals and Classroom Climate

Learn II,
Climate Dimension Mastery Goal Performance Goal
Chapter 6
Success Defined as… Improvement, progress High grades, high normative
performance
Value Placed on… Effort/learning Normatively high ability
Reasons for Satisfaction… Working hard, challenge Doing better than others
Teacher Oriented toward… How students are learning How students are performing
View of Errors/Mistakes… Part of learning Anxiety eliciting
Focus of Attention… Process of learning Own performance relative to
others
Reasons for Effort… Learning something new High grades, performing
better than others
Evaluation Criteria… Absolute, progress Normative
SOURCE: Adapted from Ames and Archer (1988,Tbl. 1, p. 261).
to use information-processing strategies, self-planning, and self-monitoring

strategies (Ames and Archer, 1988; Schraw et al., 1995). A mastery-oriented
structure in the classroom is positively correlated with high academic com-
petency and negatively related to disruptive behaviors. Further, congruence
in learners’ perceptions of their own and their school’s mastery orientation is
associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan
and Maehr, 1999).
Teachers can influence the goals learners adopt during learning, and learn-
ers’ perceptions of classroom goal structures are better predictors of learners’
goal orientations than are their perceptions of their parents’ goals. Perceived
classroom goals are also strongly linked to learners’ academic efficacy in the
transition to middle school. Hence, classroom goal structures are a particularly
important target for intervention (Friedel et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2010). Table
6-2 summarizes a longstanding view of how the prevailing classroom goal
structure—oriented toward either mastery goals or performance goals—affects
the classroom climate for learning. However, more experimental research
is needed to determine whether interventions designed to influence such
mindsets benefit learners.
Learning Goals and Other Goals

Academic goals are shaped not only by the immediate learning context
but also by the learners’ goals and challenges, which develop and change

| TEACHING
NCEE Contexts,
throughout the life course. Enhancing a person’s learning and achievement How People
requires an understanding of what the person is trying to achieve: what goals Learn II,
the individual seeks to accomplish and why. However, it is not always easy to Chapter 6
determine what goals an individual is trying to achieve because learners have
multiple goals and their goals may shift in response to events and experiences.
For example, children may adopt an academic goal as a means of pleasing
parents or because they enjoy learning about a topic, or both. Teachers may
participate in an online statistics course in order to satisfy job requirements
for continuing education or because they view mastery of the topic as relevant
to their identity as a teacher, or both.
At any given time, an individual holds multiple goals related to achieve-
ment, belongingness, identity, autonomy, and sense of competence that are
deeply personal, cultural, and subjective. Which of these goals becomes salient
in directing behavior at what times depends on the way the individual con-
strues the situation. During adolescence, for example, social belongingness
goals may take precedence over academic achievement goals: young people
may experience greater motivation and improved learning in a group context
that fosters relationships that serve and support achievement. Over the life
span, academic achievement goals also become linked to career goals, and
these may need to be adapted over time. For example, an adolescent who
aspires to become a physician but who continually fails her basic science
courses may need to protect her sense of competence by either building new
strategies for learning science or revising her occupational goals.
A person’s motivation to persist in learning in spite of obstacles and
setbacks is facilitated when goals for learning and achievement are made
explicit, are congruent with the learners’ desired outcomes and motives, and
are supported by the learning environment, as judged by the learner; this
perspective is illustrated in Box 6-2.
Future Identities and Long-Term Persistence

Long-term learning and achievement tend to require not only the learner’s
interest, but also prolonged motivation and persistence. Motivation to perse-
vere may be strengthened when students can perceive connections between
their current action choices (present self) and their future self or possible
future identities (Gollwitzer et al., 2011; Oyserman et al., 2015). The practice
of displaying the names and accomplishments of past successful students is
one way educators try to help current students see the connection.
Researchers have explored the mechanisms through which such experi-
ences affect learning. Some neurobiological evidence, for example, suggests
that compelling narratives that trigger emotions (such as admiration elicited
by a story about a young person who becomes a civil rights leader for his
community) may activate a mindset focused on a “possible future” or values

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How People BOX 6-2Learners’ Perceptions of the Learning Environment

Learn II, Can Inadvertently Undermine Motivation
Chapter 6
Consider the following letter, written by an elementary school student:
Why does a standard chart meant to help the teachers monitor,

reward, and correct students’ behavior seem to undermine this boy’s
enthusiasm for school? The chart refers to a color-coded scheme for
monitoring behavior with three levels: green (successful), yellow (warn-
ing), and red (call parent). The teacher reported that from March through
September this student was judged consistently as green (successful)
because he worked hard and interacted appropriately with others. So,
what was the problem?
This letter suggests that although the student came to school ready to
engage with his teacher about interesting ideas and to learn new academic
skills, the teacher’s strategy for managing the class caused him to infer
that his teacher’s main goal was to control his behavior, rather than to help
him learn. This example is a reminder that sometimes the materials and
strategies that teachers intend to support learning can have the opposite
effect for some students.
SOURCE: Adapted from Immordino-Yang (2015).
(Immordino-Yang et al., 2009). Similar research also points to an apparent

shifting between two distinct neural networks that researchers have associ-
ated with an “action now” mindset (with respect to the choices and behaviors
for executing a task during learning) and a “possible future/values oriented”

| TEACHING
NCEE Contexts,
mindset (with respect to whether difficult tasks are ones that “people like How People
me” do) (Immordino-Yang et al., 2012). Students who shift between these Learn II,
two mindsets may take a reflective stance that enables them to inspire them- Chapter 6
selves and to persist and perform well on difficult tasks to attain future goals
(Immordino-Yang and Sylvan, 2010).
Practices that help learners recognize the motivational demands required
and obstacles to overcome for achieving desired future outcomes also may
support goal attainment, as suggested in one study of children’s attempts to
learn foreign-language vocabulary words (Gollwitzer et al., 2011). Research
is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to
shape learners’ thinking about future identities and persistence
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON

MOTIVATION
All learners’ goals emerge in a particular cultural context. As discussed in
Chapter 2, the way individuals perceive and interpret the world and their own
role in it, and their expectations about how people function socially, reflect
the unique set of influences they have experienced. The procedures people
use to complete tasks and solve problems, as well as the social emotional
dispositions people bring to such tasks, are similarly shaped by context and
experience (Elliott et al., 2001; Oyserman, 2011). In this section, the commit-
tee discusses three specific lines of research that illustrate the importance of
culturally mediated views of the self and social identities to learners’ percep-
tions of learning environments, goals, and performance.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Learners’ Self-Construals

Over the past several decades, researchers have attempted to discern
the influence of culture on a person’s self-construal, or definition of herself
in reference to others. In an influential paper, Markus and Kitayama (1991)
distinguished between independent and interdependent self-construals and
proposed that these may be associated with individualistic or collectivistic
goals. For example, they argued that East Asian cultures tend to emphasize
collectivistic goals, which promote a comparatively interdependent self-
construal in which the self is experienced as socially embedded and one’s
accomplishments are tied to the community. In contrast, they argued, the
prevailing North American culture tends to emphasize individualistic goals
and an individualistic self-construal that prioritizes unique traits, abilities, and
accomplishments tied to the self rather than to the community.
Although assigning cultural groups to either a collectivist or individual-
istic category oversimplifies very complex phenomena, several large-sample

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How People survey studies have offered insights about the ways learners who fit these
Learn II, two categories tend to vary in their assessment of goals, the goals they see as
Chapter 6 relevant or salient, and the ways in which their goals relate to other phenom-
ena such as school achievement (King and McInerney, 2016). For example,
in cross-cultural studies of academic goals, Dekker and Fischer (2008) found
that gaining social approval in achievement contexts was particularly impor-
tant for students who had a collectivist perspective. This cultural value may
predispose students to adopt goals that help them to avoid the appearance
of incompetence or negative judgments (i.e., performance-avoidance goals)
(Elliot, 1997, 1999; Kitayama, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit, 1997).
More recent work has also explored the relationships between such dif-
ferences and cultural context. For example, several studies have compared
students’ indications of endorsement for performance-avoidance goals and
found that Asian students endorsed these goals to a greater degree than Euro-
pean American students did (Elliot et al., 2001; Zusho and Njoku, 2007; Zusho
et al., 2005). This body of work seems to suggest that though there were
differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in
societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones.
These researchers found that performance-avoidance goals can be adaptive
and associated with such positive academic outcomes as higher levels of en-
gagement, deeper cognitive processing, and higher achievement. (See also
the work of Chan and Lai [2006] on students in Hong Kong; Hulleman et al.
[2010]; and the work of King [2015] on students in the Philippines.)
Although cultures may vary on average in their emphasis on individualism
and collectivism, learners may think in either individualistic and collectivis-
tic terms if primed to do so (Oyserman et al., 2009). For example, priming
interventions such as those that encourage participants to call up personal
memories of cross-cultural experiences (Tadmor et al., 2013) have been used
successfully to shift students from their tendency to take one cultural perspec-
tive or the other. Work on such interventions is based on the assumption
that one cultural perspective is not inherently better than the other: the most
effective approaches would depend on what the person is trying to achieve
in the moment and the context in which he is operating. Problem solving is
facilitated when the salient mindset is well matched to the task at hand, sug-
gesting that flexibility in cultural mindset also may promote flexible cognitive
functioning and adaptability to circumstances (Vezzali et al., 2016).
This perspective also suggests the potential benefits of encouraging learn-
ers to think about problems and goals from different cultural perspectives.
Some evidence suggests that these and other multicultural priming interven-
tions improve creativity and persistence because they cue individuals to
think of problems as having multiple possible solutions. For instance, priming
learners to adopt a multicultural mindset may support more-divergent think-
ing about multiple possible goals related to achievement, family, identity, and

| TEACHING
NCEE Contexts,
friendships and more flexible action plans for achieving those goals. Teachers How People
may be able to structure learning opportunities that incorporate diverse per- Learn II,
spectives related to cultural self-construals in order to engage students more Chapter 6
effectively (Morris et al., 2015).
However, a consideration for both research and practice moving forward
is that there may be much more variation within cultural models of the self
than has been assumed. In a large study of students across several nations that
examined seven different dimensions related to self-construal (Vignoles et al.,
2016), researchers found neither a consistent contrast between Western and
non-Western cultures nor one between collectivistic and individualistic cul-
tures. To better explain cultural variation, the authors suggested an ecocultural
perspective that takes into account racial/ethnic identity.
Social Identity and Motivation Processes

Identity is a person’s sense of who she is. It is the lens through which an
individual makes sense of experiences and positions herself in the social world.
Identity has both personal and social dimensions that play an important role
in shaping an individual’s goals and motivation. The personal dimensions of
identity tend to be traits (e.g., being athletic or smart) and values (e.g., being
strongly committed to a set of religious or political beliefs). Social dimensions
of identity are linked to social roles or characteristics that make one recogniz-
able as a member of a group, such as being a woman or a Christian (Tajfel
and Turner, 1979). They can operate separately (e.g., “an African American”)
or in combination (“an African American male student”) (Oyserman, 2009).
Individuals tend to engage in activities that connect them to their social
identities because doing so can support their sense of belonging and esteem
and help them integrate into a social group. This integration often means tak-
ing on the particular knowledge, goals, and practices valued by that group
(Nasir, 2002). The dimensions of identity are dynamic, malleable, and very
sensitive to the situations in which people find themselves (Oyserman, 2009;
Steele, 1997). This means the identity a person takes on at any moment is
contingent on the circumstances
A number of studies indicate that a positive identification with one’s ra-
cial or ethnic identity supports a sense of school belonging, as well as greater
interest, engagement, and success in academic pursuits. For example, African
American adolescents with positive attitudes toward their racial/ethnic group
express higher efficacy beliefs and report more interest and engagement in
school (Chavous et al., 2003). The value of culturally connected racial/ethnic
identity is also evident for Mexican and Chinese adolescents (Fuligni et al.,
2005). In middle school, this culturally connected identity is linked to higher
grade-point averages among African American (Altschul et al., 2006; Eccles et
al., 2006), Latino (Oyserman, 2009), and Native American students in North

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How People BOX 6-3 Basketball, Mathematics, and Identity

Learn II,
Chapter 6 In a study by Nasir and McKinney de Royston (2013), students were
asked to solve problems involving averages and percentages in the context
of either basketball or classroom math. When speaking about basketball,
players spoke like experts—they “were confident; they sat up straight
and answered in relaxed, even vocal tones. . . .” In stark contrast, when
asked to solve the problems in classroom math terms, “players were
visibly distressed. They shrunk down in their seats; they hemmed and
hawed; they told the researcher how poor they were at mathematics”
(Nasir and McKinney de Royston, 2013, p. 275). One explanation for these
findings is that a sense of competence emerges from identity: as players,
students felt competent to calculate scoring averages and percentages,
but because they did not identify as math students, they felt ill-equipped
to solve the same problems in the classroom context.
America (Fryberg et al., 2013). The research described in Box 6-3 illustrates
the potential and powerful influence of social identity on learners’ engage-
ment with a task.
Stereotype Threat
The experience of being evaluated in academic settings can heighten self-
awareness, including awareness of the stereotypes linked to the social group
to which one belongs and that are associated with one’s ability (Steele, 1997).
The effects of social identity on motivation and performance may be positive, as
illustrated in the previous section, but negative stereotypes can lead people to
underperform on cognitive tasks (see Steele et al., 2002; Walton and Spencer,
2009). This phenomenon is known as stereotype threat, an unconscious worry
that a stereotype about one’s social group could be applied to oneself or that
one might do something to confirm the stereotype (Steele, 1997). Steele has
noted that stereotype threat is most likely in areas of performance in which
individuals are particularly motivated.
In a prototypical experiment to test stereotype threat, a difficult achieve-
ment test is given to individuals who belong to a group for whom a negative
stereotype about ability in that achievement domain exists. For example,
women are given a test in math. The test is portrayed as either gender-neutral

| TEACHING
NCEE Contexts,
(women and men do equally well on it) or—in the threat condition—as one How People
at which women do less well. In the threat condition, members of the ste- Learn II,
reotyped group perform at lower levels than they do in the gender-neutral Chapter 6
condition. In the case of women and math, for instance, women perform more
poorly on the math test than would be expected given their actual ability (as
demonstrated in other contexts) (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Several studies
have replicated this finding (Beilock et al., 2008; Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2006;
Good et al., 2008; Spencer et al., 1999), and the finding is considered to be
robust, especially on high-stakes tests such as the SAT (Danaher and Crandall,
2008) and GRE.
The effects of negative stereotypes about African American and Latino
students are among the most studied in this literature because these stereotypes
have been persistent in the United States (Oyserman et al., 1995). Sensitivity to
these learning-related stereotypes appears as early as second grade (Cvencek et
al., 2011) and grows as children enter adolescence (McKown and Strambler,
2009). Among college-age African Americans, underperformance occurs in
contexts in which students believe they are being academically evaluated
(Steele and Aronson, 1995). African American school-age children perform
worse on achievement tests when they are reminded of stereotypes associated
with their social group (Schmader et al., 2008; Wasserberg, 2014). Similar
negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson
and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003).
Stereotype threat is believed to undermine performance by lowering
executive functioning and heightening anxiety and worry about what others
will think if the individual fails, which robs the person of working memory
resources. Thus, the negative effects of stereotype threat may not be as ap-
parent on easy tasks but arise in the context of difficult and challenging tasks
that require mental effort (Beilock et al., 2007).
Neurophysiological evidence supports this understanding of the mecha-
nisms underlying stereotype threat. Under threatening conditions, individuals
show lower levels of activation in the brain’s prefrontal cortex, reflecting
impaired executive functioning and working memory (Beilock et al., 2007;
Cadinu et al., 2005; Johns et al., 2008; Lyons and Beilock, 2012; Schmader
and Jones, 2003) and higher levels of activation in fear circuits, including, for
example, in the amygdala (Spencer et al., 1999; Steele and Aronson, 1995).
In the short term, stereotype threat can result in upset, distraction,
anxiety, and other conditions that interfere with learning and performance
(Pennington et al., 2016). Stereotype threat also may have long-term deleteri-
ous effects because it can lead people to conclude that they are not likely to
be successful in a domain of performance (Aronson, 2004; Steele, 1997). It
has been suggested that the longer-term effects of stereotype threat may be
one cause of longstanding achievement gaps (Walton and Spencer, 2009). For
example, women for whom the poor-at-math stereotype was primed reported

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How People 1.00

Learn II, Stereotyped Students, Safe Conditions
Chapter 6 0.75
Nonstereotyped Students, Safe Conditions
Intellectual Test Performance
(standard deviation units)
0.50 Stereotyped Students, Threat Conditions
0.25
0.00
–0.25
–0.50
–0.75
–1.00
Low Level of Prior Medium Level of Prior High Level of Prior
Performance (–1 SD) Performance Performance (+1 SD)
FIGURE 6-1 Effect of supportive, safe conditions in reducing stereotype threat.

NOTE: SD refers to standard deviation.
SOURCE: Walton and Spencer (2009, Fig.1).
more negative thoughts about math (Cadinu et al., 2005). Such threats can be
subtly induced. In one classroom study, cues in the form of gendered objects
in the room led high school girls to report less interest in taking computer
science courses (Master et al., 2015).
Students can maintain positive academic self-concepts in spite of nega-
tive stereotypes when supported in doing so (Anderman and Maehr, 1994;
Graham, 1994; Yeager and Walton, 2011). For example, a study by Walton
and Spencer (2009) illustrates that under conditions that reduce psychological
threat, students for whom a stereotype about their social group exists perform
better than nonstereotyped students at the same level of past performance
(see Figure 6-1).
These findings highlight an important feature of stereotype threat: it is
not a characteristic solely of a person or of a context but rather a condition
that results from an interaction between the two. To be negatively affected, a
person must be exposed to and perceive a potential cue in the environment
and be aware of a stereotype about the social group with which he identifies
(Aronson et al., 1999). For example, in a study of African American children
in an urban elementary school, introduction of a reading test as an index of
ability hampered performance only among students who reported being aware
of racial stereotypes about intelligence (Walton and Spencer, 2009).
It also appears that the learner must tie her identity to the domain of skills

| TEACHING
NCEE Contexts,
being tested. For example, students who have a strong academic identity How People
and value academic achievement highly are more vulnerable to academic Learn II,
stereotype threat than are other students (Aronson et al., 1999; Keller, 2007; Chapter 6
Lawrence et al., 2010; Leyens et al., 2000; Steele, 1997).
Researchers have identified several actions educators can take that may
help to manage stereotype threat. One is to remove the social identity char-
acteristic (e.g., race or gender) as an evaluating factor, thereby reducing the
possibility of confirming a stereotype (Steele, 1997). This requires bolstering or
repositioning dimensions of social identity. Interventions of this sort are likely
to work not because they reduce the perception of, or eliminate, stereotype
threat, but because they change students responses to the threatening situa-
tion (Aronson et al., 2001; Good et al., 2003). For example, learners can be
repositioned as the bearers of knowledge or expertise, which can facilitate
identity shifts that enable learners to open up to opportunities for learning
(Lee, 2012). In research that confronted women with negative gender-based
stereotypes about their performance in mathematics but prompted them to
think of other aspects of their identity, the women performed on par with men
and appeared to be buffered against the deleterious effects of gender-based
stereotypes. Women who did not receive the encouragement performed worse
than their male counterparts (Gresky et al., 2005). Such findings suggest that
having opportunities to be reminded of the full range of dimensions of one’s
identity may promote resilience against stereotype threats. Notably, interven-
tions that have addressed stereotype threat tend to target and support identity
rather than self-esteem. However, clear feedback that sets high expectations
and assures a student that he can reach those expectations are also important
(Cohen and Steele, 2002; Cohen et al., 1999).
Values-affirmation interventions are designed to reduce self-handicapping
behavior and increase motivation to perform. Enabling threatened individuals
to affirm their talents in other domains through self-affirmations has in some
situations strengthened students’ sense of self (McQueen and Klein, 2006).
Values-affirmation exercises in which students write about their personal val-
ues (e.g., art, sports, music) have bolstered personal identity, reduced threat,
and improved academic performance among students experiencing threat
(Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Martens et al., 2006). In randomized field experi-
ments, self-affirmation tasks were associated with better grades for middle
school students (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009)4 and college students (Miyake et al.,
2010). However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee,
2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom
and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective.
Although research suggests steps that educators can take that may help to
4 The 2006 study included 119 African American and 119 European American students; the
2009 study was a 2-year follow-up with the same sample.

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
How People eliminate stereotype threat, much of this research has been in highly controlled
Learn II, settings. The full range of factors that may be operating and interacting with
Chapter 6 one another has yet to be fully examined in real-world environments. However,
educators can take into account the influences that research has identified
as potentially causing, exacerbating, or ameliorating the effects of stereotype
threat on their own students’ motivation, learning, and performance.
INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE MOTIVATION

Many students experience a decline in motivation from the primary
grades through high school (Gallup, Inc., 2014; Jacobs et al., 2002; Lepper et
al., 2005). Researchers are beginning to develop interventions motivated by
theories of motivation to improve student motivation and learning.
Some interventions focus on the psychological mechanisms that affect
students’ construal of the learning environment and the goals they develop
to adapt to that environment. For example, a brief intervention was designed
to enhance student motivation by helping learners to overcome the negative
impact of stereotype threat on social belongingness and sense of self (Yeager
et al., 2016). In a randomized controlled study, African American and European
American college students were asked to write a speech that attributed adver-
sity in learning to a common aspect of the college-adjustment process rather
than to personal deficits or their ethnic group (Walton and Cohen, 2011). After
3 years, African American students who had participated in the intervention
reported less uncertainty about belonging and showed greater improvement
in their grade point averages compared to the European American students.
One group of interventions to address performance setbacks has focused
on exercises to help students shift from a fixed view of intelligence to a growth
theory of intelligence. For example, in 1-year-long study, middle school stu-
dents attended an eight-session workshop in which they either learned about
study skills alone (control condition) or both study skills and research on how
the brain improves and grows by working on challenging tasks (the growth
mindset condition). At the end of the year, students in the growth mindset
condition had significantly improved their math grades compared to students
who only learned about study skills. However, the effect size was small and
limited to a small subset of underachieving students (Blackwell et al., 2007).
The subjective and personal nature of the learner’s experiences and the
dynamic nature of the learning environment require that motivational inter-
ventions be flexible enough to take account of changes in the individual and
in the learning environment. Over the past decade, a number of studies have
suggested that interventions that enhance both short- and long-term motivation
and achievement using brief interventions or exercises can be effective (e.g.,
Yeager and Walton, 2011). The interventions that have shown sustained effects
on aspects of motivation and learning are based on relatively brief activities

| TEACHING
NCEE Contexts,
and exercises that directly target how students interpret their experiences, How People
particularly their challenges in school and during learning. Learn II,
The effectiveness of brief interventions appears to stem from their impact Chapter 6
on the individual’s construal of the situation and the motivational processes
they set in motion, which in turn support longer-term achievement. Brief in-
terventions to enhance motivation and achievement appear to share several
important characteristics. First, the interventions directly target the psychologi-
cal mechanisms that affect student motivation rather than academic content.
Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into
account the student’s subjective experience in and out of school. Third, the
brief interventions are designed to indirectly affect how students think or feel
about school or about themselves in school through experience, rather than
attempting to persuade them to change their thinking, which is likely to be
interpreted as controlling. Fourth, these brief interventions focus on reducing
barriers to student motivation rather than directly increasing student motiva-
tion. Such interventions appear particularly promising for African American
students and other cultural groups who are subjected to negative stereotypes
about learning and ability. However, as Yeager and Walton (2011) note, the
effectiveness of these interventions appears to depend on both context and
implementation.
Studies such as these are grounded in different theories of motivation re-
lated to the learners’ cognition, affect, or behavior and are intended to affect
different aspects of motivation. Lazowski and Hulleman (2016) conducted
a meta-analysis of research on such interventions to identify their effects
on outcomes in education settings. The studies included using measures of
authentic education outcomes (e.g., standardized test scores, persistence at
a task, course choices, or engagement) and showed consistent, small effects
across intervention type.
However, this meta-analysis was small: only 74 published and unpublished
papers met criteria for inclusion, and the included studies involved a wide
range of theoretical perspectives, learner populations, types of interventions,
and measured outcomes. These results are not a sufficient basis for conclusions
about practice, but further research may help identify which interventions
work best for whom and under which conditions, as well as factors that af-
fect implementation (such as dosage, frequency, and timing). Improvements
in the ability to clearly define, distinguish among, and measure motivational
constructs could improve the validity and usefulness of intervention research.
CONCLUSIONS
When learners want and expect to succeed, they are more likely to value
learning, persist at challenging tasks, and perform well. A broad constellation
of factors and circumstances may either trigger or undermine students’ desire

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
How People to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the mo-
Learn II, ment or over time. These factors include learners’ beliefs and values, personal
Chapter 6 goals, and social and cultural context. Advances since the publication of HPL I
provide robust evidence for the importance of both an individual’s goals in
motivation related to learning and the active role of the learner in shaping
these goals, based on how that learner conceives the learning context and
the experiences that occur during learning. There is also strong evidence for
the view that engagement and intrinsic motivation develop and change over
time—these are not properties of the individual or the environment alone.
While empirical and theoretical work in this area continues to develop,
recent research does strongly support the following conclusion:
CONCLUSION 6-1: Motivation to learn is influenced by the

multiple goals that individuals construct for themselves as a
result of their life and school experiences and the sociocultural
context in which learning takes place. Motivation to learn is
fostered for learners of all ages when they perceive the school
or learning environment is a place where they “belong” and
when the environment promotes their sense of agency and
purpose.
More research is needed on instructional methods and how the structure

of formal schooling can influence motivational processes. What is already
known does support the following general guidance for educators:
CONCLUSION 6-2: Educators may support learners’ motiva-

tion by attending to their engagement, persistence, and per-
formance by:
• h elping them to set desired learning goals and appropri-

ately challenging goals for performance;
• creating learning experiences that they value;
• supporting their sense of control and autonomy;
• developing their sense of competency by helping them
to recognize, monitor, and strategize about their learning
progress; and
• creating an emotionally supportive and nonthreaten-
ing learning environment where learners feel safe and
valued.

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NCEE | TEACHING FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING

How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures

Motivation is a condition that activates and sustains behavior toward a goal.

• P eople are motivated to develop competence and solve problems by

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

How People Learn II, Chapter 6 1

110 How PeoPle learn II

In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on re-

2 NCEE | Teaching for Effective Learning—Reading

Motivation to Learn 111

How People Motivation is also increasingly viewed as an emergent phenomenon,

LEARNERS’ BELIEFS AND VALUES

How People Learn II, Chapter 6 3

112 How PeoPle learn II

4 NCEE | Teaching for Effective Learning—Reading

Motivation to Learn 113

How People Values

How People Learn II, Chapter 6 5

114 How PeoPle learn II

6 NCEE | Teaching for Effective Learning—Reading

Motivation to Learn 115

How People Learn II, Chapter 6 7

116 How PeoPle learn II

BOX 6-1 What You Praise Makes a Difference

Praise received after success influences students’ later achievement

8 NCEE | Teaching for Effective Learning—Reading

Motivation to Learn 117

How People of different performance-based incentives in classrooms (e.g., grades, prizes),

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOALS

How People Learn II, Chapter 6 9

118 How PeoPle learn II

10 NCEE | Teaching for Effective Learning—Reading

Motivation to Learn 119

Quits in response to failure— Tries harder in response to failure—puts

Pursues opportunities to bolter self- Pursues opportunities to learn more—

How People Learn II, Chapter 6 11

120 How PeoPle learn II

Influence of Teachers on Learners’ Goals

12 NCEE | Teaching for Effective Learning—Reading

Motivation to Learn 121

How People TABLE 6-2 Achievement Goals and Classroom Climate

to use information-processing strategies, self-planning, and self-monitoring

Learning Goals and Other Goals

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Future Identities and Long-Term Persistence

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How People BOX 6-2Learners’ Perceptions of the Learning Environment

Why does a standard chart meant to help the teachers monitor,

SOURCE: Adapted from Immordino-Yang (2015).

(Immordino-Yang et al., 2009). Similar research also points to an apparent

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124 How PeoPle learn II

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON

Cross-Cultural Differences in Learners’ Self-Construals

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