IMPACT OF URBAN EXPANSION ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF THE PERIPHERAL

COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY FROM HOLETA TOWN, OROMIA, ETHIOPIA

M.A. THESIS

ASMERA BEKELE INKI

AUGUST, 2018

ARBAMINCH, ETHIOPIA
IMPACT OF URBAN EXPANSION ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF THE PERIPHERAL
COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY FROM HOLETA TOWN, OROMIA, ETHIOPIA

ASMERA BEKELE INKI

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES,

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE
STUDIES,
ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ART IN GEOGRAPHY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

AUGUST, 2018

ARBA MINCH
Declaration

I hereby declare that this M.A thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a
degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been
duly acknowledged.

Name: ASMERA BEKELE INKI

Signature: ______________

Date: August 28, 2010 E.C/ 2018/

 SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY
ADVISORS‟ THESIS SUBMISSION APPROVAL SHEET

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Impact of Urban Expansion on the Livelihoods
of the Peripheral Community: A Case Study from Holeta Town, Oromia, Ethiopia.”
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Art in
Geography and Environmental Studies, School of Social Science and Humanities has
been carried out by Asmera Bekele Inki ID No: SMA 006/06 under our supervision.
Therefore, we recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence
hereby can submit the thesis to the department for defense.

Dr. Teshome Yirgu (Associate Proffessor) _____________________

Name of Principal advisor Signature Date

M.r Dereje Elias (PhD candidate) ______________________

Name of co-advisor Signature Date
EXAMINERS’ APPROVAL PAGE

We the examiners‟ board approve that this thesis has passed through the defense and review
process.

Chairperson Signature Date

External Examiner Signature Date

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Principal advisor Signature Date

(DGC/SGC) Signature Date

______
Acknowledgement

Of all people‟s consultation, “ALL THINGS ARE DONE AS GOD‟S PERMISSION”.

First of all others, I would like to express my thanks to my advisor, Dr. Teshome Yirgu,
who had made his endless professional advices and critical comments, without which my
study would have not reached to this stage of completion. Further, I want to extend my
thanks to my co-advisors, PhD candidate, Mr. Dereje Elias. He all contributed much of
his invaluable advices and comments to my study from the step of beginning up to the
accomplishment of this M.A. Thesis work.

I, moreover, have unlimited thank and respect to Roma Bekele, my lovely wife. She was
exceptional catalyst and condition facilitator to work on the whole process of my research
works.

And also I want to extend my unforgettable professional friend; Getu Kelbessa for his
cooperation of data collection up to manipulation by going far to field.

My family, particularly Jaarraa and Walabummaa, my intimate and sons, I am very much
grateful to your ever supports to all my educational works.

Furthermore, I‟m very much appreciative to Sime Gudeta, Teni Besir, Daniel Gudina,
Leta Jima and other unlisted familiar friends, for their moral supports and
encouragements offered to my research works and for all the humorous events we had
together.

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Acronyms

AACA Finfine City Administration

UN United Nation

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

HIV Human Immune Virus

USAID United States Agency of International Development

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DFID Department for international development livelihood

UNDP United Nation Development Program

NUP National Urban Policy

GDP Gross Domestic Product

PASDEP Program of Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty

ULGDP Urban Local Government Development Project

USD United State Dollar

masl meter above sea level

FGD Focus Group Discussion

SPSS Statistical Package of Social Science

SL Sustainable Livelihood

ha Hectare

HHs Households

DB Development Bank of Ethiopia

CBO Cooperative Bank of Oromia

CBE Commercial Bank of Ethiopia

OIB Oromia International Bank

HTAP Holeta Town Administration Profile

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents Page

Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................ i
Acronyms .............................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... v
Figures ............... v
LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................vii
Figures ........vii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................. 1
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Background of the Study .......................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objective of the Study .............................................................................................. 4
1.4. Research Questions ................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 5
1.6. Delimitation of the Study .......................................................................................... 5
1.7. Limitations of the Study............................................................................................ 6
1.8. Organization of the Thesis ........................................................................................ 7
1.9. Operational Definition .............................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................. 8
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................................... 8
2.1. Concepts of Urbanization ......................................................................................... 8
2.2. Urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa ......................................................................... 8
2.3. Urbanization in the Ethiopian Context ................................................................... 10
2.4. Theories of Urban Expansion ................................................................................. 11
2.4.1. Causes of Urban Expansion ............................................................................. 13
2.4.2. Characteristics of urban periphery ................................................................... 14
2.5. Livelihood Framework............................................................................................ 16
2.6. Urban Expansion and Livelihood Strategies in Per-urban Areas of Ethiopia......... 19
2.7. Effects of Urban Expansion on Per-urban Community .......................................... 19
2.8. Policy and Issues Regarding to Urbanization ......................................................... 23
2.9. Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 26
3. THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 26
3.1. Description of the Study Area ................................................................................. 26
3.1.1. Bio-physical Condition .................................................................................... 26
3.1.2. Socio-economic and Demographic condition.................................................. 28
3.2. Research Design...................................................................................................... 30
3.2.1. Research approach ........................................................................................... 30

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 3.2.2. Source of data .................................................................................................. 30
3.2.3. Sampling techniques and sample size determination ...................................... 30
3.2.4. Data collection tools ........................................................................................ 32
3.2.5. Data analysis techniques .................................................................................. 33
3.2.6. Ethical consideration ....................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................. 36
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................. 36
4.1. General Background of Respondents...................................................................... 36
4.2. Status of Urban Development in Study Area .......................................................... 39
4.3. Spatial and Temporal Land Use Land Cover Change of Study Area ..................... 47
4.4. Livelihood Change of Peripheral Households in the Study Area ........................... 55
4.4.1. Livelihood condition of community before urban expansion ......................... 56
4.4.2. Livelihood condition of households related to urban expansion ..................... 58
4.4.3. Impact of urban expansion on the peripheral communities‟ assets ................. 63
4.5. Policy and Strategy Related Constraints of Urban Expansion ................................ 73
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 82
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................................... 82
5.2. Recommendation .................................................................................................... 84
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 86
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 90

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 LIST OF TABLES

Figures Page

Table 3.1: Distribution of sampled household heads in sample kebeles ...................... 32

Table 4.1: Sex of the respondents ................................................................................ 36

Table 4.2: Respondent‟s family size ............................................................................ 38

Table 4.3: Causes for rapid urban expansion in study area ......................................... 40

Table 4.4: Population Size of Holeta town from 1999 – 2009 E.C.............................. 41

Table 4.5: Group of population accelerated rapid growth of population size .............. 42

Table 4.6: Description of major land use land covers .................................................. 47

Table 4.7: Land use land cover change in study area from 1997-2007 ....................... 51

Table 4.8: Land use land cover change in study area from 2007-2017 ....................... 52

Table 4.9: Land use land cover change in study area from 1997-2017 ....................... 53

Table 4.10: Error matrix for classification validity by land sat 8 of 2017 ..................... 55

Table 4.11: HHs engaged in agricultural incomes before expansion ............................ 57

Table 4.12: HHs engaged in Non-agricultural income sources before expansion ......... 58

Table 4.13: Household‟s satisfaction to livelihood before urban expansion ................. 58

Table 4.14: Household‟s source of income after urban expansion ................................ 60

Table 4.15: Determinants of livelihood strategy change due to expansion ................... 62

Table 4.16: Household‟s reaction to newly adopted livelihood condition .................... 63

Table 4.17: Paired samples test of natural capitals ........................................................ 66

Table 4.18: paired t-test table of house rooms/ classes of community .......................... 68

Table 4.19: Oxen respondent‟s had before and after urban expansion .......................... 68

Table 4.20: Cows respondents had before and after urban expansion .......................... 69

Table 4.21: Sheep respondents had befre and after urban expansion ........................... 70

Table 4.22: Poultry respondents had before and after urban expansion ........................ 70

Table 4.23: Paired sample test of domestic animals ............... 71

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Table 4.24: Paired t-test of social capitals before and after urban expansion ............... 73

Table 4.25: Percentage of HHs expropriated from their farmland ................................ 74

Table 4.26: Percentage of HHs notified for expropriation ........................................... 75

Table 4.27: Reaction of landholder‟s towards to compensation payment .................... 79

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Page

Figure 2.1: Sustainable livelihood frame work ................................................................. 17

Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of urban expansion .......................................................... 25

Figure 3.1: Map of Holeta town ........................................................................................ 27

Figure 3.2: Flow chart of Gis - Remote sensing data analysis.......................................... 34

Figure 4.1: Age of the respondents .................................................................................. 37

Figure 4.2: Educational background of respondents........................................................ 37

Figure 4.3: Land sat Image ETM+ of 1997 showing LULC of the tudy area ................. 48

Figure 4.4: Land sat Image ETM+ of 2007 Showing LULC of the study area ............... 49

Figure 4.5: Land sat image 8 of 2017 showing LULC of the study area ......................... 50

Figure 4.6: Change detection map from 1997 to 2017 in study area ............................... 54

Figure 4.7: Economic sector of households before urban expansion .............................. 56

Figure 4.8: HHs owned farm land area before and after expansion ................................ 64

Figure 4.9: HHs owned forest /planted area before and after expansion ......................... 65

Figure 4.10: Household‟s house rooms possession before and after expansion ................ 67

Figure 4.11: Household‟s reaction to social relation before and after expansion ............. 72

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 Abstract
Holeta town’s expansion program which had been experiencing a horizontal expansion
starting from its historical expansion pattern currently implemented via expropriating
peripheral land holders of earlier rural dwellers by solely decision of town
administration and the investigation randomly targeted to per-urban areas like; Galgal
Kuyu, Tullu Harbu and Burka Welmera from five peripheral kebeles surrounding of
town. Rapid expansion of the town and in proportional expansion of town with community
livelihood is a serious issue for conducting research. Thus the study investigated the
impact of urban expansion on the peripheral community livelihood in case of Holeta
town. Questionnaire, survey, focus group discussion and key informants interviews were
tools of data collection from 313 sampled households living in sampled kebeles via
systematic random sampling technique and judgmental technique for FGD and interview.
The results of the study indicated that there is infrastructural improvement, socio
economic growth, rapid population growth and also socio-economic problems related to
urban expansion in studied area. There is great spatial and temporal land use land cover
modification more towards to build up land uses. The livelihood condition of per-urban
community changed to non-agricultural form but there are policy and strategy gaps of
expropriating, compensating for affected community in ground implementation. The
dislocation program implemented is not rehabilitative and negatively affected the
livelihood of the dislocated farming community. Furthermore, the study revealed that
children losses right of family inheritance in town administration. Landholder
expropriated should be recompensed for equal socio-economic beneficially from
urbanization and further skill oriented training for new livelihood strategy and also
accessing credit and rehabilitating strategy were recommended for affected community
livelihood.

Key Terms: Compensation, Expropriation, Livelihood, Peripheral Community,

Urban Expansion

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ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

The process of urban expansion is global or international phenomenon, which evented in the
history of urban centers. It begins in earlier time of human civilization of Babylonians
(Cermea, 1997). Urbanization is the process of urban spatial flattening or growth; this
involves horizontal and vertical expansion of areal structure of urban settlements. It results
with removal of farmland, natural attractiveness rangelands and vourishable life and sceneries
(Minwuyelet, 2004).

Starting from 20th century during the time of most African political independence form
colonialism and free from hindrance not to migrate, finding of work at different and more
opportunity contributed for alarmed urbanization in Africa (Raphael, 2013). As Kitangahi
(2011) pointed urban population in continent estimated to more than 3 times in coming 40
years. Comparative to rest of countries in world, that of Africa‟s urbanization different in
character that shows fast and leading to challenges of governing situation, basic development,
land governance and little industrial growth. Even though not only these, the main cause of
urban expansion is over crowdedness of population. The number of population increase in
Africa is too high but rate of urban growth rate is greater than that of population growth rate
at national level in most of continental countries.

Berhanu (2005) also argues that, from other common factor of urban expansion high
population density on limited settlement forced as African cities to be spatially flattening to
the closer farm community. Fast population increase means great number of people settled in
urban areas. Contiguous community urbanization included settlement shifting from rural to
urban peripheral where population unpleasant crowded and few of them engaged in
agriculture. As result of these, rural part of cities and towns progressively start to change into
per urban character and land use of former changes from commonly agriculture to other non-
agricultural activities, which are multi economic activities as soon as landscape loosened to
urbanity (Kessides, 2006).

Urbanization in Ethiopia also exposed to a number of challenges because of that, unplanned

settlement, and population pressure and slums seen in most cities and towns of Ethiopia. For
example Finfine is one of which face such situation that caused from historical background of
city's settlement first existence with ineffective urban planning due to the problem of lack of
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legal land affordability to individual people, city faced with a problem of housing in Finfine
during Derg regime. For the seek to answer housing needs, Derg government decided and
implemented that, the edge of city's land occupied by farmers to be translated to new
settlement construction by government (AACA, 2000:10-12). The most alarmed growth rate
and population trend of Finfine at world level is accommodated by changing of agricultural
land and forest covered land to urban land use. This has negative effects on livelihood and
socio economic situation of community formerly settled there (Tamirat, 2016).

Holeta town located at western part of Finfine at closer distance. This town is one of the
towns which were on the stage of expanding rapidly by immigrant labor population those
need alternative job opportunity from Finfine and the town itself. This issue might leads to
great housing needs that further expropriated farmers around their own farmland and affected
community‟s livelihood in general and their sources of livelihood strategy socially,
economically and also environmentally. So, the study carried out able to analyzed the impact
of Holeta town expansion to the peripheral community living at boundary areas of center by
native ways of life

1.2. Statement of the Problem

According to Firew (2010), urban expansion and urban growth is cyclic phenomenon that
leads to dislocating rural agricultural community. Even well planned resettlement of
community has adverse effects on the livelihood of community during and after community
displaced affected. This shows as displacement should detail identified and recognized to
evolution in order to sustain and well advance urban development. Compared to developed
world, displacing community characterized with urban expansion more visible in developing
countries.

High concentration of majority people to per- urban areas is the reason for such urban
expansion in developing countries more towards community engaged via agriculture with
fragmented land holding due to urban expansion. Thus, urban expansion inseparably results
with displacing peripheral community through small land size compensation. In Ethiopian
context, land ownership is on the hand of public and government, and governmental
willingness as well as interest for commitment on program enforcement there affects the
amount of compensation to dislocating farm community Since compensation to community is
not enough, it insecure areas resident.

2
For instance, research conducted in sub-city of Hawasa shows that per- urban community
adversely affected by horizontal expansion of city and negatively falls in problem of less
compensation to their land. Therefore, urban settlement to edge able to change way of life,
production and social structure though firms become profitable at expense of farmers. These
shows as urban expansion can change livelihood of per -urban community after displacement.

Nevertheless, proclamation No 455(2005) on land expropriation and compensation to its

effects give mechanism through which private holding to be expropriated and how to
compensation to be administered at federal level. On the contrary, there are no directives as
well as legal implement to these case and these caused negative effects to peripheral
community with high superior decision of Hawasa city municipality (Firew, 2010).

According to UN (2007), the strategic planning is a decisive tool to keep quite adverse effect
of urban expansion. These strategies contributed to accommodate urban development with
management that can provide feedback for affected groups of per urban livelihood. These
strategies targeted to the following planning like: Cross sector coordination and integration,
comprehending advantages of public and private in urban development and management,
bargain based resolution of interest conflict among stakeholders and regular monitoring and
evaluation of urban development impact to each of community members affected by changes
related to urban development program.

Holeta town is well as location of federal research institutes and military academy and where
agro-industries and else located due to suitability and infrastructural facility of urbanization.
As soon as other town‟s character, the town had been revealing fast and alarmed rate of
population growth by the contribution of natural increase and human made factors. This
shows that there are natural and infrastructural nature of town for rapid population growth
and urbanity by high rural to urban and urban to urban migrants to case study. This indicated
that there are a number of man-made factors meaning that conditions aggravated urban
growth and overcrowded population size.

In case of our country context, a number of researches have been conducted in cities and
towns entitled of impacts of urban expansion on sub-urban community livelihoods. For
instance, Firew (2010) conducted a research which assessed the horizontal urban expansion
and peripheral community livelihoods with great attention of examining impacts of
urbanization well.

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Additionally, Feyera (2005) also conducted on related issues around Finfine sub city. But, the
above mentioned researchers and other authors surveyed on related issue hadn‟t primarily
justified status of urbanization, an extent to which expansion is happening by estimating
spatial and temporal changes using land sat images and others of different years. And also no
further assessment of livelihoods changes at time of investigation towards to peripheral
community is done in their study. Besides to this, even if problem in such towns of Ethiopia
researched and issue explored as described above, the feedback of research in such case could
not be a summary impact of urbanization to all national towns‟ peripheral community life.
Generally, there was research gaps but aimed to conduct and improved in this finding
compared to those described above.

On other hand, the study as its specific objective examined peripheral community‟s
livelihood change due to urban expansion, status of town growth, spatial-temporal land use
and cover change in study area. So, gap criticized on previous finding as well as requirement
of deep justification on the related issues at different time and place initiated researcher and
well investigated the impact of urban expansion on the peripheral community livelihoods.

1.3. Objective of the Study

1.3.1. General objective

The main objective of the study was to assess the impact of urbanization on the livelihood of
peripheral community in Holeta town.

1.3.2. Specific objective

The specific objectives were:

1. To examine the current status of urbanization in the study area,

2. To evaluate the spatial and temporal land use land cover change in the study area
3. To examine livelihood change of peripheral households related to urban expansion
4. To assess policy and strategy related constraints to urban expansion

1.4. Research Questions

Regarding to targeted research title, the last report of thesis expected to give an answers to
the following questions. The questions the study responded at later were;

1. To what extent of urbanization study area currently existing?

2. Is there any change of spatial and temporal land use land cover of the town?
3. How was a livelihoods condition of community‟s early and then after expansion?

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 4. Is there any change of livelihood on peripheral households after urban expansion?
5. How was the policy and strategy of urban expansion? Are there any constraints of
policy and strategy implementation in case study?

1.5. Significance of the Study

Developing countries like Ethiopia known by high rate of urbanization and recently high
urbanization. Urbanization, which highly contributed by high rural to urban migration but
less number of employment, leads most of cities with many socio-economic problems. These
caused more emphasis of scholars, researchers and other shareholders.

Holeta is woreda town, which found along the Finfine to Naqamte road way. However, in
certain consecutive years, it is one of towns expanding to edge of urban settlement and no
more study has carried out there. For instance, there is a little study done concerned to impact
assessment of urban expansion on community living condition. But, this study can narrow the
knowledge gap through identifying positive as well as negative consequence and recommend
possible solution for affected groups. Particularly, completion of this research can; develop
knowledge regarding to urban expansion character that leads to certain changes to livelihood
of community at the edge of urban.

Furthermore, finding of the study examined about state of urban development, spatial and
temporal land use cover, strategy constraints, effects as well as recommended solutions for
problems during expansion uses urban planner, private sector, urban administrator and else to
take meaningful action for change. The research result can also influence certainly legal form
but informal urban housing via providing assessed research result from community of sub-
urban areas which means their perception and livelihood implication on them. As a whole,
the used to develop knowledge on an implication of urban expansion towards peripheral
community and can be the primary document for urban municipality in case study.

1.6. Delimitation of the Study

Research has its own area and content scope in which it justify researchable issues. This
research also has a geographic and content boundary. Area of the study is in Holeta town
located in special zone of Oromia surrounding Finfine. The study area delimited to this since
town is characterized by rapid population growth and expansion because it is closer to Finfine
with hope of job opportunity. This shows that research concerned only rural kebeles of
town‟s administration to where town is expanding.

5
Besides to this, the group of community those included in the study was peripheral
community those their ways of life is land holding based but recently expropriating and
displaced. Even though legally implemented urban expanding strategy ideally sum up
altogether growth of urban and per-urban community to where expansion is occurring, more
assessment deals with status of urban expanding, certain change of land use cover timely and
places, any livelihood changes due to urban expansion and impact of urban expansion.

On other hand, demographically research targeted to peripheral kebele household heads

because case initiated researcher itself was describing any implication that expansion has on
their socio-economic livelihoods due to respective geographical flattening. From its
objectives, the study emphasis to investigating changes of socio economic activities,
community livelihoods dynamics and its impacts on peripheral community of Holeta town.
This indicates that assessment of impact on community due to urban expansion will concerns
to the analysis of household head‟s livelihood elements particularly; physical capitals, social
capitals and natural capitals with certain specific base to capitals in each forms as the scope to
this study livelihood justification.

1.7. Limitations of the Study

Following the urban expansion, then, there are changes in form of geographical boundary and
land uses of the pre-urban areas. This study focuses mainly on the households whose lands
were expropriated and or lost land informally hence livelihood strategies get changed both by
form and content. Due to this fact, the selected sample household members may not
completely represent the characteristics of all affected households by urban expansion.
Moreover, there has was a problem of collecting data regards to capitals of households before
urban expansion mostly average livestock before a time though the researcher closely asked
in form of each animals in number and changing to currency. In the same issue, illiteracy,
omission of responses and non-returns or late return of questionnaire are what technically
hinder accuracy and validities of the data.

In addition, as expansion is a process taking place throughout a series of time, there is a need
to obtain consecutive evidences showing socio-economic growth of town information about
the expansion. So, absence of timely documented report on all aspect of urban development
contributed to the limitation of the study. Furthermore, since every research methodologies
and designs along with the specific techniques have each of respective pros and cons.

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As a matter of this fact, the methodology employed, research design developed, techniques
selected as well as tools used to collect data have their own limitation on its validities and
other qualities of the study.

1.8. Organization of the Thesis

This thesis paper contains five chapters. The first chapter is introduction part consisting
background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study as general and
specific, research questions, significance of the study, delimitation, organization of the study
and operational terms purposely or repeatedly used in this paper. The second chapter holds
review of related literature and conceptual framework of the study. The third chapter focuses
on methodology, data sources, sampling methods, sample size determination, methods of data
analyzing and variables used were explained. The forth chapter consists results and
discussion and lastly the fifth chapter conclusion and recommendation.

1.9. Operational Definition

Urban expansion:- In this study, urban expansion has been used to mean that it is
geographical or horizontal flattening of urban named settlement towards rural settlement or
locally rural population inhabited area. Additionally, uses as synonymous with urbanization
for the area of investigating problem i.e. case study.

Peripheral community: - is population or society those are in the outlet of urban settlement
boundary. But locational places closer to urban and engaged through land holding based and
related farming types for their livelihoods strategies.

Urban periphery: - is a place at outer zone of urban area and adjacent rural area to urban
settlement.it is also has similar meaning with sub- urban in accordance to this study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1.Concepts of Urbanization

According to Mcgranaham and Satterthwaite (2004), there are no internationally agreed

criteria to determine a boundary of urban areas from rural areas as evidenced by varied
national urban definition summaries in publication of united nation population division. Some
researchers prefer to define urban depending on simple and standardized criteria like
population size and density while others accepted but included some definition with cases
like commuters living beyond bound of dense settlement. More or less many countries
designed urban as settlement where administrative function types of economic activities
engagement of great population portion.
The term “urbanization” is used here to refer specifically to an increase in the proportion of a
country or region‟s population residing in urban settlements, while „urban growth‟ refers to
an increase in the absolute size of a country or region‟s urban population. These terms are
often confused in both academic and policy circles, but it is important to recognize the
difference between them, particularly in the context of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where
urban population growth rates are generally high but overall urbanization rates relatively low
( Bloch and Monroy, 2015).
Urbanization is often used more loosely, however, to refer to a broad-based rural-to-urban
transition involving population, land use, economic activity and culture, or indeed any one of
these. Thus, it is frequently used to refer to changes in land-use for specific areas (usually on
the periphery of urban concentrations) as this land becomes „urbanized‟ and is sold and
developed for urban use (Poston and Bouvier, 2010).

2.2. Urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa

Early of the 20th century, both Africa and Asia were poor and heavily rural. Their economies
were deeply dependent on low productivity agriculture, and from the admittedly sparse data
that are available, it appears that urbanization rates in both regions were less than 5% the
same level as in Medieval Europe and still looked quite similar: poor and rural. Starting of
the 21st century, urbanization has now reached around 40% in both Africa and Asia, which is
comparable to the level attained in today‟s developed countries after the Industrial Revolution
(Douglas Gollin, Rémi Jedwab and Dietrich Vollrath, 2012).

8
Even if urbanization patterns in Africa and Asia look quite similar for the past half century,
there are two striking differences. The first is that Asia‟s urbanization has occurred in
conjunction with rapid growth in per capita income. And the second is that urbanization in
Asia has coincided with a rapid movement of people out of agriculture into manufacturing
and industry, whereas in Africa urbanization has been accompanied primarily by a movement
into services (Douglas et. al, 2012).

African countries have always been highly specialized in the export of natural resources,
whether mineral products, fuels or cash crops. In 1960, more of Sub-Saharan African
countries and only 3 of Asian countries had more than 10% produced their GDP from natural
resource exports while Asian countries developed through expansion of their manufacturing
sectors with industrialization. This shows that both Africa and Asia have followed the same
urbanization patterns though Africa‟s urban growth achieved in a period with only modest
economic growth and without industrialization.

Even though urbanization is growing in both developed and developing countries, from the
current status more than 90% of the future population growth will accounted by large cities
in Africa with 3.5 % of urban growth rate in two previous decades. Most scholars in the side
of urbanization argue varied views on the history of urbanization in sub Saharan Africa
(Douglas et. al, 2012).

For instance, Bacquicer (2004) argues that the base of urbanization in sub Saharan Africa is
significantly colonization. Before colonial period, sub Saharan Africa has no urbanization
what so ever population density is low to supply community with resource. However during
the colonial period, urban centers set up for strategic purpose which means there is a little
role of industrialization for the urbanization of sub- Saharan Africa. Hence unlike of many
African countries, sub Saharan Africa urbanized due to the external action rather than internal
dynamics.

According to Boserupt (1985) as cited by Nordhag (2012), because of Africa‟s low

population density at initial, migrant workers were needed to maintain facilities and
infrastructure brought by colonization. Gradually certain location preferred due to its
proximity to raw materials and export possibilities. This condition caused population density
to increase and urbanization with the dominance of indigenous farmers who used the
infrastructure there. There is large variation on proportion of urban population in various
regions of Africa.

9
For instance, sub- Saharan Africa is region with lowest proportion of urban population
though recently the rate of urbanization and slum dwellers is highest. For this situation rural
to urban migration and natural population growth rate are the major cause of rapid rate of
urbanization and slum proliferation in Africa.

Western and Klute (2006) also stated that, the main engine of population growth in Sub-
Saharan Africa is rural –urban migration which is for economic motivation since 1980s. As
cities are focal point for economic growth, innovation and employment, many cities grew
historically out of some advantageous location, transportation and raw material supply.
Beside to this, other reason for migrating to town is personal security in countries where there
is political strife and better services (Mpofu, 2013).

2.3. Urbanization in the Ethiopian Context

Ethiopia was under-urbanized, even by African standards. In the late 1980s, only about 11%
of the population lived in urban areas of at least 2,000 residents. There were hundreds of
communities with 2,000 to 5,000 people, but these were primarily extensions of rural villages
without urban or administrative functions. Thus, the level of urbanization would be even
lower if one used strict urban structural criteria. Ethiopia's relative lack of urbanization is the
result of the country's history of agricultural self-sufficiency, which has reinforced rural
peasant life.

The slow pace of urban development continued until the 1935 Italian invasion. Urban growth
was fairly rapid during and after the Italian occupation of 1936-41. Urbanization accelerated
during the 1960s, when the average annual growth rate was about 6.3 percent. Urban growth
was especially evident in the northern half of Ethiopia, where most of the major towns are
located (http://www.urbanization in Ethiopia.org).

Overall, the rate of urban growth declined from 1975 to 1987. With exception of Aseb, Arba
Minch, and Hawasa, urban centers grew an average of about 40 percent over that twelve-year
period. This slow growth is explained by several factors. Rural-to-urban migration had been
largely responsible for the rapid expansion during the 1967-75 periods, whereas natural
population growth may have been mostly responsible for urban expansion during the 1975-84
periods. The 1975 land reform program provided incentives and opportunities for peasants
and other potential migrants to stay in rural areas. Restrictions on travel, lack of employment,
housing shortages, and social unrest in some towns during the 1975-80 periods also
contributed to a decline in rural-to-urban migration (Zenebe, 2010).

10
Urbanization is occurring rapidly throughout Ethiopia, as populations are increasingly
migrating from rural areas to major cities. Over the past decade, the country has experienced
dramatic demographic changes, including increased rural-to-urban migration and a “youth
bulge”. About 48% of the current population is under the age of 15. Combining these trends
with the already poor health statistics – including highly incongruent HIV prevalence rates
(7.7% in urban areas versus 0.9% in rural), the situation seems quite disparate (Zenebe,
2010).

According to Girma (2004), urban population is concentrated in one primate city of Finfine
representing 28.4% of the total urban population. At national level, the level and trends of
urbanization indicates significant regional variation for example; Finfine (28.4%), Amhara
(17.32%), Oromia (17%), SNNPR (15.2%), Tigray (15.2%) and Gambella (9.62%)
respectively. Finfine at 100% of urbanization is most urbanized and urban population in a
country and Gambella has the lowest urban population the average mean of 9.6%. So,
Ethiopia is currently of the least urbanized countries in the world even in Africa. Less than
one person in five is city or town dweller. However, the rate of at which the countries urban
areas the growing are among the highest in Africa. Many social, economic and environment
problems have accomplice urbanization in Ethiopia and have been ignored for too long.

2.4. Theories of Urban Expansion

Different authors developed various theories of urban expansion to explain more about
expansion to urban areas to peripheral and also for the case of spatial expansion and land use
changes of urban areas. On other hand, expansion of urban centers considered
political/administrative process which means reclassification of rural areas to urban areas.
The exercise of reclassification of rural areas as urban is often thought to be a productive
strategy for stimulating economic development. This is based expectation of adjustments to
the overall structure of the system of cities within a country have the ability to influence a
country‟s socio- economic composition; forwarding to supplementary growth and
development.

So, increase in the number of countries in recent years implementing policies that contribute
to this component are changing this trend, lifting its position as a notable contributor to urban
growth. Reclassification of settlements contains three sub components. This are the
expansion (or contraction) of existing urban boundaries, the capture of adjacent settlements,

11
and the addition or subtraction of new settlements that grow beyond a designated threshold
(Farrell, 2014).

From various theories discussed with main theories of expansion depending on purpose to
expand, few of them are microeconomic theory, urban economic theory economic benefits
theory and urban social production theory. For instance, the microeconomic theory of land
uses change and the urban bid-rent model commonly developed to postulate the geographical
expansion of urban character and land use modification Spatially-explicit land use models
based on microeconomic theory are influential tools for understanding the spatial and
temporal dynamics of land use decisions among individual agents (Jiang and Yonghui, 2016).

According to Jiang and Yonghui (2016), the urban bid-rent model is another basis of urban
economic theory and describes the accumulated outcome of urban land use change.
Expansions of the bid-rent model further incorporate the influence of income, transportation,
and spatial heterogeneities in terms of soil quality, climate, natural resource endowments, etc.
Bid-rent model have been developed and empirically implemented in order to understand the
change in spatial scale of cities, industrialization and urban expansion, and urbanization and
the conversion of agricultural and natural land covers. According to this model, the common
factors identified for spatial land use change in towns are population, income, transportation
costs, and agricultural land rent. In view of economic benefit theory, they estimated as there
are concentrations of economic activities and economies of state resulted from it. That is in
order to enhance their economic benefits of production, people forced to move rural to urban
areas and also from urban to urban areas. This urban population rise leads to urban settlement
to expand towards exterior areas.

Contrary to this, urban social production theory argues, urban is more congested and crowded
than rural marginal region and rural areas indirectly pulls the population to settle due to
continuous social interaction and networking which latter causes congregation of large
population at smaller unit of land (Paul et al., 2000).

On other hand having economic growth and urban expansion relationship, urban growth has
generative and parasitic nature which mostly varied in developed and developing countries.
In case of generative urban growth stimulates economic growth and stimulates surplus in
wider urban areas of developed countries while in developing counties urban expansion is
parasitic in development which shows surplus is derived from the surrounding of urban
though recently it is becoming generative (Paul et al.,2000).

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With regard to generative process of urban expansion, theory explanation is mostly via
central place theory, urban base theory and Keynesian theory for developed while
modernization theory for developing countries. But in context of parasitic process,
explanation is given by dependency theory which is implementable in both developed and
developing countries.

Dependency theory holds that under laissez faire cities grow parasitically by exploiting and
holding back their neighbor which means economic growth follows cumulative causation
principle. This shows once established city‟s development promote more local development
and spread effect, only at expense of urban surrounding as a whole and land owners in
specific in back wash effect (Paul et al, 2000). From above discussed view, researcher
intends to use parasitic nature of urban growth in general and particularly dependency theory
as a base of this study since communities in urban centers and also rural areas of town side
should directly and indirectly affects each other.

2.4.1. Causes of Urban Expansion

Causes of urban growth are quite similar with those of urban sprawl. In most cases, they
cannot be discriminated since both growths are more interlinked though urban growth or
expansion can be observed without sprawl if there is planned growth. Whether that growth is
bad and good depends on its pattern and process, there are some causes of urban expansion.
Urbanization is event that more linked with modernization, industrialization and sociological
process of decision making. But, mostly repeated urban sprawl in developing countries is
caused by rural to urban migration.

Some of causes for urban expansion or compactness are population growth, economic
growth, industrialization and demand for more living space. From those causes and catalyst
of urban expansion, urban population growth is the first and peculiar role player. Rapid urban
growth is an outcome of the following two factors of population growth namely; natural
population increase and migration to urban centers (Bhatta, 2010).

In addition to this, movement of people from rural to urban areas in domestic country
becomes a significant factor of urban expansion even though movement at international level
does not have such great influence to expansion. Both of them contribute to make urban areas
expand via additional area for inhabiting. The role of internal migration to expansion is
expressed through pulling and pushing factors those behaved from place of destination or
new place of movement and place of origin respectively (Bhatta, 2010).

13
According to UN report (2007), major contributing factor of urban expansion is “rural flight“
where improving living standard above hand to mouth on limited farm land particularly in
case of developing world where population growth rate exceeds resource production rate.
Since community couldn‟t forecast the condition they meet in future, they decide to migrate
towards to urban areas “rural flight”. Generally these and other population increase needs
space to accommodate this population. People compete first for site and latter for resident and
for investment within urban framework. Later all these cases pressurize per-urban farmers
and make urbanization and urban expansion a center of problem in conversion of agricultural
land to nonagricultural land use.

According to Tegegne (2001), nationally the most role player leading urban centers to
expanding are in migrants (i.e. rural to rural migration and urban to urban migration) and
natural population increase. Additionally, industrialization which demands housing facilities
for its workers even for commerce is another factor leading to town expanding.. Such gradual
transition process from agricultural to industrial employment demands more urban housing.
Economic growth and demand of more living space for housing are also other causes of
urban expansion.

Beside to this, Bhatta (2010) narrated that expansion of economic base such as per capital
income and increase in number of working persons creates additional demands for new
housing and housing space for individuals. In many developing counties, residence of the
core lacks sufficient living space. These force them towards urban edge development for
more living space. Since people can buy space at low cost at periphery, they encouraged to
country side which directly causes the towns to expand.

2.4.2. Characteristics of urban periphery

Although it is difficult to definitely identify the characteristics of urban fringe spatially. Most
literature holds an idea that per urban areas has some distinct; environmental, social and
institutional character which can differ from place to place. More discussion on its main
character is as follow:

Environmental characteristics

Urban outlying areas are the collections of different ecosystem of naturally productive and
ecosystem affected by material as well as energy required by rural and urban community
(Allen, 2003). More often, the use of per-urban environmental resources and ecological
services is driven by local pressures (e.g. competition between residential and agricultural

14
land uses), subnational and national policies (e.g. industrial dispersal), or by international
pressures and global issues such as falling prices of export crops, climate change and etc.
which reduce agricultural viability of rural areas and increase the migration of impoverished
farmers to per-urban locations in search of alternative livelihoods (Narain, 2010).

A number of environmental problems and opportunities arise in relation to environmental

change; land use changes and; changes in the use of renewable and non-renewable resources
and changes in the generation of waste and the use of the absorptive capacity of the
environment. Marshall, Waldman, MacGregor, Mehta and Randhawa, (2009) noted that per-
urbanization has occasioned destruction of wetlands and other ecologically-sensitive
environments; diminished agricultural productivity; diminished open space; increased
pressure on natural resources such as water; a lack of hygiene and sanitation infrastructure;
industrial effluence; air pollution; inadequate provision of basic services and accumulated
solid waste.

To the extent it is poor depending mostly on natural resources for their livelihoods, the per-
urban can be seen as a degenerated environment. Achieving environmental sustainability in
the per-urban has been identified as a challenge because of the complex interrelationship
between social-economic and environmental systems.

Social Characteristics

According to Nairan (2010) views, urban border is space where social forms are constantly
created, modified and discarded. He underscores this diversity of interests and the resulting
social heterogeneity in the zone of transition by noting that small farmers, informal settlers,
industrial entrepreneurs and urban middle class commuters may all co-exist in the side urban
even though they harbor different competing interests, practices and perceptions which
stimulate conflict and resolution.

Another distinctive social attribute of PUIs is their habitation by migrant labor that seeks
employment in adjacent towns and cities. In the pursuit of better living conditions, per-urban
areas often become transit points and convenient bases within the ambit of the main city for
new inhabitants from rural locations. He also argued that the resulting mix of the “urban” and
“rural” migrants often alters the social composition of the per-urban and has several
implications for both economic activities and demand for local resources.

15
Institutional Characteristics

A lot of per-urban research appears to suggest that per-urban contexts almost invariably lack
effective regulation and municipal service delivery leading to contradictions. For instance,
existence of a regulatory void entrenches and perpetuates the many antagonisms. They argue
that per urban is often not a public policy priority and in some instances, its residents are not
officially recognized, or better still, not entirely legal. The foregoing notwithstanding, it has
been argued that the regulatory void in the per-urban facilitates economic liberalization and
often encourages capitalist entrepreneurs to invest in per urban areas. Institutional
multiplicity and conflict creates uncertainty which sometimes is good for the capitalist
investor. One example of this is difference between various land regulations and the
resulting ambiguity which effectively reduces land tenure and rights in the per-urban
negotiable. This explains the phenomenon of mixed developments in most per-urban contexts
(Marshall et al, 2009).

2.5. Livelihood Framework

A frame work is the particular way of viewing or understanding how household heads derive
their livelihood by drawing on capabilities and assets to develop livelihood strategies
composed in range of activities. Livelihood approach focuses on understanding the context
within which people live, assets available for them, livelihood strategies they follow in face
of policies and processes and livelihood outcomes intended to achieve (DFID, 2000). It is
one of the most widely used rural- urban linked sustainable livelihood approach. This
approach conceptualize how people operate activities with vulnerability to shocks,
seasonality and else. It also draw different livelihood capitals in different combination which
affected by vulnerability context, range of institution and processes.
There are various livelihood frame works for the sustainability at rural parts and rural linked
urban areas. Few of them are UNDP, CARE, s and DFID sustainable livelihood frame work.
But most of those approaches to livelihood sustainability have similar focus of poverty
reduction though they little differ on way of implementation and spatial emphasis. For
instance, UNDP and CARE use it to facilitate the planning of concrete projects and programs.
For DFID, the Sustainable Livelihood approach is more of a basic framework for analysis
than a procedure for programming, and it is also used to assess and review on-going projects
and programs to make them more sensitive and responsive to the conditions and needs of the
poor. It is an instrument to enhance the poverty orientation of different kinds of activities
supported by the agency, not just SL projects or programs. Additionally, CARE supports

16
household livelihood security primarily at community level. UNDP and DFID work at
community level, but also emphasize that tackling enabling policy environments, macro-
economic reforms, and legislation is equally important for effective poverty reduction.
Thus, for DFID, although the analysis of people‟s livelihoods usually takes place at a
household (community) level, the aim is not just to identify constraints or opportunities that
could be remedied at that level. Equally important is to get an understanding of how policies
and other institutional factors, for example, impinge upon people‟s livelihoods at the local
level, but have to be addressed at higher, policy levels (Krantz, 2001).

Livelihood: definition of “livelihood” had been given by different academic researchers,

development role player and other authors including Chambers and Conway, 1992, Bernstein,
1992, Ellis, 1998, Francis, 2000 and Lantz, 2003). According to Chambers and Conway, et.al
(1992), livelihood defined as the compromise of capabilities, assets such as; stores, resources,
claims as well as access and activities required for the means of living. This is sustainable
which cope up with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain and enhance its capabilities
to provide better livelihood opportunity for the next generation that makes net benefits to
other livelihoods at local and global in long and short terms.

Figure: 2.1 Sustainable livelihood frame work

Source: Adopted from L. Krantz, 2001

17
Livelihood Assets: is an access to all livelihood strategies to be carried out locally or
globally. It consists of all private and other forms of capital ownership that uses as a source of
asset within livelihood frame work (DFID, 2000). Chambers and Conway (1992) elaborated
that; livelihood asset can be identified via the following five main capitals. These are human,
social, physical, natural and financial capital.

Human capital: is almost related to the amount and qualification of labor force availability at
different background. So, at household level, it is decided by the number household size Even
it varied in terms of educational background, nutrition, skill, capability or performance and
health status of members.

Social capital: any asset such as rights derived from membership in a group like ability to
cell on friends helps in time of needs, trade and professional supporting from association.
Examples, connection, relation of trust and mutual understanding support formally and
informally, shared values and behavior, common rules and sanction, mechanism of
participation in decision making and in leadership

Natural capital: refers to environmental assets such as land, and common property resources
(with communal management and traditional systems determining access and types of use) or
„frees‟ (open access) natural resources such as water and forests or grazing land. Natural
resources are generally less used in the livelihood strategies of the urban poor, as they tend to
be less available, especially in large urban centers

Physical capital -includes assets such as housing, tools and equipment that people own, rent
or use and public infrastructure that they have access to. Housing is normally one of the most
important assets for poor urban household heads as it is used both for shelter and
reproductive purposes and for productive or income-generating purposes (renting out rooms
for using the space as a workshop area).

Livelihood Strategies: are the planned activities that men and women undertake to build
their livelihoods. They usually include a range of activities designed to build asset bases and
access to goods and services for consumption. Livelihood strategies include coping strategies
designed to respond to shocks in the short term, and adaptive strategies designed to improve
circumstances in the long term.

Livelihood outcomes: are the results of women and men‟s livelihood strategies and feed
back into the vulnerability context and asset bases, with successful strategies allowing them
to build asset bases as a buffer against shocks and stresses, as opposed to poor livelihood

18
outcomes which deplete asset bases, thereby increasing vulnerability (Farrington, Ramasut
and Walker, 2002).

Broadly it shows the achievement of livelihood strategies, such as more income (cash),
increased well-being (non-material goods, like self-esteem, health status, access to services,
sense of inclusion), reduced vulnerability (better resilience through increase in asset status),
improved food security (increase in financial capital derived from the combination of one or
more livelihood capitals in order to buy or produce foods). Livelihood outcomes may
therefore lead into either virtuous or vicious cycles (Farrington, et.al, 2002).

2.6. Urban Expansion and Livelihood Strategies in Per-urban Areas of Ethiopia

Compared to developed countries, economies of developing countries are growing of lower

rate when compared with population growth rate. This reveals that, fast population growth of
developing countries and economic challenges accelerated the problem of urban poor which
rose from lack of regular employment. Due to these urban poor forced to developed several
survival livelihood strategies.

Foeken and Mwangi (2004) stated that the main livelihood strategies of per-urban areas are
those implemented in urban and rural. Urban strategy includes strategy of non-farming and
farming those includes all income generating activities like cooking, washing economic
activities those are informal open air vehicle repair and washing, metal works, carpentry,
commodity trade, local brew making, prostitution and else.

On other hand, farming strategy in urban reveals economic activities those focused on farm
with those has access of land in and outside of urban boundaries but basically generate
income from it. But engagement of those livelihood strategies depends on basic material,
socially tangible or intangible asset that people have as their own. From economic point of
view, an asset that is seen as capital from which livelihood derived includes; human,
financial, physical, natural and social. Urban expansion can be a constraint to dislocated
community possess asset to diversify livelihood as soon as urban extends to periphery and
encroaches to rural farmland (Scoones and Ellis, 2000).

2.7. Effects of Urban Expansion on Per-urban Community

Urban expansion can be occurred through horizontal and vertical expansion. The first one
indicates the expanding of physical structure of the urban areas. Such process is well known
globally in all history of urban centers with a result of loss of range postures and agricultural
land and natural attractiveness.
19
Particularly, urban expansion includes both positive and negative effects however; the
negative impact is visible when the way of growth is uncontrolled and uncoordinated.
Specifically, positive implication of urban expansion leads to higher economic performance,
opportunity of underemployed and unemployed, better life because of better opportunity and
better services and life style. Thus urbanization and urban growth are considered as modern
way of life and centers of varieties of human opportunity which all can highly contribute to
socio economic growth and development (Minwuyelet, 2004).

Balchin, et.al, (2000 pp:58) pointed out that rapid urban expansion in most of developing
countries is usually unplanned and uncontrolled development to periphery that requires high
cost of infrastructure. Even certain evidence shows that, planned activity of infrastructural
development doesn‟t match with large land track that develops with low density pattern. So,
urban expansion has positive and negative effects.

2.7.1. Negative effects of urban expansion

Negative effects of urban expansion to surrounding per-urban areas acted in different ways
especially towards displaced farmers from their own farmland up to degradation of more
useful agricultural land. This is due to the fact that as urban population increase, cities forced
to grow spatially to per-urban area to give varied services and accommodation for population
per year. Furthermore, 2025 urban population growth rate estimated to reach 58%, 52% and
32% for world, Africa and Ethiopia respectively. This estimation to population growth
predicts as urban expansion has the following effects (Wabrster, 2005).

Loss of farmland

As stated by Dayong (2004), unplanned and not leveled urban expansion can take off
valuable farmland around urban centers and it can causes opposing up to conflicts among
program implementers and displaced farmers from their original land. So, urbanization
affects communities negatively through occupying their productive land, reducing the amount
of production and forcing the number of family members to urban centers in need of job
opportunity.

In Ethiopia, since most of urban centers are rapidly expanding outward; federal, regional
agencies as well as municipal‟s frequency of land taking by regional government for that
purpose from farmers is increasing rapidly. In addition, federal law on rural land
expropriation and compensation, have crafted by an agencies that are taking land seen to
discover that are losing land. As a result, farmers those land taken off will be exposed to

20
problem of unemployment, food insecurity after compensation due to the reason that, they are
not pre-well aware, educated and trained rather than only depending on former agricultural
production (Teketel, 2015).

Environmental pollution and land degradation

Compared to rural, urban centers produce more solid waste disposal than the amount they can
absorb in its boundary. Commonly urban centers highly pollute the surrounding rural
landscape by the residential, industrial and institutional waste that directly deposited towards
the farmland of rural-urban areas.

These wastes are solid hazardous, plastic and medical products in its nature can degrade or
formally shifts the qualification and size of production from the rural landscape (Tvedten,
2002). In addition to this, inefficient and inappropriate municipal waste collecting and
disposing mechanisms are gradually being the major causes of land degradation at
surrounding rural areas and affects health and quality of life of urban periphery dwellers.

Inclusion of surrounding villages to urban coverage

Tvedten (2002) pointed out that expansion of urban center is one of the basic effects of
population growth to center. According to him, around 10-15% of urban growth in
developing world has a base of boundary expansion or change as a cause while their
livelihood for the time is agricultural, which is not core issue of administration in cities.

Over-exploitation of natural resources

People those live in urban areas have varied consumption pattern and size compared to those
settled in per-urban areas. This further consumption demands leads as urbanization causes
more and exploiting of natural resource of per- urban. So, demand mode by urban centers
exceeds the carrying capacity of their own territory and force to exploit that of per-urban
beyond the leveled status per time (Tacoli, 2004).

According to the view of kamete (2002), urban centers account 2% of the surface though
highly (75%) of world resource is consumed by these centers. These reveals how much
material resource of vast and scattered surrounding areas of urban exploited and urban
centers depends on the carrying capacity of environment till it exceed the balanced utilization
and exploitation. The situation led to over exploitation of resource to periphery, degradation
and environmental pollution consecutively.

21
As explained above, urban consumers covers most of consumption of fire wood, charcoal,
construction material, land for urban expansion and infrastructural facilitating provision
which depletes rural based natural resources such as farmland, forest, wildfire and quarry
sites and results with irreversible damage to human environment (Mcgranaham, 2004).

Land acquisition conflicts

From the causes of conflicts on the side of urban expanding, one is related with problems
around land acquisition. These conflicts mostly found at boundary line of urban and rural on
common, private and investors land. In Ethiopia, land use change from agricultural use to
industries, commerce, housing and else increasing in time and being the source of rising
conflict along the rural urban boundary (McGranaham, 2004).

Failure to adopt livelihood strategy

Till now, low income household heads will continue to survive in different social difficulties
which can causes as isolation created among city development and sandwiched. These will
accelerate the migration of adversely affected groups from particularly farming community
already inhabited there. Thus, community at periphery faces problems of inability to develop
their own survival strategies, solidarity networks, system of power to which social and
economic activities linked to former places Mejia, (1999: pp. 183) as cited by Feyera (2005).

Shortage of infrastructural facility

As Todaro (1997) argues that in developing countries people migrate from rural to urban
areas and Centre of poor household‟s moves towards to fringe for urban squatting. These
communities also require an access of infrastructures like roads, power line, water pipe,
drainage line and other social facility. This needs high development cost that will depend on
financial capacity of municipal government to fulfill. But in most cases, municipality has no
such potential to provide and unfortunately, residents enforced to high cost of living.
Comparatively, the challenge of survival is difficult the group dislocated and their farm land
taken from since their former livelihood base is farmland.

2.7.2. Positive effects of urban expansion

Expansion of towns has a positive role on the development aspects of surrounding per-urban
areas via different means. Major effects are being; Center of market area and access of
employment.

22
Center of market area

Satterthwaite (2004) argues that as soon as communities around the edge of urban centers
depends on agricultural production for own and local consumption or national and
international markets, urban centers acts as an access to market which serve as pre-requisite
of increasing agricultural incomes. So, closeness of such areas to urban can minimize the
risk of transportable perishable agricultural product in order to produce timely and avail for
market.

Access of employment

Kamete and Tvedent (2002) viewed that comparative to far rural dwellers; urban periphery
settled communities have better access to be employed via urban areas invitation for job
opportunity by development of small and micro enterprises and cooperatives due to their
locational proximity there.

2.8. Policy and Issues Regarding to Urbanization

According to the 2009 WDR on Reshaping Economic Geography, no country has developed
without city growth. “As countries become richer, economic activity becomes more densely
packed into towns, cities, and metropolises”. This growth requires policy decisions which
shape the rate of growth and integration between rural and urban areas, as well as a
framework for how a city addresses the needs of a rapidly expanding urban population
(Turok and Parnell, 2009).

In case of United Kingdom, urban policy was treated as a special initiative, separate from
mainstream policies and amounting to compensation for economic weakness and market
failure. It was essentially a palliative designed to ameliorate poor housing and social
conditions, rather than a catalyst for socio-economic transformation and development. The
Ethiopian Government also understands and accepts the positive arguments for national
urban policies, and has made steady progress in short period of time after governing party
starts to pursuing centralization led development with certain restriction to foreign investment
and complete ownership (Turok and McGranahan, 2013).

Compared to rest of SSA countries, Ethiopia‟s urbanization rate is low or only (16%) of the
population urbanized meaning the current level of urbanization is only 17% although 55% of
GDP is generated in urban areas and the urban economy is growing very strongly.
Consequently, the urban population is growing at approximately 3.6% per year and another
42 million people are expected to reside in urban areas by 2050.
23
This is one of the largest absolute increases in Africa and makes it vital to prepare for large-
scale urban population growth. In addition, 79% of the populations live in “slums” showing
that there is a pressing need to upgrade urban conditions for instance Finfine dominates
Ethiopia‟s urban system with a population of about three million (UN-habitat, 2014).

United Nation report of 2014 further narrated that starting from its establishment, leadership
of the governing party has been going through a transition over the last decade or so from
tough rural revolutionaries who aligned themselves mainly with the peasantry and against
feudalism. The younger generation of leaders recognizes the need to give greater priority to
addressing the challenge and opportunities of urbanization. The process began around 1999
when one of their advisers prepared a concept paper outlining a sequence of necessary policy
reforms and initiatives.

From stages of program one was reforming plan and land legislation which creates suitable
environment for more coherent urban development. One of the outcomes was a new law
governing the lease of urban land to allow for long leases to users i.e. 30 years for industry,
40 years for commercial and 99 years for residential. The second priority was to strengthen
the technical capacity of local, state and national government officials to plan and manage
urbanization (Turok and McGranahan, 2013).

Institutionally, national urban development policy framework with intention of being vehicle
for implementing the urban component of PASDEP was approved in 2005 however; limited
resources and capacity have hampered its implementation in practice. The program is funded
by the World Bank (around USD 200 million) which administered by Ministry of Works and
Urban Development able to solve the constraints. It offers a performance-based matching
grant to urban local governments that meet specific performance benchmarks. For the first
time, these cities have access to transparent and predictable funding if they meet their
performance criteria (UN habitat, 2014).

The project is very wide-ranging in scope, encompassing 19 different secondary cities. Since
its launch in 2008, these cities have made improvements in planning, budgeting, financial
management, procurement, revenue mobilization and project execution. Cities are managing
their assets better and improving their delivery of services and infrastructure. As they collect
more tax revenues, their leeway to borrow and invest further increases. Citizens have also
been given more scope than in the past to influence decisions about priority services and
infrastructure in their areas.

24
The World Bank estimates that 2.5 million people living in the 19 participating cities had
benefited from the infrastructure investments and upgrades by 2011, including new roads,
drainage systems, water systems, latrines and landfills. In addition, some 95,000 jobs in
cobblestone construction and other infrastructure works had been created for local residents
through small enterprises. The program was doubled in size in 2011 in the light of its success
(Turok and McGranahan, 2013).

Another important feature of urban policy in Ethiopia is the systematic approach to urban
expansion. Local government controls the use of land and grants leases to different users and
developers. The process of planning urban expansions begins with a projection of the future
population 25 years hence based on the latest census data. The first priority area is then
subject to a grid plan based on one kilometer square blocks.

Different blocks have different combinations of high- and low-cost housing, economic uses,
public facilities and public space. The boundary of the extension area is also clearly
established to prevent incursions. A process then begins to compensate existing (rural) land
users for the withdrawal of their access rights and any improvements they have made, such as
grazing animals or growing fruit trees. The land is then progressively serviced and allocated
to developers, depending on demand. It is believed that the process of urban expansion will
be largely self-financing, with the sale of the land leases generating the revenue to pay for the
infrastructure and compensation of existing users (UN- habitat, 2014).

2.9. Conceptual Framework

Rapid Urban
Factors of Urban Expansion
Expansion
 Population growth Peripheral
 Urban expansion Community
plan Dramatic
 Policy of per-  Expropriation peripheral land
urban land
 Loss of use modification
transformation
farmland
 Loss of assets
Impact on
 Unemployment
Rural and urban assets peripheral
 Unsecured
(Physical, Natural,
livelihood community
Social and Financial)
Livelihood
outcomes
Livelihood
outcomes Figure: 2.2 schematic diagram of urban expansion

Source: own adopted, 2018

25
 CHAPTER THREE

3. THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Description of the Study Area

3.1.1. Bio-physical Condition

Location

Absolutely, Holeta town represented by extending from 9º 1‟00 '' N to 9º 6„00'' N Latitude
and 38º 26„30'' E to 38º 32' 30'' E Longitude. In other word, it is located in Oromia regional
state particularly in special zone near to Finfine, and 30 km from Finfine in west direction on
the main road of Finfine to Naqamte i.e. in Walmara woreda as administrative towns in
special zone of Oromia around Finfine.

Relatively, the study area located at west of Kolobo town around 9 km, at east of Ejere or
Addis Alem town 9 km and on the left direction bounded by kebeles such as; Marfeta 1ffa,
Wajitu Harbu, Markos, Ciri Dobi Qore, Oddo Walmara and Coqe. Further, the town located
at close distance of; Ambo, Ginci, Incini, Ejere, Sheno, Mogor, Olenkomi, Burayu, Finfinne.

Topography

Altitudinal, the study area's elevation ranged between 2300-3800 masl and average of 2450
masl covering total surface area of 5550 ha. Holeta town is located in plateaus of Shewa
specifically the central topographic nature of Ethiopia. The town has plain, plateau and other
landforms up to swampy land. This is to mean that, 52.3%, of plain feature, 31.58%, of
plateau, 9.09%, of swampy areas and 2.9% river natured while the rest portion of town
covered by declining elevation from south to north part of studied area (HTAP, 2017).

26
 Figure: 3.1 Map of the Study Area

Source: Ethio-Gis Data, 2016

Climate

Holeta‟s climate is classified as sub-tropical or Woena Dega. The summers here have a good
deal of rainfall, while the winters have very little. This climate is considered to be Cwb
according to the Koppen‟s- climate classification. The minimum and maximum temperature
of an area is 0.6°C and 21°C respectively. In average rainfall access in area extends from
1040 –1100 ranges. Temperature is highest on average during April, at around 17.7 °C but
coldest during November, with annual average of 14.2 °C.

Most of the precipitation here falls in August, averaging, 266 mm. The variation in the
precipitation between the driest and wettest months is 257 mm but an average precipitation of
an area frequently 1134 mm (http://www.climate-data.org.html). In case of wind systems,
area blown by easterly trade wind at 8 km per hour and it contains 43% moisture or humidity.

27
Soil and Vegetation

Geologically, the study area is younger volcanic of trashy-basalt, trachyte, ignimbrites and
tuff belonging to the Wechecha Mountain ranges.

The dominant soil groups of the study area are Orthic Nitosols, Cambsols and Orthic Vertisol
i.e black, red soil and others types according to local name. Generally, town covered by
suitable soil types for construction and various agricultural uses ((Yirga, 2004).

The vegetation around the town is characterized by bush lands, numerous herbaceous flora,
scattered trees, cultivated eucalyptus, oil crops, and horticultural crops. Except unsuitable
areas like hills and /or marshy areas as well as grassland and forests, majority of the study
area is covered with crops such as cereal, pulses and oil crops (Ketema, 2006). This
production is highly practiced as a survival strategy of households at different direction of
town for instance along the banks of the Holeta River surrounding the town showing most
communities produce cabbages, carrot, potato, tomato and etc.

3.1.2. Socio-economic and Demographic condition

Demographic characteristics

According to 1994 census report of CSA, population statistics of Holeta town is 16,755, of
which 5,040 are males 8,745 are females. After years, 2007 census reported 25,993 total
populations and from total population, 12,605 are males and the rest populations were
females respectively. The study area is inhabited by 36,325 populations of which 49.8% are
male while the remaining population, 50.2% are females and mean of family size in
household heads is 4.6 out of total household, 7,596 ( Holeta Town Administration Profile,
2017).

Annually population size is growing at rate of 2.7 % due to the pulling factor that is its
closeness to Finfine invites the large number of labor workers for the search of job
opportunity within and approached towns. But, the recent data regards to population size in 8
kebeles of town shows that the study area contains around 63,139 populations of which total
household heads are 10,484. Of total household heads, 4355 are females and the remaining,
6129 are male household heads. Former three kebeles of town are most populous and though
population settled in reformed rural areas of; Galgal Kuyu, Burka Walmara, Sadamo, Meda
Gudina and Tulu Harbu are less number. But, those areas reformed to urban administration
forecasted to forecasting to where urban growth altogether with community at fringe (HTAP,
2017).

28
Livelihood strategy of population

Economically, most of urban dwellers are engaged via private, investment and governmental
industries employment, agro –industry and other commercial activities via the contribution of
certain institutes of research. But most of the urban fringe community based on farming for
their livelihood. Additional situations created employment opportunity in town are
horticulture, agro- industry followed by commercial and government work respectively
(Fekadu, 2011).

Currently, 6.7% of population engage to agriculture related mode of life while the left mostly
central area residents engaged in different non- agriculture particularly governmental work,
employees of factories and other service oriented activities. Now a day, 10.39%, 6.9%, 6.7%,
0.38%, 12.47% and 21.30% of productive population respectively generating their income
via activities such as; government employment, own business, farming, investment,
employment in small and large industries there, service provision and own business jobs
(HTAP, 2017).

Infrastructure in the study area

The town has varied infrastructural facility such as road networks, water supply and
sanitation, electricity as well as others. For instance, the town has 39.8 km asphalt main road
on the way of Finfine to Nekemte. Currently population accessed with newly constructed
232.16 km gravel surfaced, 30.39 km cobble stone, 19.9 km stretched ditch of flood, small
bridge and 41 km Calvert. On other hand, there is an electric service via 3 stations by totally
generating 45 kilo volt which estimated to 24 hours for socio-economic uses (HTAP, 2017,
2017).

The town has potential of supply and sanitation for public and economic purposes via water
bank discharging of 627,528 m3 per a year from 8 deep well and 3 tankers. For the case of
health condition for community, there are 43 Governmental and non-governmental health
institutions and one special hospital on the stage of finishing (Holeta Town Health Office,
2017). Moreover, in the study area there are 3 colleges, 2 research institutes, military
academy, numerous primary and secondary schools of government and privates (Holeta
Town Education Bureau, 2017).

29
 3.2. Research Design

3.2.1. Research approach

In this research, the descriptive research design was employed. This is due to the fact that the
study primarily focused on assessing the impact of urban expansion on the peripheral
community livelihoods. So, it dealt with detail identification on urban expansion condition
previously and during the study time.

This feature description led as the research has a qualitative nature. Therefore, the study had
a quantitative character. In general, the descriptive design of research incorporated with
mixed qualitative and quantitative research via hybrid interpretation of data in both natures
side by side.

3.2.2. Source of data

In order to achieve the main objective of the research that is assessed impact of urbanization
towards to the peripheral community livelihoods, the researcher used both primary and
secondary data sources since it was vital for the study result. From those sources, primary
data collected from per-urban settlement since they were prior issues considerable groups and
from municipal experts since they know more of urban expansion program.

Most of primary data sources for the study collected through implementation of tools listed
under instruments of data collection below. Additionally, livelihood standard investigated in
the study focused to the community‟s life previously and after expansion with statistical data
revealing their varied types of capital levels. So, the first hand sources of data for the study
were those collected from household heads in sampled kebele, elders of the community itself
and experts enriched of information in municipality using below expressed methods for data
collection. On other hand, secondary data sources basically required from all available reports
of offices in town administration, other related published books, journals and other written or
documented data also used to examine issues under investigation.

3.2.3. Sampling techniques and sample size determination

Collecting data from all population included in the study was too tiresome due to its great
time, effort and financial requirement. Then selection of sample for the whole was needed.
To balance size of representative population and reduce problem of sampling error, both of
probability and non-probability sampling techniques were used in respective of targeted
population required for relevant information to issue investigation.

30
Since issues of this investigation entitled with assessing impact of urban expansion on
peripheral community livelihood concerned only per-urban areas of Holeta town.
Geographically, Kebele framed to select sample strata focused only to the five rural-urban
linked areas such as; Burka Walmara, Sadamo, Tulu Harbu, Meda Gudina and Galgal Kuyu
those recently added to an administration. This is due to the fact that those areas were rural
part of woreda earlier to expansion were rural area but urbanity of town gradually expanded
and areas currently shifted to urban land uses rather than former feature by inborn
households. Due to this reason, the researcher took sample kebeles and respondents from
rural-urban transition of urban or home of households expropriated for expansion purposively
or judged as geographical scope of the study.

On other hand, Burka Walmara, Tulu Harbu and Galgal Kuyu were places where urban
expansion was severe and or more of land use there shifted its nature towards urbanization
and place of new population settlement parts of case study. So, occupation of vast areas for
varied urban land uses at most extremes of town and rapid rate of expansion, researcher
determined three of kebeles purposively i.e. via judgmental sampling technique. This
indicates that sampled household heads under investigation for all tools of data collection
nominated from sampled strata of study area. Since community in peripheral areas more or
less share homogeneity of livelihood conditions, strategies and matured or aged, proportional
sample size allocated from each sampled kebeles via systematic random sampling technique.

Additionally, key informants sampled by judgmental technique since interview requires

household heads having timely events on occasions like; urban expansion trends,
participation, livelihood condition and any livelihood changes after urban expansion‟s
influences in their life. So, the researcher interviewed elder household heads of area and
experts of municipality. Similarly, FGD samples were another participant for discussion on
issues studied. To sample participants for these tools, researcher firstly asked elder resident in
transect walk and randomly selected participants from aged households for in depth
interview.

In order to calculate enough sample size from the total household heads under the study, there
is standard statistical approach equation. For this case, equation of Yamane (1967) was in

use. So, n = ( )
………………………………………..…………Equation of Yemane

Where n=Sample size N= Total number of HHs e =Estimated precision of data

Total household heads in sampled kebeles=1506, Level of error/ confidence =0.05 / 95%

31
According to him, sampled size (n) = = =313
( ) ( )

Using this scientific determination, 313 household heads selected for questionnaire survey.
Proportional to the total household heads in scope of study i.e. affected community, sample
size selected using systematic random sampling technique at an interval of nth =1506/313=5th
along the listed household heads in each of sampled kebeles..

For the inclusion of both male and female respondents, proportional allocation of gender
properly done in accordance of total gender sampled in all sampled kebeles. So, for this
study, 211 male household heads and 102, female household heads selected as the
respondents of the survey.

Detail information regarding represented household heads is as below in table 3.1.

Additionally, there were 8 key informants from those purposively targeted elders and experts
and 12 FGD participants out of the elders and experts. Generally, sampled household heads
for study are the summation of sampled household heads for questionnaire, key informants
interview and FGD participants.

Table 3.1: Distribution of sampled household heads in sample kebeles

S.N Sampled Total Household heads Sampled Household heads

o kebeles

M F T M F T
1 Burka Walmara 577 240 817 120 50 170
2 Galgal kuyu 327 200 527 67 42 109
3 Tulu Harbu 112 50 162 24 10 34
Total household 1016 490 1506 211 102 313
heads

Source: Holeta Town Administration, 2016

3.2.4. Data collection tools

As a tool to generate the most relevant information for the study, the researcher implemented
tools like; questionnaire, in depth interview with key informants, FGD and personal
observation during data collection in accordance of time and place required.

32
Questionnaire

The researcher employed questionnaire containing closed ended and open ended question to
gather decisive data in case of qualitative and quantitative analysis of results on, current
status of urban growth, livelihood changes to per-urban households, impact of urbanization
and the constraints relating expansion respectively. Since most of community residing in the
study area spoke “Afaan Oromo”, written questions for data collection prepared in” Afaan
Oromo”. This certainly supported them to understand and responded without confusion.

Key informants interview

Interview with key informants additionally carried out with samples selected purposively
from different management hierarchy official experts and randomly selected elder
representative from community in range of adverse impacts of urbanization. To converse on
question which needs further information for instance deeply policy and strategy gaps,
researcher arranged guide lines for sampled interviewees from its frame described in previous
section.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Focus group discussion (FGD) of 5-6 participants selected from each of sampled kebeles
particularly affected household heads and experts of town municipal judged as a sample. This
tool more or less applied on detail discussion of critical issues investigated based on
reflection of open ended questions by a researcher as chairperson of discussion.

Personal Observation

First hand data of the field in eye view is more accurate comparative to else. Critically
observable features recorded on time of data collection from field. In context of issue studied,
investigator able to assess livelihoods condition of community, livelihoods strategies and
effects of expansion using camera during data collection.

3.2.5. Data analysis techniques

However the study has both qualitative and quantitative approach of analysis, prior of any
data analyzing techniques data from survey questionnaire was collected, recorded, coded and
filled into computer as input of processing and analyzing in SPSS software. Primary data
concerned to livelihood condition, livelihood change, strategy gaps and other related data
analyzed through descriptive techniques like frequency, percent, mean and standard
deviation.

33
To make question survey result strong, FGD and interview results analyzed via narrating
responses by statement. In addition to this, more of questions regarding to urban expansion
impact assessment of livelihood i.e. different assets of community before and after an event
numerically collected and analyzed by using statistical tool specifically repeated measures or
dependent t-test of significance. Then, result of analysis in SPSS software presented inform
of tables, pie chart and bar graphs followed by brief discussion based on result representing
facts of the studied area and previous studies.

The demarcation of time for livelihood assessment before and after urban expansion assigned
to 2005 E.C. This is due to the reason that Holeta town till 1999 E.C has only three kebeles
under its administration however proclamation No 65/1999 and revised 2003 reformed town
by including rural parts described above under town‟s administration. So, by considering 2
years for data effectiveness to prior condition, 2005 E.C assigned as transition time of before
and after community livelihood assessment.

Boundary
+ Land Sat Land Sat 8
Land Sat ETM +
2017
Map 1997 ETM 2007

STUDY AREA
GEOREFERCING LAYER STACKING
EXTRACTION

LAND SAT LAND SAT LAND SAT

1997 2007 2017

SPATIO-
TEMPORAL IMAGE
DETECTION LULC MAPS CLASSIFICATIO
N

Figure:3.2 Flow chart of Gis and remote sensing data analysis

Source: compiled by researcher

In order to achieve the second objective, the researcher used and or processed data from
satellite images of 1997 – 2017, GPS, base map of area and personally observed features
using software such as Arc Gis, Erdas imagine, 2010, MS Excel and others. In short figure
3.2 above displaying data analysis is in accordance of above chart.

34
 3.2.6. Ethical consideration
Conduction of the study for masters of degree fulfillment has permitted by Arba Minch
University, school of graduate studies. So, morals of researcher and community handled by
the research kept quiet. This indicates that firstly populations in the scope of the study have
full right to participate or not to participate. Conduction of this research doesn‟t has any
harm to their social, economic, environmental, moral and psychological nature rather since it
focused on assessing the case of urban expansion to their homeland, it can find out unknown
situation and can directs stakeholders to solve a problem if there is related matters. So, all
basic information obtained from population during survey used only for research and security
of household‟s all aspect had been notified for situation clearly and closely as ethics of the
study at initial stage of data collection.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. General Background of Respondents

By default background of the respondent is a body of finding which might had a correlation
with issues of investigation. So, this thesis tried to analyze and also presented data primarily
concerning to households information basically; gender, age, educational background and
family size of respondents.

4.1.1. Sex of respondents

Within the total respondents, there is proportional representation of both male and female. As
Table 4.1 below displays that 67.4% of sampled respondents were male while the left 33.6%
female which indicates one to one respondents from community. So, result implies that both
gender groups were surveyed for urban condition before and any livelihood implication after
urban expansion on both genders.

Table 4.1 Sex of the Respondents

Gender Frequency Percent (%)

Male 211 67.4

Female 102 33.6

Total 313 100

Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.1.2. Age of the respondents

Data collected from sampled respondents shown that almost there were communities in all
age categories. For instance, around 71.5% of household heads are in age range of 40-60
years. On other hand, 25.9% and 2.6% represents household heads less than 40 years and ˃
60 years, respectively (see Figure 4.1). It shows that most respondents or almost total
respondents are economically productive, they know more about historical expansion in town
and their livelihood strategy before and subsequent to urban expansion in scope of study.

36
 Figure 4.1: Age of the Respondents
Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.1.3. Educational background of respondents

Population in varied education status was one of the respondent‟s background and
determinant for livelihood strategy he/she follows. Specifically, from total household heads
38.9%, 18.2%, 1.9% and 0.3% were those of read and write, elementary, secondary and
above educational backgrounds. Figure 4.2 displays that more than half of respondents were
literate of “read” and “write” up to elementary while above 30% are illiterate respondents.
So, the number of respondents in educational level decreased from the illiterate to tertiary
status of education.

Figure 4.2: Educational background of Respondents

Source: Field survey, March 2018

37
This suggests that the number of professionals residing area are infrequent and their
probability to join non-farm practice meaning that community expropriated by expansion
enjoys difficulty of job opportunity and skill to adopt and or advance their livelihood even if
expansion of town interrupted their former livelihood condition.

4.1.4. Family size of the respondents

Table 4.2 above indicates the number of male and female family members under household
heads. This table shows that total family size of respondents is 1944 of which, 943 male and
1001 were female, respectively. Regards to male family size of households, 40% of
households have family size of 1-2, 29.45% of 3-4 family and 28.1% of 5-6 of male family,
respectively. But percentage of households administering above 7 members are a little. On
other hand, household‟s female family size, 1-2 accounts 33.1%, 3-4 accounts 38.75 while
22.6% of households have 5-6 female family members.

Generally, mean female and male family of surveyed respondents were 3.2 and 3.01,
respectively. In other word, the average total family size was around 6.21 under each of
household heads in the study area which is extreme size above average of national level. So,
it is difficult to feed even if there is enough farmland and crop production. Similar to land
expropriation and fragmentation of farmland; high family members itself can let to livelihood
failure and food insecurity.

Table 4.2: Respondent‟s family size

HHs Family size Male Female

Frequency (No) Percent (%) Frequency (No) Percent (%)
HHs F. size HHs F. size
No family 3 0 1 6 0 1.9
member
1-2 126 159 40.2 101 161 33.1
3-4 92 304 29.45 121 426 38.7
5-6 88 452 28.1 71 360 22.6
˃7 4 28 1.3 14 98 4.5
Total 313 943 100 313 1001 100
Mean family size 3.01 3.2

Source: Field survey, March 2018

38
4.2. Status of Urban Development in Study Area

4.2.1. Historical expansion of town

According to focus group discussion participant‟s narration, establishment of Holeta was by

Emperor Menilik II particularly at currently called as Birbirsa Siba kebele. Till the recent
time, this town covers small area i.e. only three kebeles. But after a while opening of federal
and regional institutions like research center as well as its requirement for government
followed with gradual population resettlement at different sides of town. Even if more of our
rural residents didn‟t hope to migrate to here but others became mass. Exceptionally,
participants guessed as the time after Ethiopian millennium, 2000 and town‟s reformation by
urban proclamation.

In addition to this primary data, documents from municipality also support participant‟s idea
that Holeta town established in 1948 E.C but covers around 1550 ha up to 1990s though
expanded to 5550 ha via reforming proclamation No 65/95 implemented in last of 2000 E.C.
Actually, the starting point of Holeta town expansion was from B/Siba local administration
though currently expanding in almost all direction except south and south west extremes due
to unsuitable topography for settlement. For instance, on north east direction following the
main road of Finfine to Wellega, on north following construction of Holeta to Mogor road
way and on east approaching to Finfine because of topographic suitability and better
infrastructural coverage till now (Holeta Town Municipality, 2017).

Qualitative data from respondents also supports numerically assessed spatial expansion of
town. For instance, researchers viewed questioned of whether Holeta town is rapidly
expanding or not. Almost, 99% of respondents agreed on the idea that town had been
expanding rapidly though community‟s attitude towards to expansion program differed.
Since, socio-economic situation, population size trend and investment situation increases
timely, town reformation starting from 1999 E.C caused enlargement from 1550 ha to 5550
ha (55.89 km2) coverage including close rural parts considering as response area of housing
demand stretched via increased population size and all together development of areas (HTM,
2017). In the same view, Alemu and Amare (2015) justified that similar to other several
African countries, urban expansion or growth in Ethiopia is occurring at a more rapid rate and
competition for land between agriculture and non-agriculture is becoming intense in the per-
urban areas.

39
On other hand, further pulling factor for expansion also surveyed. Regards to this,
respondents presented more than one causes as follows. This shows that 58.1%, 57.8%,
29.4% and 11.5% of sampled respondents replied that investment program implementation,
geographical proximity of town towards to Finfine, climatic suitability of town for settlement
and high natural population increase of town were pulling factors intensified expansion of
town, respectively (see Table 4.3).

From those causes, principal causes of urbanization were implementation of investment

program and geographical founding of town at close distance from Finfine while natural
population increase and topographic nature of town are least pulling factor. In review part of
this researcher, Bhata (2010) pointed that some of causes for urban expansion or compactness
are population growth, economic growth, industrialization and demand for more living space.
Therefore, establishment of many agro-forestry and other factories and its geographical
location are few of decisive factors highly invited labor force, new residential plots and urban
expansion program in Holeta town.

Table 4.3: Factors for rapid urban expansion in study area

S. No Items Frequency Percent

1 Investment program implementation in town 182 58.1

2 Geographical proximity of town to Finfine 181 57.8
3 Climatic suitability of town for settlement 92 29.4
4 Suitable topography for settlement 36 11.5
5 High natural population increase of town 25 8

Source: Field survey, 2018

4.2.2. Demographic condition of town

Population size is one indicator to measure the status of urbanization for one urban
settlement. Population size in town at different census and municipality report depicts
urbanization. For instance, the total Number of population lived in 1999, 2005 and currently
2009 E.C, were 25,593, 37,850 and 63,139 populations, respectively. This shows that within
former two periods report, 1999 and 2004; almost population size increased by 10,000 and
from 2005 to 2007 increased by 2000 population and the same change till now. Out of current
population size, great percent were urban dwellers (52045) but only 11,094 from recently
bounded per-urban areas.

40
 From current total population, 32,201 were female and the rest (30,938) are male.
Furthermore greater than half of populations, 57.8% are adult age groups while the rest are
young and elder (HTM, 2017).

From this data we can interpret that doubling time of population in settlement is too short;
higher rate of growth as well as urbanization though level of urbanization is even nationally
lower. This means that in accordance of town‟s report population size is increasing rapidly as
soon as urban growing or expanding to rural parts. In supporting this result, UN-habitat
(2010) and Toulmin (2008) articulated that unprecedented growth of urban population in
Africa is causing an exceptionally rapid increase in the demand for urban land. The rising
demand for urban land therefore tends to be met primarily by converting per-urban
agricultural land at the periphery of the existing built-up area or urbanization in centers.

So, current demography implies that rapid rate of population growth and urbanization in the
former areas of town enforcing town to expand towards to the neighbor rural kebeles as well
as urban growth even if more of populations are economically inactive.

Table: 4.4 Population size of Holeta town from 1999 – 2009 E.C

Population Size Total Population Size (1999 -2009 E.C)

yy 1999 E.C 2004 E.C 2005 E.C 2007 E.C 2008 E.C 2009 E.C

Total size 25,593 35,845 37,850 42,842 60,256 63,139

Source: Holeta Town Administration, 2017

Moreover, household heads replied different population category newly settled and
exaggerated rate of growth and urbanization in studied area. Table 4.5 below shows that
50.5% of the respondents responded as immigrants come from closer town around Finfine
were major group for town‟s urban population growth while 47.92%, 38% and 20.6% said;
people came from surrounding woredas of town, peoples came from adjacent rural areas to
enjoy better jobs and population growth of town itself respectively. In support of this finding,
Tegegne (2001) pointed out that nationally most role player leading urban centers to
expanding are in migrants from rural and urban, natural population increase and
industrialization which demands housing facilities.

41
So, such gradual demand of land and housing leads to urban expansion but unbalanced with
economic growth. This result reveals that the first most inhabitants alarming the rate of
urbanization are immigrants resettled from the nearby towns while the second and third most
influential population groups are from surrounding woredas and closer rural areas. But,
natural population growth of town and populations in rural part of town are not such much
determinant groups accelerated urban expansion or growth.

Table 4.5: Group of population accelerated urban population size

S.N Items Frequency Percent

1 Population came from rural areas of woreda 119 38.0

2 Population came from other surrounding woredas 150 47.9

3 High population growth of town itself 65 20.8

4 Immigrants from closer town around Finfine 158 50.5

Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.2.3. Infrastructural condition of town

Situations that facilitate growth of economy parallel to urban growth or expansion were
infrastructural facility. UN report of (2007) pointed that urban growth occurs naturally from
individual and corporate efforts to reduce time and expense in community and transportation
while improving opportunities of jobs, educations, and housing and transportation status. For
this study, infrastructural facilities assessed are access of; transport, water and sanitation,
communication and others.

From its history before a decade, the town crossed by 39.8 km asphalt main road on the way
of Finfine to Nekemte. Beside to this, 60 km of gravel surfaced and no more of cobble
surfaced internal roads mostly in central (core) of town. Now a day, there were better road
types of different category such as; asphalt, gravel smooth, normally surfaced and coble
surfaced roads in all direction of town than former rural condition. So, infrastructure
constructed able to contribute economy and job opportunity for peoples. For instance, the
town newly constructed 232.16 km gravel surfaced, 30.39 km cobble stone, 19.9 km
stretched ditch of flood, small bridge and 41 km calvert (HTAP, 2017). In line to this,
Mandere (2010) identified that expansion of town to per-urban areas has led to the newly
establishment of infrastructures such as electrification, telephone services, new schools and

42
health centers. This development has created new employment opportunities and thereby
increased immigration to the area.

This result displays that comparatively there is better access of internal road extended in all
direction to rural parts though coverage of roads and terminals for socio-economic purpose in
town until now is inadequate comparative to demand of facility. And also extensions of those
internal road types are not well distributed or regionalized in all direction for altogether
beneficially of per-urban community.

Another infrastructural facility accessed in case study was electric service as root of multiple
activities. There is electric service via 3 stations by totally generating 45 kilo volt. But access
even before 2 years was only from 2 power terminal. Even though municipality says there is
an access for almost 24 hours, there are problems like; lack of transformer, experts as needed,
inefficiency of power line along newly built up area, unfitness of line power with urban
master plan and so on. Currently the service coverage for dwellers and economic user
estimated to 68% (HTAP, 2017). From this point, we can interpret that number of
community in coverage is advanced however current capability below amount required
enhancing economic and social aspects of town.

The town has different water resources and supply from deep well and others for sanitation
revealing high potential of supply and sanitation but unutilized for socio-economic
requirements. For instance, town has 5 deep well and 2 water tankers serving more than
5,060 households before ten years. Currently, the town has water bank discharging of
627,528 m3 per a year from 8 deep well and 3 tankers conserving 150 m3, 300 m3 and 800 m3
respectively Walmara area, Dobi area and new 2nd Dobi stations (Holeta Town Water Supply
and Sanitation Office, 2017). So, we can conclude that even though there was improvement
making 6,529 households user and enlarged service coverage to 70% of population in
administration, till now there is certain lack of water sanitation access for all.

Municipality providing education services for generation in private and governmental

organization. Before 5 years there were around 37 education institutions and federal
institutions like research center, military academy and colleges. Currently, there is 24 KG, 2
primaries, 13 private and governmental elementary, 2 secondary, 1 preparatory, 1 technical
and vocational training center, 2 research institute and 2 colleges. Gradual increasing of
population size due to expansion let to high school enrollment chance of community (Holeta
Town Education office, 2017).

43
Mohamed (2014) also described that Africa‟s rapid urbanization is expected to increase
enrollment, especially at primary level. Indeed, the nature of cities appears to provide
incentives for investment in education by residents. So the result suggests that all schools of
lower up to higher education centers with exception of university enrollment to education
opportunity are wider currently than else.

Health institutions providing services in Holeta town are gradually increasing from time to
time. More of drastically increases are along private institution while less of governmental
side. Data from town‟s administration reveals that there were only 29 private and
governmental institutions in 2005 E.C but service centers increased to 38 of 2008 E.C
including clinics, health stations as well as pharmacy shops. At this time, town has 43 health
institutions and one special hospital on the stage of finishing (Health Office, 2017). The
study of Mohamed (2014) also concluded to that towns have access to health and sanitations.
Health care service more concentrated to urban areas as residents increase for better health
performances than those in rural areas.

This denotes that there is gradual rise of service coverage in urban settlement as soon as area
expanded and more population settled though the current coverage is not enough at all. Since
expansion of town and population growth causes additional demand of facility fulfillment,
moderate coverage of service by little of government in municipality but mass clinics of
profit oriented owners show capital inadequacy to fully access.

4.2.4. Economic condition of town

Even if residential crowdedness or high population statistics of respective core kebeles

engaged non-farming practices, there are urban dwellers basically live via agricultural
production as the income source at rural-urban linked area. According to community
strategies before 1990s, most of per-urban residents in recently bounded to municipality
depended on the agriculture activities such as; crop cultivation, livestock reproduction and
mixed farming though more of urban dwellers are non-agricultural economy followers.
Earlier document from town‟s finance office stated that, 8.9%, 8.47% and 5.1%, of
community generated finance from government employment, investment and own business
respectively while the rest population, 9.14% and 16.3% subsisted by farming practices and
service oriented actions (Holeta Town Development and Finance Office, 2017).

44
From the current demography of town, 57.6% are economically productive population
involved in various strategy of livelihood while others (42.4%) are passive and unemployed.
Out of the total, (45.7%) are currently producing the finance for themselves as well as their
dependents (54.3%). Contrary to this, 42.31% are economical dependents of active
population (HTM, 2017). This indicates that 84 passive peoples are surviving by 100 active
peoples for individual livelihood and indirect economic growth of town.

At sector level, only 6.7% of the total depends on agriculture related mode of life while the
left mostly central area residents engaged in different non- agriculture particularly
governmental work, employees of factories and other service oriented activities. Now a day,
10.39%, 6.9%, 6.7%, 0.38%, 12.47% and 21.30% of productive population respectively
generating their income via activities such as; government employment, own business,
farming, investment, employment in small and large industries there, service provision and
own business jobs. Result of study demonstrates reduction of community performing
common farming practices compared to previous of event which means that most of per-
urban households modified their strategy from rural characteristics to urban form due to
urban expansion.

Historically, there were no industries before 1990s but following 1996 proclamation on
investment opportunities; a number of small, medium and large scale industries involved in
production of various semi-finished and finished goods within different areas of town.
Establishment of those factories and job opportunity then after made 4,542 (12.47%) of total
urban residents beneficial (HTM, 2017). In support of this finding, Simon et al (2008) stated
that per-urban expansion in China is the result of investments on the manufacturing sector
due to deliberate dispersal of state-owned industries, foreign direct investments and domestic
investments. This informs that 1,016.4 ha of total land transformed to commercial farming
and various non-agricultural uses. Thus, own business, employment in government offices as
well as factories and other non-agricultural activities are the common economic activities
urban residents relied.

For community‟s daily economic actions, a town has an access of financial agents of which, 3
branches of CBE, 1 DBE, 7 private banks like Awash, Nib, Abysinia, OIB, CBO and other
micro finances. As a whole the town is providing financial service for community via 19
financial institutions (HTM, 2017).

45
Other than economic improvements, socio-demographic situations like rapid population
growth due to high inflow of population hoping opportunity and expansion of town to fringe
caused unstable economic problem i.e. high rate of unemployment in town and or adverse
implication to economy. Consecutively, the number of unemployed labor had been
increasing in town though few professional labors organized. Actually there was no concrete
job creating strategy from town‟s administration and government nationally before years.

Currently, municipality emphasized to facilitating credit and performing activity like

grouping of skilled unemployed labor to different small and micro enterprises or unions in
various economic sectors. For example, the town able to create 603 enterprises for totally
3,488 populations engaged in manufacturing, construction, trade and urban agriculture from
which 39 of them transformed to better stage of business. So, the program certainly mediated
the problem of high rate of unemployment (Holeta Town Small and Micro Enterprises Office,
2017).

4.2.5. Social condition of town

In social view, key informants from municipality and others responded that growth of Holeta
came with different social problems. Interviewees said our town gradually falling in the
problem of peace as well as security for public day to day activity. This means that high
numbers of jobless adults are currently participating on different acts. After their usage of
addictive more of them employed to illegal events such as repeatedly creating conflict
situation in town, engaging in to robbing or stealing the property of travelers or new comer
and related public disturbances. For instance, still hanging peoples by taking towards to
unknown position repeatedly heard in the town. So, we concluded that problems of
unemployment, social unrest and others are the result of; population congestion, unbalanced
growth between population and economy and high unemployed labor forces crowded which
directly and indirectly stretched via rapid expansion.

4.2.6. Housing status and tenure of town

Since population in town rapidly increased by factors suggested above, there was high
housing demand from dwellers and others newly settled labor force behind factories. But,
only 14,000 households are the owner of private houses. On other hand, there are early taken
kebele houses in B/Siba, G/Kerensa, B/Harbu and few in peripheral kebeles in town. Totally,
there are 1,110 houses of which 1,000 houses have plan and 28 transferred for investment

46
purpose and public economic uses. Most of those houses rented as financial source for
municipality by earning around 190,000 ETB annually (HTM, 2017).

In order to respond high demand of housing there, town is on the way of constructing 552
condominiums named 20:80. Out of the total condominium houses, only 195 houses of 1, 2
and 3 bedrooms and studio houses transferred for user via lottery form while the rest, 357
houses‟ construction is ongoing (HTM, 2017). In support of this result, Tameru (2010) stated
that among other main issues housing development policy direction is focused on overcoming
the problems of housing urban areas through urban renewal and upgrading, increasing the
density of developed area, developing the construction industry and reducing the informal
housing. Now, few of houseless households got condominium house though the work of
municipality is below the amount demanded that means high housing problem.

4.3. Spatial and Temporal Land Use Land Cover Change of Study Area

4.3.1. Land use land cover of Holeta town

Description of land sat images

Spatial and temporal land use land cover of study area shown by the classification result of
land sat images such as; ETM+1997, ETM+2007 and Land Sat 8 2017. From the images
processed; coverage of land use types during consecutive images, rate of changes and
accuracy assessment from recent image were derived for analysis. The key goal to analyze
these images was producing land use map and detecting land use change in different years in
historical expansion using ARC GIS 10.3, ERDAS IMAGINE 2010 and Microsoft Excel for
Holeta town.

Table: 4.6 Description of major land use land covers

No Class Types Description of land uses in study area

1 Open space Harvested area, stony areas or soil exposed and like uncultivated.
2 U. agriculture Various cultivated grounds of crops, vegetable, fruits and other
crops
3 Built up area Industrial, Residential, commercial, infrastructural constructions
and related features
4 Forest land vegetation, shrub lands, planted, open agro-forestry like flower
factories and related
5 Grassland Grazing areas, swampy or marshy land and moist areas along
streams.

Source: LULC maps, ERDAS IMAGINE 2010

47
 Land use land cover in 1997

An area coverage and percentage of land use and land cover categories within three equal
time interval of years were derived from those classified images. As Figure 4.3 below shows
about 12.8% of Holeta town administration covered by grassland, 17.7% by Forest, 7.7% by
Built-up, 50.3% by open space and 11.5% by urban agriculture, respectively.

Figure 4.3: Land sat image ETM+ of 1997 showing LULC of the study area
Source: USGS / Earth Explorer, 2018

Result of Figure 4.3 above shows that the distribution of land cover of open space was found
to be supreme of the land cover in the region and it covered about 2784 ha of land, followed
by forest and grassland land coverage accounting of 980 ha, 712 ha, respectively. On other
hand, built-up coverage accounted 428 ha while urban agriculture accounts 628 ha of the total
land use land cover classes. Totally, image classified covers around 5532 ha of land.
Generally, dominancy of open space before 1997 as shown in the map might be due to the
recent bounded rural-urban areas were no more modified to urban land use rather widely used
for cultivation and other traditional uses that time.

48
Land use land cover in 2007

Compared to that of 1997 classified image of study area in 2007, open space land use covered
only 1533 ha of total land cover while urban agriculture account 1571 ha. The rest portion of
town, 873 ha covered by grassland, 559 ha by forest and 996 ha by built up area. Percentage
of area coverage by land use in 2007 displayed as 27.7% and 28.6% or greater than half of
area covered by open space and urban agriculture respectively but 15.7%, 10% and 18% of
areas used for grassland, forest and built up uses. Since open areas around town invited for
investment and a number of foreign as well as domestic investors flow to the closer, open
areas highly deduced or shifted to urban agro-processing and building activities (see Figure
4.4 below).

Figure 4.4: Land sat image ETM+ of 2007 showing LULC of the study area

Source: USGS / Earth Explorer, 2018

Land use land cover in 2017

Image classification of the recent time, 2017 shows great decreasing or increasing of different
land cover land uses assigned in all images. For instance, Table of land cover for 2017
represents that 1993 ha of built up, 1408 ha of open space, 1080 ha of urban agriculture and
almost 525 ha for each of forest and grassland.

49
In other word, built up and open space area coverage are 36.2 %, and 25.4 % respectively. Of
total coverage, 19% by both forest and grassland, 19.5% urban agriculture. This implies that
from five types of land use and covers, the dominant usage in area is for built up though the
second but highly decreased from earlier is open area (see Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: Land sat image 8 of 2017 showing LULC of the study area

Source: USGS / Earth Explorer, 2018

4.3.2. Spatial and temporal land use land cover changes

Land use land cover change (1997-2007)

Table 4.7 show that the major land cover change observed from the year of 1997 to 2007 is
reduction of area in both forest and open lands i.e. from 980 ha to 559 ha and 2784 ha to 1533
ha respectively. The remaining land uses had been increased/ converted from those declined
in area coverage from the year 1997 to 2007. In other word, 421 ha of former forest land as
well as 1251 ha of open land in 1997 shifted to other land covers particularly to build up
mostly in west part, north west following the main road and Holeta to Mogor road ways,

50
urban agriculture; replacement of farming of westerns by different agro-processing and
related agriculture and grass lands after decade, 2007.

Generally, the land use types highly decreased from 1997 to 2007 was open space area (1251
ha) and increased was urban agriculture (943 ha) and built up area by 568 ha. Periodically,
land use land coverage of studied area‟s image displays great change within ten year. For
instance, open land and forest are land coverage which highly decreased (- 44%) i.e. by half
in each of them.

From result in Table 4.7 below, we can say that percent expressed in open and forest
coverage is dramatically transformed to different urban usage as soon as the expansion of
town to per-urban area current surveyed more or less expropriated or assigned for urban use
in year of interval. So, it is possible to evaluate as how much the modification of area into
urbanity alarmed in one decade.

Table 4.7: Land use land cover change in study area from 1997-2007

LULC of 1997 LULC of 2007 LULC change (1997-2007

LULC Types Area (ha) (%) Area (ha) (%) Change (ha) Change (%)
Grassland 712 12.8 873 15.7 161 +22.6
Forest 980 17.7 559 10 -421 - 43
Built-up area 428 7.7 996 18 568 +132.7
Open space 2784 50.3 1533 27.7 -1251 - 45
U. Agriculture 628 11.5 1571 28.6 943 +150
Total 5532 100 5532 100 0 0
Source: Analysis in ERDAS IMAGINE 2010, 2018

Land use land cover change (2007-2017)

As soon as before one decade, Table 4.8 below displays that continued reduction of open
land, forest and also grassland; by 125 ha, by 32 ha and by 349 ha respectively though
amount decreased from forest is comparatively less than the left two land uses. On other
hand, land use type which only and area coverage for severe needs of various urban building
areas extending to agricultural related at periphery of town. This situation is more visible at
north western of frequently constructing residential settlement. It is widely converted at north
eastern extreme and few of southern as well as south west part due to areas densely occupied
by different production engaged industries followed by high willingness of housing closer to
factories (see Table 4.8). In other word, there is timely conversion of land use land cover
similar to the case between 1997 and 2007 images.

51
This implies that area covered by open land, forest land, grassland and urban agriculture in
2007 decreased by 8.2%, 5.7%, 40% and 31.2% respectively according to classification result
from current image, 2017. So, all of land cover reduced or converted were changed to urban
built up area (100%).

Using image analyzed and researcher‟s observation during data collection as an evidence,
more of periphery part in most direction and central land use of earlier occupied for private
purposes like residential settlement, industrial as well as other public urban land uses. So,
factors such as bounding of adjacent areas to town after reformation, alarmed population flow
in, many newly established investment programs after national invitation and others
accelerated the rate of land use towards to urban settlement and various socio-economic
aspects.

Table 4.8: Land use land cover change in study area from 2007-2017

LULC Type LULC of 2007 LULC of 2017 LULC change (2007-2017

Area (ha) (%) Area (ha) (%) Change (ha) Change (%)
Grassland 873 15.7 524 9.4 -349 -40
Forest 559 10 527 9.5 -32 -5.7
Built-up 996 18 1993 36.2 +997 +100
Open space 1533 27.7 1408 25.4 -125 -8.2
U. Agriculture 1571 28.6 1080 19.5 -491 -31.2
Total 5532 100 5532 100 0 0
Source: Analysis of ERDAS IMAGINE 2010, 2018

Land use land cover change (1997-2017)

Even though spatial and temporal shifting of land uses of studied area discussed in above
sub-topics for ten years interval, Table 4.9 below summarized decreasing and or increasing of
land uses between 1997 and 2017 images as follows. Actually, percentage or area changed
from each type is not identical. But, change along built up area displayed by consecutive
increasing while forest and open space types show decreasing starting to ending time of
image analyzed for survey. Simply, area of 453 ha and 1376 ha totally reformed to urban
construction use within 20 years history of expansion in Holeta town. From those changes,
1565 ha of total change principally adjusted to urban usage.

52
Conversely, area early served community as means of livestock reproducing (grassland) and
urban agriculture show wavering i.e. increasing and or decreasing because of various
situations associated with urban expansion. As a whole, result of three images classified
implies too rapid expansion of Holeta town via further expropriation and town reformation in
order to respond high population flow in from different corner of town.

Table 4.9: Land use land cover change in study area from 1997-2017

LULC Type LULC of 1997 LULC of 2017 LULC change (1997-2017

Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Change (ha) Change (%)

Grassland 712 12.8 524 9.4 -188 -26.4

Forest 980 17.7 527 9.5 -453 -46.2

Built-up 428 7.7 1993 36.2 +1565 +365.7

Open space 2784 50.3 1408 25.4 -1376 -49.4

U. Agriculture 628 11.5 1080 19.5 +452 +72

Total 5532 100 5532 100 0 0

Source: Analysis of ERDAS IMAGINE 2010, 2018

53
 Figure: 4.6 Change detection map from 1997 to 2017 in study area

Source: Analysis of ERDAS IMAGINE 2010, 2018

4.3.3. Accuracy Assessment

Actually three images had been taken to assess land use land cover changes. But accuracy of
image classified assessed by taking ground control points and understanding of researcher
from field observation. This is to means that land use land cover classification map of study
area in 2017 as shown in figure below had been used. The accuracy of the classified image
was evaluated by constructing confusion matrices using 48 ground control points for
classified image. Those control points are randomly collected from field of study.

The main purpose of accuracy assessment is to quantify the accuracy of the map and generate
error matrix to correct bias in the map. For land use land cover changes, it is necessary to
look at the overall accuracy of change rather than accuracy of single land cover maps. So,
overall accuracy, producer‟s accuracy, user‟s accuracy and overall Kappa statistics were
derived from the error matrix. In error matrix, the pixels located along the diagonal i.e. from the
upper left to the lower right represents pixels that are classified into their correct category while pixels
out of diagonal pixels represents omission and error matrix respectively.

Producer‟s accuracy derived from error omission which means by dividing the number of correctly
classified pixels in each category by the number of training pixels used for that category (total row).
On other way, user‟s accuracy calculated by dividing the number of correctly classified pixels in each

54
category by the total number of pixels in that category which derived from commission error
(Congalton, 2000). The overall accuracy result of the study area‟s classification derived from
both producer‟s and user‟s or by dividing the total number of correctly classified pixels (sum
of major diagonal) by the total pixel assigned in all category for assessment. But, Kappa
statistics informs to what the extent percentage correct values of an error matrix are from
"true" agreement versus "chance" agreement. Value of this statistics extended from 0 to 1 to
give meaning poor or best classification result, Lillesand, 2004 (cited by Teketel, 2015).
Since overall accuracy of the classification was 95.71% with Kappa statistics of = 0.9422, it
represents 94.42% or better accuracy of supervised classification than using unsupervised
random classification. Different articles like Landis (1977) stated that it is excellent
classification of land use land cover poor classification when K˃0.75 and thus agreement
from various authors; kappa coefficient value (0.9422) concluded to that classification result
of LULC of current image has excellent accuracy.
Table 4.10: Error matrix for classification validity by land sat 8 of 2017
Classified Data
Class type User‟s
Built up

agricult
unclass

Urban

accuracy (%)
Forest

Open
Grass

space

Tota
land

Unclassified 22 0 0 1 0 0 23 --------
Grass land 0 4 1 0 0 0 4 100
Forest 0 1 2 0 0 0 2 100
Built up 1 0 0 22 0 0 24 91.67
Open space 0 0 0 0 13 0 13 100
U agriculture 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 100

Total 22 5 3 23 13 4 70
Producer A. (%) ---- 80 66.6 95.65 100 100
Overall classification Accuracy = 95.71% Overall kappa statistics = 0.9422

Source: Analysis of ERDAS IMAGINE 2010, 2018

4.4. Livelihood Change of Peripheral Households in the Study Area

To assess household‟s livelihood change after expansion, specific investigation regards to

livelihood condition before expansion, livelihood condition after expansion, income sources
of households after the event, comparison of the strategic reaction, determinants of strategy
changes and its implication on community surveyed consecutively as follows.

55
For impact assessment, before and after technique of analyzing was in use. In this finding,
before expansion termed for capital comparison representing situation before 2005 E.C as
before expansion while that of till now represented for after urban expansion. So, livelihood
of households assessed via measuring significance of the difference between capitals of the
same group at a different period of time using 2005 E.C as a transition time due to the reason
specified in data analysis technique of previous chapter.

4.4.1. Livelihood condition of community before urban expansion

For respondent‟s livelihood strategy earlier of urban growth; common income sources of
agricultural and also non-agricultural participants, level of their satisfaction and else included
under this sub-topic of an objective.

Primary income sources of community before urban expansion

Concerning to economic sector communities relied, 79.9% of participants responded as they

depended on jobs in the category of agricultural sector. But, 20.1% of household heads had
been engaged under jobs of non-agricultural character (see Figure 4.7). This reveals that,
79.9% of residents performed different agricultural activities which need wider land but
currently reformed for urban land use.

Figure 4.7: Economic sector of households before urban expansion

Source: Field survey, March 2018

From household heads trusted by agricultural economic sector, source of income or jobs they
participated for their day to day life condition were described in accordance of respondents‟
actual work before the expansion of town. In that case, there were household heads made an
income from more than one jobs.

56
As a result, Table 4.11 below shows as most households (97.6%) generated their income for
livelihood through crop production. Besides to this, 26%, 16% and 2.4% respectively
performed jobs like; livestock rearing, production of crops for market and forestry. But no
household heads achieved their livelihood by fishery. This data denotes that the income root
community extensively involved using early experience is farming activities which directly
correlated with access of farmland.

Reviewed literature also stated that the main livelihood strategies at urban periphery are
farming practices focus with those has access of land in and outside of urban boundaries but
basically generate income from it.

Table 4.11: HHs engaged in agricultural incomes before expansion

S.No Items Frequency Percent

1 Livestock Rearing 65 26

2 Crop Production 244 97.6

3 Forestry 6 2.4

4 Cash crop production 40 16

5 Fishery - -

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Other than agricultural activity dependents, there were household heads trusted through non-
agricultural activities which more or less requires small land. Particularly, 31.74%, 31.74%,
17.46%, 11.11% and 7.93% of non-agricultural category participants respectively derived
own finance for consumption and other uses through jobs such as small business (producing
Tella, Hereke), employment in private sectors there, working in some ones‟ house and street
vender. Such few groups of respondents reasoned that because their land possession or
tenancy even earlier of expansion was too less and also currently secured by non-agriculture
activities (see Table 4.12).

The result states that only few of sampled households performed diverse works of non-
agricultural sectors however those opportunities are not significant to advance livelihood of
population. But, regularly operated income activities along most of peripheral community is
that of farming types like; crop cultivation and certainly livestock rearing on the other side.

57
 Table 4.12: HHs engaged in Non-agricultural incomes before expansion

S.N Items Frequency Percent

o
1 Small business (Tella, Hereke and others) 20 31.74
2 Employment in private sector 20 31.74
3 Daily labor force 11 17.46
4 Working in some one‟s house 7 11.11
5 Street vender 5 7.93

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Reaction of households on livelihood condition before urban expansion

Regards to level of satisfaction, household heads asked on whether livelihood status of

community before expansion at homestead was better or not. Accordingly, 49.5% and 37.7%
of respondents responded “best” and “moderate” living condition though few respondents,
12.8% replied merely subsistence and below hand to mouth stage (see Table 4.13). This
suggests that most community was satisfied to their livelihood condition even by traditional
farming practices which mean no difficulty of livelihood.

Table 4.13: Household‟s satisfaction to livelihood before urban expansion

S.No Items Frequency Percent

1 Best Living condition 155 49.5

2 Moderate Living condition 118 37.7

3 Low/ Survival living condition 36 11.5

4 Very low Living condition 4 1.3

Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.4.2. Livelihood condition of households related to urban expansion

Household heads’ source of income after urban expansion

Since jobs for income generating was basic thing for all human beings to live, all respondents
accepted as they engaged in at least one job though the main activity they relied varies from
respondents to respondents. There were households performing their daily and consecutive
livelihood by participating on both agricultural and non-agricultural economic sector.

58
Similarly, Firew (2010) pointed that most of expropriated landholders started to engage on
non- agricultural activities as copying strategy with the new life after the expansion of urban
areas over their vicinity and few now itself performing farm practices.

In order to identify job they involved, further survey concerned to job types was carried out.
For that question; crop production, own business other than cultivation, working in some
one‟s house and daily labor force were respectively foremost jobs of 39.9%, 21.7%, 13.4%
and 12.1% sampled household heads as table shows us. The rest respondents involved in
such of works by going too far rural areas from settled area, government employees and small
business activities like Tella, Hereke and else (see Table 4.14).

In line to this finding, Mandere (2010) noted that most of per-urban households have adopted
non-farm income activities as income source. In addition, a number of new migrants to the
per-urban region particularly those lacking the farming skills and those without access to
farming land, are mainly engaged in non-farm income generating activities like business
activities, professional employment, non-farm wage, and farm wage labor on the nearby
agricultural farm. When we compare with strategy former to expansion, respondents involved
to crop cultivation before accounted 79% while only 39% now after urban expansion.

Most of key informants and discussion participants strengthen the data collected via
questionnaire. For instance, Key informants from Galgal Kuyu reflected that most households
at urban fringes had been participants of farming, prominent job before though currently
many households moved towards to non-farming due to gradual decreasing landholding size
via own informal farmland sale and authorized expropriation (see Case 1 below). Mandere
(2010) also identified that over 85% of households were full time farmers in the 1960s but
this has since fallen to 49% of the respondents after expansion, with the remaining
households only cultivating their land on a part time basis due to the reason of reducing
household agricultural land holding size.

From this result, we conclude that there are mass community changed their income sources
from early, farming types to off-farming activities by the great influence of town expansion
and reformation of strategy.

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 Table 4.14: Household‟s source of income after urban expansion
Items Frequency Percent (%)

1 Crop cultivation 125 39.9

2 Own business 68 21.7

3 Government employment 8 2.6
4 Daily labor force 38 12.1
5 Working in some one‟s house 42 13.4
6 By migrating far to other rural area 26 8.3
7 Small business (Tella, Hereke) 6 1.9
Total 313 100
Source: Field survey, March 2018

Furthermore, probability of job opportunity along respondents varies however access might
relate to skill requirement. Particularly, 31% of respondents gave an answer as the chance to
get job now a day is easier and somebody can enjoy jobs while 69% respondents disregarded
the case that current access to job is challenging than before expansion of town. On the same
view, Feyera (2005) investigated that job opportunity in which affected community engaged
is decreasing from time to time. In addition, the dislocated farming communities have no
means and capacity to adapt to a new way of life and create in an alternative means of
livelihood for themselves.

From this result, it is possible to say that since the per-urban community surveyed mostly
prolonged their life by farming; they primarily lack labor specialization to join works in town
repeatedly. This means that transformation of rural land uses due to urban expansion once
force them to adopt low wage activities other than primary jobs.

Case 1: Livelihood Strategy and Urban Expansion

I engaged via economic activities of agricultural sector such as crop cultivation and
livestock rearing simultaneously at former. I had enough farmland and also livestock. Land
is our back bone; I mean we have no other skill. Now day it self I depended on crop
cultivation and domestic animals rearing simultaneously. But households most close to
town, those farmland removed and haven‟t farmland currently engaged to non-agricultural
sector of income source such as employment as keeper in private organization, daily labor
force and else. However, we depended on back warded agricultural job opportunity earlier,

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 Continued ……………

our livelihood condition was not such much worst for survival rather it is moderate
condition. Again currently even if there is households highly lost farmland by expropriation,
my livelihood condition was not severely changed. But there are those highly affected by
the expansion. No more of us have capital as earlier. They also have livestock now days
though amount and situation after expansion restricted their livestock reproduction. For
example I had around 5 oxen and above 10 cows earlier. But now I have only 2 oxen and 3
cows as basic. That is because we don‟t have grazing land as earlier. The area of grass
before taken for investment, lease. No common land we early reserved for our livestock.
Look the difference. I have family member married, they have right to get a little piece of
farm in accordance of rules and local adaptation. So, I divided crop land for family married
and few crop lands formally and informally transferred for others. Not only me, there are
households sold their farmland for “caraqaa” housing which means squatter settlements. We
do this for future fear of government may take off. They sold for private user at high cost.
But couldn‟t use finance and employed to other work. They simply consumed. Now they
are on the situation of seeing some one hand. Why for they inefficiently wasted and no
future life consideration. No awareness, training farmers for job engaging we got from
government. You know money without business. Gradual amount decline meanwhile we
have only cash we received for everything. Households are becoming family of worst living
status even deficiency of basic needs. That is why neighbors are working in some one‟s
house (My key informant of “Galgal Kuyyu Kebele”, March 2018).

Determinants of household’s livelihood change related to expansion

For household heads preferred livelihood mechanism of before expansion than after, the
following events are common factors. In this finding, livelihood strategy for 60.18%, 46.15%,
30.76%, 30.76% and 11.76% of household heads respectively affected by; inability to adopt
urban related livelihood, limited farm land due to removal and fragmentation, inefficiency of
finance compensated, inadequate access of capital for job opportunity and lack of labor
specialization (see Table 4.15).

Community at periphery faces problems of inability to develop their own survival strategies,
solidarity networks, system of power to which social and economic activities linked to former
places (Feyera, 2005). From those factors, most respondents‟ current employment determined

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by inability to adopt urban related livelihood, more prominent. In line of this finding, Firew
(2010) pointed that low availability of the job itself, as well as the lack of experiences in
searching and absence of skill for job access in urban setting affected community‟s livelihood
strategies. This response denotes that by the role of factors described above and similar then
after urban expansion, most of household heads‟ current livelihood condition had been
changed to lower qualification though no fluctuation in case of few on their livelihood.

Table 4.15: Determinants of livelihood strategy change due to expansion

S.No Items Frequency Percent

1 Inability to adopt urban related livelihoods 133 60.18

2 Limited farmland due to dispossession and fragmentation 102 46.15

3 Inefficient finance from compensation 68 30.76

4 Inadequate access of capital for job opportunity 68 30.76

5 Lack of labor specialization 26 11.76

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Reaction of households towards newly adopted livelihood strategy

However most of household heads believed that there is livelihood change, level of their
happiness to newly developed strategy was different. As Table 4.16 depicts, only 28.5% of
respondents responded high to moderate satisfaction. Conversely, household heads (45.7%)
unsatisfied of newly adopted life approach. Specially, 27.8% seriously responded as they had
been living below hand to mouth. So, around 74% of households reacting unsecured
livelihood condition they engaged after urban expansion.

Relatively, Firew (2010) pointed that livelihood of 90% dislocated households was unsecured
from strategy after urban expanding to their residence. Difference in percent of unsecured
among two finding might be due to the variation of fixed assets or property they lost during
expropriation.

Generally, if we consider family size, income sources and reaction of household‟s livelihood
condition before and then afterward of expansion, there is great change of livelihood
condition and strategy on the side of peripheral community around case study.

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 Table 4. 16: Household‟s reaction to newly adopted livelihood condition

S.No Items Frequency Percent

(HHs) (%)
1 High Satisfaction 49 15.7
2 Moderate Satisfaction 37 12.8
3 Low Satisfaction 140 45.7
4 Below hand to mouth 87 27.8
Total 313 100

Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.4.3. Impact of urban expansion on the peripheral communities’ assets

Livelihood is the means to gain different currency as well as other basic and luxury material.
This entire requirements need source of income from what they stored in different form of
asset as ever livelihood and income base from varied job opportunity. Assets are stocks of
capital considered as basic building blocks upon which households depend to generate the
means of survival which includes natural, physical, human, financial and social capital (Ellis,
2000 pp:31).

For this livelihood assessment, natural, physical and social asset of the peripheral community
has been examined as discussed below. But, financial assets like farm, non-farm and annual
incomes and expenditures haven‟t used since households might not remind that of before
expansion as well.

Urban expansion and natural asset

To examine any change of household‟s livelihood due to urban expansion, communities‟

assets as an element of livelihood strategy like natural capitals forms such as; farmland size,
forest covered or planted land and else in previous and after expansion was compared.

Firstly, household heads asked if there was any change of farm land size and forest covered
land or not. Of households, 70.9% responded that there was a change of farm land size and
also forest coverage from the former time to current. But the rest, (29.1%) opposed any
change of natural assets they might use for livelihood.

According to result in Figure 4.8 below, 42%, 28% and 24% of household heads respectively
owned farm land ranged from 1-3, below 1 and 4-6 ha. So, most of household heads occupied
the land category of 1-3 and below ha as soon as the major economic opportunity means of

63
crop production before town expansion. Along all respondents, the average farm land of
respondents was 3 ha. Farmland size of the same groups of households but different response
of farm land size after urban expansion is collected as follows (see Figure 4.8 below).
From this Figure, we able to read that less than 1, 1-3 and 4-6 ha farmland were owned by
43.2%, 40% and 16.5% of respondents respectively. Currently, there are no household heads
possessed farmlands of greater than 7 ha and more of respondents‟ cultivable land size
decreased by certain amount. An average farmland now a day on the hand of peripheral
community is 2.41 ha. So, mean difference of farmland among two observation times
decreased by 42.2% compared to former size in hectare showing high loss of farmland for
expropriation. Local per-urban landholders or indigenous small farmers are largely lost their
land where their livelihood is based upon in the process of urbanization (Alemu, 2015).

In order to conclude significance of difference, result in paired t test of SPSS in Table 4.17
such as; sig-value (0.05) prior estimated, t-value (-16.606) and p-value (0.000) had been used.
So, since p˂ 0.05 and rejection of no difference hypothesis, mean difference of the same
groups is statistically significant or not by chance. In other word, mean difference of both
events at demarcation of urban expansion (1.76) represents deduction of farm land size on the
hand of households after expansion which implies adverse effect of expansion on household‟s
landholding size and livelihood of peripheral communities proportionally.

Figure 4.8: Percentage of HHs owned farm land size before and after expansion
Source: Field survey, March 2018

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Another natural asset used for study was if household heads has forest and also afforested
land for future hope to income source. Majority of household heads in survey, (51.1%) and
(30.7%) respectively possessed forest and or plants covered of less than 0.5 and no at all even
though few of total possessed up to 0.75 ha as shown below. Mean of planted area occupied
by each household for socio-economic usage is 0.35 ha. After urban extended to closer rural
residents, possession of forest or planted area around 0.5 ha was only on hands of 2.2%
household heads while others; 25.9%, 71.9% respectively preserved little below 0.5 ha and
completely no asset. Currently an average forest ownership of groups surveyed is 0.20 ha (see
Figure 4.9 below).

By comparing stock of before with after, 51.1% early holders of 0.5 ha fall down to only 25%
and the rest participant haven‟t. This represents mean declining by 42.8% from former
coverage. To sum up change both variables paired t-test results, statistical significance at
95% confidence interval and p-value ˂ 0.05 disproved no difference assumption rather there
is statistically significant modification of forest area due to urban expansion (see Table 4.17).
This result tells that implementation of urban expansion program and situation then after
commanded households to loss forest land. Therefore, urbanization has an adverse impact on
natural assets of peripheral communities in studied area.

Figure 4.9: Percentage of HHs owned forest /planted area/ before and after expansion
Source: Field survey, March 2018

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 Table 4.17: Paired samples test of natural capitals
Source: Field survey, March 2018

Urban expansion and physical asset

From types of physical assets further estimated as base of community‟s income source or
livelihood strategy and affected by urban expansion are number of house room and native
animals (oxen, cows, sheep and poultry). But, other livestock were rarely used stock for
residents in studied area. Response for any change of those stocks or saving form at opposite
time of urbanization is that almost, 70% of respondents agreed to existence of change and the
rest responded no change of house rooms after urban intervention. Particularly, house rooms
before urban expansion more than 80% had been preserved house with less than 3 rooms.
Specifically, house with 1-2, 3-4 and above 5 classes respectively constructed and served of
82.4%, 16.9% and 0.6% of household heads (see Figure 4.10 below). In average, each of
household heads almost had 1.8 classes.
Result concluded to that more of household heads didn‟t have more classes for economic use
rather than shelter. To examine meaningful change of house rooms after, current number of
classes by the same groups presented as below.
Accordingly, 49.8%, 34.5%, 14.4% and 1.3% of respondents had been possessing house with
3-4, 1-2 and above 5 classes respectively. Currently, half of respondents have house rooms in
range of 3-4. Average class of household heads living now days is 3.145. For this finding,
mean difference of the two measures (1.4) currently increased by 64.28% approves change of

66
an asset. Similar to this, Firew (2010) summarized that affected community had the average
of 1.51 houses in room before urban expansion over there. However, this average has
ascended to 3.86 average rooms after the expansion of the city then by showing the difference
of 2.35. But a little variation of average rooms between two observations might be due to
housing status even before urban expansion among areas of previous and this study area.

In Table 4.18 below, statistical test; mean difference (0.636), t-value (15.041) and p-value
(0.000) as soon as p-value ˂ 0.05 and mean difference is not zero. Thus, we rejected no
difference assumption rather there is statistically significant difference. This implies mean of
house class later is larger than or positive impact of urbanization towards to adjacent
peripheral residents. So, payment for expropriation and incurring for basic needs, modernity
of shelter but rare for economic purpose advanced housing after urban expansion and
indirectly mean difference of capital led to improved livelihood of peripheral communities
surrounding town.

Figure 4.10: Household‟s house rooms possession before and after expansion

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Furthermore, respondents answered about causes for the increase of house rooms/classes
parallel to urban expansion. Respondents agreed about change of physical asset reasoned
various condition of why for. Few of factor for classes increasing they listed are; additional
house demand with family size, advancement of houses itself as urban settlement, house for
renting purpose in order to adopt urban livelihood mechanisms and usage of finance
compensated for housing. Firew (2010) elaborated that poor investment on the construction
of house had reduced the potential it will be income these households were to gain from
renting them.

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 Table 4.18: paired t-test table of house rooms/ classes of community

Source: household survey, 2018

Another form of physical capital surveyed for any influence of expansion on peripheral
community livelihood was amount of domestic animals‟ possession previous and later of an
event. For instance, livestock such as oxen, cows, sheep, hens and else are stocks or assets for
rural community till now. So, amount of livestock ownership in this study supposed as strong
indicator to assess livelihood effect due to urbanization.

In Table 4.19 below, 37.1% and 25.9% of respondents had stock of 1-2 and 3-4 oxen
respectively while the rest few households above. The maximum number of oxen possession
was 8. Average oxen each household possessed was 3 however current ownership among the
same respondents was no more than 2 oxen even 14.4 % of them haven no ox. From this
data we can say that, 34% of household heads didn‟t have oxen even for farming purpose yet
around 14.4% before expansion. In other word, households‟ oxen possession early to after
expansion declined by 52% which mean 1.56 oxen.

Table: 4.19 Oxen respondent‟s had before and after urban expansion

Items BEFORE AFTER

Frequency Percent percent Percent
No at all 45 14.4 107 34.2
1-2 Oxen 116 37.1 147 47.3
3- 4 Oxen 81 25.9 54 17.3
5- 6 Oxen 50 16 2 0.6
7- 8 Oxen 21 6.7 2 0.6
Total 313 100 313 100
Source: Field survey, March 2018

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In case of cow as livestock before expansion; 44.7% and 24.3% were the owner of 4-6 and 1-
3 cows respectively but few of respondents have above (see Table 4.20 below). So, majority
of participants were the owner of cows in range of above 4 to 6 cows. During their early
welfare without town intervention household heads possessed a mean of 6 cows. After urban
expansion, majority of families (44.4%) owns 1-2 cows however 18.2% of respondents
haven‟t at all.

Even though the number of household heads was less, there were respondents those kept
great number and also smaller. In average, each of household heads in the study scope was
the owner of approximately 3 cows. Further to this, two observation mean result represent as
cow ownership at current time declined by 50% from that of before urban effect. Similarly,
Firew (2010) concluded that an average cows‟ possession households had before diminished
to the current stock by more than half times.
Table:4.20 Cows respondents had before and after urban expansion
Items BEFORE AFTER
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

No one 27 8.6 57 18.2

1-3 Cows 76 24.3 139 44.4
4-6 Cows 140 44.7 75 24
7-9 Cows 12 3.8 6 1.9
10-12 Cows 5 1.5 33 10.5
Above 13 Cows 43 17 3 1.0
Total 313 100 313 100

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Moreover, data concerning to number of sheep at early of expansion plan summarized in

table. Respectively, 39.9% of household heads had no any sheep while 22.7% of them had 4-
6 sheep. Simply, mean of sheep sole proprietors used for varied target before expansion of
town is 4.84. By situations after expansion, household head‟s possession dropped down to no
sheep at all i.e. 46.3% of respondents. But there are few of household heads possessing sheep
though their percent is small. Mean of sheep later to urban horizontal growth is 3.13.
Generally, mean difference among two situations (1.73) indicate falling down by 32% from
the former size of livestock.

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 Table:4.21 Sheep respondents had befre and after urban expansion

Items BEFORE AFTER

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
No at all 125 39.9 145 46.3
1-3 Sheep 2 .6 42 12.5
4-6 Sheep 71 22.7 70 22.3
7-9 Sheep 49 15.7 35 11.1
10-12 Sheep 54 17.9 18 5.7
Above 13 Sheep 12 3.8 3 0.9
Total 313 100 313 100.0
Source: Field survey, March 2018

Moreover, poultry ownership along household heads is another income source for peripheral
community. Accordingly there were households those possess maximum, 20 hens and also
nothing, the least.

For example, 39.6% and 35.2% of them respectively owned 6-10 and 1-5 hens however 22%
of respondents completely haven‟t. The rest population separately accounted less than 10%
by owning various poultry. Previous to expansion each of households in average possesses
5.44 hens. After expansion, 38.9 % and 26.8% of respondents owned 6-10 and 1-5 hens
respectively while only 11.5 % haven‟t compared to early possession. Now a day an average
household head‟s possession (7.03) is greater than that of before expansion by almost 3 hens
or enlarged by 29.23% (see Table 4.22 below).

Table: 4.22 Poultry respondents had before and after urban expansion

Items BEFORE AFTER

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

1 No one 69 22 36 11.5
2 1-5 Hens 110 35.2 84 26.8
3 6-10 Hens 124 39.6 122 38.9
4 11-15 Hens 10 3.1 41 13.1
5 Above 25 Hens - - 30 9.5
Total 313 100 313 100
Source: Field survey, March 2018

Moreover of data before and after among all livestock, probability showing level of
statistically difference of paired groups checked by t-test tools as follows. Result of paired
repeated measures on domestic animals except poultry shown that mean of before is greater
than that of later urbanization (see Table 4.23 below).

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Since lower and upper limit value for all livestock is out of zero and also p-value in paired
variables was ˂ 0.05, variation of mean observed is statistically significant. In case of
poultry, mean of hen before and after expansion has wide gap i.e. the current mean is higher
than previous number. Similar to other livestock‟s test of realizing statistical variation p-
value, non-zero of mean difference between observation extremes and test result infers
statistically significant change.

From this statistically significant result, we can infer that town expanding to adjacent rural
areas certainly determined community‟s livestock size and livelihood condition since
community‟s former farmland and open land in service of rearing, grazing and other usage
had been taken off. So, physical capital of community statistically decreased to small number
by an influence of urban expansion as well as situations related to urban expansion. Except
poultry, urban expansion has negative implication or impact on household‟s livestock
ownership and proportional to life.

Table 4.23: Paired sample test of domestic animals

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Urban expansion and social asset

For peripheral community livelihoods via social assets under this survey; social relationship
and its values (customs, get-together during enemy and ceremony) at different condition had
been used. So the study recorded how the social wellbeing was with neighborhoods early
settled before and with newly settled urban residents. Result in Figure 4.11 interpreted to that
most of studied community‟s social relationship and values were in the category of “very
high” and “high “social relationship.

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Specifically, 44.7%, 43.8% and 11.5% respectively lived with “very high”, “high” and
“moderate” relationship as well as values. Finding of Firew (2010) also concluded that
36.5% and 62.8% of per-urban residents around Hawassa city had a social relationship
leveled to “high” and “very high” respectively sooner than the city‟s expansion over their
vicinity.

So, respondent‟s reaction shown us they were in best coordination, get together characters
like membership of “Idir”, “Iqub” and respective customs and values among each of the
neighborhoods. Mean of community‟s relationship (1.67) before urban expansion represents
high level of social correlation.

Figure 4.11: Household‟s reaction to social relation before and after expansion

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Contrary to before expansion, only 6.7% and 32.9% of participants respectively accepted as
they have “very high” and “high” social relationship with residents recently settled adjacent
as Figure 4.11 shown us. But, majority of household heads, 47% and 10.5% of sample
respectively enjoyed “moderate” and “low“ social relation and values. In other case study,
Teketel (2015) pointed that majority of household surveyed as almost 60 % responded as the
level of social relationship and values estimated to moderate and low relation among
peripheral community around town.

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From both observation‟s, mean asset at two opposite time summarized that more of
peripheral communities lived in the character of almost high social coordination before
expansion but currently not as such with newly settled urban residents even if it is moderate.
Moreover variation of social association and values between the same groups but unique
situation of observation was not random difference rather statistically significant difference
(see Table 4.24 below).

In other words, mean of social relation before is higher or better linkage than mean after
because town‟s expansion and subsequent events modified to urban social character but
discouraged aged community‟s social coordination get-together and other social character
with each other. Accordingly the lower social relation now a day is due to the negative
intervention of urbanization on the peripheral communities around case study.

Table 4.24: Paired t-test of social capitals before and after urban expansion

Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.5. Policy and Strategy Related Constraints of Urban Expansion

Ethiopia has different policies and strategies for its implementation along different aspects
like social, economic, political, environmental and other developments. National and regional
policies were claimed differently for specific aspects regards to area it concerns. For instance,
the country has urban development and or urban expansion policy and strategy which highly
concerns to the way of achieving the sustainable urban socio-economic developments.

From those policies, the study focused to assess policies and strategies in case of urban
expansion concerning to livelihood of per-urban community and the prime goal, achieving
urban development. So, procedures of per-urban land expropriation, compensation, house

73
affordability in town and condition of informal settlements are few of policies and strategy
identified for its implementation in accordance of country‟s proclamation.

4.5.3. Land expropriation and issues

For question whether respondent‟s farm land was expropriated or not, 43% of sampled
household‟s farmland had been taken off for urban expansion program planned by Holeta
town administration while the left, 57% said no piece of their land expropriated for
geographical extension to periphery (see Table 4.24 below).

So, loss of farmland is one of the negative effects of urbanization towards to peripheral
community livelihoods. In line with this, Dayong (2004) specified that unplanned and
inadequate follow up of expansion expels valuable farmland around urban centers and it can
causes opposing up to conflicts among program implementers and expropriated farmers from
their original land. So, result shows as program of urbanization affecting communities
negatively through occupying their productive land, reducing the amount of production and
forcing the number of family members to urban centers in need of job opportunity.

Moreover, households questioned if any pre- notification there to expropriate them. Out of
those households, 80% haven‟t got legal information as part of their land to be taken off for
public use and awareness and be readiness to displacement based on agreement. But, 20% of
them agreed that there was pre-awareness to release land and receive compensation after
limited time. For this case, Proclamation No 455/2005 of expropriation in Ethiopia stated
that where Woreda or an urban administration decides to expropriate a landholding in
accordance with Article 3 of this Proclamation, it shall notify the landholder in writing form,
indicating the time when the land has to be removed and the amount of compensation to be
paid. The period of notification to be' given in accordance with Sub-Article (1) of this Article
shall be determined by directives; provided but should not be less than ninety days.

Table 4.25: Percentage of HHs expropriated from their farmland

No Items Frequency (HHs) Percent (%)

1 Yes 135 43

2 No 178 57

Total 313 100

Source: Field survey, March 2018

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Further, key informants and focus group discussion shared the same idea meaning that no
body from town administration noticed rather the decision maker simply told households to
accept the strategy came down hierarchy to remove the determined amount for investment
and other communal usage without clear information. So, Community has no accurate
information regarding their displacement and relocation process rather the local urban bodies
ordered them to leave immediately the area (see case 2 below).

This result illustrates that procedure of expropriating farmers from the beginning didn‟t
alerted before program putting in practice and the situation seems evicting right to aware for
why land is expropriated. Thus, mechanism of recently removing farmer‟s livelihood root
was not applied similar to strategy developed for Ethiopian urban development.

Table 4.26: Percentage of HHs notified for expropriation

No Items Frequency (HHs) Percent (%)

1 Yes 64 20.3
2 No 249 79.7
Total 313 100

Source: Field survey, March 2018

Regards to participation of landholders, Girma (2011) explained that the expropriation of

land for public uses should not only be determined by the state and the latter has to do it in
consultation with the local community program concerns. The law seems to be progressive
in limiting the power of the state to expropriate holdings of farmers or pastoralists as it
specifically declares that the state can only decide to expropriate land for public use through
participation of local community only for investment in public goods.

On other hand, respondent replied that community were not a participant of discussion
regarding to time of exiting farmland, readiness time proposed, how the rewarding value of
property lost will carried out, 81.6% while the rest portion of affected households were
participant. In broad sense, key informant from expert of municipal supported this idea by
saying it is exclusively power of administration.

Generally, there was no invitation of community to discuss on necessity of the program,

valuation of property and also land lease price to pay for households but advanced payment
then after from investors. Amount to be compensate per km2 delimited in accordance of
municipality ability to pay while what households should do was only receiving payment and
leaving area.

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Concerns to right of aged family member‟s to obtain land via inheritance, FDRE
Proclamation No.130/2007 particularly Article 5(5) supports peasant, pastoralist or semi
pastoralist having the right to use rural land by gift, inheritance and also governmental. So,
transferring land use rights through inheritance or donation of land consider family members
if it is only livelihood and no other means of income; landless children of holder are entitled
to acquire rural land for use through donation.

Contrary to national policy, focus discussion and individually interviewed participants told
that bequest right from per-urban family extremely violated by administration. Even their
children above 18 years outlawed of gaining a plot of residential land rather than indirect
buying in the form of lease. To sum up the point, community dislocated and right to provide
housing plot for family members justified above have kept lacking strategic priority. This
implies that aged adults of landholder forced to leave area for job searching other than family
getting right and unknowingly fall in to varied socio-economic unrest.

4.5.4. Rejecting Resettlement or Expropriation

Urban administrations have the power to expropriate rural or urban landholdings for public
purpose where it believes to be used for a better development project to be carried out by
public entities, private investors, cooperative societies or other organs. But, acceptance of
expropriation for public aim is rarely observed along landholders. For instance, 74.2% of
households opposed even policy of rural farm land removal though town forced for
program‟s taking into practice. Positively, only 25.8% feels to leave if enough compensation
and replacement land. But, Proclamation No. 455/2005 enacted that when a landholder who
has been served with an expropriation command refuses to handover the land within the
.period specified in Sub-article (3) of (4) of this Article, the woreda or urban administration
may use police force to take over the land.

Moreover, key informants narrated why they refuse if land for public by saying that case is
they firstly perceived low value estimated for property produced as well as farmland at
current market. This indicates that expropriated communities were involuntary as any piece
of their land to be taken. But, this is debating with national urban development proclamation
however there might be something bureaucratically restricted communities beneficial. Since
urban population increase rapidly, condition forward urban situation to rapidly growing
squatter settlement directly and suffering of economic growth in all aspects (see case 2
below).

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 Case 2: Expropriation, Resettlement and Compensation
Before ten years, we administered under former kebele, Merfeta Genet. At household
level, there was enough farmland. I have large family members and base of life was
only farming. Unexpectedly, we heard town expansion plan. More of my farmland was
closer to town margin and municipality informed us about inclusion of area in town
boundary. We have not prior information regards to case from administration but
instructed to leave. After few months, town administration underlined the case and
provides compensation for land and other property like planted trees. We forced to
dislocate but nobody heard us for our appeal. Even if we will be advantageous, no
body dictated. Unknowingly, my husband sick and died after few months‟ treatment in
different hospitals. All load of leading family fall on me. Look, I have 5 sons and 3
daughters. Their only life source was farmland and I feed and also teach them merely
via it. I have no extra skill but extra open land for cultivation is removed. To tell you
the truth, I have no interest to resettle but the decision is on hand of cabinet (local
administration). Repeatedly, our speech became voiceless, nobody thinks for our
livelihood. Early to that time few area required for investment and farmers asked to
release land but their financial response is very low. So, we also expected the situation
and actually saw though we strongly opposed the program of dislocation. When I say
this, I don‟t mean I oppose urban development. However our land taken forcefully by
saying for investment, to construct huge factory your benefits; amount compensated for
property was bureaucratically low value. I think that there is somebody beneficial
indirectly from amount should we get. We don‟t know who follows way of payment.
For example, for one km2 land, 3 ETB was decided. Our children aged also evicted of
even getting plot of land for housing. Look, I can‟t provide piece of land for my child
since area bounded to town, our life and futurity of family starting from this day.
Even, I haven‟t received any compensation or replacement for around 2 “Cimdii”
which she means half hectare. In my view, farmer‟s right to land is removed, we don‟t
know till when we use and when we lost. So, I can say farmers are foremost looser and
but other individuals from else became richer and richer (My key informant from
“Tullu Harbu” March, 2018).

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 4.5.5. Compensation related issues

Oromia Regional state Proclamation No.130/2007) under Art.6 stated that “Any individual or
organ whose land holding is taken for public uses shall have the right to get compensation for
his properties and benefits lost beforehand. Even if there is no replaceable land for them,
compensation for rehabilitation must be paid. Result presented shows, 13.5% of surveyed
household heads particularly those live in Tulu Harbu loss their land without any legal
replacement while majority comparatively received currency compensation. One key
informant from an area narrated a situation by saying their land is transferred for varied agro-
processing and related factory but they left nothing.

From this result we can conclude that eviction of community right to obtain compensation
after land removal let other community refusing to accept strategy and policy of dislocating.
The program indirectly influencing their livelihood which means expansion of town shaped
to failure rather than altogether development of dwellers with town because of unfair
expropriating procedures.

4.5.6. Compensation and validating landholders’ property

Majority, 74.1% of respondents were unsatisfied to value estimated for property they lost
during dislocation while 26.9% accepted as high and moderate satisfaction of money given
from all stakeholders of the program. Similar to this finding, Tamirat (2016) explained that
many farmers are not happy to compensation of farmland for urban expansion. The
compensation value is not enough comparing with value of the productive assess they lost
and feeding a family, and sustaining life with this amount of compensation is found to be
difficult. In support of respondent‟s, focus group discussion participants agreed that there was
strategy of paying compensation for farmers.

But, tenant highly opposed value assigning since the estimation of property value hasn‟t
considered market value of money rather low land lease at the town level i.e. 3 ETB per one
km2. For this case, specific proclamation No.130/2007 provides that “Where the land to be
expropriated is located in a rural area, the property situated there shall be valued by a
committee of not more than five experts having the relevant qualification to be designated by
Woreda administration”. This suggests that practical policy as well as strategy of
expropriation up to validating property produced was not in line of rules and regulation
however there was national proclamation based guideline to apply the program.

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So, continuous happening of such gaps in all home of landholder makes empty hand and no
base of life rather falling of their family, economy and all social aspects due to inefficiently
performed.

Table 4.27: Reaction of landholder‟s towards to compensation payment

No Items Frequency Percent (%)
(HHs)
1 High satisfaction 24 7.7
2 Moderate satisfaction 56 17.9
3 Low satisfaction 133 42.5
4 Very low satisfaction 100 31.9
Total 313 100

Source: Field survey, March 2018

4.5.7. Post-expropriation and land for public purpose

Respondents answered that more of land holder‟s expropriated land had been performed for
aimed land use yet no investment actions at few area than fencing the area. Focus group
discussion with elder household heads shows that those areas hadn‟t invested and served
community‟s socio economic aspect for early five years possession. On this issue, expert of
investment from municipality for instance case 3 informant expressed the condition that few
of whole land occupied for public left outside of programmed according to lease agreement
among administration and investment programmer (see case 3 below).

Case: 3 Post Expropriation and Land of Public Purpose

Really there is land expropriation. Compensation also comparatively paid by Municipal

follow up from investors. For instance, there is large ha of land occupied by different
flower factory in Tulu Harbu and Burka Walmara. Till now, it left without use or
investment activity. After lease agreement with town administration now it is for
around 5 years. Investors reasoned that high cost of material reverse to their business
plan at agreement time and lack of enough capital hindrances. No action to solve done
from town‟s administration further than informing. Currently, supreme follow up by
regional administration and viewed as no improvement there in accordance of lease
agreement decided by blocking consensus of the area with organizations and
transferred for farmers firstly taken off. For all this year, there was no close follow up
of land expropriated. (Key informant from “Investment Program”, March, 2018).

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 4.5.8. Housing policy and strategy and related issues

As considered in previous section of urban development status, municipality planned to

construct 552 condominium houses of 20:80. Currently, 195 of condominium houses had
been transferred for pre-registered users in lottery form. The prime objective of constructing
condominium houses in town was nationally or locally to reduce informal houses and
creating job for jobless related to poverty. Edmond J. K. (2011) pointed that the aim of the
program was not to move residents in poor communities out of the city but to upgrade slums
and squatter settlements.

The new housing development would then be made available to those who were squatters and
slum-dwellers. For this issue, expert from municipality responded condition of housing for
poor income households. Key informant below narrated that administration had been
constructing condominium strategy for development program. Regards to means of obtaining
house, all town residents can freely registered for limited times at level they can pay lease
(see case 4 below).

Moreover, participant elaborated that the number of informal houses to urban periphery
consecutively increasing due to farmers informal selling of land. But, proclamation
721/2011, article 26 (4) states that all squatters or illegally occupied urban land should be
vacated within seven days of the clearing order without payment of compensation.
Furthermore, Gosaye (2007) reported that poor urban management, housing problems and
unattractive compensation provokes informal settlement. Thus, it implies that the town
municipality had been implementing the housing program as soon as else. But, there was no
exceptional situation created for poor income category residents to resort informal to formal
housing.

Generally, the strategy of house affording for low-income groups in Holeta lacks practical
implementation even if rate of informal settlement and slum house increasing at periphery.
So, unfair housing strategy in action of study area pushed towards to unplanned expansion or
growth of town with negative livelihood implication to dwellers.

Case: 4 Housing, Low Income Groups and Squatter Settlement

I am an expert of urban planning in Holeta town. From earlier time, there was high
demand of house. More of governmental and private workers are restricted to settle in
rent house. Recently government enacted housing policy and strategy to apply. For

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example, condominium construction strategy in town programmed to reduce problems
like urban poverty. Our town also derived the strategy to build communal houses. For
instance, there are houses transferred for user while the others are unfinished especially
in Burka Harbu kebele. But town hadn‟t determine who should get or who shouldn‟t
get rather of only including those registered and paying lease assigned. No
exceptionality for low income households was taken. You can‟t primarily get chance of
afford. Only if you can compete and can pay finance decided per given time.
Repeatedly farmers adjacent of our town are selling their plot of land for “Caraqaa”
which he meant illegal house. This is due to fear of low compensation and may remove
in future as soon as previous experience. Most of those housing ways among all buyers
are uncertified settlement. It didn‟t have municipal recognition. This is a situation
highly exaggerating number of “Caraqaa “which he means squatter settlement (My key
informant from “Urban Planning Expert”, March, 2018).

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion
Even though urbanization is the common character of all urban centers in world, there is
variation of rate and level of urbanization within countries of the world. In this finding,
holeta town rapidly expanded after 1990s of regional urban reformation particularly the town
enlarged from 1550 ha to 5550 ha (55.89 km2) including close rural urban considering area
as response of housing demand within a few years interval by the influence of investment
program, closeness of town to Finfine and other factors.

Holeta town is showing rapid demographical, consecutive infrastructural improvements,

socio-economic growth and numerous socio-economic problems such as high rate of
unemployment, social instability, addiction and else. Program of urban expansion and
inclusion of rural parts into urban boundary highly accelerated the urban linked area‟s
modification to urban land use land cover in years. This is to mean that most of earlier rural
land uses like open space, grass land and forest areas are severely shifted to residential,
industrial and other various urban uses though that of urban agriculture displayed oscillation.

Previously, most of agricultural dependents engaged in more than one works such as crop
production, livestock reproducing and rearing and others though the principal economic
activities were crop cultivating, livestock rearing and crop producing for market purpose and
few from non-agricultural sectors like own small business, employment in private sector,
working in some one‟s house and street vender. Thus, most of respondents responded as their
livelihood strategy before expansion was almost better and moderate livelihood strategy.

Currently, all respondents have at least one income source but most of respondent‟s
livelihood trusted by crop cultivation, own business and daily labor force. In other word,
around half of per-urban community urban expanded to recently engaging in various non-
agricultural practices like working in some one‟s house, daily labor force, street vender and
small own business (Tella, Hereke). Compared to respondents engaged in agricultural
practices before, the number of farming dependents reduced by half times now a day which
means their income source shifted to non-agricultural sector as soon as urban growth.

Comparative to early livelihood condition, peripheral community in studied area currently

fall down in to unsecured livelihood condition because of problems like; inability to adopt
urban livelihood strategy, limited farm land due to municipal expropriating and gradual

82
fragmentation, inefficient compensation, inadequacy of capital for job opportunity and lack
of skilled labor troubled their former livelihood strategy. Generally, almost total respondents
agreed on change of peripheral community livelihood condition and reflected unsatisfactory
reaction now a day.

Impact assessment of urbanization on peripheral community livelihood in area reveals that

physical and population growth of town adversely affected the community livelihood assets
for instance natural asset (farmland, forest area ), physical assets (house rooms, different
livestock of community) and social interrelationship which are a base of their opportunity
elsewhere. Exceptionally, urban expansion positively influenced the possession of house
rooms among most respondent though the contribution of houses in their livelihood is not
further than modernity of house using compensation.

Possession of household‟s both farm land and forest area at current time declined by half
from that of before expansion showing adverse effect urban expansion to periphery imposed
on livelihood strategy of surveyed community. Similarly, physical capitals of affected
community particularly different livestock possession declined at different percent with
exception of house rooms and poultry though assets from the two contributed a little as
source of job opportunity. So, expansion of town negatively influenced livestock of
community via land use modification from commonly adopted community stock, domestic
animals (oxen, cows and sheep). Moreover, social capital of community before expansion
declined from high to moderate social relation that means there is no such concrete
relationship during their enemy or ceremony as valuable asset.

Regards to policy and strategy constraints concerning to expansion of town, there was no pre-
notification to expropriate and also expropriated community haven‟t participated for
discussion, compensation value decision and related. Few of expropriated households lost
their land without compensation and also most of family members aged above 18 years
outlawed from obtaining even a plot of land inheritance after the inclusion of area in town
administration boundary. This displays gaps of policy and strategy applying in issue matched
to expansion program.

On the side of landholders, there is no ideology of supporting the urban growth proclamation
rather involuntariness to resettlement viewing negatively though government claimed all
procedures of removal and requirement of area for further purpose.

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Majority of respondents, key informants and focus group discussion participants responded
the point as valuation of property produced and farmland lost was unfairly in contrary to
nationally claimed valuation method. For instance most of landholders compensated 3 ETB
per one km2. So, loss of farmland, low value estimation and related issues due to in effective
implementing program led livelihood of community unsecured. Municipally, no more did to
give prior focus of house affording for low income and affected households. Similar to this,
less emphasis of transferring informal settlement to formal and lack of follow up after
expropriation are problems might hinder landholders as well as urban growth.

5.2. Recommendation

As socio-economic development, urbanization is a program over which all stakeholders in

addition to peripheral community becomes altogether user and beneficial. The study result
shown that newly settled population groups were beneficial while community to where town
expanded ever looser or disadvantageous group. Regards to per-urban community livelihood
of Holeta town, rapid horizontal expansion them and limitations of applying rules and
regulations of expropriating, valuating property, stakeholder‟s focus of reducing informal
settlement and others imposed adverse impact on livelihood. Using an identified gaps and
impact on community, the following recommendations were forwarded by researcher.

1. Expansion of Holeta town towards to periphery in its history brought better socio-
economic development in town. Beneficially, peripheral community is almost below
previous condition. So, it is necessary to calm alarmed unplanned expansion towards
to farmland at periphery.
2. An economy of most peripheral community before expansion was agricultural
activities though more or less they shifted to other due to the problems suggested in
previous sub topics. Since most community reflecting inability to adopt urban
livelihood, stakeholder‟s subsidy to participated on own business via skill oriented
training for new livelihood strategy and exemplary usage of finance strategy is
recommended.
3. Communities currently engaged in unsecured income sources like daily labor, working
in some one‟s house and else were dislocated households. Stakeholder expropriated
communities or decision maker of the program should give an intention with accessing
credit and rehabilitating strategy to cope up better livelihood strategy.
4. Really, government nationally claimed that landholder has a right to get enough
compensation value via careful estimation did by committee assigned. But, all

84
 directives as well as strategic implementation of compensation right and value was by
decision of executers or bureaucratic. Following procedural value estimation and
recompensing for affected community property to win - win beneficially from
urbanization is recommended.
5. Actually expansion of town towards to per-urban area modified community livelihood
strategy to non-farm though the only livelihood strategy more uneducated community
engaged for a long period of time was farming sector. Thus, livestock as income
source of affected community should be replaced by research based few livestock
reproduction techniques.
6. Result from spatial and temporal land use analysis displayed as planted areas, rural
farmlands occupied by residents radically shifted to urban construction types. The
situation exposed community of periphery to vulnerable livelihood even food
insecurity. So, comprehensive development approach in town and squatter settlement
mitigation follow up should be promoted, favorable condition should be created for
low income and affected community to afford house.
7. In studied area, researcher able to observe that there is policy and strategy limitations
almost related to expropriation, compensation and issues even after compensation and
also around house affordability above nationally proclaimed directives. So, there
should be governmental enforcements and follow up of procedural implementation by
administration or local stakeholder of the program

85
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX: 1

Questionnaire for Sample Household Heads

Dear respondents, the main goals of preparing this questionnaire is collecting the first hand
data for the study or research titled with “impact of urbanization on the peripheral community
livelihoods: case from Holeta town. The prime purpose of conducting the study is for the
partial fulfillment of Masters of Art in Geography and environmental studies in Arba Minch
University, College of Social Science and Humanities, department of geography and
environmental studies. Therefor I want to thank you for your inevitable cooperative
information providing for the required aims with full assurance of your each and every data
using only for focused finding confidentially. Thank you

I. Back Ground of Respondents

1. Sex A. male B. female

2. Age A. 20-30 B.30-40 C. 40-50 D. 50-60 E. above 60
3. Level of education A. Illiterate B. Read and Write only C. Elementary (1-8)
D. Secondary (9-12) F. Tertiary (12+)

4. Household family size (in number) A. Male B. Female

II. Conditions of Urban Expansion

1. Do you believe that Holeta town is expanding rapidly?

A. Strongly agree B. Agree C. disagree D. strongly disagree
2. Which group of population highly caused for now a day built residential settlement in
town? A. those come from rural kebeles C. high population growth of town itself
B. Those come from other surrounding weredas D. immigrants from closer town to
3. Which factor do you think as the cause for rapid expansion of this town? ( multiple
response possible)
A. Suitable topography for settlement C. Geographical proximity to Finfine
B. Climatic suitability for settlement D. High natural population increase of town
E. Investment program implementation
II. Urban Expansion and Livelihoods of Peripheral community

A. Livelihood strategy and changes among Households

1. Which category of economic activity was a base for your livelihood strategy before 2005
E.C? A. Agricultural B. Non-agricultural

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2. If your answer for No 1 is „A‟, which is/are the income generating activity you engaged?
(multiple choice is possible)
A. Livestock Rearing C. Bee reproduction E. Forestry
B. Crop Cultivation D. Cash crop production
3. If your answer for No 1 is „B‟, which is/are the income generating activity you engaged?
(Multiple choices is possible)
A. Own business F. Remittance
B. Government employment G. Small business (Tella, Hereke)
C. Daily labor force H. Street vender
D. Working in some one‟s house I. Other specify (if )_____________
E. Employment in private sectors
4. On job opportunity you engaged before 2005 E.C, what view do you have to your
livelihood condition?
A. Best living condition C. Survival living condition
B. Moderate living condition D. Worst living condition
II. Livelihood Condition or Strategy after Urban Expansion
5. Did you have job for income source now after urban expansion? A. Yes B. No
6. If „yes‟ which job/s currently you engaged as income generating for your day‟s
livelihood? (multiple choices is possible)
A. Crop cultivation G. Working in some one‟s house
B. Daily labor force H. Others____________________
C. Own business
D. By migrating far to other rural area
E. Small business (Tella, Hereke)
F. Government employment
7. Do you believe that you get jobs or works easily currently than before expansion?
A. Yes B. No
8. If you say “No” for question≠ 7 above, why? ______________________________________
9. Is there any role compensating land and related benefits provided after expansion on
changing livelihood condition? A. Yes B. No
10. If your answer for No 9 is “yes”, which livelihood strategy/s you newly adopted by
compensation and related benefits during program implementation?
A. Own business E. No new job due to compensation
B. Small size commercial farming E. Other _________________

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 C. Small business and livestock rearing side by side
D. Shopping service
11. If your answer for No 9 is yes, what situation/s caused shifting a means of your
livelihood?
A. Farmland size decrease and unsustainability of enough crop production
B. Alternative job opportunity due to better development infrastructure
C. Replacement of farmland by financial compensation
D. Inadequate compensation for farmland expropriated
E. Absence of well-trained finance usage
F. Other specify ______________________( if any)
12. If your answer for No 9 is “No” why for reason out if any______________________________
13. In general do you believe that your current livelihood strategy worse than of before 2005
E.C? A. Yes B. No
14. If your response for question No 13 is yes, which condition do you think is/are forced you
to new strategy? (Multiple Response Possible)
A. Inadequate access of capital for job opportunity
B. Inefficient finance from compensation
C. Lack of labor specialization
D. Limited farmland due to dispossession and fragmentation
E. Inability to adopt urban related livelihoods
15. By comparing to with before 2005 E.C, do you say that there is a change of livelihood
condition now? A. Yes B. No
16. From the current point of view, what reaction do you have on the newly adopted
livelihood strategy after 2005 E.C?
A. high satisfaction B. moderate satisfaction C. Low satisfaction D. Hand to mouth
Impact of urban expansion on peripheral community livelihoods

i. Natural assets of households

2. Do you believe that, there is the change on average farmland and forest you currently
have with early expansion? A. Yes B. No
3. In hectare what amount of farmland did you have before 2005 E.C expansion of town?
A. above 7 ha B. 5- 6 ha C. 3-4 ha D. 1-2 ha E. below 1 ha
4. In hectare what amount of farmland did you have after 2005 E.C
A. above 7 ha B. 5- 6 ha C. 3-4 ha D. 1-2 ha E. below 1 ha

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4. What amount of land covered by planted and or forest did you have before 2005 E.C in
hectare? A. above 1 ha B. 0.75 – 1 ha C. 0.5 -0.75 ha D. below 0.5 ha E no at all

5. What about the size of land covered by planted and or forest did you have after 2005 E.C?
A. above 1 ha B. 0.75 – 1 ha C. 0.5 -0.75 ha D. below 0.5 ha

ii. Physical assets of households

1. Do you think that, the amount of house room, domestic animals and else you possessed at
the time before and after 2005 E.C differ? A. Yes B. No
2. In number, what amount of house room/ classes/ did you have before 2005 E.C?
A. above 7 classes B.5-6 classes C.3-4 classes D. 1-2 classes
3. In number, what amount of house room/classes/ do you have after 2005 E.C due to
expansion? A. above 7 classes B.5-6 classes C.3-4 classes D. 1-2 classes
4. What factor caused for change of house rooms number? if any___________________
5. What size of domestic animals listed below you possesses before and after 2005 E.C
Before expansion after expansion
A. Oxen _________ __________
B. Cow _________ __________
C. Sheep _________ __________
D. Horse _________ __________
E. Donkey _________ __________
F. Poultry _________ __________
6. What factor/s affected your livestock size/ number? if any______________________
iii. Social assets of households

1. How will you express your social relationship and its value when you were at former
altogether with your neighborhoods?
A. Very high B. High C. Moderate D. Low E. Very low
2. What about social relationship and values after 2005 E.C?
A. Very high B. High C. Moderate D. Low E. Very low

IV. Policies and Strategies and Urban Expansion Program

1. Is there any piece of your farmland expropriated for urban expansion program?

A. Yes B. No

2. Is there local administration‟s pre-notification for dislocation? A. Yes B. No

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3. Have you participated on discussion for land removing procedures for urban expansion
program? A. Yes B. No

4. If you say “yes” for question No 1, have you got compensation for farm land taken of you
lost? A. Yes B. No

5. If you say “yes” for question No 4, what reaction do you have towards to compensation
you received?

A. High satisfaction B. moderate satisfaction C. Low satisfaction D. Very low satisfaction

6. In general, do you believe that all policy and strategies claimed are implementing in your
town? A. Yes B. No

The End
Thank you for your cooperation

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APPENDIX: 2

Interview Guideline to Municipality Experts

1. Address _______Sub city ____kebele___________ 2. Level of education_________

II. Question about Town Expansion

1. Do you believe that Holeta town is rapidly expanding? History of town expansion,
How about the status of urban growth or expansion, infrastructural facilities, socio-
economic conditions
2. What about the livelihood strategies of peripheral households at recent time; income
generating activities community engaged, newly adapted livelihood strategy by
households, job opportunity now a day
3. Discussion about livelihood change along per urban household around town (if any);
factors estimated for shifted livelihood approach then after land expropriation
4. How do you express the landholder‟s expropriating procedures for urban expansion
program towards to periphery; Regards to notification, participation, family members
right and else
5. How was feeling of landholders during the time of expropriating; are they volunteer,
any cases for their reaction (if any)
6. How was tactics of payment for property lost at expropriation; right and value
estimation for property and also stocks like farmland
7. How was the administration‟s follow up of land removed for public purpose; are there
local stakeholders attending conditions of lands,
8. Do you believe that municipality doing for housing problem; way of transferring
communal built houses, consideration for low income or poor households
9. How was the situation of informal settlement around town; condition around outer
part, stakeholder of informal housing, strategy of mitigating squatter settlement

Thank you for your cooperation

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 APPENDIX: 3

Interview Guideline to Elder Households of Periphery

1. Address ______ ________ kebele _____

II. Questions Regards to Town Expansion

1. Discussion regards to urban growth state of town ; historical expansion of town,

,demographic situation (vocally ), conditions regards to infrastructural facilities, socio-
economic characteristics there before and at time of survey
2. Discussion on livelihood condition of households before urban expansion; income
sources they repeatedly engaged, access of job opportunities, early reaction to strategy
3. Discussion on livelihood strategies of peripheral households now a day; income
activities community engaged, newly livelihood strategies households relying now a
day, reaction to livelihood condition, job opportunities
4. Discussion on livelihood change along per urban household around town (if any);
factors estimated for shifted livelihood approach then after land expropriation
5. How do you express your and affected community‟s expropriating procedures during
urban expansion program at periphery; regards to pre informing, any invitation for
discussion, situation of expropriated family members right
6. How was your reaction of landholders during the time of expropriating; are you
volunteer, any cases for your reaction (if any)
7. Discussion on payment for property lost at expropriation; right to compensate, value
estimation for property and also stocks like farmland
8. Discussion on situation of land expropriated then after local administration lease
agreement with investors, stakeholder follow up
9. How was your house affording opportunity during communal houses transferring
techniques?
10. Do you believe that informal settlement is expanding at fringe; landholder informal
land market, cases for selling farmland

Thank you for your cooperation

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APPENDIX: 4

FGD Participant‟s Guideline

Warm up: - some people say that urban expansion is sign of modernity, economic and social
development. Thus they support more urbanity. On the contrary, others mostly views
urbanization on the opposite of its appreciation. So, which side view will you follow? Why
for?

1. Discussion on livelihood condition of households before urban expansion; income

sources they repeatedly engaged, access of job opportunities, early reaction to strategy
2. Discussion on livelihood strategies of peripheral households now a day; income
activities community engaged, newly livelihood strategies households relying now a
day, reaction to livelihood condition, job opportunities
3. Discussion on livelihood change along per urban household around town (if any);
factors estimated for shifted livelihood approach then after land expropriation
4. How do you express your and affected community‟s expropriating procedures during
urban expansion program at periphery; regards to pre informing, any invitation for
discussion, situation of expropriated family members right
5. Discuss on the reaction of community towards to urban expansion policy and strategy of
the town?
6. How was your reaction of landholders during the time of expropriating; are you
volunteer, any cases for your reaction (if any)
7. Discussion on payment for property lost at expropriation; right to compensate, value
estimation for property and also stocks like farmland
8. Discussion on informal settlement, household‟s informal land market,

Thank you for your cooperation

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