B.

Sc Electronics D2 P4 (2022)

1. Objective Type Questions:-

I. For AM Transmission, AM waves can be generated by:

Collector modulated transistor, Pulse modulated class-C, Grid modulated cass-C amplifiers.

II. In the Power equation of AM waves, the ratio of total power to carrier power is:

(1+ m²/2) : 1 ['.' P=(1+m²/2)×Pc where, P is total power and Pc is power of carrier wave. ]

III. The modulation index of FM waves is defined as:

(Maximum frequency deviation)/(Modulating frequency)

IV. In a radio-receiver, AGC is used to:

Maintain the carrier level of the second detector input variable.

V. The oscillator used as a local oscillator in radio receiver is:

Hartley Oscillator

VI. In a TV system, 4:3 represents which of the following?

Aspect ratio.

VII. In TV system in India, the number of frames per second and the number of lines per frame are
respectively.

25 and 525.

VIII. In an optical fibre, the refractive index of core material is:

Greater than cladding material. I.e. refractive index of core material is 1.654 while the cladding
 material has 1.645.

IX. In the structure of optical fibre, the light guided through the core is due to:

Total internal reflection..

X. Which of the following component provides additional strengh and prevents the optical fibre
from damage?

Buffer material. Which is made up of Kevlar.

Subjective Type Questions:-

2.

(A) Obtain expression for instantaneous amplitude of AM waves.

The instantaneous amplitude of an amplitude-modulated (AM) wave can be expressed as:

A(t) = [Ac + m(t)] cos(2πfct)

Where:

 A(t) is the instantaneous amplitude of the AM wave at time t.

 Ac is the carrier amplitude (i.e., the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier wave).

 m(t) is the time-varying message signal (i.e., the signal that modulates the carrier wave).

 fc is the carrier frequency (i.e., the frequency of the unmodulated carrier wave).

In this equation, the amplitude of the AM wave at any given time t is equal to the sum of the carrier
amplitude (Ac) and the amplitude of the message signal at that time, m(t). This sum is then
multiplied by the cosine of 2π times the carrier frequency (fc) times the time (t).

The result is a waveform where the amplitude varies sinusoidally with time, with the frequency and
phase of the carrier wave, but the amplitude of the sinusoid is modulated by the message signal.
The instantaneous amplitude of the AM wave is proportional to the sum of the carrier amplitude and
the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal at any given time.

(B) Describe the frequency spectrum and power relation in AM waves.

In an amplitude-modulated (AM) wave, the frequency spectrum consists of three components: the
carrier frequency (fc), the upper sideband frequency (fc + fm), and the lower sideband frequency
(fc - fm), where fm is the frequency of the modulating signal.
The power in an AM wave is distributed between the carrier and the two sidebands. The carrier wave
carries the majority of the power (approximately 2/3 of the total power), while the sidebands each
carry a smaller portion of the power (approximately 1/6 of the total power).

The total power of an AM wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the modulating
signal [m(t)]. Therefore, as the amplitude of the modulating signal increases, so does the power of
the AM wave. This relationship is known as the power-law relation of AM waves.

However, it is important to note that when the amplitude of the modulating signal becomes too large,
the AM wave may become overmodulated, causing distortion in the waveform and resulting in
spectral components outside of the typical sideband frequencies. Therefore, it is important to
carefully choose the amplitude of the modulating signal to avoid overmodulation and ensure optimal
signal quality.

3.

(A) Discuss the fundamentals of Amplitude Demodulation process.

Amplitude demodulation is the process of extracting the original baseband signal (i.e., the
modulating signal) from an amplitude-modulated (AM) waveform. The demodulation process
involves removing the carrier signal from the modulated waveform, leaving only the baseband signal.

There are several methods of amplitude demodulation, including envelope detection, synchronous
detection, and coherent detection. Here, we will discuss the fundamentals of envelope detection,
which is one of the simplest methods of amplitude demodulation.

Envelope detection involves rectifying the AM waveform to create a signal that varies only in
amplitude, and then passing this rectified signal through a low-pass filter to remove the high-
frequency carrier and sideband components. The resulting signal is the demodulated baseband
signal.

The envelope detection process can be broken down into several steps:

1. Rectification: The AM waveform is rectified to remove the negative portion of the waveform.
This is typically done using a diode, which allows current to flow in one direction only.

2. Smoothing: The rectified signal contains both the modulating signal and high-frequency
carrier and sideband components. The next step is to smooth out the rectified signal to
create a signal that varies only in amplitude. This is typically done using a capacitor, which
charges and discharges in response to the rectified signal, effectively creating a low-pass
filter.

3. Low-pass filtering: The smoothed signal is then passed through a low-pass filter to remove
the high-frequency carrier and sideband components. This filter is designed to allow only the
baseband signal (i.e., the modulating signal) to pass through.

4. Amplification: The demodulated signal may be weak after passing through the low-pass filter.
Therefore, an amplifier is often used to boost the signal strength.

The resulting output is the demodulated baseband signal.

Envelope detection is a simple and effective method of amplitude demodulation, but it has some
limitations. For example, the rectification process introduces distortion in the waveform, which can
result in signal distortion and reduced signal quality. Additionally, envelope detection is not suitable
for high-frequency carrier signals or signals with large modulation indices. In these cases, more
sophisticated demodulation techniques, such as synchronous or coherent detection, may be
required.

(B) Explain the working principle of linear demodulation circuit used for AM waves.

A linear demodulation circuit is a type of amplitude demodulation circuit that is used to extract the
original baseband signal from an amplitude-modulated (AM) waveform. The circuit works by
multiplying the AM waveform with a local oscillator signal that is synchronized in frequency and
phase with the carrier signal of the AM waveform. The resulting output is a signal that varies only in
amplitude, which can be further processed to obtain the original baseband signal.

The working principle of a linear demodulation circuit can be explained using the following steps:

1. Mixing: The AM waveform is mixed with a local oscillator signal that is synchronized with the
carrier frequency of the AM waveform. The local oscillator signal is typically generated using
a crystal oscillator or a phase-locked loop (PLL) circuit.

2. Filtering: The mixed signal contains the sum and difference frequencies of the carrier and
the local oscillator signals. A bandpass filter is used to remove the high-frequency
components (i.e., the sum frequencies) and pass only the low-frequency components (i.e.,
the difference frequencies).

3. Amplification: The filtered signal is often weak, so an amplifier is used to increase its
strength.

4. Detection: The amplified signal is passed through a detector circuit that rectifies the signal
and removes any remaining high-frequency components. The resulting output is a signal that
varies only in amplitude, which represents the original baseband signal.

The linear demodulation circuit provides a more accurate demodulation of the AM waveform
compared to envelope detection, as it does not introduce distortion in the waveform. However, the
circuit is more complex and expensive to implement than envelope detection. Additionally, it
requires precise synchronization between the local oscillator signal and the carrier frequency of the
AM waveform, which can be challenging to achieve in practice.

4.

(A) Explain the working principle of AM generator using block diagram.

An AM (amplitude modulation) generator is a device that produces an AM signal, which is used in

various applications such as broadcasting, communications, and testing. The working principle of an
AM generator can be explained using the following block diagram:
 1. Carrier oscillator: The first block in the AM generator is the carrier oscillator, which generates
a high-frequency sinusoidal signal that serves as the carrier wave. The frequency of the
carrier wave is typically in the range of 500 kHz to 1600 kHz for AM broadcasting.

2. Modulating signal source: The modulating signal source provides the audio signal or
information signal that is used to modulate the carrier wave. The modulating signal can be
generated from a microphone, a CD player, or any other audio source.

3. Modulator: The modulator is the key component in an AM generator, which combines the
carrier wave and the modulating signal to produce the AM signal. The modulator can be
implemented using a variety of techniques such as linear modulation, switching modulation,
or pulse-width modulation.

4. Amplifier: The output of the modulator is a low-level AM signal, which is then amplified to the
required power level for transmission or testing. The amplifier can be a linear amplifier or a
class-C amplifier depending on the application.

5. Antenna: The amplified AM signal is then radiated through an antenna, which converts the
electrical signal into an electromagnetic wave that can be propagated through the air. The
antenna can be a dipole antenna, a monopole antenna, or a loop antenna depending on the
frequency and polarization of the AM signal.

The block diagram of an AM generator shows the basic components and their functions. In practice,
the AM generator can be implemented using various circuits and techniques, depending on the
application requirements and specifications.

(B) Describe the circuit operation of plate modulated Class-C amplifier used for AM generation.
Plate modulated Class-C amplifier is a type of radio frequency (RF) amplifier used for AM (amplitude
modulation) generation. It consists of a Class-C amplifier stage and a plate modulator stage.

The Class-C amplifier stage is biased to operate in Class-C mode, which means that it is biased to
conduct for less than half of the input signal cycle. This allows the amplifier to achieve high
efficiency, but at the cost of high distortion. The output of the Class-C amplifier stage is a highly
distorted RF signal that contains the carrier frequency and its harmonics.

The plate modulator stage is used to modulate the amplitude of the RF signal from the Class-C
amplifier stage with the audio signal. The plate modulator stage consists of a modulating
transformer and a bias battery. The modulating transformer is connected to the plate circuit of the
Class-C amplifier stage, and the audio signal is applied to the primary winding of the transformer.
The bias battery is connected in series with the secondary winding of the transformer and is used to
bias the modulating tube in the cutoff region.

When there is no audio signal, the bias battery biases the modulating tube in the cutoff region, and
the RF signal from the Class-C amplifier stage passes through the transformer without any
attenuation. When an audio signal is applied to the primary winding of the transformer, it induces a
varying magnetic field that modulates the bias voltage applied to the modulating tube. This causes
the modulating tube to vary its conduction, and in turn, varies the impedance seen by the RF signal
passing through the transformer. This results in the amplitude modulation of the RF signal with the
audio signal.

The modulated RF signal is then passed through a bandpass filter to remove any unwanted
harmonics and is then transmitted through an antenna. At the receiver end, the modulated signal is
demodulated to extract the original audio signal.

5.

(A) Explain the different modes of propagation of EM waves used in space comunication system.

Electromagnetic (EM) waves are used for communication in space due to their ability to travel long
distances without the need for a physical medium. There are three modes of propagation for EM
waves that are commonly used in space communication systems:

1. Ground Wave Propagation:

Ground wave propagation occurs when the EM waves travel along the surface of the Earth.
This mode of propagation is used for short-range communication, typically less than 1,000
km. The strength of the ground wave signal decreases with distance, and the signal quality
can be affected by terrain, weather, and other environmental factors. This mode of
propagation is used for applications such as AM radio broadcasting and VHF/UHF
communication.

2. Sky Wave Propagation:

Sky wave propagation occurs when EM waves are reflected off the ionosphere, a layer of the
Earth's atmosphere that contains charged particles. This mode of propagation is used for
medium-range communication, typically between 1,000 and 4,000 km. The signal quality can
be affected by changes in the ionosphere, such as solar flares and geomagnetic storms.
This mode of propagation is used for applications such as shortwave radio broadcasting and
 military communication.

3. Satellite Propagation:

Satellite propagation occurs when EM waves are transmitted from a ground station to a
satellite in orbit, which then retransmits the signal back to another ground station. This
mode of propagation is used for long-range communication, typically over thousands of
kilometers. The signal quality can be affected by atmospheric attenuation, interference, and
other factors. This mode of propagation is used for applications such as satellite television,
GPS, and satellite-based internet services.

In summary, ground wave propagation is used for short-range communication, sky wave
propagation is used for medium-range communication, and satellite propagation is used for long-
range communication in space communication systems.

(B) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation.

Ground wave propagation is a mode of electromagnetic wave propagation that occurs when the
waves travel along the surface of the Earth. This mode of propagation has both advantages and
disadvantages, which are discussed below:

Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation:

1. Low Attenuation: Ground wave propagation has low attenuation, which means that the signal
strength remains relatively constant over short distances. This makes it an ideal mode of
propagation for short-range communication, such as AM radio broadcasting and VHF/UHF
communication.

2. No Line of Sight Required: Ground wave propagation does not require a line of sight between
the transmitting and receiving antennas. This means that it can be used for communication
over obstacles such as hills and buildings.

3. Reliable Communication: Ground wave propagation is reliable, as it is not affected by

atmospheric disturbances such as rain, snow, and fog. This makes it an ideal mode of
propagation for communication in areas with adverse weather conditions.

Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation:

1. Limited Range: Ground wave propagation has a limited range, typically less than 1,000 km.
This makes it unsuitable for long-range communication.

2. Signal Interference: Ground wave propagation can be affected by interference from other
signals, such as those from other radio stations or electronic devices. This can result in poor
signal quality and distortion.

3. Environmental Factors: Ground wave propagation can be affected by environmental factors

such as terrain, vegetation, and soil conductivity. This can result in signal attenuation and
distortion.

In summary, ground wave propagation has low attenuation, does not require line of sight, and is
reliable. However, it has a limited range, is susceptible to interference, and can be affected by
environmental factors.

6.

(A) Explain the function of a superhetrodyne receiver with the help of a block diagram.

A superheterodyne receiver is a type of radio receiver that is widely used in modern communication
systems. It is designed to convert the high-frequency carrier signal of a radio transmission to a lower
frequency that can be amplified and processed more easily. This allows for better signal quality and
increased sensitivity.
Here is a block diagram that illustrates the basic components and functions of a superheterodyne
receiver:

1. Antenna: The antenna is the first component of the receiver, and its function is to receive the
radio signal from the air.

2. RF Amplifier: The RF amplifier is used to amplify the incoming signal from the antenna. This
stage also includes filtering to remove unwanted signals outside the desired frequency range.

3. Mixer: The mixer is a nonlinear circuit that takes the output of the RF amplifier and mixes it
with a local oscillator (LO) signal. This produces a new signal, called an intermediate
frequency (IF), that is the difference between the carrier frequency and the LO frequency.

4. Local Oscillator: The local oscillator generates a signal that is mixed with the incoming
signal in the mixer stage to produce the intermediate frequency (IF).

5. IF Amplifier: The IF amplifier is used to amplify the intermediate frequency (IF) signal that is
produced by the mixer. This amplification stage improves the signal-to-noise ratio of the
received signal.

6. Demodulator: The demodulator is used to extract the audio or data signal from the
modulated IF signal. The type of demodulation used depends on the modulation scheme of
the transmitted signal.

7. Audio Amplifier: The audio amplifier is used to amplify the demodulated audio signal to a
level that can drive a speaker or other audio device.

8. Speaker or Output Device: The final component of the superheterodyne receiver is the output
device, which can be a speaker or another type of audio device that produces sound.

In summary, the superheterodyne receiver converts the incoming radio frequency signal to an
intermediate frequency signal, amplifies it, and then demodulates it to extract the original audio or
data signal. This design provides superior signal quality and improved sensitivity compared to other
types of receivers.
(B) Describe the operation of a Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver with the help of a block
diagram.

A Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver is an early type of radio receiver that amplifies and filters
the incoming signal at the tuned frequency before detection.

Here is a block diagram of a typical TRF receiver:

1. Antenna: The antenna captures the radio signals from the air and sends them to the RF
amplifier.

2. Tuner: The Tuner (RF amplifier) amplifies the incoming radio signal to a level suitable for
further processing. It consists of one or more tuned circuits that select and amplify the
signal at the desired frequency.

3. Mixer: The mixer combines the amplified RF signal with a local oscillator signal to produce
an intermediate frequency (IF) signal.

4. Local Oscillator: The local oscillator generates a signal at a frequency close to the incoming
signal frequency, which is mixed with the amplified RF signal.

5. Intermediate Frequency Amplifier: The IF amplifier amplifies the IF signal to a level suitable
for detection. It typically consists of several stages of amplification, each with a tuned circuit
that selects and amplifies the signal at the IF frequency.

6. Detector: The detector demodulates the IF signal to extract the audio signal, which is the
original information carried by the radio signal. The detector may be a diode, a vacuum tube
or a transistor, depending on the design of the receiver.

7. Audio Amplifier: The audio amplifier amplifies the audio signal to a level that can drive a
loudspeaker or headphones.

8. Loudspeaker or Headphones: The loudspeaker or headphones convert the amplified audio

signal into sound that can be heard by the listener.

In summary, a TRF receiver works by selecting and amplifying the incoming radio signal at the
desired frequency using a series of tuned circuits, mixing the amplified signal with a local oscillator
signal to produce an intermediate frequency signal, amplifying the IF signal, and demodulating it to
extract the audio signal, which is then amplified and heard by the listener.
7.

(A) Explain the structure and operation of vidicon camera tube.

The vidicon camera tube is a type of vacuum tube that was widely used in early television cameras
for image sensing. It consists of a glass envelope with an electron gun at one end and a target plate
at the other end. The target plate is coated with a photosensitive material that converts light into
electrical signals.

Here is the basic operation of a vidicon camera tube:

1. Light enters the camera through the lens and falls on the target plate.

2. When light falls on the target plate, it creates a photoconductive effect, causing the electrical
resistance of the target plate to decrease in proportion to the amount of light.

3. An electron beam is then generated by the electron gun at the other end of the tube. This
beam is focused by a series of magnetic fields and directed towards the target plate.

4. As the electron beam strikes the target plate, it liberates electrons from the photosensitive
material, which are collected by an electron collector electrode. The amount of electrons
collected depends on the amount of light that was originally present.

5. The electron collector electrode is connected to an amplifier circuit, which amplifies the
small electrical signal generated by the electron beam striking the target plate.

6. The amplified signal is then fed to a video amplifier, which further amplifies the signal and
prepares it for transmission.

7. The final stage of the camera tube is the electron beam blanking circuit, which controls the
intensity of the electron beam to create the black and white picture.

Overall, the vidicon camera tube provided a reliable and high-quality method for capturing images in
the early days of television. However, it has largely been replaced by newer technologies such as
charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) sensors,
which offer improved performance and greater flexibility.
(B) Mention the advantages of vidicon tube over other camera tubes.

The vidicon tube, also known as an electrostatic vidicon, was a type of camera tube used for
capturing and storing images in early television cameras.

Here are some advantages of vidicon tubes over other camera tubes:

1. High sensitivity: Vidicon tubes were highly sensitive to light, which made them ideal for use
in low-light environments. They could capture clear images in dimly lit settings without the
need for additional lighting.

2. Long storage time: Vidicon tubes were capable of storing images for long periods of time,
which allowed them to be used in applications such as scientific research, where the images
needed to be stored for later analysis.

3. High resolution: Vidicon tubes had high resolution capabilities, which allowed them to
capture fine details and produce high-quality images.

4. Compact size: Vidicon tubes were relatively small in size, which made them easy to integrate
into cameras and other imaging equipment.

5. Low cost: Vidicon tubes were relatively inexpensive to manufacture, which made them a
popular choice for use in consumer-grade cameras and other imaging devices.

Overall, the vidicon tube's high sensitivity, long storage time, high resolution, compact size, and low
cost made it a popular choice for a wide range of applications, including television broadcasting,
scientific research, and consumer-grade imaging devices. However, vidicon tubes have largely been
replaced by digital imaging technologies, which offer even greater resolution, sensitivity, and storage
capabilities.

8.

(A) Describe the basic principles of light propagation in an optical fiber.

The propagation of light in an optical fiber is based on two key principles: total internal reflection and
Snell's law of refraction.

When light enters an optical fiber, it is guided down the core of the fiber by total internal reflection.
The core of the fiber is surrounded by a cladding layer that has a lower refractive index than the core.
This means that when light travels through the core, it encounters the cladding at an angle greater
than the critical angle, causing it to reflect back into the core.

The critical angle is determined by Snell's law of refraction, which describes the relationship between
the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction, and the refractive indices of the two materials. The
law states that when light passes from a material with a higher refractive index to a material with a
lower refractive index, the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence.

As the light bounces off the inner walls of the core, it continues to propagate down the fiber. The
cladding layer surrounding the core helps to prevent the light from leaking out of the fiber and losing
energy.

In order to maintain the integrity of the signal, optical fibers are made with materials that have a very
low attenuation, or loss of signal strength, over long distances. This allows light to travel through the
fiber for kilometers without significant loss of signal strength.

Overall, the combination of total internal reflection and Snell's law of refraction enables the
propagation of light in an optical fiber, allowing for the efficient and high-speed transmission of data
over long distances.

(B) Explain the optical fiber ccommunication system with the help of a block diagram.

An optical fiber communication system consists of several components that work together to
transmit data over long distances using optical fibers.

The following block diagram outlines the basic components of an optical fiber communication
system:

1. Transmitter: The transmitter converts electrical signals into optical signals that can be
transmitted over the fiber. This is typically done using a light source, such as a laser or light
emitting diode (LED), that is modulated to carry the data.

2. Optical Fiber: The optical fiber is the medium through which the optical signals are
transmitted. It consists of a core made of glass or plastic, surrounded by a cladding layer
that reflects the light back into the core. The fiber is typically coated with a protective buffer
layer to prevent damage.

3. Receiver: The receiver detects the optical signal at the end of the fiber and converts it back
into an electrical signal. This is typically done using a photodetector, such as a photodiode,
which converts the optical signal into an electrical signal.

4. Signal Processing: The electrical signal from the receiver is processed to remove noise and
distortions that may have been introduced during transmission. This may include
amplification, equalization, and other signal processing techniques.

5. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): The DTE is the device that generates and receives the data
being transmitted over the fiber. This may include a computer, telephone, or other data
communication device.

6. Optical Amplifiers: Optical amplifiers are used to boost the signal strength of the optical
 signal as it travels through the fiber. These may include erbium-doped fiber amplifiers
(EDFAs) or semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs).

7. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): WDM is a technique that allows multiple signals of
different wavelengths to be transmitted over a single fiber. This can increase the capacity of
the fiber and reduce the need for multiple fibers.

8. Optical Switches: Optical switches are used to route the optical signals between different
fibers or different parts of the same fiber. This may be done to optimize the performance of
the system or to provide redundancy in case of a fiber failure.

Overall, an optical fiber communication system is a complex network of components that work
together to transmit data over long distances using optical signals. By leveraging the unique
properties of optical fibers, such as low loss and high bandwidth, these systems are able to provide
high-speed, high-capacity data transmission for a wide range of applications.

9.

(A) Discuss the advantages of integrated circuit over discrete circuit.

Integrated circuits (ICs) have several advantages over discrete circuits, which are made up of
individual electronic components such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors.

Here are some of the key advantages of integrated circuits:

1. Smaller size: ICs are much smaller in size than discrete circuits. They are made by
integrating multiple components onto a single chip, which reduces the amount of space
required for a given circuit. This makes ICs ideal for use in compact electronic devices such
as smartphones, laptops, and wearable devices.

2. Lower power consumption: ICs are more power-efficient than discrete circuits. This is
because they use less power to switch between different states and they can be optimized
for specific power requirements. This makes ICs ideal for use in portable electronic devices
that rely on battery power.

3. Higher reliability: ICs are more reliable than discrete circuits. This is because they have fewer
interconnects, which reduces the likelihood of failures due to loose or damaged connections.
Additionally, ICs are designed to withstand a wider range of environmental conditions, such
as temperature and humidity, than discrete circuits.

4. Lower cost: ICs are generally less expensive than discrete circuits. This is because they are
mass-produced using automated manufacturing processes, which reduces the cost of
production. Additionally, the smaller size of ICs allows for more efficient use of materials,
which further reduces the cost.

5. Higher performance: ICs can provide higher performance than discrete circuits. This is
because they can be optimized for specific applications and can integrate multiple functions
onto a single chip. This allows for faster switching times, higher operating frequencies, and
greater signal processing capabilities.

Overall, the advantages of integrated circuits over discrete circuits include smaller size, lower power
consumption, higher reliability, lower cost, and higher performance. These advantages have made
ICs the dominant technology for electronic circuits in a wide range of applications, from consumer
electronics to industrial automation to aerospace and defense.

(B) Explain the proccessing steps involved in the fabrication of an integrated circuit.

The fabrication process of an integrated circuit involves several steps. Here is an overview of the
major processing steps involved in the fabrication of an integrated circuit:

1. Substrate preparation: The first step is to prepare a wafer, which is a thin slice of
semiconductor material, typically silicon. The wafer is cleaned and polished to create a flat
and smooth surface.

2. Photolithography: A thin layer of photoresist is deposited on the wafer, and then exposed to
ultraviolet light through a photomask. The photomask contains a pattern that defines the
desired shape of the circuit elements. The areas of the photoresist that are exposed to light
become more or less soluble in a developer solution, depending on the type of photoresist
used.

3. Etching: The wafer is then placed in a chemical solution that removes the exposed areas of
the photoresist and the underlying semiconductor material, leaving behind the desired circuit
pattern. The etching process may be done using wet or dry methods, depending on the type
of material being etched.

4. Deposition: Additional layers of material, such as metal or dielectric, may be deposited onto
the wafer using a variety of techniques, such as chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, or
electroplating. These layers may be used to create interconnects, contacts, or other circuit
elements.

5. Doping: The semiconductor material may be doped with impurities to create regions of
different electrical conductivity. This is typically done using ion implantation or diffusion
techniques.

6. Annealing: The wafer is heated to a high temperature to activate the dopants and to remove
any defects that may have been introduced during the fabrication process.

7. Packaging: The final step is to package the individual integrated circuits into a form that can
be used in electronic devices. This may involve bonding the chip to a lead frame,
encapsulating it in a plastic or ceramic package, and adding wire bonds to connect the chip
to the package leads.

Overall, the fabrication process of an integrated circuit involves a complex series of steps that must
be carefully controlled to ensure the desired circuit pattern is created with high accuracy and
reliability. The process may involve hundreds of individual steps, and the entire process can take
several weeks to complete.
10. Write notes on these followings:-

(A) Automatic Gain Control.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC) is a technique used in electronics to automatically adjust the gain of
an amplifier to maintain a constant output level despite variations in the input signal level. The
purpose of AGC is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the output signal and prevent distortion due
to overloading.

AGC is commonly used in radio receivers, where it is necessary to maintain a constant output level
despite variations in the strength of the incoming signal. In this application, the AGC circuit detects
the strength of the incoming signal and adjusts the gain of the amplifier accordingly.

AGC circuits can be implemented in a variety of ways, but most commonly use a feedback loop that
continuously monitors the output level and adjusts the gain of the amplifier to maintain a constant
output level. Some AGC circuits also use a time constant to prevent rapid changes in gain that can
cause distortion.

Overall, AGC is a useful technique for maintaining a consistent output level in electronic systems,
and is commonly used in applications such as radio receivers and audio amplifiers.

(B) Modulation index of AM waves.

In Amplitude Modulation (AM) of a carrier wave, the Modulation index is a measure of how much the
amplitude of the carrier wave varies due to the modulation. It is defined as the ratio of the amplitude
of the modulating signal to the amplitude of the carrier signal.

Mathematically, the Modulation index (m) is given as:

m = (Vmax - Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin)

where Vmax is the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal and Vmin is the minimum amplitude
of the modulating signal.

The value of modulation index lies between 0 and 1. If the modulation index is zero, there will be no
modulation and the carrier wave will remain unaltered. On the other hand, if the modulation index is
1, the carrier wave will be completely modulated and the envelope of the modulated wave will have
the same shape as the modulating signal.

The Modulation index plays an important role in determining the quality and efficiency of AM
transmission. A low modulation index results in poor audio quality and reduced signal strength,
while a high modulation index can cause over-modulation, leading to distortion and interference with
neighboring channels. Therefore, it is important to choose an appropriate modulation index for
efficient and effective AM transmission.

(C) Foster-seeley discriminator.

The Foster-Seeley discriminator is a type of frequency discriminator used in communication

systems. It is named after Dudley E. Foster and George L. Seeley, who invented it in the 1930s.
The Foster-Seeley discriminator operates by detecting the difference in phase between two signals,
which are derived from the input signal. The input signal is first passed through a tuned circuit to
select a specific frequency. The two derived signals are then rectified and passed through RC
circuits to produce DC voltages. These DC voltages are then subtracted from each other to produce
an output voltage, which is proportional to the difference in phase between the two derived signals.

The output voltage of the Foster-Seeley discriminator is used to demodulate the input signal. The
discriminator can be used to detect both frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM)
signals.

One advantage of the Foster-Seeley discriminator is that it has a relatively simple design, which
makes it easy to implement. However, it is not as sensitive as other types of discriminators, such as
the ratio detector or the phase-locked loop (PLL) discriminator. It also requires careful adjustment of
the tuned circuit to achieve optimal performance.

(D) Sky wave propagation.

Sky wave propagation is a method of radio transmission where radio waves are reflected back to
Earth's surface by the ionosphere. This method is used for long-distance communication,
particularly in high-frequency (HF) radio bands.

The ionosphere is a region of the Earth's upper atmosphere where the air molecules are ionized by
solar radiation. The ionized particles in this layer can reflect radio waves back to the Earth's surface,
allowing them to travel beyond the horizon. The angle at which the radio wave hits the ionosphere
determines whether it will be reflected back to Earth or continue into space.

Sky wave propagation is affected by various factors, such as the frequency of the radio waves, the
time of day, and the ionosphere's ionization level. The distance over which sky wave propagation is
effective can range from a few hundred kilometers to several thousand kilometers.

Despite the usefulness of sky wave propagation, it is subject to interference from other radio signals,
atmospheric conditions, and solar activity. Consequently, it is often used in conjunction with other
methods of radio transmission, such as ground wave propagation and satellite communication.