II M.

A ENGLISH- ELCE- SEM IV

1. THE RENAISSANCE
INTRODUCTION:-
The great cultural movement that began in Italy during the early 1300s and spread all
over Europe is known as the Renaissance. It influenced art, literature, history and education.
The word ‘Renaissance’ is derived from the Latin word ‘rinascere’ which means the act of
being reborn. The Renaissance represented a rebirth of ancient Greek and Roman cultures.
RENAISSANCE IN ART:-
The society was not seen as an evil temptation but as a civilizing factor. Theology of
middle ages was replaced by the study of humanity. Renaissance artists focused upon the
beauty of the human body. Petrarch and Boccaccio, were the first renaissance humanists.
Petrarch, through his poetry and Boccaccio through his stories tried to describe the human
feelings.
In 1300s, Giotto became the first artist to portray nature realistically. In 1400, art was
dominated by three men – Michelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci. The focus of art was
realism and the greatest achievements were Michelangelo’s ‘Statue of Moses’, Raphael’s
‘Madonna’ and Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘The Last Supper’ and ‘Mona Lisa’.
RENAISSANCE IN EDUCATION:-
Henry VII invited many Italian humanists to his court. The writings of Greek and Latin
philosophers and scientists were translated by English scholars. The new learning promoted
the growth of universities. Grocyn and Linacre taught Greek at Oxford and Colet lectured on
the Greek Testament.
Colet founded St. Paul’s Grammar School, the first school in England for the study of
classical literature. Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII founded two Cambridge
colleges – Christ’s and St. John’s. Enthusiasm for learning was the characteristic of
Renaissance.
RENAISSANCE IN LITERATURE:-
The Earl of Surrey and Thomas Wyatt brought back the sonnet form of poetry, during
the Elizabeth’s reign, England became the ‘nest of singing birds’. The sonnet became very
popular and great masters like Sidney, Spenser and Shakespeare wrote several poems in this
form. Thomas More, in his book “Utopia” described the ideal land.
RENAISSANCE IN DISCOVERIES:-
The important inventions were the printing press by John Gutenberg, the Mariner’s
Compass and the Telescope. The first printing press was set up in England by William Caxton.
Christopher Columbus discovered America. Vasco-da-Gama found sea route to India.
Ferdinand Magellan was the first to sail around the world.
RENAISSANCE IN SOCIETY:-
New learning inspired people to question old values. The people were shocked by the
moral decay of the church and of the pope, which resulted in the religious revolution known as
the “Reformation”.
CONCLUSION:-
There were changes in the economic conditions of England. The society was of two
classes – the very wealthy and the poor. The Renaissance is the period of tremendous
achievement in the intellectual, scientific and artistic spheres of life.

2. REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION

INTRODUCTION:-
The religious movement of the 1500s that led to Protestantism is known as the
‘Reformation’. It brought great changes in social, political and economic life of the people.
CAUSES:-
a) To reform the outdated doctrines and irrelevant practices of Roman church.
b) Corruption among the clergy, expansion of church buildings and the increasing of
the papal wealth.
c) Concentrated on tax collection.
MARTIN LUTHER:-
The Catholic religion is based on the faith that it was founded by, Jesus Christ. The Pope
is believed to be the successor of St. Peter. The principals of the Catholic Church include the
Eucharist, Purgatory and Indulgence. The movement began in 1517 when Martin Luther, a
Greek monk, criticized the sale of indulgences. He nailed his ‘Ninety – five theses’ to the
church door and so Pope Leo X excommunicated him. Slowly Lutheranism, Calvinism,
Presbyterianism and Puritanism spread to other countries.
THE REFORMATION PARLIAMENT:-
Henry VIII condemned Luther and wrote a book against him, for which Pope Leo X
gave Henry the title ‘Defender of the faith’. Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife Catherine
and to marry Anne Boleyn. When the Pope refused to give permission for the divorce, the
English King broke away from the Roman church.
Henry VIII summoned a parliament known as the ‘Reformation Parliament’. The Act
of Supremacy was passed and it declared that the King was the supreme head of the Church of
England. The Act of Succession was passed and the children born of Henry and Anne Boleyn
were heirs to the throne.
DISSOLUTION OF MONASTERIES
The dissolution of monasteries was one of the key features of the reign of Henry VIII.
Henry VIII cut off from the Catholic Church in Rome and declared himself head of the Church
of England. Monasteries were the wealthiest institutions in England. The King decided to
dissolve the monasteries in order to take revenge on the monks who opposed him. His intention
in destroying the monastic system was both to reap its wealth and to suppress political
opposition. The immense wealth of monasteries was coveted by the King.
The king took over 800 monasteries which had accumulated great wealth and land.
Many monasteries were sold to landowners. Others were taken over and became churches.
Many were left to ruin such as Tintern Abbey. A few monks who resisted were executed, but
those who surrendered were pensioned off. The whole monastic libraries were destroyed,
countless music manuscripts lost and England’s rural landscape changed forever. The
destruction of English monasteries under Henry VIII transformed the power structures of
English society.
The Catholic rebels, under the leadership of Robert Aske marched on a pilgrimage to
the King requesting him to restore the glory of the church. This rebellion was called the
‘Pilgrimage of Grace’. The King violated his promise of looking into their demands and the
leaders were executed. Henry VIII was against the papal power but he never attacked Roman
Catholic Doctrines. ‘The Statue of the Six Articles’ was passed and so Catholic beliefs and
worship were made compulsory.
EDWARD VI’S REIGN:-
a) The Church of England became the Protestant.
b) The Catholic form of worship is strictly banned in England.
c) Through the Act of Uniformity, a permanent common prayer book in English was
introduced and made compulsory.
d) Priests were permitted to marry.
QUEEN MARY’S RULE:-
When Mary came to the throne, she restored the old form of worship. She cancelled the
Act of Uniformity and the Act of Supremacy. She burnt 300 Protestants and earned the name
‘Bloody Mary’ and lost the royalty and affection of the common people.
ELIZABETH’S SETTLEMENT:-
Elizabeth chose to be a protestant and brought about the Anglican settlement. She
restored the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity. She called herself the ‘Supreme
Governor’ of the church. The new Act of Uniformity introduced a modified prayer book. The
national religion of England was Anglicanism. The Catholics and the Puritans stayed out of the
Elizabethan settlement.
COUNTER REFORMATION:-
The Catholic reaction to reformation is called as ‘Counter Reformation’. Its chief aim
was to arrest the spread of Protestanism and to revive the Catholic Church. The Pope had shed
their political aspirations and become real religious leaders. A church council known as the
‘Council of Trent’ was formed. Some countries like Spain and Italy which had strong catholic
rulers, introduced the Inquisition. This is a religious court which tried to stamp out Heresy.
Philip of Spain became the temporal head of the Counter Reformation. Ignatius Loyola founded
the Society of Jesus and its members were known as ‘Jesuits’.
CONCLUSION:-
In England, the Reformation brought peace through the Elizabethan compromise.

3. CIVIL WAR

The English Civil War happened in the middle 17th century. The term covers a period
between 1642 and 1651 in England, Scotland and Ireland.
A civil war is a war where the sides involved in the fighting are from the same country. In the
period of the English Civil War, the King ruled England and Scotland, but the fighting that
took place in each of these countries broke out at different times and for several different
reasons. The Protestant Reformation had encouraged new ideas and struggles.
Charles I became the King after James I and he had married a Catholic, the sister of
Louis XIII of France and this made the Puritans to be angry. The parliamentarians presented
the ‘petition of Rights’ in the third parliament in 1628 to Charles I. According to this, the taxes
could not be collected without the approval of the parliament and there should be no
imprisonment without a trial.
THE LONG PARLIAMENT:-
King Charles I ruled England without a parliament for eleven years. The Scottish War
demanded the need of money. So the King summoned the parliament, which sat for thirteen
long years and it is called as ‘Long Parliament’. The long Parliament was dominated by
Puritans who wanted to put an end to episcopacy in England. Ship money and other illegal
taxes were abolished. The Star Chamber and other royal courts were abolished. The power
passed effectively from King to the parliament.
CIVIL WAR (1642)
The tension and misunderstanding between the king and the parliament led to a bloody
civil war in 1642. The nobles, gentry and the king were on one side and were known as
Royalists. The townsmen and yeomen fought for the parliament and were known as
Roundheads. The Roundheads were led by Oliver Cromwell and they emerged victorious. The
people were very angry with the king for conspiring with the Scots. Charles I were executed in
1649. The Stuart rule came to an end.
THE RUMP PARLIAMENT:-
After the Civil war, England was ruled by Rump Parliament. England was known as
Common Wealth and it faced the hatred of the Royalists and the Presbyterians. Forty – seven
members who opposed the trial of Charles were arrested on the order of Colonel Thomas Pride
and that was known as ‘Pride’s Purge’. Cromwell, with the help of his army disbanded the
Rump Parliament.
The reasons for the fighting were mostly to do with power, money and religion:

• King Charles I of England married a French princess, Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic.
Charles I tried to change Church of England services, introducing incense and bells, things
associated with Catholic services. This worried many people who hated Catholicism.
• When the members of Parliament demanded certain rights, he closed Parliament for eleven
years, starting from 1639 to 1650, ruling without them. This is known as the 'Eleven Years
Tyranny'.
• Charles tried to raise extra taxes called ship money without Parliament. The tax built and
restored ships to protect the country, but Charles extended the tax from charging all those
living by the coast to charging the whole country.
After a few years of quarrelling, the members of Parliament raised an army to fight against the
King. The King moved out of London and took the royal court to Oxford, where he had more
loyal followers than in London. The first war was fought between King Charles's army and the
army of Parliament. King Charles's army soldiers were called "Cavaliers", and the army of
Parliament's soldiers were called "Roundheads". Parliament won the first war, and King
Charles was put in prison, but he escaped and a second war broke out. Parliament won the
second war also, and they put King Charles on trial because they did not want any more
fighting. He was found guilty of treason and was executed in 1649. Parliament declared
the Commonwealth of England. Fighting continued.
During the war, Parliament found a new leader, a man called Oliver Cromwell. He took
the title of "Lord Protector" rather than King, because he did not think the country needed
another king. His government was called "the Protectorate". In the meantime, King Charles I's
eldest son, the Prince of Wales, had left Britain and set up his own royal court in France, calling
himself King Charles II of England. He came back to fight another battle against the army of
Parliament. His father, King Charles I, had been born in Scotland, and Scots who were loyal to
the royal family were among his most important supporters. The Third Civil War (1649 - 1651)
was fought between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The
Civil War ended when Parliament won the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. Charles
II had to disguise himself in order to escape.
Oliver Cromwell ruled the country until he died in 1658. Cromwell's son, Richard, took over
as Lord Protector. However, he was not as tough as his father. People begged King Charles's
son to come back. Charles II came back from France and became King again in 1660. This was
the English Restoration.
4. PURITAN AGE
INTRODUCTION:-
Puritanism was a religious movement that began in England in 1500s and spread to
America. Extreme Protestants who were not satisfied with the changes brought by King Henry
VIII, Edward VI and Queen Elizabeth were called ‘Puritans’. They proposed to ‘purify’ the
church.
LIFE OF THE PURITANS:-
The Puritans followed the teachings of the John Wycliffe and John Calvin. They
believed that the Bible represented the true law of God. They were against the rule of bishops.
They wanted the church to be managed by a group of Presbyters or elders. The Puritans were
strict disciplinarians who stressed on grace, devotion, prayer and self-examination. The
Puritans were plain and simple in appearance. They disliked ornaments and grand dresses. The
Bible was translated into English by William Tyndale.
PURITANS IN THE TUDOR’S RULE:-
The Puritans challenged Elizabeth’s religious settlement. They could not agree that
every member of the state was automatically a member of the state church. They believed the
God was the supreme power and Christ was his mediator. Few Puritan leaders were Thomas
Cartwright, Robert Browne, and Henry Barrow. Elizabeth appointed Whitgift as the
Archbishop and he forced the clergy to accept the Anglican Church. Few Puritan leaders were
also executed.
PURITANS IN THE STUART AGE:-
James I was presented with the ‘Millenary Petition’ signed by the thousand clergymen.
James was afraid of the spread of Puritanism in England, refused to bring about the reforms.
Hence many Puritans fled to Holland in a ship called the ‘Mayflower’. They were known as
the Pilgrim Fathers. Thus Puritanism spread to America. Charles I’s marriage with a Roman
Catholic disappointed the Puritans. In 1642, Civil War broke out with the King and the
cavaliers (followers of Charles I) on one side and Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans on the
other side with the New Model Army, the parliamentary forces won a complete victory in 1646.
OLIVER CROMWELL’S RULE:-
 Cromwell became the head of the state and his rule rested on the army. Duelling, Cock
fighting, horse racing and bear baiting were banned and the Sabbath (7th day of a week) was
observed strictly. Those who broke the rules were punished or fined. Individual liberty and the
rights of the free speech were threatened in his rule.
CONCLUSION:-
The Common Wealth maintained good order and the Puritans were known for their
integrity and uprightness. The greatest works of Puritan Age were Paradise Lost by John Milton
and the Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan. After the death of Oliver Cromwell, the people
were tired of Puritan discipline, the military dictatorship and the revolution.

5. PARTY SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION:-
In England, the political parties originated during the Stuart period. The supporters of
the King were called as ‘royalist’ and the supporters of the parliament were known as
‘Roundheads’. ‘The Whigs’ and ‘The Tories’ were the two chief parties during Queen Anne’s
reign. The ‘Tories’ were the supporters of the King and the Anglican Church. The ‘Whigs’
were dissenters and stood for the rights of the parliament. The Tories are known as the
‘Conservatives’ today. The Whigs are known as the ‘Liberal Party’ today.
EMINENT POLITICIANS:-
The Whig Party was responsible for bringing in the Hanoverians. George I regarded the
Whigs as his friends. Sir Robert Walpole, a big politician was very powerful and he was
considered to be the first Prime Minister. In the 18th century more importance was given to
individuals rather to the political party. Even William Pitt dominated British politics after
American War of Independence.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:-
While the Tories objected the French Revolution, the Whigs welcomed it. William Pitt
declared war against France rulers offered help to all nations who wished to over throw their
Kings.
CONSERVATIVES AND LIBERALS:-
While the Whigs were in power, the First Reform Bill of 1832 was passed, slavery was
abolished in 1833 and the Factory Act was passed in 1833. The Whig party changed their name
as Liberal indicating that they were more liberal minded. Disraeli and Gladstone were the
famous Liberal Prime Ministers.
In 1841, the Tories came back to power with Sir Robert Peel as Prime Minister. The
Tories wanted to be conserved or protected from the reformers and so called themselves as
Conservatives. The Conservative Party represented property and the Liberals represented all
those who lived on salaries and wages.
INDUSTRALISATION:-
The condition of the working class was miserable due to the policy of ‘Laissez Faire’. The
wages were low and the working hours were long. Women and children were exploited.

COMBINATION LAW:-
There was no job security or insurance against illness or death. In 1799, the Combination Laws
were passed and trade unions declared illegal. This act tried to prevent violence in England
reflecting the French Revolution.
FRANCIS PLACE:-
Francis place, a working man was responsible for the repeal of the Combination Laws in
1824. A new act was passed in 1825. It permitted trade Unions to bargain about wages and the
hours of labour.
TRADE UNIONS:-
In 1840s, the trade unions provided sickness grant and insurance against accidents, old
age, death and unemployment. The central body of the British Trade Union Movement is Trade
Union Congress (TUC). The biggest union was the transport and the general workers union.
LABOUR PARTY:-
At first, the trade unions were not interested in politics. In 1875, the TUC sent few
representative to the parliament who supported the Liberals. In 1890s, some trade union leaders
and a few socialist held the conference and founded the Independent Labour Party. The Labour
Party represented the working class.
TRADE UNIONS AND FIRST WORLD WAR:-
There was a large growth of trade unions. There were strike such as Miners’ Strike in
1910 and Seamen’s strike in 1911. The largest strike was the general Strike of 1926 between
miners and the coal mine owners. The reason for all these strikes was to get better wages and
condition of employment.
TRADE UNIONS AND SECOND WORLD WAR:-
During the Second World War, trade unions benefitted greatly. When the Labour Party
formed its government in 1945, union leader Ernest Bevin was a prominent member of the
cabinet.
ROYAL COMMISSION:-
A Royal Commission to study the trade union movement was appointed in 1965. It
recommended that a commission on industrial relations should be set up. This commission
would bring together the unions and the employers. The Labour government introduced a
document – ‘In place of strife’, in order to check the power of the unions.
IMPORTANT PRIME MINISTERS:-
Ramsay MacDonald became the first Labour Prime Minister. Sir Winston Churchill
was popular as the wartime Prime Minister. Margaret Thatcher controlled the growing power
of the trade unions. Tony Blair, continued the economic policies of Thatcher and weakened his
party’s links with the trade unions.
LIBERAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY:-
In 1981, many members left the Labour Party and formed the Social Democratic Party
and the Liberal Party merged to form the Liberal Democratic Party.

CONCLUSION:-
 In the election of 2010, Conservatives won the large number of seats with David
Cameron as the Prime Minister. He was re-elected UK Prime Minister in 2015. He resigned in
October 2016 due to Brexit, a referendum in favour of Britain to leave the European Union.
Hence, Theresa May serves as prime Minister of UK and the leader of the Conservative Party
since 2016.

6. TYPES OF POETRY
Poetry (from the Greek term, poiesis, "making") is a form of literature that
uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language.
1. Epic – long, narrative poem on great and serious subject. Eg.Iliad, Odyssey, The
Aeneid, Paradise Lost.
2. Ballad- a song transmitted orally, which tells a story. Eg.The Ballad of Chevy
Chase, Nut-Brown Maid
3. Lyric-a short, non-narrative poem presenting a single speaker, who expresses a
state of mind or a process of thought and feeling. Eg. Tintern Abbey, Canonization
4. Satire- the use of humour and irony in verse to ridicule ignorance or bad behaviour,
in the hope that public shame might bring a better society. Eg. Dunciad, Mac
Flecknoe
5. Dramatic Monologue – a poem perfected by Robert Browning. i) single speaker
ii) silent listener iii) Mind of the character exposed. Eg. My Last Duchess
6. Elegy- a formal poem of lament on the death of a particular person. Eg. In
Memoriam. Dirge/Threnody- elegy in less formal tone. Monody – elegy as the
utterance of single person. Eg.Lycidas, Thyrsis.
7. Epigram- a short meditative poem with a surprising turn of thought. Matthew Prior
– best epigrammatist, Donne, Jonson, Herrick.
8. Epithalamion- a poem written to celebrate a marriage. Eg. Spenser’s Epithalamion,
John Suckling’s A Ballad Upon a Wedding.
9. Fabliau – a short comic or satiric tale in verse with lower class characters, ribald
and obscene flourished in France. Eg. Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale.
10. Haiku- very short form of Japanese poetry composed of three non rhyming lines.
It often features an image, or a pair of images, meant to depict the essence of a
specific moment in time.
11. Lai- variety of poems by medieval French writers in 12th and 13th centuries. Short
romantic narratives. Eg. Scott’s Lay of the Last Minstrel.
12. Ode- long lyric poem, serious in subject, elevated in style, elaborate in stanzaic
structure. Eg. Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind, Dryden’s Alexander’s Feast.
13. Verse Fable- a fictional story, in verse, that features animals, legendary
creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature with the ability to speak and
to reason and that leads to a particular moral lesson. Eg. Aesop’s Fables.
14. Dramatic Poetry - Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung.
Eg. Tennyson’s Ulysses, Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
 15. Speculative Poetry - also known as fantastic poetry, which deals thematically with
subjects which are beyond reality. Edgar Allan Poe is the father of speculative
poetry. Eg. Shelley’s Queen Mab, Keats’s Lamia.
16. Prose Poetry - a poem written in prose. It shares with poetry symbols, metaphor,
and figures of speech. Eg.Elizabeth Smart’s By Grand Central Station I Sat Down
and Wept.
17. Light Verse- uses ordinary speaking voice. Eg. Nursery Rhymes, Lewis Caroll’s
Jabberwocky, Edward Lear’s The Owl and the Pussy Cat.
18. Free Verse - a type of poetry that does not require any rhyme scheme or meter.
Eg. T.S.Eliot’s The Wasteland.
19. Limerick - A limerick is a poem that is often silly or whimsical, written in five lines
with an AABBA rhyme scheme. Often, limericks tell a short, humorous story. Eg.
Edward Lear’s There was an Old Man with a Nose.
20. Pastoral- (from pastor, Latin for "shepherd") refers to a literary work dealing with
shepherds and rustic life. Eg. Marlowe’s The Passionate Shepherd to His Love,
Milton’s Lycidas.
21. Sonnet - contains 14 lines, typically with two rhyming stanzas and a rhyming
couplet at the end. Eg. Shakespeare’s Sonnets.

7. TYPES OF PROSE
1. Non-fiction Prose- It is full of content whose creator, in good faith, assumes
responsibility for the truth or accuracy of the events, people, or information
presented.
a. Biography – It is the history of particular men’s lives. Eg. James Boswell’s Life
of Samuel Johnson.
b. Memoir - a collection of memories that an individual writes about moments or
events, both public or private, that took place in the subject's life. Eg. Ernest
Hemingway’s A Moveable Feast.
c. Autobiography- It is the biography written by the subject about himself. Eg.
Hellen Keller’s The Story of My Life.
d. Essay- A brief composition in prose which expresses a point of view on a subject.
Eg. Bacon’s Essays.
e. Exemplum- It is a moral anecdote, brief or extended, real or fictitious, used to
illustrate a moral point. Eg. Chaucer’s The Legend of Good Women
f. Epistle - An epistle is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people,
usually an elegant and formal didactic letter. Eg. Letters of Cicero
g. Encyclopaedia, Philosophy, Law, History, Journals, Reports
2. Prose Poem - a poem written in prose. It shares with poetry symbols, metaphor,
and figures of speech.
a. Haiku - very short form of Japanese poetry composed of three non rhyming
lines. It often features an image, or a pair of images, meant to depict the essence
of a specific moment in time.
 b. Polyphonic Prose - a rhythmical prose employing the poetic devices of
alliteration and assonance. It refers to the simultaneity of points of view and
voices within a particular narrative plane. Eg. Fyodor Dostoevsky's prose.
3. Prose Fiction - It is fictional work that is presented in a narrative form.
a. Fable - a fictional story, in prose, that features animals, legendary
creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature with the ability to speak
and to reason and that leads to a particular moral lesson. Eg. One Thousand and
One Nights.
b. Parable - A parable is a didactic story, in prose or verse that illustrates one or
more instructive lessons or principles. It is a short tale that illustrates a universal
truth; it is a simple narrative. Eg. The parables of Jesus.
c. Anecdote – It is a brief, revealing account of an individual person or an incident.
d. Satire – It is the literary art of diminishing a subject by making it ridiculous and
scorn. Eg. Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels.
e. Short Story - an invented prose narrative shorter than a novel usually dealing
with a few characters and aiming at unity of effect and often concentrating on
the creation of mood rather than plot. Eg. O.Henry’s The Last Leaf.
f. Novel- a relatively long work of narrative fiction, normally written
in prose form describing intimate human experiences. Eg. Defoe’s Robinson
Crusoe.
g. Novella - a text of written, fictional, narrative prose normally longer than
a short story but shorter than a novel. Eg. Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man
and the Sea.

8. TYPES OF DRAMA – a literary form designed for theatre, where actors take the roles
of characters, perform the indicated action and utter the written dialogue.
1. Poetic Drama
2. Closet Drama
3. Chronicle Plays- Dramatic renderings of the historical materials. Eg. Marlowe’
Edward II.
4. Comedy – a work to interest and amuse us.
5. Comedy of Humours – a type found by Ben Jonson based on the physiological
theory of the four humours. Jonson’s Epicene.
6. Comedy of Manners – deals with relations and intrigues of gentlemen and
ladies living in a polished and sophisticated society. Eg. Congreve’s The Way
of the World.
7. Commedia Dell’arte – a comic drama developed by 16th century professional
Italian actors representing stock characters.
8. Folk Drama – originated in primitive rites of song and dance, especially in
connection with agricultural activities at the various seasons that centered on
vegetational deities and goddesses of fertility.
 9. Heroic Drama – a heroic play in imitation of heroic poem having love and
valour as the subject. Eg. Dryden’s The Conquest of Granada.
10. Masque – elaborate form of court entertainment, combining poetic drama,
music, song, splendid costuming, dance and stage spectacle. Eg. Jonson’s The
Masque of Beauty.
11. Melodrama - a sensational dramatic piece with exaggerated characters and
exciting events intended to appeal to the strong emotions. Eg. Noel Coward’s
Still Life, Brief Encounter.
12. Miracle Plays – it tells the life and martyrdom of saints. Eg. St.Nicholas.
13. Mystery Plays – representation of the stories of the Bible. Eg.Adam and Eve.
14. Morality Plays – dramatized allegories of the life of man. Eg. Seven Deadly
Sins.
15. Interludes – variety of short entertainments between the courses of a feast or
between the acts of a longer play. Eg. The Four PP.
16. Pantomime – It is acting without speech, using only posture, gesture, bodily
movement and exaggerated facial expression to mime a character’s actions and
feelings.
17. Dumb show – It is an episode of pantomime introduced into a spoken play.
18. Problem Play- representing contemporary sociological problem popularised by
Henrik Ibsen. Eg. G.B.Shaw’s Mrs. Warren’s Profession.
19. Sentimental Comedy – It is an 18th century dramatic genre which resulted as a
reaction to the immoral tone of English Restoration Plays. Middle-class
protagonists triumphantly overcome a series of moral trials. These plays aimed
to produce tears rather than laughter. Eg. Steele’s Conscious Lovers.
20. Anti-sentimental Comedy- It is kind of comedy representing complex and
sophisticated code of behaviour current in fashionable circles of society. Also
called Comedies of Manners popularised by Goldsmith and Sheridan. Eg. She
Stoops to Conquer.
21. Tragedy - a play dealing with tragic events and having an unhappy ending,
especially one concerning the downfall of the main character. Eg. Dr.Faustus
22. Tragicomedy- a play or novel containing elements of both comedy and tragedy.
Eg. The Merchant of Venice.

9. BOOKER PRIZE WINNERS

Something to Answer United
1969 P. H. Newby Novel
For Kingdom

United
1970 Bernice Rubens The Elected Member Novel
Kingdom
 United
1970 J. G. Farrell Troubles Novel Kingdom
Ireland

United
Kingdom
1971 V. S. Naipaul In a Free State Novel
Trinidad and
Tobago

United
1972 John Berger G. Experimental novel
Kingdom

United
The Siege of
1973 J. G. Farrell Novel Kingdom
Krishnapur
Ireland

Nadine
The Conservationist Novel South Africa
Gordimer
1974
Stanley United
Holiday Novel
Middleton Kingdom

United
Ruth Prawer
1975 Heat and Dust Historical novel Kingdom
Jhabvala
Germany

United
1976 David Storey Saville Novel
Kingdom

United
1977 Paul Scott Staying On Novel
Kingdom

Ireland
1978 Iris Murdoch The Sea, the Sea Philosophical novel United
Kingdom

Penelope United
1979 Offshore Novel
Fitzgerald Kingdom

William United
1980 Rites of Passage Novel
Golding Kingdom
 United
1981 Salman Rushdie Midnight's Children Magic realism
Kingdom

Thomas
1982 Schindler's Ark Biographical novel Australia
Keneally

Life & Times of

1983 J. M. Coetzee Novel South Africa
Michael K

United
1984 Anita Brookner Hotel du Lac Novel
Kingdom

1985 Keri Hulme The Bone People Mystery novel New Zealand

United
1986 KingsleyAmis The Old Devils Comic novel
Kingdom

United
1987 Penelope Lively Moon Tiger Novel
Kingdom

1988 Peter Carey Oscar and Lucinda Historical novel Australia

The Remains of the United

1989 Kazuo Ishiguro Historical novel
Day Kingdom

United
1990 A. S. Byatt Possession Historical novel
Kingdom

1991 Ben Okri The Famished Road Magic realism Nigeria

Michael Historiographic
The English Patient Canada
Ondaatje[56] metafiction
1992
United
Barry Unsworth Sacred Hunger Historical novel
Kingdom

Paddy Clarke Ha Ha
1993 Roddy Doyle Novel Ireland
Ha

How Late It Was, United

1994 James Kelman Stream of consciousness
How Late Kingdom
 United
1995 Pat Barker The Ghost Road War novel
Kingdom

United
1996 Graham Swift Last Orders Novel
Kingdom

The God of Small

1997 Arundhati Roy Novel India
Things

United
1998 Ian McEwan Amsterdam Novel
Kingdom

1999 J. M. Coetzee Disgrace Novel South Africa

Margaret
2000 The Blind Assassin Historical novel Canada
Atwood

True History of the

2001 Peter Carey Historical novel Australia
Kelly Gang

Fantasy and adventure

2002 Yann Martel Life of Pi Canada
novel

2003 DBC Pierre Vernon God Little Black comedy Australia

Alan United
2004 The Line of Beauty Historical novel
Hollinghurst Kingdom

2005 John Banville The Sea Novel Ireland

The Inheritance of
2006 Kiran Desai Novel India
Loss

2007 Anne Enright The Gathering Novel Ireland

2008 Aravind Adiga The White Tiger Novel India

United
2009 Hilary Mantel Wolf Hall Historical novel
Kingdom

Howard United
2010 The Finkler Question Comic novel
Jacobson Kingdom
 The Sense of an United
2011 Julian Barnes Novel
Ending Kingdom

United
2012 Hilary Mantel Bring Up the Bodies Historical novel
Kingdom

2013 Eleanor Catton The Luminaries Historical novel New Zealand

Richard The Narrow Road to

2014 Historical novel Australia
Flanagan the Deep North

A Brief History of Historical/experimental

2015 Marlon James Jamaica
Seven Killings novel

United States
2016 Paul Beatty The Sellout Satirical novel
of America

George Historical/experimental United States

2017 Lincoln in the Bardo
Saunders novel of America

United
Kingdom
2018 Anna Burns Milkman Novel
Northern
Ireland

10. THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

INTORDUCTION:-
The war of American Independence was an event of national and international
significance. It was an outcome of the domineering and autocratic ways of the English King,
George III. It was also due to the spirit of independence of the colonists.
BRITISH TRADE MONOPOLY:-
British gave the colonies complete freedom in matters of legislation. It imposed certain
regulation in matters of trade. America was prohibited from producing things, like hats, steel,
woollen or iron products which might compete with English industry. The American colonists
could not tolerate the inference in their trade.

THE NAVIGATION ACT:-

 The Navigation Act demanded that colonies could export some of its products such as
tobacco and cotton only to England. They got the protection of the British fleet and the army,
in written.
SEVEN YEARS WAR:-
The Seven Years War was fought between France and England for colonial supremacy.
England attempted to tax the colonies in order to meet the great expenses which made the
colonists angry.
THE SUGAR ACT:-
The British placed a tax on foreign refined sugar, coffee and certain kinds of wine. It
banned the importation of rum and French wines.
THE STAMP ACT:-
The Stamp Act stated that every newspaper, pamphlet, public and legal documents were
to be stamped. The money raised by this taxation had to be spent on maintaining the standing
army in America.
THE DECLARATORY ACT:-
The colonies hated the new British policies. The colonists felt England could not tax
them without their approval and so began to boycott British goods. Britain cancelled the Stamp
act and passed the Declaratory Act which claimed that Britain had every right to tax the
colonies.
THE TOWNSHEND ACT:-
The British government passed the Townshend Acts which taxed the lead, glass, paints,
paper and tea that were imported by the colonies.
BOSTON TEA PARTY:-
Due to opposition by the colonies, England abolished the tax on lead, glass, paint and
paper except tea. The colonists wanted to withdraw the tax on tea also. When the English ships
arrived at the port of Boston, some colonists dressed as Red Indians, entered the ships and
threw the tea into the sea. This event was known as the famous ‘Boston Tea Party’. The angry
British government closed the Boston port.
THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE:-
The American army was headed by George Washington. The Declaration of Rights was
drawn up initiating a boycott of British goods. The Declaration of Independence was drawn by
Thomas Jefferson in 1776 and it said that ‘all men were created equal’ and had the right to ‘life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness’, Washington defeated the English army in 1777.
CAUSES FOR THE BRITISH DEFEAT:-
The main disadvantage for the British was that they had to fight a war three thousand
miles away from home. The English soldiers had no experience of fighting in colonial
conditions. France joining America was a great shock to England. The Americans had the able
leadership of Washington.

CONCLUSION:-
 Britain lost one of her important colonies and King George III became very unpopular
due to the American War or Independence by the Treaty of Versailles. The Americans showed
the world that a revolution was justified to change the unpopular government. The French
soldiers got inspiration from the American Revolution.

11. TRANSCENDALISTS
In the early to mid-nineteenth century, a philosophical movement known as
Transcendentalism took root in America and evolved into a predominantly literary expression.
The adherents to Transcendentalism believed that knowledge could be arrived at not just
through the senses, but through intuition and contemplation of the internal spirit. The father of
the movement was Ralph Waldo Emerson. Transcendentalism emerged from "English and
German Romanticism, and the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and German
Idealism. It was also strongly influenced by Hindu texts on philosophy of the mind and
spirituality, especially the Upanishads.
A core belief of transcendentalism is in the inherent goodness of people and nature.
Adherents believe that society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual,
and they have faith that people are at their best when truly "self-reliant" and independent.
Transcendentalists are strong believers in the power of the individual. It focuses primarily on
personal freedom. The Dial was an American magazine published intermittently from 1840 to
1929. In its first form, from 1840 to 1844, it served as the chief publication of
the Transcendentalists.

Major Writers of the Transcendentalist Movement

Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882)
Thoreau, Henry David (1817-1862)
Fuller, Margaret (1810-1850)
Channing, William Henry (1810-1884)
Ripley, George (1802-1880)
Dickinson, Emily (1830-1886)
Whitman, Walt (1819-1892)
Very, Jones (1813-1880)
Alcott, Amos Bronson (1799-1888)
Francis, Convers (1795-1863)
Peabody, Elizabeth (1804-1894)
Hedge, Frederick Henry (1805-1890)

Edgar Allan Poe referred to them as “Frogpondians” and repeatedly mocked their
writing. Nathaniel Hawthorne, who was marginally associated with the movement, eventually
developed distaste for their utopian idealism. He wrote a satirical novel, The Blithedale
Romance, based largely on his experience at Brook Farm, a Transcendentalist utopian
commune.

EMERSON
Individual essays

• "Nature" (1836)
• "Self-Reliance" (Essays: First Series)
• "The American Scholar"
• "New England Reformers"
Poems

• "Concord Hymn"
• "The Rhodora"
• "Brahma"
• "Uriel"

12. ROBERT FROST

Robert Lee Frost (March 26, 1874 – January 29, 1963) was an American poet. His work was
initially published in England before it was published in America. He is Known for his realistic
depictions of rural life and his command of American colloquial speech. Frost was honored
frequently during his lifetime, receiving four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry. He was awarded
the Congressional Gold Medal in 1960 for his poetic works. On July 22, 1961, Frost was
named poet laureate of Vermont.
In 1894, he sold his first poem, "My Butterfly. An Elegy" (published in the November
8, 1894, edition of the New York Independent) for $15. His first two poetry volumes were
published in London in 1913 (A Boy's Will) and 1914 (North of Boston). He called his
colloquial approach to language "the sound of sense. In 1924, he won the first of four Pulitzer
Prizes for the book New Hampshire: A Poem with Notes and Grace Notes. He would win
additional Pulitzers for Collected Poems in 1931, A Further Range in 1937, and A Witness
Tree in 1943.
In 1960, Frost was awarded a United States Congressional Gold Medal, "In recognition of his
poetry, which has enriched the culture of the United States and the philosophy of the
world,"[21] which was finally bestowed by President Kennedy in March 1962.[22] Also in 1962,
he was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal for outstanding contribution to the arts by
the MacDowell Colony.[23]
Frost was 86 when he read at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy on January 20, 1961. Frost
originally attempted to read his poem "Dedication", which was written for the occasion, but
was unable to read it due to the brightness of the sunlight, so he recited his poem "The Gift
Outright" from memory instead. His epitaph quotes the last line from his poem, "The Lesson
for Today" (1942): "I had a lover's quarrel with the world."
Significant poems are "The Witch of Coös", "Home Burial", "A Servant to Servants",
"Directive", "Neither Out Too Far Nor In Too Deep", "Provide, Provide", "Acquainted with
the Night", "After Apple Picking", "Mending Wall", "The Most of It", "An Old Man's Winter
Night", "To Earthward", "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening", "Spring Pools", "The
Lovely Shall Be Choosers", "Design", and "Desert Places.
Influenced by

• Robert Graves
• Rupert Brooke
• Thomas Hardy[39]
• William Butler Yeats,[39]
• John Keats
Frost was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature 31 times.
IMPORTANT LINES OF FROST

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I --

I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
"The Road Not Taken"

The fact is the sweetest dream that labor knows.

"Mowing"

Good fences make good neighbors.

"Mending Wall"

The woods are lovely, dark and deep.

But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.
"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening"
Some say the earth will end in fire,
Some say in ice.
"Fire and Ice"

I have been one acquainted with the night.

I have walked out in rain - and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light.
I have looked down the saddest city lane.
"Acquainted with the Night"

One could do worse than be a swinger of birches.

"Birches’

And nothing to look backward to with pride,

And nothing to look forward to with hope.
"Death of the Hired Man"

No, from the time when one is sick to death,

One is alone, and he dies more alone.
Friends make pretense of following to the grave,
But before one is in it, their minds are turned
And making the best of their way back to life
And living people, and things they understand.
"Home Burial"

They listened at his heart.

Little-less-nothing! and that ended it.
No more to build on there. And they, since they
Were not the one dead, turned to their affairs.
"Out, Out--"

13. EMILY DICKINSON

Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American poet.
Some argue that Dickinson lived much of her life in reclusive isolation. Considered an eccentric
by locals, she developed a noted penchant for white clothing and became known for her
reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, to even leave her bedroom. Dickinson never married,
and most friendships between her and others depended entirely upon correspondence.
While Dickinson was a prolific private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1,800 poems
were published during her lifetime. Her poems are unique for the era in which she wrote; they
contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional
capitalization and punctuation.[4] Many of her poems deal with themes of death and
immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends. Dickinson biographer Alfred
Habegger wrote My Wars Are Laid Away in Books: The Life of Emily Dickinson. Dickinson's
poems reflect her "early and lifelong fascination" with illness, dying and death.
IMPORTANT POEMS OF DICKINSON
1. “FAITH” IS A FINE INVENTION

“Faith” is a fine invention

For Gentlemen who see!
But Microscopes are prudent
In an Emergency!
2. MUCH MADNESS IS DIVINEST SENSE
‘Much Madness’ begins with a paradoxical line which equates madness to divine sense.
Dickinson talks about the insane society which treats individuality as madness.
Much Madness is divinest Sense –
To a discerning Eye –
Much Sense – the starkest Madness –
‘Tis the Majority
In this, as all, prevail –
Assent – and you are sane –
Demur – you’re straightway dangerous –
And handled with a Chain –
3. TELL ALL THE TRUTH BUT TELL IT SLANT
In this poem Dickinson presents truth as a powerful entity whose dazzling brilliance can bring
this world to an end. Hence she suggests that it would be wise to tell the truth but ‘tell it slant’
and to gradually ease it into the world.
Poem:-
Tell all the truth but tell it slant —
Success in Circuit lies
Too bright for our infirm Delight
The Truth’s superb surprise
As Lightning to the Children eased
With explanation kind
The Truth must dazzle gradually
Or every man be blind —
 4. SUCCESS IS COUNTED SWEETEST
In this poem Dickinson uses the image of a victorious army and of a defeated soldier who is
dying. Through this image she conveys that success can be understood best by those who have
suffered defeat. The popularity of the poem lies in the fact that unlike some of her other poems
which talk about losing in romance, ‘Success Is Counted Sweetest’ “can be applied to any
situation where there are winners and losers.”
Poem:-
Success is counted sweetest
By those who ne’er succeed.
To comprehend a nectar
Requires sorest need.

Not one of all the purple Host

Who took the Flag today
Can tell the definition
So clear of victory

As he defeated – dying –
On whose forbidden ear
The distant strains of triumph
Burst agonized and clear!
5. WILD NIGHTS – WILD NIGHTS!
‘Wild nights – Wild nights!’ is widely discussed for its implications. It doesn’t tell a story but
is an expression of wish or desire. Dickinson uses the sea as an image for passion. It remains
one of the most popular romantic poems written by an American.
Poem:-
Wild nights – Wild nights!
Were I with thee
Wild nights should be
Our luxury!
Futile – the winds –
To a Heart in port –
Done with the Compass –
Done with the Chart!
Rowing in Eden –
Ah – the Sea!
Might I but moor – tonight –
In thee!
6. IF I CAN STOP ONE HEART FROM BREAKING
This simple and often quoted poem by Dickinson talks about the deeds one can do which will
insure that one’s life was not is vain.
Poem:-
If I can stop one heart from breaking,
I shall not live in vain ;
If I can ease one life the aching,
Or cool one pain,
Or help one fainting robin
Unto his nest again,
I shall not live in vain.
 7. I HEARD A FLY BUZZ – WHEN I DIED

In “I heard a Fly buzz” the narrator is on his or her deathbed in a still room surrounded by loved
ones. Everyone is awaiting the arrival of the ‘King’. The figure of death appears as a tiny, often
disregarded, fly with a ‘stumbling Buzz’. It comes between the narrator and light and then the
narrator ‘could not see to see’ or is dead. The poem remains one of Dickinson’s most discussed
and famous works.
Poem:-
I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –
The Stillness in the Room
Was like the Stillness in the Air –
Between the Heaves of Storm –
The Eyes around – had wrung them dry –
And Breaths were gathering firm
For that last Onset – when the King
Be witnessed – in the Room –
I willed my Keepsakes – Signed away
What portion of me be
Assignable – and then it was
There interposed a Fly –
With Blue – uncertain – stumbling Buzz –
Between the light – and me –
And then the Windows failed – and then
I could not see to see –

8. I’M NOBODY! WHO ARE YOU?

In this poem the narrator considers that being nobody is a luxury and it is depressingly repetitive
to be somebody, who like a frog has a compulsion to croak all the time. The most talked about
detail of Dickinson’s life is perhaps that only 10 of her nearly 1800 works were published
during her lifetime and she lived her life in anonymity. This and the fact that the poem is about
the popular subject of “us against them” makes it one of the most famous poems written by
Dickinson.
Poem:-
I’m Nobody! Who are you?
Are you — Nobody — Too?
Then there’s a pair of us!
Don’t tell! They’d banish us — you know!
How dreary — to be — Somebody!
How public — like a Frog —
To tell one’s name — the livelong June —
To an admiring Bog!
9. BECAUSE I COULD NOT STOP FOR DEATH
Many of Dickinson’s poems deal with the themes of death and immortality; and this is the most
famous of them all. In it Emily personifies death as a gentle guide who takes a leisurely carriage
ride with the poet to her grave. According to prominent American poet Allen Tate, “If the word
great means anything in poetry, this poem is one of the greatest in the English language; it is
flawless to the last detail.”
Poem:-
Because I could not stop for Death –
He kindly stopped for me –
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
And Immortality.

We slowly drove – He knew no haste

And I had put away
My labor and my leisure too,
For His Civility –

We passed the School, where Children strove

At Recess – in the Ring –
We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain –
We passed the Setting Sun –

Or rather – He passed Us –
The Dews drew quivering and Chill –
For only Gossamer, my Gown –
My Tippet – only Tulle –

We paused before a House that seemed

A Swelling of the Ground –
The Roof was scarcely visible –
The Cornice – in the Ground –

Since then – ’tis Centuries – and yet

Feels shorter than the Day
I first surmised the Horses’ Heads
Were toward Eternity –
10. HOPE IS THE THING WITH FEATHERS
The most famous poem by Dickinson, “Hope is the Thing with Feathers” is ranked among the
greatest poems in the English language. It metaphorically describes hope as a bird that rests in
the soul, sings continuously and never demands anything even in the direst circumstances.
Poem:-
“Hope” is the thing with feathers –
That perches in the soul –
And sings the tune without the words –
And never stops – at all –

And sweetest – in the Gale – is heard –

And sore must be the storm –
That could abash the little Bird
That kept so many warm –

I’ve heard it in the chillest land –

And on the strangest Sea –
Yet – never – in Extremity,
It asked a crumb – of me.

11. "I TASTE A LIQUOR NEVER BREWED"

In life and in art Emily Dickinson was idiosyncratic – she did not choose the prescribed life of
a well to-do woman of her era (marriage etc.) rather she become an outsider. While ‘I taste a
liquor never brewed –’ illustrates her devotion to rhyme.
12. "I FELT A FUNERAL, IN MY BRAIN"
‘I felt a Funeral, in my Brain’ is one of Dickinson’s most well-known poems on mental health,
using some of her favourite metaphors: death and the afterlife, the heaven of well-being, or the
hell of continued mental anguish. The melding of the physical and the mental is deftly done
with strong verbs – tread, break, beat, creak – that lead down to that final, breathless ‘plunge’.
13. "A BIRD, CAME DOWN THE WALK"
Dickinson valued the musicality of words and she loved a hymnal beat. The bird’s ‘frightened
Beads’ for eyes and its ‘Velvet Head’ are the sort of recognisable, tactile images that children
love, hopping sidewise, glancing ‘with rapid eyes’ and finally unrolling my feathers to row
away.

14. AMERICAN DRAMATISTS

1. Eugene O’Neill (1888 – 1953)

O’Neill was one of the first American playwrights to incorporate the concept of realism into
his plays — realism that included characters on the fringes of society, varied American dialects
and colloquialisms, and deep-seated fears of those realistic characters. O’Neill’s aim was to
strip American theatre of false sentimentality and present, rather, an honest view of American
culture. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in Drama in 1920, 1922, 1928, and 1957 and for
Literature in 1936.His daughter, Oona, married English actor and director Charlie Chaplin.
O’Neill disowned her and never saw her again.
Popular Plays: Desire Under the Elms, The Iceman Cometh, A Moon for the
Misbegotten, Anna Christie, The Hairy Ape.

2. George S. Kaufman (1889 – 1961)

Kaufman was a fan of satire, and incorporated this type of voice in many of his plays and the
plays he worked on with his fellow playwrights. Also a director and producer, Kaufman
directed plays and musicals including a stage adaptation of Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men in
1937 and Guys and Dolls in 1951, a show that earned him the 1951 Tony Award for Best
Director. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1932 and 1937.
Popular Plays: The Man Who Came to Dinner, Merrily We Roll Along, Stage Door, You Can’t
Take It With You, Dinner at Eight

3. Thornton Wilder (1897 – 1975)

Wilder’s plays concentrate on the commonplace happenings in people’s lives and the cosmic
events that seem to envelope them. Wilder was also involved in other areas of entertainment
and education: acting, writing opera librettos, film, translation, teaching, and lecturing. He
famously wrote the first draft of Alfred Hitchcock’s 1943 thriller Shadow of a Doubt. Wilder
was awarded The Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1938 and 1942.
Trivia: Wilder was proficient in four languages: German, French, Norwegian, and Spanish.
Popular Plays: Our Town, The Matchmaker, The Skin of Our Teeth, The Long Christmas
Dinner.

4. Lillian Hellman (1905 – 1984)

Hellman’s plays heavily comment on social issues like feminism, aging, and family
dysfunction. She was heavily criticized for her sympathy to Communist causes. Her play, The
Children’s Hour, which featured a lesbian relationship between two teachers, was adapted into
a film called These Three in which one schoolteacher is accused of sleeping with the other’s
fiance.
Popular Plays: The Autumn Garden, The Children’s Hour, The Little Foxes, Toys in the Attic.
5. Tennessee Williams (1911 – 1983)
Considered one of the three major playwrights of 20th-century American drama, Williams used
his own life to inform the content of his plays. His work, realistic in nature, contained drug
abuse, alcoholism, and domestic violence, all of which he experienced at some point in his
life. A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof won the Pulitzer Prize for drama in
1948 and 1955, respectively.
Popular Plays: The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire, Cat on a Hot Tin
Roof, Orpheus Descending, Baby Doll (often called Baby Doll & Tiger Tale)
6. Arthur Miller (1915 – 2005)
Miller, one of the most prominent playwrights in 20th-century American theatre, was also an
essayist. His work mainly focuses on the balance between the individual and society — how
society influences the individual and how the individual influences the world around them.
Themes in his work include The American Dream, social responsibility, death, and human
purpose. In 1949, he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for Death of a Salesman.
Popular Plays: The Crucible, Death of a Salesman, After the Fall, A View from the Bridge, All
My Sons, The Last Yankee.
7. Edward Albee (1928 – 2016)
Known for his absurdist theatre leanings, Albee’s introduction to the theatre was at a very early
age. Albee was awarded three Pulitzer Prizes for drama: A Delicate
Balance (1967), Seascape(1975), and Three Tall Women (1994). He also received the Tony
Award for Lifetime Achievement in 2005.
Popular Plays: Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, The Goat, or Who is Sylvia?, The American
Dream, A Delicate Balance, At Home at the Zoo (formerly titled Peter & Jerry)

8. María Irene Fornés (1930 – )

A leading playwright of avant garde theatre, Fornés was born in Cuba and immigrated to the
United States when she was 14. In 1954, Fornés moved to Paris; while living there, she saw a
production of Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot. This inspired her to become a playwright.
Fornés’ plays focus on social and personal issues, oftentimes using theatre as an immersive
experience. She would later win the 1985 Obie Award for Best Play for her work, The Conduct
of Life.
Popular Plays: The Conduct of Life, Fefu and Her Friends, Mud, Sarita, Letters from Cuba

9. Lorraine Hansberry (1930 – 1965)

Hansberry’s legacy in theatre is marked by her focus on the struggles of black Americans,
African liberation, and sexual freedom ‘50s and ‘60s. Hansberry grew up around prominent
Black intellectuals including W.E.B. Dubois and Paul Robeson. In 1959, Hansberry became
the youngest American playwright and the fifth female playwright to receive the New York
Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Play. Her play, A Raisin in the Sun, earned her this honor;
she was 29. Hansberry was the first black woman to write a play performed on Broadway.
Popular Plays: A Raisin in the Sun, The Sign in Sidney Brustein’s Window, To Be Young,
Gifted, and Black, Les Blancs (The Whites)

15. AMERICAN SHORT STORIES

• The Gift of the Magi (1905) by O. Henry
• The Little Match Girl (1845) by Hans Christian Andersen
• To Build a Fire (1908) by Jack London
• An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1890, 1891) by AmbroseBierce
• A Dark Brown Dog (written 1893, published 1901) by Stephen Crane
• The Monkey's Paw (1902) by W.W. Jacobs
• The Cask of Amontillado (1846) by Edgar Allan Poe
• Eve's Diary (1906) by Mark Twain
• The Story of an Hour (1894, 1895) by Kate Chopin
• The Luck of Roaring Camp (1868) by Bret Harte
• Regret (1897) by Kate Chopin
• The Skylight Room (1906) by O. Henry
• A Horseman in the Sky (1889) by Ambrose Bierce
• The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) by Washington Irving
• My Kinsman, Major Molineux (1832), Young Goodman Brown (1835), and The
Minister's Black Veil (1832) by Nathaniel Hawthorne
• The Cactus (1882) by O. Henry
• The Tell-Tale Heart (1843) by Edgar Allan Poe
• The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County (1865) by Mark Twain
• Scarlet Stockings (~1869) by Louisa May Alcott
• An Angel in Disguise (1851) by T.S. Arthur
• Bartleby, the Scrivener (1856) by Herman Melville
• The Purloined Letter (1844) by Edgar Allan Poe
• A Jury of Her Peers (1917) by Susan Glaspell
• On the Gull's Road (1908) by Willa Cather
• The Lottery (1948) by Shirley Jackson
• Thank You, M'am (1958) by Langston Hughes
• The Split Cherry Tree (1939) by Jesse Stuart
• The Cat (1901) by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman
• The Lady, or the Tiger? (1882) by Frank Stockton
• The Night Came Slowly (1895) by Kate Chopin

16. AMERICAN NOVELISTS

1. The Scarlet Letter - Nathaniel Hawthorne (1850)

 2. Moby-Dick - Herman Melville (1851)
3. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn - Mark Twain (1884)
4. The House of Mirth - Edith Wharton (1905)
5. The Call of the Wild - Jack London (1903)
6. The Grapes of Wrath - John Steinbeck (1939)
7. Independence Day - Richard Ford (1995)
8. The Colossus of Maroussi - Henry Miller (1941)
9. The Catcher in the Rye - J D Salinger (1951)
10. Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas - Hunter S Thompson (1971)
11. Beloved - Toni Morrison (1987)
12. Uncle Tom's Cabin - Harriet Beecher Stowe (1852)
13. The Great Gatsby - F Scott Fitzgerald (1925)
14. For Whom the Bell Tolls - Ernest Hemingway (1940)
15. The Color Purple - Alice Walker (1982)
16. Rabbit, Run - John Updike (1960)

NOBEL PRIZE – AMERICAN LITERATURE

1930 Sinclair Lewis

1936 Eugene O'Neill
1938 Pearl S. Buck
1949 William Faulkner
1954 Ernest Hemingway
1962 John Steinbeck
1976 Saul Bellow
1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer
1987 Joseph Brodsky
1993 Toni Morrison
2016 Bob Dylan

17. INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

• In postcolonial writing a greater emphasis was put on the process of colonialization and
attempt was made to record a strong resistance to the masters of the colonized societies
besides insisting on contemporary realities of life.
• It deals with the literature written in colonized countries about the sufferings of the
masses and also about the resistance of the people who were at the receiving end.
Postcolonial writings can be considered as the historical marker of the period because
it deals the literature which comes after decolonization.
• Their writings can be taken as a medium of resistance to the former colonizer. Their
themes focus on the issues like identity, national and cultural heritage, hybridity,
partition, contemporary reality, human relationships and emotions etc.
• Subaltern study is also a major sphere of current postcolonial practice. Gayatri
Chakraborhy Spivak, Kancha Iliah, Ranjit Guha and others have focused on the
subaltern issues in their works.
 • The literary works of the colonial nationalist period revolved around themes like
marginalization, widowhood and widow remarriage. It was Bankim Chandra
Chattopadyaya, who for the first time, sought to bring the national movement and
patriotism in his novel Anandmath (1882). Later, it was followed by Ishwar Chandra
Vidya Sagar, Sri Aurbindo, Rabindranath Tagore and others. Tagore’s Gora (1910) is
also the product of the colonial period, which ultimately questions nationalism and the
reader at the end of the novel wonders whether nationalism is an illusion or a reality.
• The entire history of Indian English novel can broadly be divided into two periods—
pre-independence novel and post-independence novel. The pre-independence period
witnessed a slow growth of Indian English novel. It begins with the publication of
Bankimchand Chatterjee’s Raj Mohan’s Wife in 1864. Most of the novelists of this
period like Bankim Chandra Chattopadyaya, Rabindranath Tagore, and Raja Rao wrote
mainly under the influence of Gandhism and nationalism. They exposed social evils,
customs and traditions, rites and rituals, poverty and illiteracy, bonds and bondages in
their novels on the one hand and on the other, they made their writings a powerful
medium to highlight the east-west encounter and thereby to spread the nationalistic
ideas of the great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi among the people. Mulk Raj Anand,
R.K. Narayan and Raja Rao presented the radical social and national issues in their
novels. The novels produced in the pre-independence period depicted the changing
socio-political scene.
• A paradigm shift took place in the post-independence novels both in terms of content
and style and novelists like Mulk Raj Anand wrote novels extensively dealing with
social evils such as exploitation of the untouchable, the landless peasants, tea garden
workers and the problems of industrial labour. The novels like Untouchable (1935),
Coolie (1936) Two Leaves and A Bud (1937) and The Village (1939) are milestones in
Anand’s journey of social reform. These novels concentrated on social reforms so
much. The trend of presenting the social issues for the purpose of social reform got
strengthened with the publication of G.V. Desai’s All About Hatter and Bhavani
Bhattacharya’s So Many Hungers. While G.V Desai’s All About Hatter concentrates
on the frontiers of social realism and stresses the need for social reform, Bhattacharya’s
So Many Hungers studies the socio-economic effects of Bengal famine of early forties.
Many women novelists in postcolonial period like Anita Desai, Arundhati Roy, Jhumpa
Lahiri, Shobha De, Kamala Markandaya, Nayantara Sahgal, and Kiran Desai carved a
niche for themselves in Indian English fiction.

SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD WINNERS

1960 The Guide R. K. Narayan Novel

1964 The Serpent and the Rope Raja Rao Novel
1965 The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin Verrier Elwin Autobiography
Bhabani
1967 Shadow From Ladakh Novel
Bhattacharya
1969 An Artist in Life Niharranjan Ray Biography
1971 Morning Face Mulk Raj Anand Novel
1975 Scholar Extraordinary Nirad C. Chaudhuri Biography
1976 Jawaharlal Nehru Sarvepalli Gopal Biography
1977 Azadi Chaman Nahal Novel
1978 Fire on the Mountain Anita Desai Novel
1979 Inside the Haveli Rama Mehta Novel
K. R. Srinivasa
1980 On the Mother Biography
Iyengar
1981 Relationship Jayanta Mahapatra Poetry
1982 The Last Labyrinth Arun Joshi Novel
1983 Latter-Day Psalms Nissim Ezekiel Poetry
1984 The Keeper of the Dead Keki N. Daruwalla Poetry
1985 Collected Poems Kamala Das Poetry
1986 Rich Like Us Nayantara Sahgal Novel
1987 Trapfalls In the Sky Shiv K. Kumar Poetry
1988 The Golden Gate Vikram Seth Novel
1989 The Shadow Lines Amitav Ghosh Novel
1990 That Long Silence Shashi Deshpande Novel
1991 The Trotter-Nama I. Allan Sealy Novel
1992 Our Trees Still Grow In Dehra Ruskin Bond Short Stories
1993 After Amnesia G. N. Devy Essays
1994 Serendip Dom Moraes Poetry
1996 Memories of Rain Sunetra Gupta Novel
1998 Final Solutions and Other Plays Mahesh Dattani Drama
1999 The Collected Poems A. K. Ramanujan Poetry
2000 Cuckold Kiran Nagarkar Novel
2001 Rajaji: A Life Rajmohan Gandhi Biography
2002 A New World Amit Chaudhuri Novel
Meenakshi
2003 The Perishable Empire Essays
Mukherjee
Upamanyu
2004 The Mammaries of the Welfare State Novel
Chatterjee
2005 The Algebra of Infinite Justice Arundhati Roy Essays
2006 The Sari Shop Rupa Bajwa Novel
2007 Disorderly Women Malathi Rao Novel
Mahabharata: An Inquiry into the Human Chaturvedi
2009 Criticism
Condition Badrinath
2010 The Book of Rachel Esther David Novel
Ramachandra Historical
2011 India after Gandhi[3]
Guha[4] Narrative
 2012 These Errors are Correct Jeet Thayil[5] Poetry
2013 Laburnum For My Head Temsula Ao[6] Short stories
2014 Trying to Say Goodbye Adil Jussawalla Poetry
2015 Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer Cyrus Mistry Novel
2016 Em and the Big Hoom Jerry Pinto Novel
2017 The Black Hill Mamang Dai
2018 The Blind Lady's Descendants Anees Salim[7] Novel

BOOKER PRIZE WINNERS

V.S. Naipaul, In a Free State (1971)
Salman Rushdie, Midnight’s Children (1981)
Arundhati Roy, The God of Small Things (1997)
Kiran Desai, The Inheritance of Loss (2006)
Aravind Adiga, The White Tiger (2008)

NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS

TAGORE 1913
RUDYARD KIPLING 1907
V S NAIPAUL 2001

18. AFRICAN WRITERS

Chinua Achebe

One of the world’s most widely recognized and praised writers, Chinua Achebe wrote some of
the most extraordinary works of the 20th century. His most famous novel, Things Fall
Apart (1958), is a devastating depiction of the clash between traditional tribal values and the
effects of colonial rule, as well as the tension between masculinity and femininity in highly
patriarchal societies. Achebe is also a noted literary critic, particularly known for his passionate
critique of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899), in which he accuses the popular novel
of rampant racism through its othering of the African continent and its people.

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

Born in Nigeria in 1977, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is part of a new generation of African
writers taking the literary world by storm. Adichie’s works are primarily character-driven,
interweaving the background of her native Nigeria and social and political events into the
narrative. Her novel Purple Hibiscus (2003) is a bildungsroman, depicting the life experience
of Kambili and her family during a military coup, while her latest work Americanah (2013) is
an insightful portrayal of Nigerian immigrant life and race relations in America and the western
world. Adichie’s works have been met with overwhelming praise and have been nominated for
and won numerous awards, including the Orange Prize and Booker Prize.

Ayi Kwei Armah

Ayi Kwei Armah’s novels are known for their intense, powerful depictions of political
devastation and social frustration in Armah’s native Ghana, told from the point of view of the
individual. His works were greatly influenced by French existential philosophers, such as Jean
Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, and as such hold themes of despair, disillusionment and
irrationality. His most famous work, The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) centers
around an unnamed protagonist who attempts to understand his self and his country in the wake
of post-independence.

Mariama Bâ

One of Africa’s most influential women authors, Mariama Bâ is known for her powerful
feminist texts, which address the issues of gender inequality in her native Senegal and wider
Africa. Bâ herself experienced many of the prejudices facing women: she struggled for an
education against her traditional grandparents, and was left to look after her nine children after
divorcing a prominent politician. Her anger and frustration at the patriarchal structures which
defined her life spill over into her literature: her novel So Long A Letter (1981) depicts,
simultaneously, its protagonist’s strength and powerlessness within marriage and wider
society.

Nuruddin Farah

Born in Somalia in 1945, Nuruddin Farah has written numerous plays, novels and short stories,
all of which revolve around his experiences of his native country. The title of his first
novel From a Crooked Rib (1970) stems from a Somalian proverb “God created woman from
a crooked rib, and anyone who trieth to straighten it, breaketh it”, and is a commentary on the
sufferings of women in Somalian society through the narrative of a young woman trapped in
an unhappy marriage. His subsequent works feature similar social criticism, dealing with
themes of war and post-colonial identity.

Aminatta Forna

Born in Glasgow but raised in Sierra Leone, Aminatta Forna first drew attention for her
memoir The Devil That Danced on Water (2003), an extraordinarily brave account of her
family’s experiences living in war-torn Sierra Leone, and in particular her father’s tragic fate
as a political dissident. Forna has gone on to write several novels, each of them critically
acclaimed: her work The Memory of Love (2010) juxtaposes personal stories of love and loss
within the wider context of the devastation of the Sierre Leone civil war, and was nominated
for the Orange Prize for Fiction.

Nadine Gordimer

One of the apartheid era’s most prolific writers, Nadine Gordimer’s works powerfully explore
social, moral, and racial issues in a South Africa under apartheid rule. Despite winning a Nobel
Prize in Literature for her prodigious skills in portraying a society interwoven with racial
tensions, Gordimer’s most famous and controversial works were banned from South Africa for
daring to speak out against the oppressive governmental structures of the time. Her
novel Burger’s Daughter follows the struggles of a group of anti-apartheid activists, and was
read in secret by Nelson Mandela during his time on Robben Island.

Alain Mabanckou

Originating from the Republic of Congo, Alain Mabanckou’s works are written primarily in
French, and are well known for their biting wit, sharp satire and insightful social commentary
into both Africa and African immigrants in France. His novels are strikingly character-focused,
often featuring ensemble casts of figures, such as his book Broken Glass, which focuses on a
former Congolese teacher and his interactions with the locals in the bar he frequents, or his
novel Black Bazar, which details the experiences of various African immigrants in an Afro-
Cuban bar in Paris.

Ben Okri

Ben Okri’s childhood was divided between England and time in his native Nigeria. His young
experience greatly informed his future writing: his first, highly acclaimed novels Flowers and
Shadows (1980) and The Landscapes Within (1981) were reflections on the devastation of the
Nigerian civil war which Okri himself observed firsthand. His later novels met with equal
praise: The Famished Road (1991), which tells the story of Azaro, a spirit child, is a fascinating
blend of realism and depictions of the spirit world, and won the Booker Prize

Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Ngugi wa Thiong’o is one of Africa’s most important and influential postcolonial writers. He
began his writing career with novels written in English, which nevertheless revolved around
postcolonial themes of the individual and the community in Africa versus colonial powers and
cultures. Wa Thiong’o was imprisoned without trial for over a year by the government for the
staging of a politically controversial play; after his release, he committed to writing works only
in his native Gikuyi and Swahili, citing language as a key tool for decolonizing the mindset
and culture of African readers and writers.

John Maxwell Coetzee (born 9 February 1940) is a South African-born novelist, essayist,
linguist, translator and recipient of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Literature. He relocated to Australia
in 2002 and lives in Adelaide. He became an Australian citizen in 2006.
In 2013, Richard Poplak of the Daily Maverick described Coetzee as "inarguably the most
celebrated and decorated living English-language author".Before receiving the 2003 Nobel
Prize in Literature, Coetzee was awarded the Jerusalem Prize, CNA Prize (thrice), the Prix
Femina étranger, The Irish Times International Fiction Prize and the Booker Prize (twice),
among other accolades. He was the first writer to be awarded the Booker Prize twice: first
for Life & Times of Michael K in 1983, and again for Disgrace in 1999.
"Buchi" Emecheta OBE (21 July 1944 – 25 January 2017) was a Nigerian-born British
novelist, based in the UK from 1962,[1] who also wrote plays and autobiography, as well as
work for children. She was the author of more than 20 books, including Second Class
Citizen (1974), The Bride Price (1976), The Slave Girl (1977) and The Joys of
Motherhood (1979).
 19. AFRICAN AMERICAN WRITERS

Maya Angelou born Marguerite Annie Johnson; April 4, 1928 – May 28, 2014) was an
American poet, singer, memoirist, and civil rights activist. She is called as the black women’s
poet laureate. She published seven autobiographies, three books of essays, several books of
poetry, and is credited with a list of plays, movies, and television shows spanning over 50 years.
She received dozens of awards and more than 50 honorary degrees.[3] Angelou is best known
for her series of seven autobiographies, which focus on her childhood and early adult
experiences. The first, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969), tells of her life up to the age
of 17 and brought her international recognition and acclaim.

James Arthur Baldwin (August 2, 1924 – December 1, 1987) was an

American novelist, playwright, and activist. His essays, as collected in Notes of a Native
Son (1955), explore intricacies of racial, sexual, and class distinctions in Western societies,
most notably in mid-20th-century America.[1] Some of Baldwin's essays are book-length,
including The Fire Next Time (1963), No Name in the Street(1972), and The Devil Finds
Work (1976). An unfinished manuscript, Remember This House, was expanded and adapted
for cinema as the Academy Award–nominated documentary film, I Am Not Your Negro.[2] One
of his novels, If Beale Street Could Talk, was adapted into an Academy Award-
winning dramatic film in 2018.
Baldwin's novels and plays fictionalize fundamental personal questions and dilemmas amid
complex social and psychological pressures thwarting the equitable integration of not
only African Americans, but also gay and bisexual men, while depicting some internalized
obstacles to such individuals' quests for acceptance
Octavia Estelle Butler (June 22, 1947 – February 24, 2006) was an African-American author
of science fiction. A multiple recipient of both the Hugo and Nebula awards, she became in
1995 the first science-fiction writer to receive a MacArthur Fellowship.

James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902[1] – May 22, 1967) was an American poet,
social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. He moved to New
York City as a young man, where he made his career. He was one of the earliest innovators of
the then-new literary art form called jazz poetry.
Alice Walker (born February 9, 1944) is an American novelist, short story writer, poet,
and activist. She wrote the novel The Color Purple (1982), for which she won the National
Book Award for hardcover fiction, and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.[2][3] She also wrote the
novels Meridian (1976) and The Third Life of Grange Copeland (1970), among other works.
An avowed feminist, Walker coined the term "womanist" to mean "A black feminist or feminist
of color" in 1983.

Chester Bomar Himes (July 29, 1909 – November 12, 1984) was a black American writer.
His works include If He Hollers Let Him Goand the Harlem Detective series. In 1958 he won
France's Grand Prix de Littérature Policière.

NOBEL PRIZES

1957 – ALBERT CAMUS – FIRST WHITE AFRICAN TO WIN NOBEL PRIZE

1986 – WOLE SOYINKA - FIRST BLACK AFRICAN TO WIN NOBEL PRIZE

1991- NADINE GORDIMER - FIRST WHITE AFRICAN WOMAN TO WIN NOBEL

PRIZE

2003- J M COETZEE

20. COMMON WEALTH LITERATURE

Commonwealth literature can be usefully studied under two different categories-

1) The literature written in those commonwealth countries where English is practically a native
language for example in Australia, New Zealand and Canada.

2) The literature written in those countries where English is used as a second language (or even
as a foreign language), for example, in India, commonwealth countries in Africa (Kenya,
Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe), the West Indies, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.

The awards were established in 1987 as the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize. Initially two
honours, best book and best first book, were awarded to fiction writers working in English in
each of four regions: Africa, Canada and the Caribbean, Europe and South Asia, and Southeast
Asia and the South Pacific.

Notable winners of the prize included Margaret Atwood, Alice Munro, Rohinton Mistry, J.M.
Coetzee, Peter Carey, Salman Rushdie, Zadie Smith, and Kate Grenville.

21. AUSTRALIAN LITERATURE

Australian literature is the written or literary work produced in the area or by the people of
the Commonwealth of Australia and its preceding colonies. During its early Western history,
Australia was a collection of British colonies, therefore, its literary tradition begins with and is
linked to the broader tradition of English literature. However, the narrative art of Australian
writers has, since 1788, introduced the character of a new continent into literature—exploring
such themes as Aboriginality, mateship, egalitarianism, democracy, national identity,
migration, Australia's unique location and geography, the complexities of urban living, and
"the beauty and the terror" of life in the Australian bush.
Notable Australian writers have included the novelists Marcus Clarke, Miles
Franklin, Christina Stead, Patrick White, David Malouf, Thomas Keneally, Morris West,
and Colleen McCullough; poets Henry Lawson, "Banjo" Paterson, C. J. Dennis, Dorothea
Mackellar, and Mary Gilmore; historians Manning Clark and Geoffrey Blainey; children's
authors P. L. Travers, May Gibbs, and Colin Thiele; and expatriate writers Robert
Hughes, Clive James, and Germaine Greer. Notable contemporary Australian novelists and
writers include Helen Garner, J. M. Coetzee, Peter Carey, Tim Winton, Alexis
Wright and Geraldine Brooks.
Patrick Victor Martindale White (28 May 1912 – 30 September 1990) was an Australian
writer who, from 1935 to 1987, published 12 novels, three short-story collections and eight
plays.
White's fiction employs humour, florid prose, shifting narrative vantage points and a stream of
consciousness technique. In 1973, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature,[1] "for an epic
and psychological narrative art which has introduced a new continent into literature"
Novels

• Happy Valley (1939)

• The Living and the Dead (1941)
• The Aunt's Story (1948)
• The Tree of Man (1955)
• Voss (1957)
• Riders in the Chariot (1961)
• The Solid Mandala (1966)
• The Vivisector (1970)
• The Eye of the Storm (1973)
• A Fringe of Leaves (1976)
• The Twyborn Affair (1979)
• Memoirs of Many in One (1986)
• The Hanging Garden (2012) (Unfinished, posthumous)
Judith Arundell Wright (31 May 1915 – 25 June 2000) was
[1]
an Australian poet, environmentalist and campaigner for Aboriginal land rights. She was a
recipient of the Christopher Brennan Award.
Poetry

• Wright, Judith (1946). The moving image. Melbourne: Meanjin Press.

• Woman to Man (1949)
• Woman to Child (1949)
• The Old Prison (1949)
• — (1953). The moving image (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Meanjin Press.
• The Gateway (1953)
• Hunting Snake (1964)
• Bora Ring (1946)
• The Two Fires (1955)

22. CANADIAN LITERATURE

Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally is Margaret Atwood, a

prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic. Some great 20th-century Canadian authors
include Margaret Laurence, and Gabrielle Roy.
This group, along with Nobel Laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer
of short stories in English, were the first to elevate Canadian Literature to the world stage.
During the post-war decades only a handful of books of any literary merit were published each
year in Canada, and Canadian literature was viewed as an appendage to British and American
writing. When academic Clara Thomas decided in the 1940s to concentrate on Canadian
literature for her master's thesis, the idea was so novel and so radical that word of her decision
reached The Globe and Mail books editor William Arthur Deacon, who then personally
reached out to Thomas to pledge his and the newspaper's resources in support of her work.
Other major Canadian novelists include Carol Shields, Lawrence Hill, and Alice Munro. Carol
Shields novel The Stone Diaries won the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and another
novel, Larry's Party, won the Orange Prize in 1998. Lawrence Hill's Book of Negroes won the
2008 Commonwealth Writers' Prize Overall Best Book Award, while Alice Munro became the
first Canadian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2013.[9] Munro also received the Man
Booker International Prize in 2009.
In the 1960s, a renewed sense of nation helped foster new voices in Canadian poetry,
including: Margaret Atwood, Michael Ondaatje, Leonard Cohen, Eli Mandel and Margaret
Avison. Others such as Al Purdy, Milton Acorn, and Earle Birney, already published, produced
some of their best work during this period.
The TISH Poetry movement in Vancouver brought about poetic innovation from Jamie
Reid, George Bowering, Fred Wah, Frank Davey, Daphne Marlatt, David Cull, and Lionel
Kearns.
More recently a younger generation of Canadian poets has been expanding the boundaries of
originality: Christian Bök, Ken Babstock, Karen Solie, Lynn Crosbie, Patrick Lane, George
Elliott Clarke and Barry Dempster have all imprinted their unique consciousnesses onto the
map of Canadian imagery. A notable anthology of Canadian poetry is The New Oxford book of
Canadian Verse, edited by Margaret Atwood (ISBN 0-19-540450-5).
Anne Carson is probably the best known Canadian poet living today. Carson in 1996 won
the Lannan Literary Award for poetry. The foundation's awards in 2006 for poetry, fiction and
nonfiction each came with $US 150,000.
Canadian authors who have won international awards

• In 1992, Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Booker Prize for The
English Patient.
• Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 for The Blind Assassin and Yann Martel won it
in 2002 for Life of Pi.
• Alistair MacLeod won the 2001 International Dublin Literary Award for No Great
Mischief and Rawi Hage won it in 2008 for De Niro's Game.
• Carol Shields's The Stone Diaries won the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and in 1998 her
novel Larry's Party won the Orange Prize.
• Lawrence Hill's The Book of Negroes won the 2008 Commonwealth Writers' Prize Overall
Best Book Award.
• Alice Munro became the first Canadian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in
2013.[9] Munro also received the Man Booker International Prize in 2009
• Margaret Atwood received the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade in 2017