AIC 2021 GDHEC 34 - DeOcampo - Understanding+behavior Based+city+congestion - 122221

BALTIC JOURNAL OF LAW & POLITICS
A Journal of Vytautas Magnus University

VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1 (2022)
ISSN 2029-0454
Cite: Baltic Journal of Law & Politics 15:1 (2022): 957-982

DOI: 10.2478/bjlp-2022-00062
Understanding behavior-based city congestion: The

importance of education towards inter-driver cooperation
Beata Maria De Ocampo*

Department of Information Technology, Polytechnic University of the Philippines,
Parañaque City 1700 Philippines
Department of Financial Management, De La Salle University, Manila 0922,
Philippines, Email: [email protected]
Manuel Tanpoco
Department of Decision Sciences and Innovation, De La Salle University, Manila
0922, Philippines, Email: [email protected]
Catherine Llave
Academic Programs Office, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Parañaque City
1700, Email: [email protected]
*Corresponding author Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Received: November 8, 2021; reviews: 2; accepted: June 29, 2022.

Abstract:
Metro Manila is one of the top congested cities not just in Asia but in the world before
and during the pandemic. This descriptive study of the city’s drivers employed the Driver
Behavior Questionnaire based on Guého et al.’s adaptation of the Manchester DBQ where
respondents were to self-assess for behaviors related to lapses, errors and violations and
positive behaviors. A purposive sampling was conducted across drivers of vehicles four
wheels and above across the city. The findings revealed that majority of Filipino drivers did
not go through formal driving training. The rating on positive behaviors needs to be improved
across all ages and educational levels which were also cross-validated with government-
provided empirical data. Recommendation for the mitigation of driver behavior-based
congestion is through the education of city drivers particularly leveraging on the Filipino
value of “Pakikipagkapwa” or concern for others. This may be achieved through an
information campaign on inter-driver cooperation, consistent traffic rules implementation
and provision of informative and conspicuous traffic signs in order to prevent the top traffic
violations in the city namely, obstruction and disregard of traffic signs. In-depth study and
implementation of such recommendations are covered in Levels 3 to 5 of the Industry 4.0
framework in the Integrated Smart Traffic Management Solution.
BALTIC JOURNAL OF LAW & POLITICS ISSN 2029-0454
VOLUME 15, NUMBER 1 2022
Keywords:
Philippine DBQ; behavior-based congestion; Pakikipagkapwa; Sikolohiyang Pilipino;

Industrial Revolution 4.0
1 Introduction
According to a worldwide survey for the year 2019 as published by

Statista.com, Metro Manila is at the top of the list of most congested cities in the
world. It is at par with Bangalore wherein road travel takes 71% longer as
compared to free-flow traffic conditions (Statista, 2020). CNN Philippines confirmed
this report with a study ranking 278 Asian cities with a population of more than 5
million people wherein Manila topped the list with a value of 1.5 which is higher
than the 1.24 average (Asian Development Bank, 2019). The article mainly
attributes the Metro Manila traffic gridlock to the lack of roads as well as the influx
of workers from the provinces looking for opportunities in the city.
Various solutions have been formulated but mostly, they were directed
toward road infrastructure and traffic management improvements which are
extremely necessary but very costly. One very comprehensive report on congestion
solutions was proposed by the Victoria Transport Policy Institute, an independent
research organization focused on innovative transportation problem solutions
(Litman, 2019). Litman (2019) listed down several strategies including the
expansion of roadway capacities, improvement of other forms of transport (e.g.,
walking, bicycling, improved public transport, motorcycles, ridesharing, employee
transport management), higher toll rates during rush hour, availability of affordable
parking and other smart growth policies. Locally, a transport website also published
a detailed analysis on the traffic congestion causes focusing on road infrastructure
and traffic management problems including poor urban planning (Miguel, 2020).
On driver behavior, there have been a number of researches conducted in
different parts of the world based on a Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) as
published by Reason et al. (1990). This is popularly referred to as the Manchester
DBQ wherein the foundation of the items were hinged on the three factors
attributable to aberrant driving behavior namely, “violations”, “errors” and
“lapses.” The focus of such inquiries are directed towards driver behavior as a
predictor to road traffic accidents.
Parker et al. (1998) defined lapses as those related to lack of attention and
forgetfulness while errors are misjudgments or incorrect observations. To clarify
the distinction, Martinussen et al. (2014) suggested that errors are intentional while
lapses are unintentional. Further, Rimmö and Åberg (1999) denoted lapses as
incorrectly executing an action while errors are failures to execute as planned. For
example, in overtaking another car, it is an error to miscalculate the speed of an
oncoming vehicle and thus may force the driver to move dangerously in front or
behind another vehicle in order to avoid collision with the oncoming traffic. In this
situation, there was the driver’s intention or plan to overtake but it could not be
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executed properly due to the inaccurate estimation of the speeds of all vehicles
that would be affected including his or her own. On the other hand, a lapse would
be to say, getting into the fourth gear when it is already there. As for violations,
there is a deliberate infraction of traffic laws or a safety norm which could pose
harm to the driver and to others. For example, a driver who is always in a hurry
may drive too close to the next vehicle or deliberately ignore the speed limit in the
highway.
Several researchers conducted studies for drivers to evaluate their driving
practices and adapted the Manchester DBQ based on their intended emphases on
accident prevention. Rimmö and Åberg (1999) modified the DBQ to study young
Swedish drivers’ aberrant driving behavior due to the sensation-seeking tendency.
Bener et al. (2008) sought to find the differences in driver behavior among Arab
Gulf countries while Sucha et al. (2014) wanted to evaluate the Czech drivers’
general behavior. Martinussen et al. (2013) delved into coming up with a shorter
instrument as the original Manchester DBQ may be tiresome to fill out and thus,
might affect the usability of questionnaire. There are still other DBQ-based studies
but Rimmö and Åberg (1999) noted that there are just slight variations in their
adapted instruments and these could be due to the differences in the attributes of
each country’s population.
This research aims to analyze the driving behaviors of Metro Manila drivers
by looking into their demographic profiles and their self-assessed behaviors based
on the Guého et al. (2014) DBQ modified accordingly as applicable to the Philippine
context. The study also aims to discover areas in the cross-checking of results with
literature and actual traffic statistics that may provide some valuable inputs in
helping ease driver behavior-related traffic congestion and its associated stresses.
2 Theoretical Perspectives
2.1 Industry 4.0 paradigm in Traffic Management
Various literature on the causes of traffic congestion in bustling metropolises

in Asia and all around the world abound with different proposed approaches. On
the local front, in both formal reports and transport blogs, overcapacity of roads,
influx of people looking for greener pastures in the city and the lack of urban
planning form the primary causes of heavy traffic in Metro Manila (Asian
Development Bank, 2019; Jiang, 2019; Miguel, 2020). While urban planning with
respect to road constructions and the whole transport infrastructure may be
considered too late by some detractors, the technology solutions like the
contactless apprehension system is as of this writing, continuing to be implemented
around Metro Manila in order to address the behavior-based congestion (Dadios et
al., 2017; Dost-Pcieerd, 2017).
Technology and the human aspect together form the essence of the Industry
4.0 paradigm. What differentiates it from Industry 3.0 which is about smart
systems and automation is the real-time collaboration of man and machine (Lom
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et al., 2016; Nardo et al., 2020; Nguyen, 2020). In a parallel study, the researcher,
in her current involvement in an Integrated Smart Traffic Management Solution for
a Metro Manila city government developed the Industry 4.0 traffic management
framework (De Ocampo et al., 2021) which was adapted from a manufacturing
control system perspective (Nardo et al., 2020) as seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Industry 4.0 Traffic Management Framework (De Ocampo et al.,

2021)
As a brief overview of the framework, Level 0 is the traditional traffic
scenario wherein traffic lights are standalone and mostly with a fixed timer. There
is no interaction with other traffic lights nor with any traffic enforcers. Level 1
(sensing and control) already incorporates digital technology like in the use of CCTV
cameras and speed sensors but there is still no real-time access of information.
Level 2 (automation and monitoring) already starts incorporating technologies like
Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML) and
cloud processing. Here is where the contactless apprehension system would fall
under where vehicles are monitored and detected for traffic violations. The process
has automation in it such video feeds are analyzed without human intervention and
violators are identified who will then get their traffic tickets in the mail. Included in
Level 2 are the smart traffic lights with adaptive and preemptive capabilities and
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as such makes traffic flow decisions without human intervention. Level 3

(operations management) includes generation of traffic conditions real time for
humans to make sound decisions in directing traffic in unsignalized intersections.
Note that the reality in Metro Manila is that it may not be possible for all
intersections to be installed with traffic lights depending on the location. Another
aspect of Level 3 is the management of traffic signs which helps in guiding driver
behavior in the absence of a device or a person directing traffic and thus, this is
still part of operations management. Level 4 (planning and logistics) and Level 5
(overall traffic management), like Level 3, involve real-time information from digital
technology for humans to study, analyze, make decisions, recommend and
implement action items for traffic maintenance and improvement.
For this paper, the processes to study driver behavior, discover areas of
improvement and generate recommendations are situated in Levels 3 to 5 in the
Industry 4.0 traffic paradigm.
2.2 “Pakikipagkapwa,” an innate Filipino value
Is the Filipino driver by nature undisciplined? Research proves otherwise as

in other countries or at least, in the areas in Philippines under American jurisdiction
where traffic laws are strictly implemented, they are among the most law-abiding
traffic users (Bener et al., 2013; Fianza, 2017).
The following literature review looks into the nature of the Filipino which may be
key in understanding driving behaviors and formulating insights for recommendation.
In Sikolohiyang Pilipino, “kapwa” (neighbor), which is the root word of
Pakikipagkapwa, is one of the core values of the Filipino. A person starts having kapwa
not so much because of a recognition of status given to him by others but more because
of his awareness of a shared identity. The ako (ego) and the iba sa akin (others or
literally translated as different from the self) are one and the same in kapwa psychology:
Hindi ako iba sa aking kapwa (I am no different from others) (Enriquez, 1978).
Introspecting into this value, let us revisit Carl Jung, the father of analytic
psychology, and his hypothesis on the human psyche having a collective
unconscious. This consists in impersonal memories not directly experienced but still
exists in the unconscious and passed on through generations as a universal
collective among a group of people coming from a common history. He said that
instincts originate from this collective unconsciousness--a powerful moving force
which impels the individual to act outside of rational behavior (Jung, 1936).
The Filipinos have a common history of Christianity. As a matter of fact, this
year 2021, the Philippines is celebrating its 500th year on Philippine soil (“Philippine
Church Releases Logo for 500 Years of Christianity,” 2019). Its core teaching is
both the love of God and love of neighbor. The latter, expressed in Filipino, is
“pagmamahal sa kapwa gaya ng sarili” (love of neighbor as oneself) and that is the
essence of Pakikipagkapwa: doing good towards the other person as if doing it for
oneself. It is a recognition of a shared identity coming from the same origin as
children of one God and an inner self shared with others. However, in this day and
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age, it is a concern of many Christian Churches that majority of the Philippine

population does not practice their faith anymore and thus are called nominal
Christians or Christians only by name (Isidoro-Romero, 2020). Nevertheless, in a
survey conducted by Statista.com since 2015, 83% of Filipinos still consider religion
as important to their lives (Statista, 2021). This annual survey has been continuing
since 2015 and has been consistently producing numbers above 70%. From the
survey, many do not consider themselves as religious particularly in participating
in liturgical practices and other church activities but during times of calamities and
catastrophes, the Filipino spirit of pakikipagkapwa emerges and people from
different economic and educational levels willingly help out voluntarily sharing
whatever they can even without expectation of recognition or rewards. Viral in
social media are stories of marginal workers, for instance, a magtataho (street
peddler of soybean curd) who gave his merchandise for free to pandemic frontliners
(“VIRAL: Magtataho, Namigay Ng Libreng Taho Sa Frontliners,” 2020). There were
stories of youths who risked their lives during the eruption of Taal Volcano amid
heavy ashfall affecting road visibility on the way to delivering essential supplies to
victims (“Three Taal Volunteers Die in a Car Crash,” 2020). Another touching story
is that survivors of Typhoon Yolanda (Hurricane Haiyan) in 2013 who received
overwhelming support back then did their share and launched a donation drive for
the victims of Typhoon Rolly in 2020 (La Viña & Reyes, 2022). Moreover, in the
light of successive disasters in the same year, volunteers willingly offered their
services despite the risk of COVID 19 virus infection that the world was
experiencing. For those who could not afford to leave their homes, many shared
their monetary donations as part of their ambag (contribution) to the less fortunate
(“Filipino Bayanihan1 Spirit Brings Relief, Attention to Typhoon Ulysses Victims,”
2020). Such acts of mercy illustrate the inherent value of having concern for others
even if it is not rational to give especially from one’s own poverty or other inhibiting
circumstances. Thus, pakikipagkapwa, in Jungian parlance, is instinctual within the
Filipino especially in times when it is needed the most.
3 Methodology
3.1 Instrument
For the questionnaire used in this study, the instrument was adapted from
the DBQ of Guého et al. (2014) which has the tripartite factor framework of
aberrant behaviors of lapses, errors and violations and also an added factor of
positive behaviors to complete a 6-factor structure namely, “dangerous errors”,
“inattention errors”, “inexperience errors”, “ordinary violations”, “aggressive
violations” and, “positive behaviors.”
1 Bayanihan or “collective effort” is a Filipino “system of mutual help and concern which
has become the backbone of family and village life through the Philippines.” It is a tradition
where the people in a community physically carry together a house made of light materials
to move it from one location to another (Eadie & Su, 2018).
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“Inattention errors” are those unintentionally committed due to the lack of

mindfulness or attention of the individual. These are considered lapses, like
misreading signs.
“Ordinary violations” are deliberate infractions of traffic rules and accepted driving
norms but without aggression, like ignoring speed limits in highways or
school zone areas or changing lanes abruptly.
“Aggressive violations” are like “ordinary violations” but with an intention to
deliberately cause harm to others. One example is road rage or following
closely another driver in anger.
“Dangerous errors” are unintentional acts but has a great risk of causing harm to
self and others, e.g., turning left at an intersection but misjudging the speed
of an oncoming vehicle which may not be able to stop to avoid collision.
“Inexperience errors” are unintentional but may be dangerous and this is due to
the lack of driving experience and knowledge, e.g., making a mistake when
changing gears which may dangerously distract the driver from the current
traffic situation.
“Positive behaviors” are those acts of consideration to fellow drivers and
pedestrians, e.g., avoiding running quickly through a rain puddle so as not
to splash water onto other people or avoiding counterflowing so as not to
disrupt traffic.
This Guého et al. (2014) DBQ was validated among French drivers using 41
questions and after evaluation, a shorter new version of 23 items was produced
according to the resulting factor loading. As this instrument was validated for the
French population, in order to be adapted to Metro Manila drivers, language experts
were employed by the researcher in the translation to both English and Filipino.
This resulted to 39 questions applicable to the Philippine context. Moreover, a five-
point scale (1 - Never; 2 - Rarely; 3 - Sometimes; 4 - Frequently; 5 - Almost always
true) was used in order to simplify the choices and to avoid confusion in participants
of any educational level.
3.2 Reliability test
The first 30 observations were used to do a reliability test using Cronbach’s alpha
which resulted in the factor of “aggressive violations” to have a scale of 0.559 and
thus was not reliable and was, therefore, removed. Unlike other factors, there was
no possibility of dropping any item from this set of “aggressive violations”
statements to check if the scale would increase to 0.7 or higher. Thus, the whole
factor was dropped.
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Table 1: Results of Reliability Test
FACTORS Cronbach’s
Inattention errors 0.711
Ordinary violations 0.745
Positive behaviors 0.938
Aggressive violations 0.559
Dangerous errors 0.712
Inexperience errors 0.795
3.3 Administration of DBQ to participants
The self-assessment questionnaire was administered in three ways: (1)

online via Google Forms, (2) self-filling of a printed survey and (3) interview for
participants who have difficulty in reading or understanding the survey. There was
no request for personal details in order to keep the responses anonymous although
email addresses may be optionally provided by the respondent should there be an
interest to be updated on the results of the research study. Also, as part of the
Data Privacy Act of 2012, the participants were not forced to answer any questions
that they were not comfortable to respond to National Privacy Commission (n.d.).
The participants were drivers of any age, gender, level of driving experience
and educational level who are plying the roads of Metro Manila driving public and/or
private vehicles of 4 wheels and above. The sample size for this study of Metro
Manila drivers was 395 respondents. (Out of 481 observations, 30 were used for
the Cronbach’s alpha reliability test, 56 were discarded due to unreliable data, i.e..,
same choice for all items indicating that they were not read at all, too many missing
data, no demographic data provided.
In order to balance the composition of the participants and to address their
current situations, the following strategy was employed:
(a) An online questionnaire was designed to get responses from all drivers with
internet access and capability regardless of their age, gender or educational
experience. In the invitation to participate, respondents were given a choice
to fill in the Google Forms survey either in English or Tagalog. These online
surveys were sent out via email and social media platforms especially
through Facebook groups.
(b) Questionnaires were printed compactly into a 3-page format. They were
designed to be self-filled by participants who do not have internet access.
However, for those with difficulty in reading or understanding the material,
interviews were conducted instead.
(c) In order to have an approximately balanced composition of public utility
drivers, the surveys were conducted in the terminals of jeepneys, buses and
vans as well as shopping center’s parking areas for taxis and other drivers
in general. About 40 to 60 copies of the printed surveys were allocated for
each type of public utility vehicle.
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Results
Majority of the respondents are male at about 96%. Both the mean and
median age of drivers are at 42 years old which shows that the composition of the
respondents is more matured with driving experience averaging 17 years and a
median of 15 years. Approximately 60% of the drivers drive daily, 20% drive 3 to
4 times a week and 20% less than twice a week.
Dividing the respondents into the established generation ranges (Kinnaman,
2018), about 50% are from Gen X, 32% are Millennials and about 15% are Baby
Boomers. There were about 3% from Gen Z and less than 1% from the
Traditionalist, Elders or Silent Generation.
4.1 Vehicle Use
The profile of the population sample shows a balanced proportion of public

and private transport drivers with approximately one-third of each type of driver.
Table 2: Summary Statistics: Vehicle Type
Levels Count % Total

Public only 141 35.80%
both Public & Private 129 32.70%
Private only 124 31.50%
Among the PUV drivers, the numbers resulted in a balanced distribution of
vehicle type. It is to be noted that there are Public Utility Vehicle (PUV) drivers who
are driving multiple types of transport and so, the numbers below from our
respondents are not mutually exclusive.
Table 3: Summary Statistics: Public Vehicles Driven
Vehicle no. of respondents

Jeepney 59
Bus 46
Taxi 57
Van 57
As for transmission-type, 96% of the respondents are driving manually-
controlled vehicles. This supports the fact that manual-transmission is still the
prevalent type for Metro Manila vehicles.
4.2 Driving Training
Results show that only 15% of the respondents were formally trained in driving
schools while about 45% learned driving only through training from an acquaintance.
A significant finding in this study is that 40% of the respondents claim to have not
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been trained at all and were self-taught. This finding of the majority of Metro Manila
drivers as not having proper training is corroborated by a study on the understanding
of traffic signs. Fernandez et al. (2020) discovered that only 26% has formal training
in accredited driving schools, 54% were trained by either friends or relatives while
19% were self-taught. As for the License classification, about 74% possess
Professional Driver’s License and 24% have Non-professional licenses.
Table 4: Summary Statistics: Driving Training
Driving Training Count % Total
Driving School 57 15.00%
Informal Training 172 45.30%
Self-study 151 39.70%
4.3 Education
Majority of the respondents are of high school level at 50.5%. The total of
those who have not done any College-level coursework is 72.8%.
Table 5: Summary Statistics: Highest Education
Education Count % of Total

None 11 2.90%
Elementary 29 7.60%
High School 193 50.50%
Vocational 45 11.80%
College 82 21.50%
Postgraduate 22 5.80%
4.4 Analysis of variance of DBQ results
The Likert Scale for this DBQ has a rating of 1 or ‘Never’ to 5 or ‘Almost always
true.’ Using the concept of the boundary of a number in evaluating the mean responses,
the rating interpretations varied from ‘rarely’ to ‘never’ for errors and violations. The
summary of the means and standard deviations of each criterion is presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Summary of Behaviors
Criterion Mean SD Interpretation

Inattention Error 1.70 0.45 Rarely
Ordinary Violation 1.58 0.48 Rarely
Positive Behaviors 3.52 0.90 Frequently
Dangerous Errors 1.51 0.50 Rarely
Inexperience Errors 1.69 0.58 Rarely
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According to Metro Manila drivers, inattention errors rarely happen (M=1.70,

SD=0.45). The highest mean rating and the most common inattention error is
missing a turn and thereby taking a long detour.
Ordinary violations are committed less than inattention errors. For this scale,
the overall mean is 1.58, SD=0.48, indicating that ordinary violations rarely happen.
Among these rarely committed violations, the most common is taking the wrong road
whereas, the ordinary violations that are almost never committed by drivers are
“beating the red light” and “over-speeding.”
Even with the traffic problems in the metro, drivers seem to not lack positive
behavior on the road. Tied at being the most frequent are giving considerations to
pedestrians and other drivers when parking and driving slowly when there’s water on the
road to avoid splashing. The criteria for this scale are borderline sometimes and frequently
observed by drivers, with the overall (M=3.52, SD=0.90) interpreted as frequently.
As for Dangerous Errors, drivers in Metro Manila report rarely exhibiting such
behaviors on the road. Underestimating the speed of an oncoming vehicle when
overtaking is at the top of the list such that the self-evaluation barely made it to the
“rarely” category with a mean of 1.51.
The last variable measured by the DBQ was Inexperience Errors which
seemed to be a seldom occurrence based on the self-report by drivers. All descriptors
rarely happen with overtaking a slower driver by the right using the shoulder of the
road as the most frequent, landing the scale a mean of 1.69, interpreted, rarely.
A breakdown of results comparing public and private vehicle drivers can be
seen in Table 7 where it can be observed that drivers of private vehicles commit
inattention and dangerous errors than drivers of public vehicles. However, the drivers
of private vehicles display more positive behaviors. Inattention errors are more
frequent for private drivers while inexperience errors for drivers of public vehicles.
Table 7: Comparison of behaviors between public and private vehicle drivers
Mean Std Deviation

Scale Public Private Public Private
Inattention Errors 1.59 1.77 0.45 0.45
Ordinary Violations 1.55 1.67 0.43 0.51
Positive Behaviors 3.48 3.74 0.93 0.89
Dangerous Errors 1.53 1.61 0.45 0.51
Inexperience Errors 1.7 1.67 0.61 0.61
Note that generally, the ratings for both public and private drivers for all
factors except for positive behaviors are on the ideal side indicating that they rarely
do not commit driving violations and errors nor exhibit dangerous behaviors.
Moreover, the public transport drivers rated themselves significantly higher than
the private vehicle drivers for avoiding inattention errors, ordinary violations,
dangerous errors and inexperience errors which implies better driving skills over
private transport drivers. On the other hand, the mean of positive behaviors was
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slightly higher for private vehicle drivers than their public counterpart. However,
the aggregate means for both public and private drivers indicate that the self-
assessed ratings were very near the boundary of ‘sometimes’ and ‘frequently’ which
indicates a general inconsistency of positive behaviors
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there
were significant differences in driver behavior when respondents are grouped
according to education, driving training, and vehicle use.
Prior to running the ANOVA for each of the five scales, the tests of assumptions
were performed. The assumption of normality was established using the Q-Q plot and
further ascertained by invoking the Central Limit Theorem, with the sample size being
more than 200 and sufficiently large for the analysis. For homoscedasticity, residuals
were plotted against the predicted values and checked if the points appear randomly
distributed with a mean of zero and no apparent curvature. For the homogeneity of
variance, Levene’s test was utilized, and for the outliers, the studentized residuals
were used for detection. After having met these assumptions (some with modifications
like removal of outliers), the analyses of variance were performed.
4.4.1 Inattention Errors
The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05. The results
of the ANOVA were significant, F(8, 371) = 2.81, p = .005, indicating there were significant
differences in Inattention Errors among the levels of Education, Driving Training, and Vehicle
Use. The main effect, Education was significant, F(4, 371) = 2.72, p = .029, ηp2 = 0.03,
indicating there were significant differences in Inattention Errors by Education levels. The
main effect, Driving Training was not significant, F(2, 371) = 0.06, p = .940, indicating there
were no significant differences of Inattention Errors by Driving Training. The main effect,
Vehicle Use was significant, F(2, 371) = 3.20, p = .042, ηp2 = 0.02, indicating there were
significant differences in Inattention Errors by Vehicle Use. (See Table 8.)
Table 8: Analysis of Variance Table for Inattention Errors by Education, Driving

Training, and Vehicle Use
Term SS df F p ηp2
EDUCATION 2.16 4 2.72 .029 0.03
DRIVING_TRAINING 0.02 2 0.06 .940 0.00
VEHICLE_USE 1.27 2 3.20 .042 0.02
Residuals 73.46 371
Paired t-tests were calculated between each pair of measurements to further

examine the differences among the variables. Tukey pairwise comparisons were
conducted for all significant effects based on an alpha of 0.05. For the main effect
of Education, the mean of Inattention Errors for College (M = 1.80, SD = 0.47) was
significantly larger than for Elementary (M = 1.56, SD = 0.46), p = .031. For the
main effect of Education, the mean of Inattention Errors for Elementary (M = 1.56,
SD = 0.46) was significantly smaller than for Postgraduate (M = 1.91, SD = 0.45),
p = .030. No other significant effects were found.
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4.4.2 Ordinary Violations
The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05. The
results of the ANOVA were significant, F(8, 371) = 2.56, p = .010, indicating there
were significant differences in Ordinary Violations among the levels of Education,
Driving Training, and Vehicle Use. The main effect, Education was significant, F(4,
371) = 3.42, p = .009, ηp2 = 0.04, indicating there were significant differences in
Ordinary Violations by Education levels. The main effect, Driving Training was not
significant, F(2, 371) = 0.07, p = .929, indicating there were no significant
differences of Ordinary Violations by Driving Training. The main effect, Vehicle Use
was not significant, F(2, 371) = 0.15, p = .861, indicating there were no significant
differences of Ordinary Violations by Vehicle Use types. (See Table 9.)
Table 9: Analysis of Variance Table for Ordinary Violations by Education, Driving

Term SS df F p ηp2
EDUCATION 3.10 4 3.42 .009 0.04
VEHICLE_USE 0.07 2 0.15 .861 0.00
Residuals 84.01 371
conducted for all significant effects based on a an alpha of 0.05. For the main effect
of Education, the mean of Ordinary Violations for HS (M = 1.52, SD = 0.46) was
significantly smaller than for College (M = 1.74, SD = 0.56), p = .009. For the main
effect of Education, the mean of Ordinary Violations for College (M = 1.74, SD =
0.56) was significantly larger than for Vocational (M = 1.43, SD = 0.40), p = .006.
For the main effect of Education, the mean of Ordinary Violations for Vocational (M
= 1.43, SD = 0.40) was significantly smaller than for Postgraduate (M = 1.81, SD
= 0.47), p = .030.
4.4.3 Positive Behaviors
The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05.

The results of the ANOVA were significant, F(8, 371) = 5.63, p<.001, indicating
there were significant differences in Positive Behaviors among the levels of
Education, Driving Training, and Vehicle Use. The main effect, Education was
significant, F(4, 371) = 7.90, p < .001, ηp2 = 0.08, indicating there were significant
differences in Positive Behaviors by Education levels. The main effect, Driving
Training was significant, F(2, 371) = 3.87, p = .022, ηp2 = 0.02, indicating there
were significant differences in Positive Behaviors by Driving Training. The main
effect, Vehicle Use was not significant, F(2, 371) = 0.16, p = .854, indicating there
were no significant differences of Positive Behaviors by Vehicle Use types. (See
Table 10.)
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Table 10: Analysis of Variance Table for Positive Behaviors by Education, Driving
Term SS df F p ηp2
EDUCATION 23.74 4 7.90 < .001 0.08
VEHICLE_USE 0.24 2 0.16 .854 0.00
Residuals 278.71 371
Paired t-tests were calculated between each pair of measurements to

further examine the differences among the variables. Tukey pairwise
comparisons were conducted for all significant effects based on an alpha of
0.05. For the main effect of Education, the mean of Positive Behaviors for HS
(M = 3.42, SD = 0.83) was significantly smaller than for College (M = 3.85,
SD = 0.87), p = .003. For the main effect of Education, the mean of Positive
Behaviors for HS (M = 3.42, SD = 0.83) was significantly smaller than for
Postgraduate (M = 4.30, SD = 0.59), p < .001. For the main effect of
Education, the mean of Positive Behaviors for College (M = 3.85, SD = 0.87)
was significantly larger than for Elementary (M = 3.34, SD = 0.99), p = .018.
For the main effect of Education, the mean of Positive Behaviors for College
(M = 3.85, SD = 0.87) was significantly larger than for Vocational (M = 3.19,
SD = 1.00), p < .001. For the main effect of Education, the mean of Positive
Behaviors for Elementary (M = 3.34, SD = 0.99) was significantly smaller than
for Postgraduate (M = 4.30, SD = 0.59), p < .001. For the main effect of
Education, the mean of Positive Behaviors for Vocational (M = 3.19, SD =
1.00) was significantly smaller than for Postgraduate (M = 4.30, SD = 0.59),
p < .001. For the main effect of Driving Training, the mean of Positive
Behaviors for Informally Trained (M = 3.61, SD = 0.87) was significantly larger
than for Driving School (M = 3.41, SD = 0.85), p = .028. No other significant
effects were found.
4.4.4 Dangerous Errors
The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05.

The results of the ANOVA were significant, F(8, 371) = 4.33, p < .001, indicating
there were significant differences in Dangerous Errors among the levels of
Education, Driving Training, and Vehicle Use. The main effect, Education was
significant, F(4, 371) = 6.06, p < .001, ηp2 = 0.06, indicating there were significant
differences in Dangerous Errors by Education levels. The main effect, Driving
Training was not significant, F(2, 371) = 0.89, p = .411, indicating there were no
significant differences of Dangerous Errors by Driving Training. The main effect,
Vehicle Use was not significant, F(2, 371) = 0.54, p = .586, indicating there were
no significant differences of Dangerous Errors by Vehicle Use. (See Table 11.)
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Table 11: Analysis of Variance Table for Dangerous Errors by Education, Driving
Term SS df F p ηp2
EDUCATION 6.02 4 6.06 < .001 0.06
VEHICLE_USE 0.27 2 0.54 .586 0.00
Residuals 92.18 371
conducted for all significant effects based on a an alpha of 0.05. For the main effect of
Education, the mean of Dangerous Errors for HS (M = 1.51, SD = 0.50) was significantly
larger than for Vocational (M = 1.22, SD = 0.39), p = .005. For the main effect of
Education, the mean of Dangerous Errors for College (M = 1.66, SD = 0.58) was
significantly larger than for Elementary (M = 1.39, SD = 0.44), p = .031. For the main
effect of Education, the mean of Dangerous Errors for College (M = 1.66, SD = 0.58)
was significantly larger than for Vocational (M = 1.22, SD = 0.39), p < .001. For the
main effect of Education, the mean of Dangerous Errors for Elementary (M = 1.39, SD
= 0.44) was significantly smaller than for Postgraduate (M = 1.80, SD = 0.48), p =
.022. For the main effect of Education, the mean of Dangerous Errors for Vocational (M
= 1.22, SD = 0.39) was significantly smaller than for Postgraduate (M = 1.80, SD =
0.48), p < .001. No other significant effects were found.
4.4.5 Inexperience Errors
The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05. The
results of the ANOVA were not significant, F(8, 366) = 1.12, p = .348, indicating the
differences in Inexperience Errors among the levels of Education, Driving Training, and
Vehicle Use were all similar. The main effect, Education was not significant, F(4, 366) =
1.95, p = .102, indicating there were no significant differences of Inexperience Errors
by Education levels. The main effect, Driving Training was not significant, F(2, 366) =
by Driving Training types. The main effect, Vehicle Use was not significant, F(2, 366) =
by Vehicle Use types. (See Table 12.)
Table 12: Analysis of Variance Table for Inexperience Errors by Education, Driving
Term SS df F p ηp2
EDUCATION 2.65 4 1.95 .102 0.02
VEHICLE_USE 0.75 2 1.10 .335 0.01
Residuals 124.60 366
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There were no significant effects in the model. As a result, post hoc

comparisons were not conducted.
Discussion
The results of the study established the profile of Metro Manila drivers
wherein the majority are highly-skilled in driving even without formal training.
Some of the results of the statistical analysis in this study show that (1) driving
training and driving frequency were not significant to driver behaviors; (2) those
who went to driving schools were even more prone to errors and violations; (3)
those who have reached college level and up tended to commit more inattention
errors, ordinary violations and dangerous errors and;
(4) ordinary violations and dangerous errors tended to increase with age.
An important finding in this study, though, shows that the higher the
education, the higher is also the tendency towards positive behaviors. Also, as the
age increases, the propensity towards exhibiting more consideration to other road
users also increases.
5.1 Obstruction and Compliance with Traffic Signs
Data from the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) recorded the
most frequent violations in 2018 along EDSA as can be seen in Table 13.
Disregarding traffic signs is the recorded top violation. 92% of the
respondents of this study claim that they almost always follow traffic signs
particularly avoiding to beat the red light. In another study, Felicio et al. (2015)
showed in their own survey that 99.5% claimed that they follow the traffic light
changes. This did not correspond to the actual behavior showing 7% higher than
expected instances of beating the red light and this was attributed to majority of
the drivers not having gone through formal driving training.
Obstruction is the second highest violation in the MMDA list. (Illegal parking
is listed separately but is also another form of obstruction.) From this study, about
43% of the respondents purported that they are sensitive to not being an
obstruction to other drivers particularly, staying out of intersections bounded by
yellow box road markings while 67% claim that they avoid counterflowing or driving
in the lane of the opposite direction. A recent Business World article, however,
reported that drivers obstructing intersections or those inside yellow box markings
as well as counterflowing are commonplace in Metro Manila and are actually daily
occurrences (Tort, 2019). Tort (2019) noted that while such violations are
dangerous as they might lead to collisions. The reason why these persist is that the
traffic authorities are lenient in enforcing the rules.
The driving skills aspect of the drivers of PUV’s may be supported by
available 2018 crash statistics from the LTO (2019) 2018 Annual Report where
about half of the total annual accidents were car-related while PUV’s except vans
account each in single-digit percentages. (See Table 14.)
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The discrepancy between claimed and observed behaviors in self-

assessment questionnaires were also observed in the studies of Felicio et al. (2015)
and Lajunen and Summala (2003). Lajunen and Summala (2003) explains the
difficulty to accurately measure aberrant behaviors and as such, it is through self-
assessed surveys like DBQ’s where such behaviors can be studied in order to
provide insights.
In the evaluation of self-assessed questionnaires and respondents’
tendencies, Paulhus (1986) discussed the concepts of “impression management”
and “self-deception.” He defined impression management as a conscious effort to
project a positive image of oneself to an audience while self-deception is a
“positively biased response that the respondent actually believes to be true”
(Paulhus, 1986). In this regard, the responses may introduce some deviation from
actual conditions. Lajunen and Summala (2003) proposed that the self-reporting
of aberrant behavior may be lesser due to one’s perception of what is an acceptable
attitude and true to one’s situation at the time of the survey in consideration to
various factors in the environment and so, to minimize such biases, conducting the
questionnaires should be done anonymously.
Table 13: 2018 Most Frequent Violations along EDSA
VIOLATION # of cases
Disregarding Traffic Sign 44,433
Obstruction 32,155
Loading/unloading in Prohibited Zone 13,854
Truck Ban 8,316
Stalled Vehicle 4,018
Reckless Driving 3,113
Illegal Parking 4,779
Source: Most common requested data from the MMDA foi webpage
Table 14: Crash Statistics 2018
Motor Vehicle Accidents

Motorcycle 29,261 13.7%
Car 117,225 54.7%
Jeepney 9,617 4.5%
Taxi/FX 5,667 2.6%
Bus 11,447 5.3%
Van 22,954 10.7%
Truck 18,163 8.5%
This is the value of evaluating questionnaires together with empirical data.

In this study, the responses of the participants in the survey were compared with
actual violations and accident statistics. Parker et al. (1995) mentioned that cross-
validation tended to support the findings of the self-assessment instruments.
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In the case of the severe situation of the Metro Manila traffic and some
discrepancies in the rating of the respondents, this may point to a lack of awareness
of the integration of the various factors affecting the overall traffic situation and in
order to have a better understanding, the individual driver would have to expand
his sphere of concern from just the self to fellow drivers. This underscores the
importance of an information campaign on not just a review or elucidation of traffic
rules and norms but also on driving ethics in order to increase positive behaviors
on the road which may lessen traffic-related stress and hopefully, avoid
unnecessary gridlocks on the road. Mahmassani et al. (2013), in their discussion
of Chicago gridlocks, spoke of “inter-vehicle cooperation” as one of the ways of
recovering from gridlocks. If there is a concern for fellow drivers on the road, these
positive behaviors could either avoid or mitigate the effect of traffic jams. On this,
campaigns on a larger scale regarding increasing awareness among drivers of rules
and their enforcement by the authorities have been widely used with success
(Özkan & Lajunen, 2011; Parker et al., 1995; Savage, 2018). This underscores the
importance of educating drivers not just on traffic rules and reading signs but also
on driving ethics.
The beneficiaries of this study are entities which need to do traffic
management, both public, (e.g., Land Transportation Office, Metro Manila
Development Authority, Department of Human Settlements and Urban
Development, City Local Governments), and privately-owned businesses involved
in building and managing urban developments (e.g., expressways collecting tolls,
commercial and residential development companies building financial and lifestyle
complexes like Bonifacio Global City).
Apart from planning and building efficient road infrastructure, making
appropriate traffic management policies would avoid congestions, increase
productivity, conserve energy and lessen the carbon footprint and these can be
translated into more profitability by reducing congestion costs on various levels.
Sweet (2011) discussed on the 3 levels of economic impact of congestions, i.e., to
systems and users, to businesses and the overall economy and these are
translatable to monetary terms. On the health aspect and safety of drivers,
planning should also take these into consideration. In a Shell study, Arayata (2018)
reported the finding that Filipino drivers are in constant stress and they have the
highest stress when driving to work. In this regard, traffic management authorities
must include the psychology of Filipino drivers taking into consideration the
demographics and behaviors of drivers in the overall urban planning and design of
solutions including the education of Filipino drivers.
Recommendations
Driving is not just a matter of operating a machine as the action of each

driver on the road contributes to the resulting overall traffic situation. Wang et al.
(2014) discussed about longitudinal and lateral driving. Longitudinal driving
behavior is related to the direction to where the vehicle moves while lateral is that
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which involves the perpendicular direction or how the driver relates to other drivers
on the road hence, the need for positive behaviors on the road.
From the results of the self-assessment tests, one notable finding is that
85% of the sample of Metro Manila drivers were informally trained. The passing of
the certification test to earn a driver’s license does not guarantee comprehension
of traffic rules and positive driving behaviors as observed in the study conducted
by Fernandez et al. (2020) such that Filipino drivers have a poor level of
understanding of traffic signs and a general lack of discipline. This corroborates this
study’s finding of the respondents not faring well on positive behaviors. Therefore,
there is a need for the education of Filipino drivers of all ages but especially those
of high school or the secondary level. This is an area of development which could
be accorded focus on by traffic management authorities together with the more
obvious solutions related to the improvement of road infrastructure and
implementation of effective traffic management policies. The latter includes rules
reinforcement or discipline implementation to alleviate congested conditions
brought about by human factors.
6.1 More consistent Traffic Rules Enforcement
In the Business World article entitled “Yellow box and counterflow,” Tort
(2019) noted that driver behaviors contributing to congestion persist due to the
leniency of traffic enforcement. With the roll out of the “Contactless
Apprehension of Traffic Violators on a 24-Hour Basis and All-Vehicle Detection
System” or CATCH-ALL which was introduced in 2017 (Dost-Pcieerd, 2017), it
is expected that such incidences of traffic violations particularly in areas
equipped with cameras will decrease as the expensive traffic tickets could be a
deterrent to undisciplined behavior. This project, as of this writing, is continuing
to be being rolled out in different cities in Metro Manila and is being done in
phases due to the high cost of implementation of the solution. However, in
places where there would be no opportunity for such kind of installations,
authorities should formulate strategies which are repeatable, consistent and
decisive on the part of traffic enforcers.
6.2 More informative and conspicuous Traffic signs
Another finding in this study through the interview was the confusion of
drivers in following traffic signs which were difficult to read, e.g., signs too small,
or sometimes even placed inconspicuously such that it is hard to notice or
sometimes even covered by trees or other obstacles. As noted in the previous
MMDA statistics, disregarding traffic signs is one of the top causes of violations in
the city. This underscores the need to design and create effective traffic signs in
order to avoid any confusion. Moreover, traffic signs may also be used in the
education of Metro Manila drivers through succinct yet affective reminders of traffic
rules and driving ethics.
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6.3 Education through an Information Campaign: “Pakikipagkapwa”
One of the most successful information campaigns was undertaken by

the Swedish government when overnight on September 3, 1967, its motorists
were directed to shift to driving on the right-hand side of the road to conform
with the rest of its European neighbor countries in order to arrest the
increasing numbers of fatal road accidents (Savage, 2018). The objective was
to reach 100% of its road users in order to curb deep-rooted driving habits
and thus, the country engaged in a widespread campaign which included
advertisements in television, radio, newspapers, billboards, buses, milk
cartons as well as talks and endorsements by popular personalities. One theory
of the effectivity of such public communication campaigns is based on the
Communication-Persuasion Matrix in which the effects on the target audience
are accomplished in the learning, yielding and behavior levels (Atkin & Rice,
2013). The learning aspect is focused on the increase in information and
enhancement of skills. Yielding involves the imbibing and changing of values
and belief systems while behavior or enactment of the value is the actualization
of the learned information and acquired attitudes.
In the case of Metro Manila drivers, majority learned the driving informally
wherein the focus was on the mechanical aspect of operating a vehicle. In this
regard, engaging in a wide-scale education campaign would focus only on
understanding traffic rules and comprehending traffic signs which should be at all
the 3 levels of learning, yielding and behavior.
For new drivers, recently, the government instituted a more stringent
training and testing system before acquiring a driver’s license (Announcement
Phils, n.d.; Galvante, 2020). However, this does not address the rest of the driving
population who constitute the majority of road users and thus, this underscores the
need for the aforementioned education campaign.
Further than the driving skill and the operational knowledge required
in navigating the city streets safely is the aspect of increasing positive
behaviors through value formation on driving ethics. For this, leverage could
be built on the success of advertising in the country as a means of mass
education wherein renditions of daily life and Filipino values of family and
other Filipino values could quickly go viral locally and abroad (Abad, 2018;
Gochuico, 2019; Uy, 2017; Vergara Jr, 2018). In this social media
generation, the campaigns on encouraging Pakikipagkapwa could be targeted
to various demographics but special attention should be given to PUV drivers
who are experienced and of high school level and below. Note that
Pakikipagkapwa on the road is more than just inter-driver cooperation that
releases gridlocks as mentioned by Mahmassani et al. (2013). To be a kapwa
to another is to treat him or her as someone not different from the self. The
golden rule stated in the positive sense says “do unto others what you want
others to do unto you.”
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6.4 In-depth studies on driver motivations and circumstances
As the human mind is complex, the aforementioned recommendations need

a deeper study beyond this descriptive research in order to plan effectively for a
successful implementation towards a long-term effective traffic management. It is
important to have an understanding of the city driver’s motivations and
circumstances as well as the general traffic culture which must be taken into
consideration in the planning of a widespread driver education campaign to emulate
the success of Sweden in 1967 when overnight, the country changed from driving
on the left-hand side of the road to driving on the right (Savage, 2018). It is very
important to formulate strategies that will reach all the sectors of the driving
population which could make an impact both cognitively and affectively enough to
change the current traffic culture. Previously, it was mentioned that the
government has tightened on the issuing of licenses to new drivers but what about
the majority of the drivers? The education campaign and general traffic
management must include policy changes as well as other behavior change
strategies.
Conclusion
In this day and age where swift developing technologies continually evolve,
still the human factor could play a part in easing traffic congestion. The
recommendations of having a more consistent traffic rules enforcement, producing
more informative and clear traffic signs and more importantly, driver education sits
in Levels 3-5 of the Industry 4.0 Traffic framework and thus requires a man-
machine interface in order to properly analyze, plan and implement effectively.
Specifically for the information campaign, encouraging Pakikipagkapwa, a value
innate in the Filipino psyche, together with the basic knowledge of traffic norms,
could naturally motivate inter-driver cooperation in the consciousness of Filipino
drivers and thus, would have a more enduring effect through generations to come.
So, what is a few minutes of waiting in order for a kapwa driver to pass and
not to be a cause of obstruction on the road causing the delay of many? Or would
it be a huge loss of time to allow a signaling vehicle to enter your lane in order for
that fellow driver not to miss his or her turn? Small acts of Pakikipagkapwa could
prevent driver behavior-based congestion but beyond that, it could also prevent
unnecessary stress on the road which could possibly lead to road accidents.
Author Contributions
B.D.O. designed the study, conducted the survey and wrote the paper. M.T.
provided guidance on methodology and did the statistical analysis with writeup.
C.L. assisted in gathering of related literature. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
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Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
Request for data should be directed to the first author. Availability is subject
to the Data Privacy Act of 2012.
Conflicts of Interest
The opinions and assertions contained herein are those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the respective universities
of the authors. The study was self-funded and there are no conflict of interests.
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BALTIC JOURNAL OF LAW & POLITICS

A Journal of Vytautas Magnus University

Cite: Baltic Journal of Law & Politics 15:1 (2022): 957-982

Understanding behavior-based city congestion: The

Beata Maria De Ocampo*

Received: November 8, 2021; reviews: 2; accepted: June 29, 2022.

Philippine DBQ; behavior-based congestion; Pakikipagkapwa; Sikolohiyang Pilipino;

According to a worldwide survey for the year 2019 as published by

2.1 Industry 4.0 paradigm in Traffic Management

Various literature on the causes of traffic congestion in bustling metropolises

Figure 1 Industry 4.0 Traffic Management Framework (De Ocampo et al.,

as such makes traffic flow decisions without human intervention. Level 3

2.2 “Pakikipagkapwa,” an innate Filipino value

Is the Filipino driver by nature undisciplined? Research proves otherwise as

age, it is a concern of many Christian Churches that majority of the Philippine

“Inattention errors” are those unintentionally committed due to the lack of

3.2 Reliability test

Table 1: Results of Reliability Test

3.3 Administration of DBQ to participants

The self-assessment questionnaire was administered in three ways: (1)

4.1 Vehicle Use

The profile of the population sample shows a balanced proportion of public

Table 2: Summary Statistics: Vehicle Type

Levels Count % Total

Table 3: Summary Statistics: Public Vehicles Driven

Vehicle no. of respondents

4.2 Driving Training

Table 4: Summary Statistics: Driving Training

Driving Training Count % Total

Driving School 57 15.00%

Informal Training 172 45.30%

Self-study 151 39.70%

Table 5: Summary Statistics: Highest Education

Education Count % of Total

4.4 Analysis of variance of DBQ results

Table 6: Summary of Behaviors

Criterion Mean SD Interpretation

According to Metro Manila drivers, inattention errors rarely happen (M=1.70,

Table 7: Comparison of behaviors between public and private vehicle drivers

Mean Std Deviation

4.4.1 Inattention Errors

Table 8: Analysis of Variance Table for Inattention Errors by Education, Driving

Paired t-tests were calculated between each pair of measurements to further

4.4.2 Ordinary Violations

Table 9: Analysis of Variance Table for Ordinary Violations by Education, Driving

4.4.3 Positive Behaviors

The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05.

Paired t-tests were calculated between each pair of measurements to

4.4.4 Dangerous Errors

The analysis of variance was examined based on an alpha value of 0.05.

4.4.5 Inexperience Errors

There were no significant effects in the model. As a result, post hoc

5.1 Obstruction and Compliance with Traffic Signs

The discrepancy between claimed and observed behaviors in self-

Table 13: 2018 Most Frequent Violations along EDSA

Table 14: Crash Statistics 2018

Motor Vehicle Accidents

This is the value of evaluating questionnaires together with empirical data.