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Marketing The Social Psychology of Conflict,
Power, and Influence

Johnston, Wesley J . The American Behavioral Scientist (pre-1986) ; Thousand Oaks Vol. 21, Iss. 4,
(Mar/Apr 1978): 515.
ProQuest document link
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
As the material, technological, social, and cultural foundations of our society underwent change over the years, the
boundaries of marketing were continuously being redefined. In answer to the question "What is marketing?" a host
of definitions have been put forward.
FULL TEXT
MarketingThe Social Psychology of Conflict, Power, and Influence
WESLEY J JOHNSTON
University of Pittsburgh
THE CONCEPT OF MARKETING
As the material, technological, social, and cultural foundations of our society underwent change over the years, the
boundaries of marketing were continuously being redefined. In answer to the question "What is marketing?" a host
of definitions have been put forward.
It has been described by one person or another as a business activity; as a group of related business activities; as
a trade phenomenon; as a frame of mind; as a coordinative, integrative function in policy making; as a sense of
business purpose; as an economic process; as a structure of institutions; as the process of exchanging or
transferring ownership of products; as a process of concentration, equalization, and dispersion; as the creation of
time, place, and possession utilities; as a process of demand-and-supply adjustment, and as many other things
[Marketing Staff, 1965].
APPROACHES TO MARKETING
Basically, there has been a series of fundamental approaches to the study of marketing: the commodity approach,
the institutional approach, the functional approach, the managerial or systems approach, and a social (i.e., a
societal) approach (Kotler, 1972b; Heidings-field and Blankenship, 1974). In actuality, for a complete
understanding of marketing, none of these approaches can be used exclusively of the others.AMERICAN
BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST, Vol 21 No 4, March/Aprd 1978 1978 Sage Publications, Inc.
The commodity approach to the study of marketing has been concerned with examining how specific products
and services are produced and distributed. The gathering of information about each commodity includes
knowledge of the channels of distribution used, processes, particular brands, advertising practices, and any other
factors involved in the marketing process. It would be an endless task, however, to attempt to develop a theory of
marketing from a specific commodity approach because it would require examining the marketing process for
every product sold in every market in the world. The commodity approach does provide a powerful scheme for
products and services which proves to be a somewhat useful device for the description of marketing. Goods can
be classified as consumer or industrial, as raw materials, fabricated parts, supplies, or equipment, and as
convenience, shopping or specialty goods. A different set of marketing practices exists for each.The institutional
approach views marketing as a complex set of agencies involved in moving goods and services from producer to
consumer. Each distribution link in the marketing process is analyzed as a part of the overall marketing
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mechanism. This approach places a great deal of emphasis on the "middlemen" of the marketing distribution
channels. The middlemen are those individuals and business organizations that specialize in performing the
various functions and services necessary in the delivery of the product to the end consumer. Classification of the
numerous distributional chain links is usually done on the basis of (a) whether or not title is taken to the goods
handled, and (b) the position of the link in the overall channel of distribution.The functional approach examines
marketing in terms of the economic services involved in the flow of goods from producer to the final market. These
services may be divided into three major groups: functions of exchange, functions of physical supply, and
facilitating functions (Heidingsfield and Blankenship, 1974). Buying and selling are functions of exchange.
Transportation and storage are functions of physical supply. Facilitating functions include financing, risk-taking,
collecting market information, and grading products.The managerial or systems approach views the various
elements of a marketing program as being interrelated. The various departments in a marketing-oriented company
need to be aware that their actions may have an effect on the company s ability to develop and maintain markets.
That is, all the departments in an organization and not just sales and marketing affect customer relations. In the
systems approach,
the entire firm must become thoroughly committed to the marketing concept, defined by Kotler (1972a: 27) "as a
customer orientation backed by integrated marketing aimed at generating customer satisfaction and long-run
consumer welfare as the key to satisfying organization goals: 'The societal approach examines the effects
marketing has on society and the environment. The various social costs and benefits involved in marketing
decisions are the main concern of this approach. Market efficiency, product quality, advertising claims, and
environmental by-products are often studied from a normative viewpoint. This viewpoint is more often that of a
concerned citizen or government bureaucrat than that of the business manager. Still, this approach is important
because it considers marketing as an integral part of the overall functioning of society. Besides its concern with
the interrelatedness of marketing and society, this approach examines the interdisciplinary contributions that can
be made to marketing by the social sciences: sociology and social psychology.Each of these basic approaches
provides some understanding of different aspects of the marketplace, but none really provides an underlying
theory of the marketing process. These approaches have been either overly descriptive of what exists in the
marketplace or underly normative as to what should.
MARKETING AS EXCHANGE
Perhaps the best approach is one that has been developed just recently. In searching for a generic concept of
marketing, Kotler(1972a: 12) defined marketing as "the set of human activities directed at facilitating and
consummating exchanges." This view of marketing as exchange was later expanded by Bagozzi (1975).Marketing
under this definition improves in its clarity for several reasons (Kotler, 1972a): the definition specifically locates
marketing "in the realm of human activities," distinguishing it from production and consumption. Marketing is seen
as "directed at facilitating and consummating exchanges" which "can cover both the pursuit of transactions and
exchange relationships." Transactions are seen as being a onetime exchange while exchange relationships are of a
more enduring nature. The definition also avoids several pitfalls. It avoids specifying what is being exchanged and
it avoids taking the point of view of either the buyer or the seller.
Kotler (1972a: 13) suggests "that the following three elements must be present to define a marketing situation: (1)
two or more parties who are potentially interested in exchange, (2) each possessing things of value to the other(s),
and (3) each capable of communication and delivery."The development of the concept of marketing as exchange
provided a potential major turning point in the understanding of marketing as a phenomena and its advancement
as a science, for up until this point the subject suffered from what can be referred to as a single unit of analysis
paradigm.Under the single unit of analysis, the assumption was made that marketing science could be advanced
by studying buying behavior separately from selling behavior as actions taken by individuals with respect to
certain marketplace offerings. One of the major outcomes of this "separation' assumption had been a primary
focus in the study of marketing on "individualistic" variables as they affected the buying behavior of consumers.
Thus, such constructs as (individual) choice processes, personality and intrapersonal dynamics, economic notions

of individual expected utility and rationality were seen as appropriate theoretical variables for investigation of
consumer behavior. Clearly, the theoretical coherence of these variables depended totally on the acceptance of the
"separation" assumption. The arrival of Kotler's definition and the rejection of this assumption leads to the -
alization of marketing and the generation of a different set of constructs.For example, an exchange paradigm
requires, at a minimum, two parties (Kotler, 1972b: 49), which may be individuals, groups, organizations,
communities or even nations. We can refer to the two-party exchange model as a dyadic interaction views. In
addition to this model, there is also a "systems" model. While the dyadic model asserts that buying is an interactive
process which cannot be studied in isolation from selling, and that buyer-seller dyads (two-person groups) are the
basic units of analysis for studying transactions in marketing, the systems model goes one step further than that
and asserts that buying behavior can only be understood as some systemic component affected by all inputs,
throughputs, and outputs of the group or organization involved.Marketing, then, is a very social and interpersonal
process. It is best described as a transaction process rather than a consumer or buyer-action process. Conflict,
power, and influence become major explanatory variables of marketing from this perspective. Before
moving on to examine these variables, however, there are other traditional assumptions counterproductive to
understanding marketing that need to be examined.Closely related to the separation assumption is the stimulus-
response view of causal inference. Most of the marketing literature has taken the view that the appropriate way in
which to approach understanding of consumer--and industrial-buying behavior is through stimulus-response (S-R)
models. The buyer-behavior process is viewed as a "response" generated by an (individual) buyer as a result of his
or her subjection to various stimuli by salespersons, promotions, product displays, and so on. There are other
options for modeling consumer behavior besides the S-R type, however. For instance, a base assumption more
oriented to the transactional nature of marketing would not select an S-R viewpoint, but rather one which made
interactive constructs (say, interdependence) the critical mediators between parties.A third and final assumption
that is not surprising in light of the two previous ones views choice processes, and intraindividual notions of
decision "rationality" or "optimality," as well as information processes as the heart of marketing phenomena. This
assumption also falls with the implementation of Kotler's definition of the interactive nature of marketing.
THE SOCIAL NATURE OF MARKETING
When behavior is viewed from a social perspective there is one fact which stands out most about man s activities:
all of the outcomes arising from our actions are characterized by a state of interdependence with other people. In
marketing, purchases are better viewed as negotiated settlements between all those individuals involved in the
buying and selling of the product. The buyer and the family or company the buyer represents, the intermediate
marketers, competing companies, the government, and the general public all interact to lead to a purchase
decision that is truly some social resultant of these interdependent forces rather than any individual response.
Interdependence means that the satisfactions received from any purchase or other consumption-related activity
are partly dependent on the choices others make. Consumers ordinarily do not determine their ultimate
satisfaction
from just their own personal decisions. Consumers, instead, take their relationships with others into account-the
marketer, the salesperson, the family or firm, friends, and acquaintances. Marketing should be studied from a
social rather than an isolated individual process model. In this model the consumer is involved in actively
negotiating exchanges. These negotiated exchanges can be seen to possess the major interdependent aspects
common to many types of interaction: conflict between parties and exercise of influence from various power
bases.
TYPES OF INTERDEPENDENCE
It is possible to identify three basic types of social interdependence. They include (1) cooperative, (2) competitive,
and (3) mixed inter-dependences (Bonoma, 1976). Cooperative interdependency is a situation in which the major
problem confronting the interactive parties is developing a joint action. Schelling (1960) uses the example of two
people talking on the telephone and being suddenly disconnected as an instance of purely cooperative
interdependency. If both call back immediately, they will, of course, get a busy signal and not achieve recontact; if

neither calls back, they also will not achieve a reconnection; but if one calls back and the other wait, the problem is
solved and both achieve the mutually desired outcome-the continuation of their conversation. The problem of joint
action here lies in determining who calls back. We can find a similar example more closely related to marketing in
the advertising of national brand products. If both the manufacturer and the retailer advertise the product
independently without cooperative efforts, the advertising may overlap in some time periods and be insufficient in
others. If neither advertise the product, thinking that it is the responsibility of the other to do so, the consumers will
be unaware of the product to a large extent. By understanding the nature of their cooperative interdependency and
developing a joint advertising policy, both the manufacturer and retailer improve their marketplace positions. In
cooperative situations such as these heuristics or rules of interaction are often developed to guide the parties so
that they can be released from preplanning of actions for each situation. A general set of guidelines or norms of
interaction are developed for the majority of situations. For instance, in the case of the telephone conversation, the
general
rule is that the party that initiated the call is the one who should call back in case of a disconnection. In the
advertising of a national brand, cooperative guidelines often divide the responsibilities between manufacturer and
retailers. The manufacturer commonly handles national level campaigns on television and in the major periodicals,
while the retailer advertises at the local level in newspapers and point of purchase displays.Competitive
interdependencies occur when the gains from interaction are of a zero-sum nature. That is, when the gains
available to one person are losses often of an equal amount to the other person. For instance, in the marketing of
automobiles where prices are normally negotiated, a change in price favorable to the buyer involves a comparable
loss to the seller.Purely cooperative and purely competitive interdependency situations do not occur often either in
social life generally or in marketplace interactions in specific. The situations normally found are characterized by
elements of both cooperation and competition. This type of situation is called mixed interdependency or positive-
sum game situation. The general phenomenon of exchange, which as we have already seen is central to marketing
theory, is an interesting example of the positive-sum game, a mixture of competition and cooperation. There is
cooperation in the fact that exchange takes place for it seems safe to assume that exchange would not occur
unless it benefited both buyer and seller. There is competition, however, in regard to the terms of the exchange.
That is, there is agreement to engage in exchange, but disagreement concerning how to consummate it. For any
act of exchange, there is usually a range of exchange ratios (sometimes referred to as price) within which both
parties would benefit. There may be competition and bargaining, however, involved in the setting of the particular
ratio on which to agree on. Most interactions in marketing are of this mixed interdependent nature.Often certain
aspects of interaction disguise the ultimate nature of the marketing process under consideration, be it mixed-
motive or not. It is important to realize that categorizing an interdependency situation as "mixed" does not
necessarily mean to imply that the motivations of the buyer or seller are mixed. The situation in which a decision is
required or interaction occurs is also important. That is to say that the nature of the possible outcome of the
situation may generate elements of cooperation and/or competition regardless of the personal preferences of the
individuals involved about competing or cooperating.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETING MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING SCIENCE
As long as there is any element of competition in a relationship, the people involved will experience varying
degrees of social conflict. Social conflict refers to that conflict or competition that occurs between any two social
entities (individuals, groups, organizations, and so on). It can be clearly distinguished from intrapersonal conflict.
While intrapersonal conflict is an important concept for the marketer to understand, especially as it relates to
consumer decision-making, it will not be of interest here and will be brought into the discussion only as it might
relate to interpersonal or intergroup conflict. (The reader is referred to the works of Lewin and Miller for an in-depth
discussion of intrapersonal conflict.) Power and influence are closely related to social conflict and will also be
examined.Having previously identified the basic nature of marketing as dealing with exchange, marketing
management can also be interpreted as an action-oriented science consisting of principles for improving the
probabilities and effectiveness of exchanges. Kotler (1972a: 13) sees marketing management as representing

professionalization in the carrying out of exchange relationships and defines it as:the analysis, planning,
implementation, and control of programs designed to bring about desired exchanges with target audiences for the
purpose of personal or mutual gain. It relies heavily on the adaptation and coordination of product, price,
promotion, and place for achieving effective response.The major working assumption of Kotler's view of marketing
management is that desired exchanges "do not automatically come about through any process in nature. Rather
they require an expenditure of time, energy, skill and supervision:' What this view fails to identify, however, is the
key roles conflict, power, and influence play in the exchange process. These variables are the major underpinnings
of the exchange process and a knowledge of their substance is required by both the marketing manager and the
marketing researcher. At this point we will examine the social psychology literature for a general understanding of
the critical concepts that conflict, power, and
influence play in the exchange process, and then return to conclude by tying them into the science of marketing
and offering suggestions for improved research approaches to the marketing phenomena.
SOCIAL CONFLICT
Conflict arises when (a) two or more persons in a relationship each desire a resource which is in too-short a supply
to satisfy everyone, or (b) accomplishment of the preferences of one party in the marketing transaction prohibit
the accomplishment of the other party s preferences. Social change can also lead to conflict. Dahrendorf (1958:
174) provides a model of society that helps to explain the phenomena of conflict and social change. The model
proposes:(1) Every society is subjected at every moment to change: social change is ubiquitous.(2) Every society
experiences at every moment social conflict: social conflict is ubiquitous.(3) Every element in a society contributes
to its change.(4) Every society rests on constraint of some of its members by others. As Kramer (1977: I) points
out: "All life in this world, indeed, is based on conflict-conflict in man s search for food and shelter, conflict for
scarce jobs and other opportunities for income and wealth."The intensity or level of conflict in society or in the
marketplaces of that society can vary from almost zero (an instance where the buyers] and sellers] would be in an
almost purely cooperative situation and the major consideration is to find a distribution point at which parties can
meet for the purposes of exchange) to an interaction almost totally characterized by complete and vigorous social
conflict.One of the issues in marketing conflicts, as we have seen, is allocation of scarce resources, i.e., goods and
services. By scarce we mean that there is not enough of these goods and services to satisfy all demands for them.
Boulding (1962: 190) has referred to this situation as being governed by "the Duchess's law" with the Duchess
being a character in Alice in Wonderland-"The more there is of yours, the less there
is of mine." Conflict inevitably arises in this type of situation because as one of the parties obtains more,
everybody else in the marketplace must lose something and have less and that "the [more] and the [less] are
signficant to the parties." This is only true, however, if we view the marketplace as a closed system with a fixed
amount of resources to be allocated. This type of conflict is concerned with who gets what share of which
commodities. Boulding refers to this type of conflict as "personal distribution conflict."If we allow the total
economic output of the market to vary, however, we get different results in the type and amount of conflict. That is
to say that by moving to a dynamic open systems model of the marketplace we can allow the resources for
distribution to be increasing or decreasing as well as at some constant level. Boulding discusses these three kinds
of conditions and how they affect the nature of the conflict. In growing markets and economically progressive
societies (where total market dollars or per capita real income is rising), there may still be conflict but it is usually
mixed-mode, pan competition and part cooperation, since it is possible for all parties to gain when the size of the
market is growing. Competition is tempered by elements of cooperation. As Boulding sees it, "There is cooperation
in increasing the pie and competition in sharing it" (1962: 192). In static markets and economically stationary
societies, there is pure conflict because as one person increases his share, everyone else together must get less.
This situation is the same as the zero-sum game where one player rises only at the expense of others, or what one
wins someone else must lose. In shrinking markets and economically declining societies, pure conflict also exists,
but it is even more desperate. For a firm of persons can only maintain status quo by pushing or watching while
someone else goes down.Besides examining the three types of market or societal growth situations and their

effect on interaction conflict, Boulding also outlined eight different kinds of social conflicts that can occur within
or between social systems. Conflict within social systems above the level of the individual may also be seen as
conflict between social entities, depending upon where we set our level of analysis, and clearly depends upon what
we define as the system or entities under examination. The eight types of social conflict Boulding outlined were
summarized as the following (Fink, 1968: 420):
(!) Conflict between or among persons; two consumers fighting over the "last" piece of sale merchandise would be
an example of this type of marketplace conflict.(2) Boundary conflict between spatially segregated groups; this
involves attempts to change or to settle a boundary and occurs frequently in distribution territory allocations and
sales force assignment.(3) Ecological conflict between spatially intermingled groups; an example of this would be
the conflict of two stores in proximity competing for customers in the same neighborhood. Levy and Zaltman
(1975) provide an interesting example of two grocery stores locked in ecological conflict.(4) Homogenous
organization conflict (i.e., between organizations of like character and purpose, such as shoe manufacturer versus
shoe manufacturer).(5) Heterogeneous organization conflict (i.e., between unlike organizations, such as the
automobile manufacturers versus public transportation services).(6) Conflicts between a person and a group; the
college student whose parents send him money to buy textbooks but who would rather spend it on a date.(7)
Conflicts between a person and an organization; although Boulding only considers cases of this type where the
individual in question is a member of the organization with which he is in conflict, it would also be possible for the
individual to be outside the organization. This type of conflict then becomes one of the most commonly found
types of conflict, that of irate consumers, consumer advocates, i.e., Ralph Nader versus the auto companies, and
the small individual business owner versus the giant conglomerate.(8) Conflicts between a group and an
organization; Boulding notes that this type of conflict is likely to move into the interorganization type of conflict
because of the tendency for groups to generate into organizations. This point raises a question concerning the
possibility of all conflicts tending to become interorganization conflicts. While there are exceptions to this
tendency, it does help to clarify the forces behind the consumerism movement on the basis of two generally
accepted propositions: (a) individuals in conflict sometimes seek allies and support and may try to expand the
conflict beyond its original limits to gain coalition partners; and (b) groups have a strong tendency either to
become or to spin off organizations.
Figure 1: Conflict Between and Within Societies and Markets
Nelson (1971) developed a graphical representation of conflict conditions that are logically possible between or
within systems (see Figure I). This typology is easily extendable to societies and markets because they are in
effect systems. Nelson saw five possible conflict conditions:(t) Intersystem conflict such as that which might exist
between the United States; i.e., internation conflict, especially where virtually the whole nation is mobilized. Each
nation s goal might be trade supremacy in an attempt to improve its citizens' quality of life and favorable balance
of payments.(2) Conflict between one society as a whole and an industry (or subsystem) of the other nation. In our
example we provide the case of the Japanese steel industry and its interaction with the United States society as
awhole.(3) Competition between the Japanese steel industry and the steel industry of the United States. This
Nelson defines as conflict between subsystem A1 of system A, and subsystem Bl of system B.(4) Conflict between
subsystem Al of system A, and subsystem AZ of system A. In our example we see the competition between the
two industries, steel and aluminum, as an example of this type of conflict.(5) Conflict between system A as a whole
and subsystem AI of system A. For instance, the conflict between the U.S. government and the steel industry over
protective tariffs and quotas on the one hand and its defense of its own industrial concentration on the
other.Bonoma (1976: 11), in examining conflict between buyers and sellers within any particular market,
comments:
If, for example, the buyer prefers to purchase maximum quality products at minimum prices, and the producer or
seller prefers to supply somewhat lesser quality products (to keep costs down and insure obsolescence) at
maximum prices (to keep profits up), the conflict level in the interaction will be relatively intense.As another
example of buyer-seller conflict, this time over resource control, Bonoma cites the example of "public domain"

resources like air and water: "[they] may wish to employ these resources in such a way that if one wins (e.g.,
complete control of manufacturer s pollutants), the other must lose (e.g., excessive costs), possibly a prohibition
of industry altogether."Power can be an issue of conflict in two different senses: both as an object and as a
conditioner of conflict (Mack and Snyder, 1957). Conflict occurs over power sought as an end or goal by the
parties; and, in addition, power relations largely determine the outcome of conflicts. In the next section power will
be considered from several aspects: the effects of power on conflict, the bases of power, and three different power
interaction systems.
POWER
Many conflicts occur over issues of power or control over marketplace actions, decisions, and resources.
Examples are seen frequently in the channels of distribution, where the different links of the chain are struggling
for the overall control of the channel (Stern and Gorman, 1969; Alderson, 1965). In competitive markets the key
goal in the struggle is often not just profit but a certain share of the market. There are several reasons why power
and control might be sought instead of more resources (Nelson, 1971):(1) Power can obtain resources, often in
large quantities.(2) Power is a more generalized medium than are mere resources-it may be used to obtain a wide
variety of resources and other desired outcomes. (3) Intrapsychic reasons; its "ego-boosting" quality gratification
of selfimage, satisfaction of status need, implications of mastery, and so on.(4) Power may be used to control the
actions and decisions of others, and can be used to make a wider sector of the world (market) conform to one s
wishes or images of how things ought to be. In this way, it may be used to protect a privileged position with regard
to resources.
"Much of the theory regarding power relationships is cast in terms of an interpersonal dyad" (Beier and Stern,
1969). The base of power for one individual in relation to another came from the ability to reward or punish, to
provide expert information, power bestowed by another, and liking or identification of the other. French and Raven
(1959) saw the bases of interpersonal or social power as rewards, coercion, expertness, legitimacy, and
identification. Each of these bases will be examined to provide further knowledge of them and possible clues as to
how they work.Reward power is defined as the power to deliver positive reinforcement and/or to withhold negative
reinforcement. The strength of this power increases with the magnitude of the rewards which a person can
mediate for another. For instance, a sales representative can gain some reward power over a purchasing manager
by promising a quantity discount to the buying firm or a "gift," such as a pen holder to the manager himself. The
range of reward power is specific to those areas within which the sales representative can reward the purchasing
manager. Rewards when delivered increase the liking of the rewarded person for the rewarder.Coercive power is
similar to reward power because it involves the ability to control the reinforcement of the other person. With
coercive power, however, the power comes from the ability to deliver negative reinforcement or to withhold positive
reinforcement. The government has coercive power over manufacturers in the way of the ability to fine them if they
are caught violating environmental protection laws. Coercive power requires the ability to monitor the behavior of
the other party and then apply whatever punishment one can.Legitimate power originates from the feeling of
"oughtness" to obey the power vested in the other. Sometimes this power is a result of a third party bestowing
certain rights on the powerful party. Cultural values constitute another base of legitimate power. A third base of
legitimate power lies in the acceptance of the social structure. An example of legitimate power in marketing is that
power gained by the franchisor over the franchisee by the vehicle of the franchise or contract which binds the
relationship.Referent power has its basis in the identification or liking of one person for another. This power is not
to be underestimated in marketing. One of the most powerful variables operating in the sales situation is
friendship. This is often true in both consumer and industrial sales. In addition, the concepts of "referent group"
and "prestige sug-
gestion" may be treated as instances of referent power (French and Raven, 1959). Many advertising campaigns
rely on endorsements by famous celebrities and sports figures; this is another example of an attempt to use
referent power in marketing.Expert power varies with the extent of the knowledge that one person has and another
needs or can use to profit. "In the drug trade, . . . it is not uncommon for service wholesale druggists to provide

retailers with programs of assistance in the following areas: sales promotion counsel and aids, sales training for
store employers, information about other druggists' promotions, advice on getting special displays, advice on store
layout and arrangement, information or sources of items not stocked by the wholesaler, and managerial advice"
(Beckman and Davidson, 1967). This is an example of the use of expert power to gain control over the retail outlets
in the drug trade.Power relations need not always tilt in either the direction of the buyer or seller, nor does it
naturally accrue to the channel member closer to the manufacturer or consumer. In general, the more sellers there
are, other things being equal, the more power consumers have in the marketplace. Conversely, the more
consumers there are, the more power sellers have since they presumably sell to another consumer if any one
consumer is dissatisfied. It is necessary, of course, to take into account both the number of sellers and buyers and
the relative importance or value to each party of the purchase or sale. In other words, the relative balance between
supply and demand of the product or service is one indicator of whether the buyer or seller will be more powerful.
Bonoma (1976) feels that the most common case of buyer-seller power relation may be one where the consumer is
somewhat weaker relative to the seller. He sees two other possible power relations between buyer and seller. The
one is a situation in which the buyer and seller are characterized as nearly equal in resource-control or
"functionally equivalent." These conditions occur quite frequently and produce different marketing type
transactions from the customary ones usually considered by consumer behaviorists. When the two parties to the
marketing transaction are nearly equivalent in power, there is a bargaining or give-and-take type interaction
process that occurs. This is different from the "disparity" type setting where one of the parties is clearly much
stronger than the other. In the disparity type of setting the more powerful party usually sets the exchange ratio on
a "take it or leave it" type basis. Finally, the last type of buyer-seller interaction occurs when consumers or sellers
form what are known as unit-bonds (Heider, 1958). In unit-bonds the welfare of
the unit is normally put above the welfare of any one participant. Group utility is maximized rather than any one
participant s. There are three of this system; the consumer welfare system in which consumers form units to
maximize their group welfare, the marketers' welfare subsystem in which sellers/manufacturers band together,
and the more unusual third type in which a consumer (or consumers) and seller (or sellers) form a welfare system.
A hospital buying group, the OPEC cartel, and the agri-business coops are examples of these three subtypes of
group welfare systems, respectively. Bonoma (1976) has developed a social schematic of these different
power/consumption systems and they will not be further dealt with here.
INFLUENCE
Marketing and consumer behavior can both be seen as the employment of social influence processes by
individuals in order to produce desirable or favorable outcomes from interactions. The exercise of social influence
is the result of the state of conflict between two or more interacting persons or groups. It is useful to know how the
influence attempt is made in these kinds of situations. It has been customary, according to Bonoma and
Rosenberg (1975), to classify the different kinds of social influence attempts in three different categories: overt
influence, influence, and influence-related gestures.Overt influence occurs when a very explicit message is sent
from one party to another offering or predicting rewards and/ or punishments dependent upon the future behavior
of the message recipient. Two subclasses of overt influence exist. Threats and promises comprise the first
subclass of overt influence and are referred to as the hard modes. Threats or promises indicate that the source of
the message will do or give something to the receiver if the receiver takes a certain course of action. Threats
communicate that the source will personally provide the message recipient with something unpleasant if the
receiver behaves improperly from the source s viewpoint. Promises are the opposite of threats and the source
offers to directly reward the recipient for performing the desired behavior. The validity of these communications,
i.e., their effectiveness, is directly tied to the message recipient s perception of the resource control of the
message sender, as well as the sender s past behavior with respect to the delivery of rewards and punishments.
That is, if the message recipient feels that the source
controls the necessary resources and will use them to deliver the reward or punishment, he is more likely to
comply. Money-off coupons and other purchase incentives such as free merchandise inside the package are

examples of overt influence attempts using rewards. Governmental fines threatened against industrial polluters
are also overt influence attempts.A second subcategory of overt influence modes is collectively called the soft or
persuasion modes. The soft modes include warnings and recommendations. While the soft modes of warnings
and recommendations are similar to the hard modes of threats and promises, the difference is that in the soft
modes the influencer only predicts some environmental or social consequence which he or she does not directly
control. The soft modes depend more on expert power for success. In most commercials and other forms of
advertising, the soft modes are more prevalent. In most personal selling situations where face-to-face interaction
occurs, recommendations are made about product performance and satisfaction with less frequent use being
made of warnings.Manipulational influence finds the source of the message or influence attempt actually
rewarding or punishing the receiver after the receiver of the influence attempt has behaved in a certain way. This
type of influence is similar to the conditional responses psychologists develop in laboratory animals. Manipulation
influence is usually encountered in the form of verbal praise or blame. A clothing salesperson in praising a
customer for having excellent taste in clothing provides an influence attempt aimed at increasing that customer s
purchase of clothing. The effectiveness of rewards and punishments depends on the magnitude of the reinforcer
provided, as well as the consistency with which it is used to affect the probabilities of a given market-oriented
behavior. In the case of verbal influence, the source is dependent upon referent power. Good customer service
after the product has been purchased might be viewed as efforts to influence brand loyalty.Influence-related
gestures include strategic probes, reinterpretations, and self disclosures. They are not actually influence gestures
in themselves, but are strategic preparations for future influence attempts. Strategic probes are aimed at
identifying the other s utility schedule. Research (Willett and Pennington, 1966) has shown that successful
transactions contain a higher amount of strategic probes by the salesperson of the customer than do "no-sale"
situations. A reinterpretation or reflection is essentially a clinically-derived technique which
feeds back information to an individual. It is a successful sales technique for two reasons. It reinforces the
customer to hear his own opinion coming from another and it allows the salesperson to be active in the
conversation without disclosing anything to the customer unless so desired. Self-disclosures are statements by
the source of a personal and/or an intimate nature. They have a strong tendency to "pull" reciprocal disclosures
from their recipient.The most successful influence mode for a person to use depends upon the strength of that
person s relative power and the base of it.
CONCLUSION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
In this paper we have discussed several possible ways of viewing and studying marketing. The case for studying
marketing from a dyadic model or systems model was presented. If exchange is the basic process of marketing
phenomena, then surely a host of social variables become important for understanding, prediction, and control.
These variables include social conflict, power, and influence. Each of these variables was examined in turn and
examples of their application to an explanatory effort of marketing was presented. The final feeling one should be
left with is that marketing is a social science and interdependence is the best way to describe the many
participants in any market. Most of the previous research in marketing has been done from or under several
counterproductive assumptions. It appears that future research from a more social perspective concentrating on
social variables such as conflict, power, and influence could provide better understanding. Other possible social
variables for investigation include: attraction, aggression, conformity, dependency, justice, prejudice, and so forth.
The consequence of adopting a more interactive or social approach must surely be the opening of a vast new area
of overlap between marketing and the other social sciences. To a certain degree marketing science found its roots
in economics and psychology, but since has developed into a discipline in its own right. Marketing phenomena
would now seem to be legitimate subjects for study by scientists from the other social and behavioral areas.
Taking this a little further, it would seem worthwhile to consider the gains to social scientists, working from a
conflict perspective, of studying the variables of conflict, power, and influence in the setting of the marketplace.As
Bonoma and Milburn (1977: 2) point out, the major commonly shared assumptions of past conflict-oriented
research included:

(1) conflict per se generally is evil,(2) it disrupts normal societal processes, and(3) it is capable of producing
potentially violent outcomes in our society at all levels.Conflict in the marketplace can be seen to not conform to
these assumptions because: (1) it is not seen as evil and actually protected (i.e., antitrust laws), (2) it is not
believed to disrupt but actually create a more efficient marketplace, and (3) rather than producing potentially
violent outcomes, it is the basic building block of our capitalistic society. By studying conflict in the marketplace, a
totally different facet of this variable can be captured. Also the basic nature of business and markets, where the
most important variable is often profitability, lends itself well to easy operationalization of reference variables.
REFERENCES
ALDERSON, W. (1965) Dynamic Marketing Behavior. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.BAGOZZI, R. P. (1975)
"Marketing as exchange:' J. of Marketing 39 (October): 32-39. BECKMAN, T. N. and W. R. DAVIDSON (1967)
Marketing. New York: Ronald Press. BEIER, F. J. and L. W. STERN (i969) "Power in the channel of distribution;' pp.
92-116 in L. Stern (ed.) Distribution Channels: Behavioral Dimensions. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.BONOMA, T. V.
(1976) "Toward a social analysis of consumer behavior," in G. Zaltman and M. Wallendorf (eds.) Consumer
Behavior. New York: Wiley Interscience. -and T. W. MILBURN (1977) "Social conflict: another look." J. of Social
Issues 33, I: I-8.BONOMA, T. V. and H. (1975) "Theory-based content analysis: a social influence perspective for
evaluating group process." Univ. of Pittsburgh Working Paper Series No. 143.BOULDING, K. (1962) Conflict and
Defense: A General Theory. New York: Harper Torchbooks.DAHRENDORF, R. (1958) "Toward a theory of social
conflict." J. of Conflict Resolution 2, 2: 170-183.FINK, C. (1968) "Some conceptual difficulties in the theory of social
conflict." J. of Conflict Resolution 12, 4: 412-460.FRENCH, J.R.P. and B. RAVEN (1959) "The bases of social power,"
pp. 150-167 in D. Cartwright (ed.) Studies in Social Power. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. HEIDER, F. (1958)
The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: John Wiley. HEIDINGSFIELD, M. S. and A. B. BLANKENSHIP
(1974) Marketing. New York: Barnes &Noble.
KOTLER, P. (1972a) Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.---
(1972b) "A generic concept of marketing." J. of Marketing 36 (April): 46-54. KRAMER, H. (1977) "How to use
marketing philosophy to improve marketing." Marketing News I l, 13: 1, 4.LEVY, S. J. and G. ZALTMAN (1975)
Marketing, Society, and Contlict. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: -Hall.LEWIN, K. (1935) A Dynamic Theory of Personality.
New York; McGraw-Hill. MACK, R. W, and R. C. SNYDER (1957) "The analysis of social conflict: toward an overview
and synthesis:' J. of Conflict Resolution l, 2: 212-248.Marketing Staff of the Ohio State University (1965) "A
statement of marketing philosophy." J. of Marketing 29, l: 43.MILLER, N. E. (1941) "The frustration-aggression
hypothesis:' Psych. Rev.48:337-347. NELSON, S. D. (1971) "The concept of social conflict." Center for Research on
Utiliza tion of Scientific Knowledge and Institute for Social Research Working Paper. Ann Arbor,
Michigan.SCHELLING, T. C. (1960) The Strategy of Conflict. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press. STERN, L. W. and R.
H. GORMAN (1969) "Conflict in distribution channels: an ex ;' pp. 156-175 in L. W. Stem (ed.) Distribution Channels:
Behavioral Dimen sions. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.WILLETT, R. P. and A. L. PENNINGTON (1966) "Customer and
salesman: the anatomy of choice and influence in a retail setting," pp. 598-616 in R. M. Haas (ed.) Science,
Technology and Marketing. Chicago: American Marketing Association.
DETAILS
Publication title: The American Behavioral Scientist (pre-1986); Thousand Oaks
Volume: 21
Issue: 4
Pages: 515

Number of pages: 20
Publication year: 1978
Publication date: Mar/Apr 1978
Publisher: SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC.
Place of publication: Thousand Oaks
Country of publication: United States, Thousand Oaks
Publication subject: Social Sciences: Comprehensive Works, Psychology
ISSN: 00027642
CODEN: ABHSAU
Source type: Scholarly Journals
Language of publication: English; EN
Document type: article
ProQuest document ID: 194666541
Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/194666541?accountid=50247
Copyright: Copyright SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC. Mar/Apr 1978
Last updated: 2010-08-25
Database: ProQuest Central
LINKS
INCENTIVE PLAN TO REDUCE MILK AIRED IN

CARBON
The Morning Call . Morning Call ; Allentown, Pa. [Allentown, Pa]19 Jan 1984: B.05.
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
The county chairman explained that the milk base is determined from the producer's 1982 commercial milk
marketings, or the average of such marketings for 1981 and 1982, whichever the milk producer selects. Under the

contract, [William Bolish] continued, the milk producer must reduce marketings from 5 to 30 percent between
January 1 and March 31, 1985.
The ASCS official said there is no dollar limit on the amount of incentive payment a producer may earn for
complying with the milk diversion contract. However, he added, no producer may receive payment for reductions in
the amount of milk marketed commercially in excess of 30 percent of the milk base. Dairy farmers are required to
accurately report their marketings to ASCS for the contract period.
FULL TEXT
The new federal milk diversion program was explained yesterday by William Bolish, chairman of the Carbon County
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service Committee.
The program, which became effective Jan. 1, establishes an incentive payment for eligible dairy farmers of $10 per
hundredweight to reduce their commercial milk sales.
In order to be eligible for the program, Bolish explained, farmers must establish a milk base and submit a milk
reduction plan to the county ASCS office, R.6, Box 335, Lehighton 18235, (215) 377-6300, no later than Jan. 27, and
sign a United States Department of Agriculture milk diversion contract by Jan. 31.
Bolish added, "We encourage dairymen to visit the office as soon as possible or call for an appointment. Eligibility
standards require the farmer to be a milk producer in one of the 48 contiguous states; be actively engaged in milk
production as of Nov. 29, 1983, and not have transferred to any person dairy cows which would or could have been
used for milk production in the United States after Nov. 8, except as allowed in the transfer provisions of the
program."
The county chairman explained that the milk base is determined from the producer's 1982 commercial milk
marketings, or the average of such marketings for 1981 and 1982, whichever the milk producer selects. Under the
contract, Bolish continued, the milk producer must reduce marketings from 5 to 30 percent between January 1 and
March 31, 1985.
The milk reduction plans show how the producer plans to achieve the required marketing reductions and includes
an estimate of the portion of the reduction to be achieved through increased slaughter of dairy cows, including the
number of diary cows to be sold for slaughter during each month of the contract, he said.
The milk diversion contract percentage reduction agreed to by the producer will be binding, except that the
secretary of agriculture may reduce the percentage if producer participation would cause excessive reduction in
milk supplies. The minimum reduction of 5 percent will not be reduced. Final contract decisions by the secretary of
agriculture are expected by the end of February.
The ASCS official said there is no dollar limit on the amount of incentive payment a producer may earn for
complying with the milk diversion contract. However, he added, no producer may receive payment for reductions in
the amount of milk marketed commercially in excess of 30 percent of the milk base. Dairy farmers are required to
accurately report their marketings to ASCS for the contract period.
Additional details on the milk diversion program can be obtained from the county ASCS office.

DETAILS
People: Bolish, William
Publication title: Morning Call; Allentown, Pa.
Pages: B.05
Number of pages: 0
Publication date: Jan 19, 1984
Publisher: Tribune Interactive, LLC
Place of publication: Allentown, Pa.
Country of publication: United States, Allentown, Pa.
Publication subject: General Interest Periodicals--United States
ISSN: 08845557
Source type: Newspapers
Language of publication: English
Document type: LOCAL
Copyright: Copyright Morning Call Jan 19, 1984
LINKS
Forecasting accuracy, rational expectations, and

market efficiency in the United States beef cattle
industry

Schaefer, Matthew Phillip . Michigan State University, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1999.
1398649.
ABSTRACT
Recent studies have tested whether futures prices respond to U.S. Department of Agriculture inventory reports in
accordance with the efficient market hypothesis. These studies use survey forecasts to identify the anticipated
and unanticipated information contained in a report. However, this approach implicitly assumes the survey
forecast to be an unbiased and efficient predictor of the data in the USDA report. Furthermore, previous studies
have not tested the bias and efficiency properties of USDA preliminary estimates as predictors of final revised
USDA figures. This study introduces a framework for conducting tests of the efficient markets hypothesis in the
presence of biased and inefficient survey forecasts, and preliminary USDA estimates that are biased and
inefficient predictors of final revised figures. The approach is applied to the US beef cattle industry and results are
quite different from those obtained using the conventional analysis.
FULL TEXT
_TVM:UNDEFINED_
DETAILS
Subject: Agricultural economics; Cattle industry; Rational expectations; Marketing;

Forecasting; Studies
Classification: 0503: Agricultural economics
Publication title: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
Number of pages: 96
Publication date: 1999
Section: 0128
Publisher: ProQuest Dissertations Publishing
Place of publication: Ann Arbor
Country of publication: United States
ISBN: 9780599686779, 0599686774
School: Michigan State University
School location: United States -- Michigan

Degree: M.S.
Source type: Dissertations &Theses
Language of publication: English; EN
Document type: Dissertation/Thesis
Publication / order number: 1398649
Copyright: Database copyright ProQuest LLC; ProQuest does not claim copyright in the
individual underlying works.
LINKS
Marketing Hall of Fame The New Zealand

Marketing Hall of Fame is marketing's premier
award for outstanding marketing professionals.
These are the people who have made a
significant long-term contribution to marketing
in this country. All four people inducted into the
Marketing Hall of Fame this inaugural year have
pioneered changes in marketing that have
profoundly impacted on the way we now do
business.
McNickel, David . Marketing Magazine : For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland (Aug
2003): 37.
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)

Arriving in New Zealand in 1970 from the US state of Indiana, [Steve Bridges] has been both a pioneer in the field of
consumer-focused marketing in New Zealand, and a charismatic tutor of the discipline. He has directly influenced
the marketing career of literally thousands of local marketing graduates.
FULL TEXT
Bill Gianotti
Today's marketing practitioners may find it hard to comprehend a world without data-based marketing. For that, in
New Zealand at least, they have largely to thank pioneering developer Bill Gianotti.
Now best known to many as the man behind Auckland-based direct marketing agency Aim Proximity, Gianotti
cottoned on early to the benefits of using data to segment target markets.
In his case he not only had to generate the results to back up his argument but threw his considerable personal
passion for the subject into the arena in his efforts to convince clients that data based marketing, as opposed to
the shotgun approach, was even worthwhile considering.
Gianotti's data marketing career began with 25 years at the United Building Society where he worked in an unusual
combination of roles, including data processing, finance and, ultimately, marketing management.
A three-year stint at Results Marketing was followed in 1988 by the launch of his own agency, Aim Direct, which
kicked off at the tail end of the '80s with three staff and three clients (National Australia Bank, Southern Cross
Healthcare and Diners Club).
It was a bold but timely move, says Direct Marketing Association chief executive Keith Norris. "Bill was probably
the first to realise that good direct marketing had to be supported by excellent data.
"Typically, anyone wanting to send out a direct marketing piece in the early '90s would simply buy a list. There was
no customer data embedded within that. Bill pioneered the growth of useful marketing data - offering marketers
segmented data. Nobody had done it before, certainly not in New Zealand."
A former contemporary of Gianotti's, Fiona Caird - now a group account director with George Patterson Bates in
Brisbane - says a large part of launching a data segmentation agency at the time was evangelising for the
discipline.
"When marketing got on business people's radar," she says, "direct certainly wasn't on the agenda. Bill's
contribution to the industry as a founder of that discipline has been in educating clients to something that was
ground-breaking at the time.
Under Gianotti's guiding hand, Aim flourished in the '90s - being voted The National Business Review's 'Small
Agency Of the Year' several times and winning numerous advertising awards including the prestigious Echo Award
in the US for outstanding direct mail.
The Clemenger Group bought into Aim Direct in 1996 and five years later the agency changed its name to Aim
Proximity.
The development of the people within the direct marketing industry has always been a priority of Gianotti's, and he
established the $10,000 Aim Proximity creative scholarship in 1998, to further incentivise the development of great
creative.
Today, Aim Proximity employs 110 staff and has offices in Auckland and Wellington. It's also significant that
almost all the heads of New Zealand's current direct marketing agencies have spent time working at Aim.
"There are two or three generations of marketers now that can say that Bill has influenced their life," says Norris.
"Richard Bleasdale of WRC, Tim Mooney at Zeppelin and Ant Salmon at Big Communications. When Simon Morgan
first came to this country from the UK he worked at Aim. Now he's gm at Publicis Rainger."
Aside from its people, another key ingredient for Aim's success has been Gianotti's desire to create tools to ease
the job of marketers, and increase the accuracy and usability of marketing data.
Gianotti served for three years as the president of the Direct Marketing Association and was the chairman of the
RSVP Awards from 1992 until he stepped down from the role in 2002.
Laurie Enting

Laurie Enting looked more like an accountant - which he qualified as - than the successful advertising man that he
was. He usually sounded more like an accountant too, with his crisp, no-nonsense delivery and penchant for facts
and figures.
No flights of fancy rhetoric, but this would hardly have been appropriate for one of the New Zealand advertising
industry's pioneer market researchers.
Enting was born at the beginning of the First World War and served in the Second. He attended Auckland and
Victoria Universities, qualifying MCom and ACA. He worked for the Census and Statistics Department and was
assistant secretary of NIMU Insurance before war service.
Laurie Enting's advertising industry beginnings were accidental. After the war he intended to go into partnership
with Wellington account Ted Tarrant who acted as company secretary for J Inglis Wright, one of the country's
largest advertising agencies.
The partnership arrangement didn't materialise but Enting, who was not particularly enthusiastic about
commercial practice, accepted the J Inglis Wright's invitation of a staff appointment as company secretary.
It was the beginning of a nearly 30-year-long involvement with the advertising industry.
What began, in 1946, as an administrative role soon widened and Enting carried out some of the first market
research for companies in New Zealand.
At Inglis Wright he established and headed the Consumer Research Bureau which later became NZ Data Ltd, a self-
contained subsidiary of the agency.
NZ Data Ltd carried out early radio listenership surveys. It also pioneered research, for JIW clients, into product
satisfaction, price, place of purchase and communications activities.
In time Enting became, as a director, more involved with all of J Inglis Wright's activities in an era when full-service
advertising agencies - offering everything from radio commercials recorded on the premises, to photographic
darkrooms and finished art studios - were the largest and most successful in the land.
He was not only the head of one of the country's major advertising agencies, but he was also widely respected
within the industry and the wider business community.
He was a foundation member of the Market Research Society of New Zealand, president of the Association of
Accredited Advertising Agencies of NZ (Inc) from 1973-75, a member of the Government's Enquiry into Government
Advertising in 1975, and chairman of the inaugural Committee of Advertising Practice from 1975-77.
For many years after his formal retirement Enting kept his 'hand in' as a marketing and advertising consultant.
Today, Laurie Enting, a market research pioneer, is the sole surviving chief executive from the 'big three' agencies -
Ilotts, Charles Haines and J Inglis Wright - which dominated the advertising business through the 1960s when
television and supermarkets revolutionised consumer behaviour in New Zealand.
Ian Brown
Ian Brown, tallish, willowly, bespectacled and with a distinctive beard, was one of New Zealand's best known
market researchers in the pioneering 1960s and through the 1970s. He was an enthusiast, whose way with words
combined the scholarly and earthy at the same time.
He ran NZ Data Ltd, J Inglis Wright's research subsidiary, through the latter years of the 1960s and later joined the
Heylen Research Centre, the pioneering independent social research company, established in Auckland in 1968.
Brown was influenced by Ernest Dichter's theories and pioneered the study of consumer behaviour in New
Zealand.
At NZ Data Brown built up one of the largest research subsidiaries linked to one of the country's major advertising
agencies. In 1971 he opened Heylen's Wellington office where, amongst many other projects, he worked with
"National Business Review" to pioneer business press research. In 1979 he moved to Auckland to take charge of
the company's head office.
During the 1970s Heylen's innovative combination of attitudinal and behavioural measurements made
segmentation studies the most advanced marketing aids seen in New Zealand to that time.
Consumerism really began in New Zealand in the 1960s and Brown took a lead in developing new methodologies -

both qualitative and quantitative - to measure consumer behaviour. He initiated one of the earliest omnibus
surveys in New Zealand.
Ian Brown was an early and prominent member of the Market Research Society, the professional body that
established codes of ethics and practice for the research industry. He was president of the society and its first life
member.
He was also a regular contributor to New Zealand's first marketing magazine, "NBR Marketplace", between 1972-77
and as recently as last year contributed articles to the special issue of "AdMedia" commemorating 50 years of
advertising in New Zealand.
Recently, Brown has accepted an 'elder statesman' role within the market research industry. Since his retirement
his advice has been sought over issues affecting the whole industry.
For example, when the privacy laws were introduced he prepared a parliamentary submission on behalf of all
market research agencies, which ensured the industry was not penalised by the new legislation. He has often
spoken at Market Research Society conferences.
He has now been commissioned by the Association of Market Research Organisations and the Market Research
Society to write a history of the market research profession in New Zealand.
For many years Ian Brown has been one of the research fraternity's most effective and persuasive 'front persons',
skilful at communicating the value and importance of market research in New Zealand.
Steve Bridges
Arriving in New Zealand in 1970 from the US state of Indiana, Steve Bridges has been both a pioneer in the field of
consumer-focused marketing in New Zealand, and a charismatic tutor of the discipline. He has directly influenced
the marketing career of literally thousands of local marketing graduates.
Bridges graduated Indiana University in 1966 with an MBA - majoring in marketing. He worked for several years in
advertising and marketing in the US (with General Foods and for a time as an account executive with
groundbreaking agency Wells Rich Green), before marriage to a New Zealander (Jocelyn - whom he met while on a
Rotary Scholarship here in 1964) brought him to our shores in 1970.
Arriving here he found a country almost completely bereft of any kind of formal marketing education.
According to those around at the time, marketing in New Zealand in the '60s and early '70s was "something sales
people did - basically, a fancy name for selling".
Bridges set about changing New Zealand's marketing landscape for ever - and began in 1970 by teaching
marketing at Victoria University - in what was to be the first ever marketing course held at a New Zealand
university.
After a two-year stint at Victoria, Bridges embarked on a cyclic career path of education and enterprise.
First enterprise stop was three years at NZ Wines and Spirits, where he established the marketing department.
Then a move to Tullen Industries where he helped transform a failing production-driven company to a successful
consumer-focused business (Tullen Snips was the brand).
Education lured him back and he joined Massey University in 1978, ultimately becoming a professor of marketing
and dean of the faculty of business studies.
While at Massey, Bridges continued with the practical application of his favoured subject, acting as a marketing
consultant to a number of different companies.
Interestingly, he tended to avoid cushy roles, instead taking on challenges that many more 'career minded'
executives would probably have avoided. A good example is Villa Maria wines.
"In 1978, our company was facing a decline in sales despite winning numerous awards for quality," says managing
director George Fistonich.
"I interviewed a number of consultants but chose Steve because he spent most of the interview asking questions
about the nature of the problem and suggesting solutions."
Fistonich says the upshot of the conversation was resolving to undertake a series of focus group interviews -
which led to the decision to dramatically change Villa Maria's table wine packaging to differentiate it from the

dessert wine.
"Hence the origin of the Villa Maria red 'V'," says Fistonich, "and a change of the Villa Maria sherry and port range to
'Old Masters'."
As a result of Bridges' suggestions Villa Maria's sales decline was halted and the company achieved a substantial
increase in the table wine sales, while maintaining their dessert wines market share with the new 'Old Masters'
brand.
After his success there, Bridges was instrumental in reversing an 11-year decline in the sales of pork in New
Zealand, when he wrote the marketing plan for the development and launch of 'Trim Pork' in 1981.
From 1987-93 Bridges ran his own marketing consultancy, while simultaneously teaching several courses of the
MBA and Diploma in Business programmes at the University of Auckland.
In 1993 he again took on another real world challenge when legislative changes in the legal profession meant law
firms were free to promote their services direct to the public - an industry development that almost defined the
phrase paradigm shift, as law firms at the time were not renowned for their client focus.
In the three years that Bridges was marketing director at law firm Simpson Grierson, he literally wrote the book on
services marketing, as his work there was written up as a case study example of marketing excellence in professor
Phillip Kotler's influential "Marketing" textbook.
Today Bridges continues to run his own business (Bridges Marketing Consultancy) while at the same time
teaching two-day marketing shortcourses at the University Of Auckland Business School.
At the university, executive development director Michael Groves sums up Bridges' contribution to marketing in
New Zealand.
"Steve has made an outstanding contribution to the betterment of marketing and its reputation," he says.
"Over a career of more than 30 years he has touched the lives of literally thousands of New Zealanders through his
teaching and consulting. Many of them owe their success to the teaching and example they received from Steve."
Selection Criteria
Hall of Fame inductees have:
* Distinguished themselves in marketing and/or related fields.
* Contributed to the betterment of marketing and
its reputation.
* Individually motivated others to excel by mentoring, inspiring, training or volunteering.
* Completed their primary career.
Articles on Bill Gianotti and Steve Bridges by David McNickel.
Email: [email protected]
DETAILS
People: Gianotti, Bill Enting, Laurie Brown, Ian Bridges, Steve
Company: Aim Direct NZ Data Ltd
Publication title: Marketing Magazine: For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
Pages: 37
Number of pages: 0

Publication date: Aug 2003
Publisher: Tangible Media
Place of publication: Auckland
Country of publication: New Zealand, Auckland
Publication subject: Business And Economics--Marketing And Purchasing
ISSN: 01119044
Source type: Trade Journals
Document type: PERIODICAL
Copyright: ((c) 2003 Profile Publishing Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, and can not be used without
prior permission of the publisher.)
LINKS
NÉO-MARKETING, 10 ANS APRÈS: POUR UNE

THÉORIE CRITIQUE DE LA CONSOMMATION ET
DU MARKETING RÉENCHANTÉS
BADOT, Olivier; COVA, Bernard . Revue Française du Marketing ; Paris Vol. 195, Iss. 5/5, (Nov 2003): 79-
77.
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)

A decade ago, the authors laid the foundation of a neo-marketing theory utilizing the post-modern framework.
Today, they update this contribution by encapsulating the reenchantment of consumption and its impact on the
conduct of marketing. Thus, section 1 sketches a theory of reenchanted consumption. Section 2 reviews the
coming marketing innovations and section 3 suggests a situational analysis of the prospective roles of marketing.

FULL TEXT

ta EO-IUAR<eTI tJG,
1 AO :S AN AFFIES :
PoLuR UNE TIEEORI:E
CRITIQUIE ME LAAO CONSOAYIUYATION ET IDU M YUARI'CETING
FRIEENCNALUTESE
Olivier BADOT,
Professeur ESCP-EAP
Bernard COVA,
Professeur ESCP-EAP
Resume
Une decennie apres avoir jete les bases d'un neo-marketing grace a la mise en jeu du cadre d'analyse postmoderne
de la consommation, les auteurs s'attachent a faire le point sur le reenchantement de la consommation et ses
consequences marketing. Pour cela, ils deve- loppent tout d'abord une theorie de la consommation reenchantee
puis un panorama actualise des innovations marketing pour atteindre a une lecture situationnelle du marketing.
Mots cles: Experience - Innovation Marketing - Postmodernite - Reenchantement - Regres.
Abstract
A decade ago, the authors laid thefoundation of a neo-marketing theory through the put into play of the post-
modern framework. Today, they update this contribution by encapsulating the reenchantment of consumption
and its impact on the conduct of marketing. Thus, section 1 sketches a theory of reenchanted consumption.
Section 2 reviews the coming marketing innovations and section 3 suggests a situational analysis of the
prospective roles of marketing.
Key words: Experience - Marketing Innovation - Postmodernity - Reenchantment - Regress.
Il y a 10 ans, nous avions propose, en recou- rant au cadre d'analyse postmoderne, une lecture de la nouvelle donne
socio-economique afin de donner un sens a des mouvements epars qui agitaient le champ du marketing (Badot et
Cova, 1992a et b). Cette recherche conjecturale s'est vu confirmee dans ses grandes lignes par un ensemble
d'ecrits, tant francophones (Filser, 1996; Hetzel, 2002; Pras, 1999) qu'anglophones (Brown, 1995; Firat et
Venkatesh, 1995; Kozinets, 2001) parsemant la decennie, comme par un grand nombre de pratiques d'entreprises
manufacturieres et de distribution (on pense notamment au succes de Nature et Decouvertes, de Surcouf, au

developpement du West Edmonton Mall, a la rehabilitation de Giovanni Panzani). L'utilisation croissante du cadre
d'analyse postmoderne par les chercheurs en marketing a conduit a en affiner le contenu et a en preciser la portee
operationnelle.
Aujourd'hui, notre ambition est de rendre compte de facon synthetique, selon un protocole comparable a celui de
1992, de l'ensemble des
acquis de la decennie ecoulee en suggerant une theorie de la consommation reenchantee, suivie d'un panorama
actualise des marketing en mouvement, pour atteindre a une lecture situationnelle du marketing. Cette ambition
est construite sur une critique de nos travaux ori- ginels qui, d'une part, passaient sous silence les rapports de
pouvoir entre les acteurs du marche et qui, d'autre part, participaient d'un credo par trop simpliste de substitution
en proposant une nouvelle panacee marketing (Brown, 1995).
ESSAI D'UNE THEORIE DE LA
CONSOMMATION REENCHANTEE
Sans revenir sur un cadre de lecture exhaustif de la societe postmoderne, il apparait opportun de donner une
definition simple de la postmodernite, definition qui va eclairer de nombreux traits de la consommation actuelle
dite reenchantee (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995). La postmodernite, c'est la synergie entre l'archaisme et le
developpement technolo- gique (Maffesoli, 2000), entre le progres et le primi- tivisme (Brown et al., a paraitre). Une
societe postmoderne serait en train de se constituer sur les ruines de la croyance dans la liberte et le progres,
c'est en ce sens qu'elle se definirait comme postmoderne. A un imaginaire moderne fait de deraci- nement de
l'individu, nos contemporains, par un mouvement de decapitalisation sur le futur, oppose- raient un imaginaire
postmoderne fait de tentatives de re-enracinement. C'est ce que traduisent la quete ecologique ou les
mouvements anti-mondialisation et plus generalement toutes les utopies du coin de la rue (Percq, 1998) par
opposition aux grandes exaltations universalistes. Tentatives, car il est hors de question de revenir a un monde
pre-moderne (sauf pour quelques mouvements dits sectaires) dans lequel la plupart des individus seraient
incapables de vivre. Si l'on accepte le cadre d'analyse postmoderne, l'imaginaire des societes occidentales, et
donc les valeurs qui les structurent, seraient en train d'operer un basculement du progres au regres (cf. figure 1)
ou, tout du moins, un reequilibrage des valeurs de progres par celles de regres qui placerait tout individu en
tension entre ces deux imaginaires (sous reserve d'une validation prealable des besoins secu- ritaires: le socle
securitaire tacite).
Figure 1 L'individu en tension entre progres et regres
Traduite au niveau de la consommation cette tension entre imaginaires a amene les chercheurs en comportement
du consommateur a reequilibrer une vue fonctionnelle et progressiste de la consommation par une vue
experientielle qui fait la part belle aux valeurs de regres et a la subjectivite de l'individu (Addis et Holbrook, 2001).
De tradition micro- economique et psychologique (tant behavioriste que cognitiviste), la vue fonctionnelle met
l'accent sur la recherche d'information et le traitement multi-attributs des mecanismes d'influence pour optimiser
une transaction operee par un individu isole. Dans la perspective experientielle, au contraire, l'acheteur cherche
moins a maximiser un profit qu'a revendi-
quer une gratification hedoniste dans un contexte social; le marche purgeant ainsi, par une offre dite reenchantee,
des emotions produites par des projec- tions imaginaires et holistes qui, loin de repondre seulement a des besoins,

touchent a la quete identi- taire du consommateur (Bourgeon, 1994; Filser, 1996). Le mot de reenchantement a
d'abord ete utilise par les sociologues (historiquement Max Weber) pour signaler le retour du magique et de la
mystique religieuse dans nos societes occidentales; retour cause par la rupture avec le desenchantement
moderne qui avait rationalise nos vies et fait tout mesurer a l'aune de l'utilite. Il est aujourd'hui utilise en marketing
dans la formule (pour reprendre l'expression heureuse de Firat et Venkatesh, 1995) de reenchantement de la
consommation pour indi- quer la liberation du joug rationaliste (satisfaire les besoins du consommateur) et
affirmer une revendi- cation sensualiste.
Ce reenchantement de la consommation se lit dans le vecu quotidien de nos contemporains. On peut se demander,
par exemple, quel est le premier site touristique au Canada. Non pas les chutes du Niagara, mais le plus grand et
extravagant centre commercial du monde, le West Edmonton Mall a Edmonton en Alberta, qui melange, sur environ
500 000 m2, pres de 1000 boutiques, 6 grands magasins, la plus grande plage artificielle et le plus grand luna-
park couvert au monde, une patinoire profes- sionnelle, une Chinatown, un marinaland, des sous- marins explorant
un lac souterrain, etc. De meme, le 5elnc site touristique francais n'est ni le chateau de Versailles, ni le Musee
d'Orsay ... mais une grande surface d'informatique dans le XIIeme arrondisse- ment de Paris, a l'allure d'une foire
au vin et reali- sant plus de 150 millions d'Euros de chiffre d'affaires: Surcouf. Ces exemples, comme le succes de
concepts tels Apache, Aveda, Paul, Resonances, signalent l'importance croissante du reenchantement de la
consommation. Le reenchantement se traduit commercialement par des pratiques et des gestes dits de fun
shopping, de retailtainment ou de shoptain- ment (Ginsburg et Morris, 1999). Non seulement, les consommateurs
ne chercheraient plus a minimiser la desutilite de la frequentation des magasins, mais le magasinage deviendrait
une source de gratification hedoniste (Holbrook et Hirschman, 1982). Dans cette perspective, les consommateurs
peuvent, par exemple, developper du lien social avec les ven- deurs ou avec d'autres clients, connaitre de grandes
emotions, voire une sur-stimulation des sens (Hetzel, 2002). La distribution et la consommation quitte- raient alors
leur statut de fonctions economiques et iraient jusqu'a se substituer aux religions, aux ideo- logies ou a l'Etat
comme producteur mythique et comme regulateur social (Ritzer, 1999). De nombreux travaux ont permis de
circonscrire les traits majeurs de la consommation reenchantee, que ce soit au niveau global de l'ensemble de la
consommation occidentale (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995; Rieunier et Volle, 2002) ou au niveau specifique d'une
experience de consommation (cf. par exemple, l'experience vecue au Nike Town Chicago; Sherry, 1998). L'objectif
est ici de preciser et d'actualiser ces travaux en proposant, dans une perspective ethnosociologique, trois cles de
lecture structurantes de la consommation reenchantee: la defiance institutionnelle, le redimensionnement micro-
social et la revanche du sacre.
Defiance institutionnelle
Si, pour beaucoup de dirigeants d'entreprises de la grande consommation et, surtout, de la distribution populaire
(on pense aux Centres Leclerc notamment), les offreurs du marche (dont ils font partie) sont plus proches des
consommateurs que les institutions (Etat, armee, services publics, etc.), voire meme les aident a en supporter
l'oppression ou les abus de position dominante (cf. la campagne de communication de lancement des stations
services Carrefour), du point de vue des consommateurs, il en va autrement (cf. figure 2). En effet, nombre
d'observations empiriques (Badot et Cova, 1995; Kozinets, 2001) revelent, souvent contre toute attente, des
consommateurs faisant bonne figure mais renfermant des frustrations a l'egard des offreurs qui peuvent, pour un
rien, se transformer en incivilites, en detournements et autres gestes vindi- catifs particuliers ou collectifs (cf. pour
une etude des cas Star Wars et Citroen ; Cova et Carrere, 2002). De telles manifestations semblent signaler un ren-
versement du rapport de force (powersbift) entre offreurs et consommateurs (Desmond et al., 2000), sorte de
manifestation, au niveau de la consommation, de la defiance institutionnelle exercee par les singularites
quelconques et vindicatives que seraient devenus les consommateurs et, plus generalement, les citoyens

(Agamben, 1990; Dubet, 2002). Neanmoins, a y voir de plus pres, si disjonction inat-
tendue il y a entre offreurs et consommateurs, la ligne de fracture semble moins passer par le person- nel de front
office (Manolis et al., 2001) avec qui le client noue une sorte de connivence tacite anti-institutionnelle (cf .
l'exemple de ces GSS ou le person- nel commercial, pourtant interesse au resultat, discu- te, voire refuse, la mise en
rayon de produits qu'il considere comme de mauvais rapport qualite/prix pour leurs pairs acheteurs) qu'entre le
client et le management des entreprises (back office) comme l'a montre la crise vecue par Danone en 2002.
Figure 2 Modele de la defiance institutionnelle
Cette analyse rejoint l'idee d'effacement de la barriere entre offreur et consommateur (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995).
Dans la vision marketing dominante des relations offreur/consommateur, l'entreprise sait produire et/ou
distribuer ce qui est bon pour le consommateur car elle en a l'expertise et le consommateur est considere comme
un naif. Aujourd'hui, dans de nombreux domaines (bricolage, informatique, sante, jeux, etc.) cette cesure n'existe
plus, l'expertise se situant autant - sinon plus !- du cote du consommateur que du cote de l'offreur (Keat et al.,
1994). Le consommateur se considere plus legitime que l'offreur pour savoir ce qui est bon ou ne l'est pas dans le
cadre d'une situation particuliere, la situation qu'il vit personnelle- ment. Aux competences developpees par le
cumul d'experiences quotidiennes avec un produit, ou un service, s'ajoutent un ensemble de connaissances
quasi-theoriques accessibles grace a la multiplication des technologies de l'information, avec au premier chef,
Internet. A titre d'illustration radicale, evo- quons le cas de ce bricoleur qui, face a un enque- teur specialiste en
electricite effraye par l'installation dangereuse qu'il lui presentait s'exclama " C'est pas grave, c'est moi qui l'ai faite
! . Tel Marx qui, a la meilleure abeille preferait le moins bon architecte, ce bricoleur preferait l'installation
dangereuse issue de sa propre (in)competence a une installation de qualite mais proposee par l'offreur.
Competences et connaissances forment ainsi le socle du contre-pouvoir des consommateurs face au pouvoir des
offreurs. Les consommateurs semblent etre, en effet, les premiers producteurs de leur experience de
consommation (Filser, 2002).
Si les glissements de pouvoir reperes a travers les differentes situations evoquees semblent s'expli- quer par une
defiance institutionnelle croissante et une montee des competences chez les consommateurs, ils sont, sans
doute, aussi le fruit d'une modification des systemes de legitimation dans la societe occidentale. Un des indices
les plus signifiants de cette modification est, comme l'analyse Eco (1978), la mutation structurelle des heros de la
culture populaire. En effet, aujourd'hui, les heros -on pense a Super Mario, Forrest Gump, Mr. Bean, Truman, Loana
et autres lofteurs -apparaissent plus comme des <heros du sol ou du sous-sol que comme des super-heros dotes
de pouvoirs surnaturels et incroyables. A ce sujet, Eco (1978) enonce que c'est la television qui a impose
l'everyman contre le Superman, en offrant comme modele, l'homme de tous les jours, avec ses faiblesses et ses
imperfec- tions, celui auquel n'importe qui peut s'identifier. La tendance semblant meme aller jusqu'a l'idiot du vil-
lage qui, non seulement, permet l'identification, mais un sentiment de superiorite. Un des heros les plus en phase
avec cet air du temps c'est Columbo (Badot, 2002) qui, non seulement est d'extraction petite-bourgeoise, mais qui,
ne deployant aucune technique d'investigation necessitant un esprit et un corps surhumain (les scenaristes
devoilent d'ailleurs tout de suite le nom de l'assassin avant meme que le lieutenant n'apparaisse), marche au flair,
bricolant quelques trucs psychologiques pour amener le cou- pable (toujours au capital social, economique et cul-
turel eleve) a se devoiler, sans oublier de se servir au passage en profitant des largesses des suspects (cigares,
places de concert, invitations au restaurant,
etc.). On assisterait ainsi en Occident a un phenomene de deboulonnage des heros (y compris a ceux
indiscutables jusqu'a lors, comme les heros de la Resistance) et de production de heros par la sphere de

l'entertainment (films, bande dessinee, sport, pop-stars, television), sorte de monde de liberte et d'accessibilite ou
de self-service symbolique, le heros perdant alors sa fonction de representation universelle.
Redimensionnement micro-social
Si le XCeme siecle a consacre les niveaux macro-social (classes d'individus) et individuel (psy- chologie de
l'individu) dans la construction identitai- re de l'individu, l'ere actuelle semble fortement reha- biliter le niveau micro-
social (groupes et communautes). L'implication dans le niveau micro-social (Desjeux, 1996) est faite d'une
multiplicite cl'experiences, de representations, d'emotions quotidiennes, d'actions infra-ordinaires tres souvent
mal comprises et peu perceptibles. Alors qu'une telle dynamique est, la plupart clu temps, expliquee par le
retrecisse- ment sur l'individualisme, il s'agit ici d'une sorte de retour a la communaute aux pratiques volatiles et
ephemeres ou chaque particule elementaire garde son autonomie et le libre-choix de s'en extraire quand bon lui
semble. L'implication dans ces formes de regroupements micro-sociaux est moins rationnelle et contractuelle
qu'emotionnelle et passionnelle. Le social apparait alors plus comme un maillage de micro-groupes societaux
clans lesquels des individus entretiennent entre eux de forts liens emotionnels, des experiences similaires, une
sous-culture commu- ne, une meme vision du monde, etc., que comme un ensemble de groupes sociaux stabilises
et structures (CSP, classes, strates, etc.). Chasseurs de palombes, skinheads, entomologistes, riverains d'un site
pol- luant, mordus des appareils photos russes Lomo, Cloclomaniaques, Gothiques, etc. (cf. l'emission Tribus
presentee par Thieny Ardisson sur France 2 depuis janvier 2003) forment des communautes plus ou moins
stabilisees et visibles qui se recoupent et s'imbriquent tout en gardant chacune sa specificite. Chaque individu
appartient a plusieurs tribus dans lesquelles il joue des roles parfois tres differents et porte des masques
specifiques (Cova et Cova, 2002). Et l'appartenance a ces regroupements micro-sociaux est devenue, pour lui, plus
importante que l'appartenance aux agregations macro-sociales. Ce decrassage
social s'etend meme jusqu'a une dilution de criteres apparemment aussi objectifs et structurants que le sexe ...
devenu , genre , (Tissier-Desbordes et Kimmel, 2002).
Comme le montrent les travaux recents sur les passions ordinaires (Bromberger, 1998), ces engoue- ments neo-
tribaux de tous ages tels la genealogie, la passion pour la meteo, les sports extremes, la course a pied, les
collections (ie toutes sortes ou le bricolage, sont partages massivement, assumes indivi- dcuellement, acceptes
moralement, vecus intense- ment (mais sans abus dangereux); ils sont percus comme des aspirations legitimes a
la realisation de soi et au reenchantement dlu monde. Ces passions exigent le cadre collectif relativement souple,
mais emotionnellement fort, d'une tribu pour s'epanouir et s'exprimer pleinement dans l'echange, le partage, la
connivence et la confrontation d'expertises, quand bien meme l'exercice de la passion n'a technique- ment nul
besoin de ces formes cde sociabilite. C'est ce .que l'on nomme la mise en sens de l'experience individuelle; elle-
meme inseparable d'un pouvoir dire qui requiert la confrontation a l'autre et aux autres le plus souvent clans le
cadre neo-tribal, hors duquel aucun langage commun n'est possible. On pense a cette Cloclomaniaque qui divorca
car elle ne pouvait pas echanger avec son mari sur sa passion pour Claude Francois, au contraire de ce qu'elle a
trouve dans sa tribu. Nos societes ou s'entrelacent le micro-social et le marchand permettent ainsi l'experience de
ce que l'on definit comme la valeur de lien d'un produit, d'un service, d'une marque, d'un lieu, etc. Non seulement,
l'individu semble chercher clans la consommation un moyen direct cle donner un sens a sa vie, mais aussi un
moyen cie se lier aux autres, de developper des relations interperson- nelles, de facon tres ephemere ou imaginaire.
Les produits ou les lieux commerciaux deviennent alors les supports cie la recherche cie lien et d'agregation neo-
tribale. Le systeme cle consommation n'est alors plus percu comme premier et se servant du lien interpersonnel,
mais comme second et au service ciu lien entre personnes , le lien importe plus que le bien (Badot et Cova, 1995).
La recherche dlu lien social se marie avec le besoin de re-enracinement, de plus en plus fort clans la societe

occidentale, pour etendre la valeur dle lien, non seulement aux personnes presentes, mais aussi aux personnes
passees et a tout ce qui les symboli-
se: objets, lieux, histoire, etc. On arrive ainsi a la definition suivante de la valeur de lien d'une offre: la valeur de lien
d'un produit ou d'un service, c'est ce que vaut ce bien ou ce service dans la construction ou le renforcement,
meme ephemere, des liens entre personnes presentes ou passees, reelles ou imaginaires. La valeur de lien
s'experimente dans l'interaction, dans le groupe ou la communaute. Elle n'est pas construite a priori ou a posteriori
sur la base de benefices quels qu'ils soient, mais co- construite par les acteurs impliques dans l'echange. C'est
bien pour cela qu'elle est collective. La valeur de lien echappe ainsi aux objets pour se rapprocher du collectif
d'acteurs: ce n'est plus (seulement) le vin de la marque X, c'est (aussi) le vin bu ensemble avec Y et Z. Ce sont les
consommateurs qui donnent de la valeur en fonction de leur relation, de ce qui les rapproche aux autres. En ce
sens, la valeur de lien differe du pur sentiment d'appartenance ressen- ti par un individu qui reste toujours au
niveau individuel d'analyse. On ne transfere pas de la valeur de lien, tout au plus peut-on definir un potentiel de
valeur de lien d'un produit ou d'un service, mais cette valeur n'existera qu'en fonction de ce que les gens produiront
symboliquement au cours d'experiences collectives. La valeur de lien d'un bien ou d'un service n'est pas
instantanee; elle demande du temps. La valeur de lien, c'est la valeur du temps, que le marche remplace par une
immediatete indefi- niment extensible dans l'espace, en extrayant la chose du reseau temporel (Godbout et Caille,
1992, p. 246). Dalli et Romani (2000), dans leur analyse de la valeur des pates pour un groupe de jeunes
consommateurs italiens, mettent en evidence le fait que la variable temps est primordiale dans la (re)construction
de la valeur de lien du produit: le temps passe a preparer ensemble des pates n'est pas du temps perdu, bien au
contraire, c'est du temps necessaire a la re-appropriation collective du produit. Il en est de meme pour tous les
produits qui passionnent des consommateurs; la passion demande de sacrifier du temps et, souvent, du temps
collectif pour s'assouvir et, ainsi, generer de la valeur de lien autour du produit (Bromberger, 1998). Dans les tribus
qui se donnent sans compter a leur passion, les consommateurs font ainsi des . sacrifices excedant peu ou prou
ce que la seule raison pratique imposerait. Ces sacrifices agreables, comme le disait un supporter d'un club de
football, ne se comptent pas seulement en argent, mais aussi - et surtout - en temps: la passion s'eprouve, et
consomme de
longues heures, avant, pendant et apres le temps de son exercice Bromberger (1998, p. 27).
Revanche du sacre
La rehabilitation du sacrifice comme element positif (Brown, 2001a) va de pair avec la re-introduction de rituels
dans les processus d'obtention, de possession et de vie avec les objets et les lieux: le rituel est un puissant moyen
d'authentification (Cova et Cova, 2001). Un des constats fait aujourd'hui est qu'il n'existe plus que quelques rares
moments pri- vilegies pour la mise en jeu d'objets dans nos societes, et que beaucoup de rituels ont disparu,
privant ainsi le produit de cette aureole de mystere et de sacralite qui le distinguait parfois, en lui donnant un sens.
Pour Mircea Eliade, l'homme moderne aurait prive le monde de tout sens, de reperes, empechant une production
collective de mythes comme source de sens, comme moyen d'acceptation de la mort. Selon lui, seule une
resacralisation du monde sauve- ra l'homme actuel de cet etat de dereliction. Si cette analyse evacue, sans doute
rapidement, la mytholo- gie moderniste, elle confirme le besoin de sacralisa- tion de la societe occidentale, besoin
egalement repere dans le champ de la consommation. En effet, avec le rejet du materialisme et la quete d'authenti-
cite, la recherche de rituels et leur integration dans le produit peuvent jouer le role de memoire active d'une societe
en quete de sacre. On peut considerer que, reconnu comme forme generale d'expression de la societe et de la
culture, le rituel s'emancipe du contexte religieux dans lequel il etait percu jusqu'alors et s'oriente vers une sorte
de bricolage mystique ou chacun choisit dans le stock des ressources symboliques que lui fournissent les divers
religions, sectes et mouvements (de type New Age) " (Duboys Fresney, 2002, p. 116).

La rehabilitation du sacrifice s'accompagne aussi d'une montee de la collectionnite (Belk, 2001): la consommation
d'objets de collection (longtemps consideree comme deviante par rapport a la consommation utilitaire) represente
un volume d'af- faire de plus en plus important. Par exemple, l'entreprise Atlas qui a realise en 2002 un chiffre d'af-
faires de 283 millions d'Euros est aujourd'hui le 3eme editeur francais grace a ses nombreuses collections
d'objets varies vendues en kiosques. Le succes d'Atlas montre combien la collectionnite peut se
loger dans tout type d'objets (ex. soldats de plomb, voitures des annees 1960, figurines egyptiennes, tasses,
soupieres, stylos a plumes, maisons regionales, etc.). De meme, un collectionneur peut ache- ter la gamme
entiere des chaussures Weston comme il peut multiplier a l'infini les visions de son film pre- fere (cf. par exemple
ceux qui ont vu plus de 100 fois le Rocky Horror Picture Show, sorti en 1975 et toujours a l'affiche au Studio
Galande a Paris) et une vente mondiale d'objets de passions ordinaires comme e-bay capte plus de 8 millions de
visiteurs par jour. A y regarder de plus pres, cette collectionnite s'apparente a une forme derivee de religiosite (au
sens etymologique du lien) tant cosmogonique que sociale. Religiosite cosmogonique en ce sens qu'accumulant,
selon un calendrier uchronique, un maximum d'objets de partout et de toujours, dans un minimum d'espace, au
demeurant souvent sacralise (gueridon, cheminee, vitrines d'exposition, etageres, tiroirs dedies, etc.), le
collectionneur se place dans une posture de pretrise profane et ordinaire arran- geant a sa guise les objets du
culte. Religiosite sociale en ce sens que beaucoup de ces objets de collection contribuent a des regroupements
neo-tribaux physiques ou virtuels (passionnes de Citroen, par exemple), et a des interactions sociales (echanges,
dons a des kermesses, tombolas, cadeaux a la famil- le, etc.; Badot et Mace, 2001). Les pratiques de collection a
saveur souvent regressive ne sont d'ailleurs pas sans rappeler les cours de recreation. Comme chez l'enfant, pour
qui la collection est un phenomene naturel qui participe a son processus de developpement (Ezan, 2003),
l'interet du phenomene chez les adultes signalerait, une fois encore, un besoin de reinitialisation de leur
construction identi- taire, si ce n'est l'exploration tatonnante et sans cesse renouvelee d'identites de rechange.
Ce qui est frappant avec les notion de tribu et de sacrifice re exhumees par le cadre d'analyse postmoderne, c'est
qu'au-dela du sacre, elles vehiculent l'idee d'un retour a une organisation sociale archaique caracteristique d'un
stade barbare de l'evolution de l'humanite. La barbarie au quotidien semble aujourd'hui se traduire par des
comporte- ments contradictoires et peu raisonnables (au sens moderne du terme): marquage du corps comme ter-
ritoire d'expression individuel et collectif; jouissance immediate; regression psychologique (infantilisa- tion) et
sociale (nostalgie generalisee). Le marquage
du corps et la violence qui l'accompagne (douleur reelle ou symbolique), notamment a travers le tatouage, le
piercing et les implants, sont emblema- tiques de ce retour a la barbarie. Ce type de pratique qui, jusqu'il y a peu,
semblait reserve aux tribus pri- mitives se re-propage a un point tel qu'il touche une grande partie des jeunes
generations. Ce regres signale une reprise en main du corps, qui n'est plus laisse aux seuls hygienistes ou
medecins, par l'individu lui-meme qui en fait un veritable terrain de jeu/terrain de je ! D'ou l'idee, plus generale, que
les experiences de consommation sont avant tout des experiences incorporees (Brown et al., a paraitre). Comme
l'enonce Maffesoli (2003), <le retour du naturel sous des formes adoucies ou plus exacerbees temoigne du
resurgissement de l'animal dans l'hu- main (sorte de celebration animaliere). Le tatouage, lepiercing et autres
travaux sur le corps enfontfoi,". Parallelement au travail du corps, semble se developper une recherche de
jouissance immediate dans le quotidien (a l'image de cette femme de la publi- cite TV de la marque Clairol qui,
dans un rayon d'un supermarche et poussant son chariot, a un orgasme en ouvrant un flacon de shampoings
Herbal Essence et en reniflant le contenu). Si cette jouissance passe par une excitation des 5 sens -renforcee par
le marketing sensoriel (Rieunier, 2002) - elle passe aussi par des micro-stimulations de toute sorte ouvrant, a partir
de l'infra-ordinaire, sur des mondes enchanteurs et imaginaires (on pense, ici, tant a l'en- gouement pour la
tendance new age et ses multiples declinaisons qu'au fait de trouver, meme dans des magasins Wal-Mart, en

Amerique du nord, des rayons dedies a des lignes de produits cosmetiques aux usages et aux packaging
particulierement elo- quents). La jouissance hic et nunc (presenteisme) l'emporte alors sur la promesse
hypothetique d'un avenir radieux (determinisme).
La barbarie, en tant que retour a un stade pre- moderne de l'humanite, se retrouve dans tous les mouvements de
reinvestissement de l'histoire tant collective que personnelle. De la mode retro aux quetes de l'authentique, du
retour du religieux a la remontee des cultures nationales ou regionales - variables suivant les pays et les cultures -,
de tous cotes le retournement de perspective est saisissant. L'attrait du passe et de la proximite semble de plus en
plus l'emporter sur celui d'un futur fastueux sur une planete interconnectee. C'est le vertige du passe
a defaut de futur. Cela se traduit au jour le jour par une recherche de referents, une hierarchie des gouts et des
valeurs qui glissent du futur et de l'ailleurs vers le passe et le local. Alors que les referents modernes relevaient de
l'exotique (lailleurs) et du futurisme (le nouveau), la societe actuelle basculerait vers l'endo- tique (lici) et le
nostalgique (le perdu ... ou en passe de l'etre). De facon correlee, il n'y a plus aucune honte a se vautrer , dans son
propre passe, a regres- ser jusqu'a ses premieres annees de vie, telle cette surdiplomee parisienne qui, apres une
journee de travail intense dans un cabinet de conseil international, revendique le plaisir regressif de consommer
des produits Hello Kitty (jusqu'au vibromasseur) et d'aller s'exalter dans la boutique Walt Disney.
DES MARKETINGS EN MOUVEMENT:
1993-2003
Bien qu'il soit de plus en plus difficile, par la confusion des roles signalee precedemment, de dis- tinguer
production et/ou distribution de la consommation, la mise en lumiere des innovations marketing qui ont
accompagne le reenchantement de la consommation fournit un repertoire supplementaire de cles de lecture du
marche actuel qui viennent se marier avec celles issues de la perspective ethnosociologique mise en jeu
precedemment.
Les innovations marketing
de reenchantement
Le souvenir des annees 1990 (Badot et Cova, 1992a) evoque, pour le marketing, la forte poussee du marketing
relationnel suivie du developpement du CRM. Mais, comme toute la demande emotionnelle du consommateur ne
pouvait reposer sur le seul CRM, bien au contraire (Brown, 2001a), les innovations marketing ont pris, a partir de la
deuxie- me moitie des annees 1990, un virage tendant a reenchanter la consommation en lui fournissant des
reperes emotionnels a meme de satisfaire sa quete existentielle au-dela du seul relationnel client (Hetzel, 2002).
Reprenant l'heritage du marketing situationnel (Dubois, 1996) lance au tout debut des annees 1980, le marketing
experientiel ou marketing de l'experience (Pine et Gilmore, 1999; Schmitt, 1999) represente une innovation au
moins aussi importante aujourd'hui pour certaines entreprises,
comme celles de la distribution, que le CRM et autres approches relationnelles. La gestion de l'experience du
consommateur devient le moyen marketing pour promouvoir une marque en considerant que le consommateur
est essentiellement un etre emotionnel (et non un etre rationnel). Il s'agit de depasser la fonctionnalite de l'offre
pour stimuler les cinq sens du consommateur et provoquer sa bonne humeur et des emotions positives;
l'experience est ainsi polysensorielle. En consequence, des innovations derivees directement ou indirectement du
marketing experientiel, sont apparues, comme le marketing sensoriel (Rieunier, 2002) qui favorise les

dimensions non rationnelles de l'achat comme le toucher et l'odorat (Barret et al., 1999), ou le chronomarketing
qui s'interesse a la facon dont le temps doit etre accelere (fastfood) ou ralenti (slow foodm dans l'experience du
consommateur. De la ont aussi decoule nombre d'approches visant a reconfigurer l'amenagement des points de
vente en cherchant a les theatraliser.
Cet interet pour tout ce qui touche au vecu quotidien du consommateur a sans doute ete un des changements les
plus importants survenus en marketing: tout s'est passe comme si, soudain, a la fin des annees 1990, on realisait
l'importance de comprendre la dimension emotionnelle et/ou experientielle de la consommation (Vezina, 1999).
L'analyse du vecu quotidien du consommateur a mis en evidence que le consommateur, loin de poursuivre une
course effrenee vers la seule personnalisation, recherchait paradoxalement a reenchanter sa consommation au
travers du partage des emotions. Pour certains, les individus de plus en plus isoles cherchaient a retrouver du lien
social et de la communaute au sein de regroupements a saveur tribale. Toutes les passions ordinaires partagees
avec d'autres individus passionnes etaient ainsi le signe d'individus en recherche, plus ou moins reelle ou virtuelle,
de communaute emotionnelle. Le marketing tribal (Badot et Cova, 1995 Cova et Cova, 2002) ou marketing de
communaute (McAlexander et al., 2002) est alors apparu, moins pour faire un lien per- sonnalise avec un client que
pour soutenir le lien entre clients en les aidant a partager leurs passions. Ce n'est pas un hasard si la plupart des
concepts de distribution lances dans les annees 1990 (Nature &Decouvertes, Apache, Pacific Peche, etc.) etaient
construits autour de l'idee de passion partagee pour un theme precis. De meme, les grands distributeurs
ont cherche a animer leurs magasins pour favoriser le contact entre clients ; c'etait le cas de Castorama avec ses
Castostages du samedi matin. Et en passant sur Internet, ce marketing tribal a pris les formes d'un virus qui se
propageait dans les reseaux de passionnes, ce qui a amene a parler de marketing viral (Godin, 2001).
Le retour de la communaute signait le debut d'une vague nostalgique et regressive de la consommation qui allait
culminer avec la quete d'authenticite (cf. partie 1). La nostalgie du ( pays du temps immobile traduisait ainsi le
desir du consommateur de l'an 2000 pour ce qui n'avait jamais vraiment existe en tant que tel, quelque chose
present dans l'imaginaire social avec une pregnance insoupconnee, quelque chose de l'ordre d'un local et d'un
passe reves. Le marketing de l'authentique ou retromarketing (Brown, 2001b; Brown et al., a paraitre) s'est
positionne alors comme la demarche a meme de repondre a la quete nostalgique des consommateurs. Plutot que
de mettre en avant des innovations, l'offreur mettait l'accent sur l'authenticite (reelle ou construite) de son
produit, de son service, de sa marque, dle son magasin, etc. et meme de sa demarche marketing ! Il s'agissait de
construire l'authenticite d'une experience de consommation par la reutilisation de details significatifs d'une autre
epoque, par l'ancrage dans un terroir, etc. (Camus, 2002). Le succes fulgurant de la gamme des produits Reflets de
France de Carrefour en a ete une parfaite illustration. La facon dont Francis Holder, PDG et fondateur de la chaine
des boulangeries Paul a deve- loppe son offre est aussi exemplaire de ce retromarketing. Aujourd'hui, le retour de
la communaute et la quete d'authenticite semblent se combiner chez le consommateur pour passer a un stade
superieur d'exigence de reenchantement: retrouver un monde comme avant ou l'interet marchand n'a pas envahi
toute la societe et ou les liens sociaux ressemblent a ceux chaleureux d'un petit village. Ainsi, la quete
d'authenticite ne se satisfait plus d'un produit authentique, il faut aussi que l'offreur soit authentique dans ses
intentions et clans son geste: il doit agir plus par vocation que par opportunisme marchand. Meme chose pour
tout ce qui est lie au sentiment tribal: il faut que l'enseigne fasse partie de la tribu et non qu'elle se serve de la
tribu. C'est ce que l'on appelle le reenchantement du marchand par le non-marchand. On evolue ainsi vers un
marketing ethique s'appuyant sur un developpement soute-
nable de la nature et de la societe (Laville, 2002 Pastore-Reiss et Naillon, 2002).
Enfin, la mise en jeu des competences clu client (Prahalad et Ramaswany, 2000), tant dans la definition de l'offre

que dans sa production, semble repre- senter une piste d'importance pour le reenchantement du marketing. Des
le milieu des annees 1990, on a parle d'empowerment marketing pour designer une approche marketing capable de
redonner du pouvoir au client dans sa relation avec l'entreprise: ne pas etre simplement un consommateur servi
aux petits soins par une CRM, mais etre aussi un co-p)ro- ducteur grace a son experience accumulee et a son
expertise, le fameux consom'acteur ou prosu mer (McKenna, 1997). Plus recemment, les termes de knowledge
marketing (Curbatov, 2001) et cIe marketing de procuration (Cova et Cova, 2001) ont ete evoques pour designer
une approche marketing capable de mobiliser les connaissances et les competences des consommateurs, seuls
ou regroupes, en leur donnant mandat pour penser et/ou realiser une partie de l'offre.
Panorama des marketing
en mouvement(l)
Au-dela de l'histoire et de l'apparition des differents courants marketing lies au reenchantement de la
consommation, le marketer d'aujourd'hui se retrouve devant un ensemble assez indistinct de courants et
d'innovations marketing que nous allons essayer d'ordonner et de definir a partir de leur angle d'attaque du marche
et, donc, de la consommation, du plus macro au plus micro: environne- ment du marche, niche de marche, fidelite
du client, vecu du client, competences du client. Dans le panorama presente, seules les innovations marketing
transectorielles et transegmentaires ont ete retenues. Tous les developpements marketing dedies;
- a un secteur precis (arts et culture, bancassu-
rance, industrie, high-tech, luxe, mode, ONG, politique, retail, sports, villes et territoires...); - a un type d'offre
specifique (produits, ser-
vices, projets, solutions, systemes...)
Ce panorama est adapte des travaux du programme de recherche EDF R&D/Savoir Sud sur les innovations
marketing.
- a un moyen de communication et d'echange
particulier (Internet, telephone, television...);
- comme ceux ciblant un segment precis,
notamment generationnel (jeunes, generation X ou Y, seniors...) ou geographique (paneu- ropeen, global...),
... ne font pas partie du panorama.
Dix innovations marketing, et leur plus proche derive ou antecedent, ont ete retenues pour etre detaillees 1)
Marketing de reseaux ; 2) Marketing ethique 3); Geomarketing 4); Marketing relationnel, 5) Marketing experientiel ;
6) Chronomarketing; 7) Marketing tribal ; 8) Retromarketing; 9) Marketing Sensoriel ; 10) Knowledge marketing. A
noter que ces innovations peuvent autant emaner des USA (et ainsi avoir atteint un certain niveau de reconnais-
sance internationale), qu'emaner d'initiatives plutot
europeennes ou hexagonales et donc avoir une dif- fusion plus limitee. Pour chacune de ces 10 approches, les

variantes et les approches voisines sont mentionnees sans etre detaillees. Certaines innovations marketing deja
anciennes et aujourd'hui reintegrees dans le marketing dominant ne font pas parti du panorama (cf. Badot et Cova,
1992b, pour une analyse detaillee).
Le marketing de reseaux
Le marketing de reseaux (Ford et al., 1998) cherche a batir, developper et maintenir une position relationnelle
dans le reseau d'acteurs marchands et non marchands qui enchasse le marche et les clients. En ce sens, il s'inscrit
dans la lignee du macromarketing et du megamarketing qui ont cherche a elargir et re-enchasser le marche dans
un ensemble socio-economique plus large (Gummesson,
Figure 3 Panorama des marketing en mouvement
2002). Il postule qu'il n'y a pas de transactions fai- sables ou rentables avant que cette position relationnelle ne
soit developpee et consolidee. Un de ses derives est le trade marketing (Zeyl et Zeyl, 1996) qui combine les
approches de marketing relationnel et de marketing de reseaux telles que developpees en BtoB (Business to
Business) pour les appliquer au BtoR (Business to Retail). D'autres approches voisines du marketing de reseaux
sont le co-marketing, le marketing symbiotique et le marketing integre.
Le marketing ethique
Le marketing ethique (Laville, 2002) est le processus de formulation et de developpement d'activi- tes marketing
caracterisees par leur contribution specifique a un effort non marchand particulier qui, en retour, a un effet positif
sur les echanges entre les consommateurs et la marque ou le produit concer- nes et, donc, sur le profit de
l'entreprise. La deno- mination anglaise est un peu plus explicite et res- treinte (Adkins, 1999): cause related
marketing (soit CRM !). Un antecedent du marketing ethique est le marketing societal (Rodhain, 2002) qui se donne
pour premier objectif la recherche du bien-etre a long terme de la collectivite (le developpement sou- tenable) au
detriment et/ou en complement de la satisfaction immediate des consommateurs et de la recherche de profit des
entreprises. D'autres approches voisines du marketing ethique sont le marketing social, le societing, le marketing
de partage, le sustainable marketing, l'eco-marketing et le marketing environnemental
Le geomarketing
Le geomarketing (Latour et Floch, 2001) consiste a comprendre et determiner la demande de consommateurs

locaux pour adapter l'offre/le mix et ameliorer les performances de l'entreprise. Il s'appuie sur une connaissance
et sur une analyse locales, precises et geographiques des espaces economiques pour definir des typologies de
rue/quar- tier/secteur, etc. Il est aussi appele marketing spatial (Cliquet, 2002) par ceux qui cherchent a detacher la
theorie marketing de l'outil geomatique. La geomatique est la discipline regroupant l'ensemble des techniques et
des applications dediees a la repre-
sentation et a l'analyse de donnees numeriques a composante geographique et cartographique. Le

micromarketing est une notion plus large que le geomarketing; il est fonde sur une segmentation tres fine des
marches destinee a cibler et a servir des micro-segments de consommateurs avec un tres haut niveau de
reactivite (Tedlow et Jones, 1993). D'autres approches voisines du geomarketing sont le maxi-marketing et le
marketing de proximite.
Le marketing relationnel

Le marketing relationnel a pour but de batir, developper et maintenir des relations de longue duree mutuellement
benefiques entre l'entreprise et le client, d'ou l'idee de CRM, CustomerRelationship Management. L'analyse se
focalise sur un client indi- vidualise (une entreprise, un acheteur, un consommateur) et met l'accent sur le pilotage
de relations durables entre un client et un fournisseur fideles (Marion, 2001). Le but est ensuite de trouver des
produits ou des services pour ce client et non le contraire. De facon plus precise, le one-to-one marketing
(Peppers et Rogers, 1998) a pour but de developper une relation apprenante avec chaque client, grace aux outils
telematiques et aux bases de donnees, de maniere a le servir de facon specifique. C'est la personnalisation de
l'offre qui est premiere dans la demarche de one-to-one et non la relation ou la fidelisation, meme si elles sont
importantes. D'autres approches voisines du marketing relationnel (mais centrees sur l'outil informatique et non
sur la globalite de la demarche) sont le marketing inter- actif et le marketing de base de donnees.
Le marketing experientiel
Pour le marketing experientiel, ou marketing de l'experience (Pine et Gilmore, 1999; Schmitt, 1999), le
consommateur achete des produits ou des services moins pour leurs attributs fonctionnels que pour les
experiences emotionnelles qu'ils permettent quand ils sont mis en jeu. Chaque experience, vecue indivi-
duellement ou collectivement, etant le moyen pour l'individu de construire et de consolider son identite. Plutot que
de laisser le consommateur se bricoler lui- meme ses experiences a partir des produits et des services issus du
marche (ou non), le marketing experientiel propose a l'entreprise de prendre en main la
production de ces experiences qui reenchantent la consommation. Les racines du marketing experientiel sont a
rechercher dans le design management (Borja de Mozota, 2002). Pour le design management, le centre du
processus de design est l'experience des usagers et non la forme physique des objets. Cette experience est
comprise non seulement comme esthetique, mais de maniere holistique et globale. Les approches derivees du
marketing experientiel sont de plus en plus nombreuses: voir les developpements suivants (chrono tribal,
authentique, sensoriel) ainsi que le marketing postmoderne, l'emotion marketing et le marketing evenementiel.
Le chrono marketing
Le chrono marketing (www.groupechronos.org) prend pour hypothese que la gestion du temps est en train de
devenir la variable majeure d'explication du comportement des consommateurs mobiles dans nos societes
postmodernes. Il cherche ainsi a suivre le consommateur nomade tout au long de ses deplace- ments. Il se
retrouve aussi sous le vocable de real time marketing ou marketing contextuel (Kenny et Marshall, 2000) pour
signaler la demarche d'accompa- gnement du consommateur tout au long de la plate- forme numerique.
Antecedent du chronomarketing, le yield management est une demarche de fixation de prix qui s'inscrit dans une
perspective temporelle (Guilloux, 2000). Elle prend pour critere principal de segmentation des consommateurs, la
sensibilite au temps. D'autres approches voisines du chronomarketing (mais centrees sur le temps de mise en
marche) sont le turbo marketing et lefast track marketing.
Le marketing tribal
Le marketing tribal (Cova et Cova, 2002) prend pour unite d'analyse et de ciblage des tribus qui consomment, c'est-
a-dire des regroupements d'individus heterogenes mais inter-relies par une meme passion ou emotion et
capables d'actions collectives bien qu'ephemeres. Le marketing tribal cherche a supporter" des tribus ciblees.
Dans certains cas, la tribu est comprise comme regroupement emotionnel autour d'une marque; on parle alors de
communaute de marque a construire ou a developper. Le marketing viral (Godin, 2001) est un marketing par-

ticipatif qui s'appuie sur la communaute d'utilisa-
teurs d'un site pour faire circuler un message a d'autres utilisateurs et d'autres sites, ce qui permet une croissance
exponentielle de la visibilite du message. Les autres approches voisines du marketing tribal et du marketing viral
sont nombreuses: marketing communautaire, marketing ethnique, ethnomar- keting, marketing organique, buzz
marketing, marketing exponentiel, multilevel marketing.
Le retromarketing
Le retromarketing (Brown, 2001 a et b ; Brown et al., a paraitre) s'appuie sur la quete nostalgique d'authenticite du
consommateur pour retraduire dans le monde actuel les produits et les services d'autrefois. Il s'agit d'innover en
maintenant le lien avec le passe, reel ou imagine, du consommateur avec son contexte, avec la marque, etc.
Derive tres postmoderne du marketing de l'authentique (Cova et Cova, 2001), le retromarketing est aussi fonde sur
l'idee que les consommateurs ne recherchent pas seulement des produits et des services du passe mais aussi, et
surtout, une demarche marketing pre-moderne. Moins que d'etre servis parfaitement et de maniere person-
nalisee, ils aiment les marques qui les font attendre, qui livrent en quantites limitees, qui ne donnent pas
l'impression de faire de la gestion marketing (Brown, 2001b). On retrouve les idees du retromarketing dans le
marketing de la rarete, le marketing memoriel et le marketing de la sincerite.
Le marketing sensoriel
Le marketing sensoriel (Rieunier, 2002) se definit comme le fait d'utiliser les facteurs sensoriels (musique,
senteurs, couleurs, sensations tactiles et gustatives) dans le produit et/ou le lieu de vente/service pour susciter
des reactions favorables du consommateur et/ou lui faire vivre des experiences sensorielles fortes. On trouve des
antecedents du marketing sensoriel dans le marketing situationnel (Dubois, 1996) qui prend pour unite de
segmentation l'occasion d'usage d'un produit ou d'un service et non les caracteristiques individuelles du consom-
mateur. En consequence, il concentre son action sur le moment et le lieu d'achat et/ou d'usage du produit ou du
service et sur les possibilites de stimulation du consommateur durant cette situation. D'autres approches
voisines du marketing sensoriel
sont le marketing polysensoriel, le marketing olfactif, le marketing esthetique et le marketing de l'occasion (de
vie).
Knowledge Marketing
Le knowledge marketing (Curbatov, 2001) est une appellation non encore stabilisee dans la litterature marketing.
Dans une approche de knowledge marketing, les clients de l'entreprise deviennent les co-createurs de la
connaissance organisationnelle en construisant leurs projets de consommation et les experiences qui en
decoulent au sein de l'entreprise. Un antecedent au knowledge marketing est l'empowerment marketing (Firat et
Schultz, 1997). Il s'agit pour l'empowerment marketing d'aider le client a agir de maniere proactive et a mettre en
jeu ses competences individuelles ou collectives dans son activi- te quotidienne et, notamment, dans celles liees
a la consommation d'un produit ou d'un service. On retrouve ces idees dans les approches suivantes: permission
marketing, marketing de procuration, anti-marketing, demarketing et contre-marketing.
Globalement, il apparait que les innovations de marketing du reenchantement relevent essentiellement d'une
prise en compte du vecu emotionnel et des competences du client, au detriment de marketing en mouvement,
plus centres sur la connaissance rationnelle du client, du marche et son environ- nement.

VERS UN MARKETING LUCIDE
DU REENCHANTEMENT
Le panorama des marketing precedemment esquisse met en evidence la sophistication et la multiplicite des
strategies et des gestes marketing tendant a prendre en charge la demande de reenchantement dans la
consommation. A l'encontre d'une litterature par trop proselyte touchant au naif, il est cependant important de
noter qu'aucun de ces axes strategiques (tribal, authentique, sensoriel, etc.) ne peut pretendre a etre une panacee
en soi. Ils ne sont d'abord que des elements d'un repertoire dans lequel le marketer peut puiser en fonction des exi-
gences du marche. En d'autres termes, le marketing du reenchantement presente un caractere forcement
composite a l'exemple du marketing des boulange-
ries Paul qui conjugue sensoriel, authentique et ethique. Ils ne sont ensuite que des leviers a relati- viser par un
ensemble de facteurs contingents relevant de fondamentaux souvent negliges:
- la nature economique des marches: les ten-
dances continues a la concentration et plus generalement a l'oligopolisation des marches occidentaux n'est-elle
pas aussi une facon d'eviter le recours a ces marketings sophisti- ques ?
- la categorie de produits: les offres a caracte-
re securitaire (chaine du froid, gardiennage, alimentation infantile, sante, etc.) semblent insensibles a la recherche
d'experience et donc peu sujettes a des actions de reenchantement;
- le positionnement de l'offre: une offre au
positionnement populaire et discount et au ciblage large peut-elle s'accommoder d'une strategie marketing basee
sur le reenchantement sans courir le risque d'effrayer ses acheteurs et, par la meme, de se depositionner ?
- la culture d'entreprise de l'offreur: il y a fort
a parier qu'une culture d'entreprise tres voca- tionnelle sera un frein a la mise en oeuvre d'un habillage de l'offre
tendant a la reenchanter qui sera percu comme superficiel et non ethique;
- les caracteristiques de la cible: certains profils
de consommateurs et certaines situations d'achat sont peu propices au reenchantement de l'offre. Dans une
disposition strictement utilitaire (ex. achat de derniere minute), le reenchantement risque d'etre plus une valeur
retranchee qu'une valeur ajoutee.
Derriere cette analyse relativiste se cache une problematique d'ordre tant semantique que pratique: la confusion
frequente entre le marketing experientiel et le reenchantement de l'offre. En effet, alors que la plupart des
commentateurs du champ assimilent expressement ou tacitement le reenchantement a une immersion dans une
experience extraordinaire du type Disneyland, l'analyse critique conduit a une lecture plus nuancee. Ainsi, Aldi,
chaine allemande de bard discount qui, a premiere vue,

propose une offre courte (600 references), de base, sans aucune marque connue, sans aucun service, ni meme un
sac en plastique, le tout dans une ambian- ce terne, peu eclairee, de palettes et de caisses en carton, n'est-elle pas
la forme ultime de l'experientiel... par le desenchantement ? Cette forme d'experientiel n'est-elle pas bien plus
pernicieuse que les gestes de reenchantement car, justement, moins visible et moins spectaculaire ? Entre le
monde enchante de Disney et le monde desenchante d'Aldi la logique reste experientielle malgre des habillages
differents. L'experience ne prend pas forcement toujours une tournure inoubliable et extraordinaire. N'y a-t-il pas,
dans tous les cas, une sorte de manipula-
tion de plus en plus fine et habilement organisee du quotidien des consommateurs ? Si certains interpre- tent le
marketing experientiel et ses derives detailles ici comme une sur-manipulation du consommateur, d'autres y voient
cependant un dispositif plus com- plexe encore: une compromission tacite du consommateur plus qu'une
manipulation (Remy, 2002). Dans cette perspective, le regard du consommateur sur ces stratagemes
experientiels n'est pas si naif: en se sachant manipule, il peut choisir son niveau de duperie et jouer de cette
manipulation pour agrementer son quotidien. Manipulation et compromission s'entremelent alors pour produire
l'experience de consommation.
REFERENCES
Addis M., Holbrook, M. B. (2001) - On the Conceptual Link Between Mass Customisation and Experiential
Consumption: An Explosion of Subjectivity, Journal of Consumer Bebaviour, Vol. 1, n0 1, pp. 50-66.
Adkins S. (1999) - Cause Related Marketing: Who Care Wins, Butterworth Heinemann, Londres. Agamben G. (1990)
- La communaute qui vient, Editions du Seuil, Paris.
Badot O. (2002) - Esquisse de la fonction sociale de McDonald's a partir d'une etude ethnographique: modernisme
et transgression ordinaire, in Desjeux D, Garabuau-Moussaoui I. et Palomares E. (Eds.), Alimentations
contemporaines, L'Harmattan, Paris, pp. 83-121.
Badot O., Cova B. (1992a) - Des marketing en mouvement: vers un neo-marketing ?, Revue Francaise du Marketing,
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DETAILS
Subject: Project management; Market strategy; Theory; Studies
Location: France

Classification: 9175: Western Europe; 7000: Marketing; 9130: Experimental/theoretical
Publication title: Revue Française du Marketing; Paris
Volume: 195
Issue: 5/5
Pages: 79-77
Number of pages: 16
Publication date: Nov 2003
Publisher: ADETEM
Place of publication: Paris
Country of publication: France, Paris
ISSN: 00353051
Language of publication: French
Document type: Feature
Document feature: references
Copyright: Copyright ADETEM Nov 2003
LINKS
<I>MARKETING MAGAZINE</I> MARKETING

AWARDS ;Marketing Hall of fame; The New
Zealand Marketing Hall of Fame is marketing's
premier award for outstanding marketing
professionals. These are the people who have
made a significant long-term contribution to
marketing in this country. By Christine Young
Young, Christine . Marketing Magazine : For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
(Aug 2004): 33.
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
One wouldn't expect someone who acted the role of Styros (with Dame Kate Harcourt as wife) in an episode of the
"Hercules" tv series to be a logical nominee for the Marketing Hall of Fame. You would expect even less that such
an accomplished thespian would have published a number of well-regarded academic articles, written a couple of
marketing books, or mentored many now-senior marketers.
FULL TEXT
One wouldn't expect someone who acted the role of Styros (with Dame Kate Harcourt as wife) in an episode of the
"Hercules" tv series to be a logical nominee for the Marketing Hall of Fame. You would expect even less that such
an accomplished thespian would have published a number of well-regarded academic articles, written a couple of
marketing books, or mentored many now-senior marketers. More expected perhaps, would be the eight marketing
videos, and voice-overs for radio and tv commercials, animated tv programmes and promotional videos.But when
you realise that the 'actor' concerned is Tom Agee, the logic is apparent - and induction into the Hall of Fame well-
deserved. Agee is a giant in marketing, who has not confined his activities or influence to just one part of the
industry. He has scaled most industry peaks (consultancy, management, advertising, PR, teaching) and
contributed in innumerable ways, from presentations at conferences, to judging industry awards and active
involvement in professional bodies, not to mention over 170 "One Consumer's Opinion" articles in this magazine.
Agee's longevity and breadth of experience in the industry must be close to unparalleled - and he continues to
contribute as much today as he ever has. Agee has always found time to share his expertise and his knowledge.
He has 'done it all' himself, and therefore teaches and consults from the perspective of one who knows the
implementational pitfalls but who also appreciates the need for academic rigour and the value of academic
thought in shaping marketing as a discipline. Tom Agee arrived in New Zealand in 1974 after a successful career in
public relations and advertising in the US. His first move was to Whangarei, where he started as a sales rep on the
"Northern Advocate" before purchasing and managing a small advertising and marketing consultancy.Fortunately
for marketing and marketing education in this country, life out of the fast lane palled. In 1979 he was appointed
marketing manager with UBD Directories. In short order he was promoted to group marketing director of what was
then the country's largest media conglomerate, New Zealand News, and set about changing the face of media
marketing. He oversaw the firm's early entry into home video, introduced the first successful national newspaper
advertising inserts, developed a promotional strategy to ad agencies using readership data, and pioneered the use
of television for promoting newspapers and magazines. After five years he returned to his advertising roots, joining
Carlton Carruthers du Chateau, later to become FCB. In 1987, Agee moved to a role for which many believe he was
made: lecturing in marketing at ATI (later AIT, and eventually AUT - Auckland University of Technology). Within five
years he was appointed head of the School of Marketing, Advertising and Tourism and established New Zealand's

first degree in advertising, the B Bus, (as well as its marketing and tourism specialisations), which was recognised
by the International Association of Advertisers in 1994. He also helped establish the AIT advertising qualification
at LimKokWing school in Kuala Lumpur. Later, he was seconded back to AUT to establish a degree in advertising
creativity.While HoD, he also completed his masters degree in marketing, with his thesis on "The effects of clutter
on advertising recall".In 1993 Agee joined the marketing department at Auckland University. There, he developed
the country's first tertiary paper in marketing communications, and established (and later chaired) the
department's Industry Advisory Committee to build relationships between the corporate and academic
worlds.During his two decades in academia, Agee has established and taught courses that have ensured that a
considered and professional approach to marketing is adopted by many hundreds of today's marketers. "Tom is
approachable, professional, knowledgeable," says Adam Heath, chief manager marketing at ASB Bank, whose
views sum up comments from everyone we talked to about him. "He has all the traits you need to become a
successful teacher. Having said that, I think Tom has a more enduring quality - an underlying goodness that makes
people (both students and colleagues) warm to him. He knows his stuff and is an all round nice guy to
boot."Selection CriteriaTom Agee joins last year's inaugural Marketing Hall of Fame inductees, Bill Gianotti, Laurie
Enting, Ian Brown and Steve Bridges. Hall of Fame inductees have:* Distinguished themselves in marketing and/or
related fields.* Contributed to the betterment of marketing and its reputation.* Individually motivated others to
excel by mentoring, inspiring, training or volunteering.* Completed their primary career.Christine Young says she
has known Tom for many years as a friend and colleague and the comments above confirm everything she's
always known about his capabilities and qualities. Email: [email protected]
DETAILS
People: Young, Christine Agee, Tom
Pages: 33
Number of pages: 0
ISSN: 01119044

LINKS
MARKETING MAGAZINE MARKETING AWARDS

2006 : Marketing Hall of Fame; The 2006
inductees into the ICONZ / Marketing Magazine
New Zealand Marketing Hall of Fame have both
made great contributions to marketing in this
country.
Medcalf, Graham . Marketing Magazine : For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland
(Aug 2006): 42.
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
[Barbara Chapman]'s leadership has produced remarkable communications campaigns including Robbie the Robot
and Ira Goldstein. The latter campaign is still running today and has become the benchmark against which other
financial services advertising is measured. Moreover, she led a team that has ensured delivery at branch and call-
centre level.
FULL TEXT
Barbara Chapman
Barbara Chapman has a reputation for being, quite possibly, New Zealand's most effective and intuitive marketer.
She has an outstanding track record, particularly in the financial services area.
Her marketing career started way back in 1992 at ANZ Bank. But it was when she moved to ASB Bank in 1994 that
her true marketing skills came to the fore, when she took ASB's customer service to record levels, producing the
best results of any New Zealand financial institution.
Barbara was elevated to a dual role responsible for marketing and retail banking for the ASB's branch network - an
enormously demanding position - accountable for communications, service delivery and profit.

Always a team player, Barbara surrounds herself with individuals who give her quality advice. She has a philosophy
of best practice and a view that a simple but clearly defined goal can always be achieved successfully. She has the
ability to take complex problems and reduce them to manageable, achievable goals.
Whilst that might suggest she is a traditional marketer in terms of reacting to market information, her real
brilliance is when having distilled all of the various inputs, she uses her very effective intuition to chart a course
that is clear, unequivocal and more often than not, brave.
Barbara's leadership has produced remarkable communications campaigns including Robbie the Robot and Ira
Goldstein. The latter campaign is still running today and has become the benchmark against which other financial
services advertising is measured. Moreover, she led a team that has ensured delivery at branch and call-centre
level. She has driven a campaign to change attitudes, instil confidence and bring the disparate parts of a complex
and multi-layered organisation into a cohesive, single personality that has set it apart from other banks.
Unswerving in her loyalty to her people, Barbara champions talent, is a mentor to those around her and sets high
standards for herself and her team. Beyond all this she engenders a great sense of fun and allows people to be
themselves in a way that gets the best from them. She's supportive, she is smart and she is extraordinary.
Barbara moved on from a strictly marketing function to become a successful CEO at Sovereign Assurance. This
month she takes up a new challenge across the Tasman, as group executive, marketing &communications at the
Commonwealth Bank of Australia.
<HR>David Innes
There are those marketers who succeed in their chosen field and there are those who not only succeed but give
back more than they take out. David Innes falls into the latter category.
David would call himself an ad-man. He was co-owner of Rialto Advertising in the early 1980s and today a
dominant feature of his consulting work - as it has been over many years - involves the understanding of how
advertising works. In between, he has been executive director of the Advertising Agencies Association (now
CAANZ) where he was responsible for the launch of the Advertising Effectiveness Awards. Since then he has
continued to manage entry standards and the judging of the awards.
But this magnanimous individual is so much more than just an ad-man. He is part-time executive director of the
Radio Broadcasters Association and chairman of both the Radio Industry Audience Research Committee and the
Advertising Standards Authority.
David has also been a part-time senior lecturer in marketing communications at the University of Auckland
Business School and is a past Auckland and national president of the Market Research Society, of which he was
made a life member in 1998 for services to that industry.
David has spent a lifetime promoting, contributing to and leading the New Zealand advertising and marketing
community to a better place.
DETAILS
People: Chapman, Barbara Innes, David
Pages: 42
Number of pages: 0

ISSN: 01119044
LINKS
B2B Marketing Firm Marketo Announces

Development of New Marketing Automation
Platform Leveraging Salesforce.com's Force.com
Platform
Anonymous . PR Newswire ; New York [New York]17 Sep 2007.
ABSTRACT
Tradeshow Salesforce.com Dreamforce Conference (Dreamforce Booth #140), -- http://www.Marketo.com --
Marketo, which provides affordable, easy-to-use marketing automation software that helps B2B marketing
professionals drive revenue and improve accountability, today announced the development of its new on-demand
marketing automation platform leveraging salesforce.com's Force.com on-demand platform.

FULL TEXT
SAN FRANCISCO, Sept. 17 /PRNewswire/ -- Tradeshow Salesforce.com Dreamforce Conference (Dreamforce
Booth #140), -- http://www.Marketo.com -- Marketo, which provides affordable, easy-to-use marketing automation
software that helps B2B marketing professionals drive revenue and improve accountability, today announced the
development of its new on-demand marketing automation platform leveraging salesforce.com's Force.com on-
demand platform.
(Logo: http://www.newscom.com/cgi-bin/prnh/20070917/AQM011LOGO)
Marketers are under constant pressure to drive qualified sales leads and demonstrate revenue impact.
Additionally, new online channels are changing B2B research and buying processes, requiring marketers to adjust.
Unlike the sales department -- which has access to powerful automation tools such as Salesforce -- B2B marketing
professionals have not had easy yet powerful marketing automation software available to them.
The Marketo marketing automation platform will eliminate this gap by helping B2B marketing professionals drive
revenue and measure results. Central to the platform is the Marketo Marketing Database, which provides
marketing with all the information needed to acquire and nurture leads, forecast marketing results, and
demonstrate marketing's impact on the bottom line.
The Marketo Marketing Database acts as an extension to the information in Salesforce Marketing and CRM
applications, ensuring that the marketing-specific information is part of a unified single view of the customer.
Marketo leverages the Force.com platform to synchronize data between marketing and sales systems in real-time.
"We're leveraging the Force.com platform to provide B2B marketing professionals with the information they need,
while ensuring that marketing and sales data remain in sync as part of a single information store," said Phil
Fernandez, president and CEO of Marketo. "Real-time synchronization is critical to bridging the gap between sales
and marketing teams while ensuring that marketers have the tools and information they need to earn their seat at
the revenue table."
Through the bi-directional synchronization made available using the Salesforce API, the Marketo marketing
automation system is updated whenever a record changes in Salesforce. For example, if a lead score changes
from "warm" to "hot" or a new customer support ticket is created, Marketo is notified in real time and kicks off an
automated marketing workflow. If a sales rep marks a lead as "not yet sales ready", the lead is automatically
recycled back into the automated lead nurturing program.
Bi-directional synchronization also allows Marketo to load new objects and campaigns to the Force.com platform.
Using Apex Code, new leads captured via a Marketo Landing Page are de-duplicated and loaded to Salesforce in
real time. Also, automated nurturing campaigns can trigger new activities in Salesforce -- such as a follow-up
phone call after an email distribution.
"The thousands of installs of hundreds of different on-demand applications clearly demonstrate the incredible
momentum of the AppExchange as the world's on-demand application marketplace," said George Hu, Chief
Marketing Officer, salesforce.com. "Partners like Marketo have harnessed the power of the Force.com platform to
develop innovative new on-demand applications. Customers of all sizes can leverage Marketo's expertise to extend
their Salesforce Marketing application and improve their marketing results."
Marketo is currently accepting requests from salesforce.com customers to participate in a beta test of its new
marketing automation platform, available this Fall. Contact Marketo at [email protected] for more information.
Force.com Platform and the AppExchange
Force.com is the on-demand platform for the next generation of business applications. Force.com reinvents
traditional customization and integration and enables the creation of a whole new generation of on-demand
applications that go beyond client/server computing. Force.com allows applications to be easily shared,
exchanged and installed with a few simple clicks via salesforce.com's AppExchange marketplace, enabling all the

innovation that Force.com unleashes to benefit the entire on-demand community.
The AppExchange economy continues to expand as thousands of salesforce.com customers have installed
thousands of on-demand business applications available on the AppExchange, found at
http://www.salesforce.com/appexchange.
About Marketo
Marketo (http://www.marketo.com) provides affordable, easy-to use-marketing automation software that helps
B2B marketing professionals drive revenue and improve accountability. Marketo's solutions automate the lead
generation and lead nurturing processes, allowing marketing to generate more sales-ready opportunities, while
integrated analytics bring accountability and respect to the CMO and help turn marketing from a cost center into a
revenue-generating part of the company. Download Marketo's new eBook, Building Effective Landing Pages, from
the Marketo website. Marketo's products are easy to use and easy to buy from existing budgets because they
don't require annual contracts or up-front fees. Delivered as an on-demand service, customers can be running
Marketo in less than five minutes, with no IT support. The company's blog, Modern B2B Marketing
(http://blog.marketo.com), explores best practices in business marketing, ranging from pay-per-click management
to lead nurturing to marketing accountability. Marketo is headquartered at 1710 S. Amphlett Blvd., San Mateo,
Calif., 94402.
SOURCE Marketo
Credit: Marketo
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Software; Sales management; Data bases; Cost centers; Accountability
Publication title: PR Newswire; New York
Number of pages: 0
Publication date: Sep 17, 2007
Dateline: SAN FRANCISCO
Publisher: PR Newswire Association LLC
Place of publication: New York
Country of publication: United States, New York
Publication subject: Business And Economics
Source type: Wire Feeds

Document type: WIRE FEED
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Sep 17, 2007
LINKS
TVNZ/NZ Marketing Magazine Marketing

Awards : Myths @ Legends
Anonymous . Marketing Magazine : For Advertising, Marketing and Media Executives; Auckland (Aug
2008): 18.
ABSTRACT (ABSTRACT)
The winner of the Fairfax Supreme Award, McDonald's Restaurants (NZ), also won despite the enormous burden
placed on it by the prevailing campaign that blames purveyors of fast-food for the obesity epidemic. But as the
judges remarked, McDonald's has "demonstrated enormous honesty in taking the myth-buster approach to market,
in a brave move to tackle the flack head on".
FULL TEXT
Mythbusters, a 70-year-old that looks like an All Black, a beautiful plumber, a hip hotel, a donkey, a goat and some
chickens, are among an eclectic group that contributed to another marvellous year of marketing, celebrated at the
2008 TVNZ/NZ Marketing Magazine Marketing Awards.
The celebrations come at a time when the economy is in decline and marketing as a profession is going through
some cynical evaluations. Columnist Jim Hopkins may or may not have had his tongue firmly wedged in one cheek
or another when he wrote in the NZ Herald earlier this year that "marketing is, of itself, an appalling thing", calling it
"pernicious, pervasive, and dangerously attractive to the innocent young".
Marketers further north than Christchurch would no doubt be dismissive of the views of a silly, old hack, but when
an august publication such as the Journal of Marketing, publishes research that investigates the actual impact
that senior marketing managers have on company performance, with less than flattering results, it is time to take
note.
What it means, is not that marketing is ineffective per se, but that perhaps great marketing is becoming rare.
Fortunately, New Zealand, despite the brain drain and multinational global marketing policies, keeps throwing up
top-class marketing talent. In awarding TVNZ's head of marketing and head of emerging business, Jason Paris, the
ultimate accolade of Marketer of the Year, the judges referred to him as "a world-class marketer delivering

strategies of absolute clarity".
It was a tough category to be in, as was the case in many others, where great marketing campaigns jostled worthy
competitors away - competitors that may have won in other, less competitive years.
With TVNZ being the major sponsor of the Marketing Awards, Paris had the added hurdle of overcoming some
cynics' perception of a potential conflict of interest. An issue that was debated at length. Fortunately, all the
judges are independent and ethical to the point of pedantry, and so made the award to the most deserving
candidate.
The winner of the Fairfax Supreme Award, McDonald's Restaurants (NZ), also won despite the enormous burden
placed on it by the prevailing campaign that blames purveyors of fast-food for the obesity epidemic. But as the
judges remarked, McDonald's has "demonstrated enormous honesty in taking the myth-buster approach to market,
in a brave move to tackle the flack head on".
Once again, Not-For-Profit, Consumer Services and Retail, were amongst the most popular categories and the
hardest fought, with some very good entries not making the final cut. In contrast, the number of FMCG entries was
disappointing, but perhaps a reflection of the multinational nature of many brands in this sector with many
marketing decisions being made offshore. A real pity as FMCG marketing efforts were the stand-out entries at the
Marketing Awards a decade or so ago.
The Not-For-Profit arena has become a really interesting one from a marketing point of view, with a stark contrast
in the budgets available for what used to be called the charity business compared to the much larger taxpayer-
funded social marketing campaigns from government departments. There is a debate to be had over the allocation
of money for those in need rather than for those needed to transform their social attitudes and behaviour.
Some of the most exciting entries, and an indication of a shift away from traditional choices, are those for New
Media Marketing. The question remains, though, as to how long this category should be retained in an environment
where 'new media' becomes no longer new, but mainstream.
The disappointments? Well, once again, there are areas of consumer durables marketing that do not appear to be
interested in marketing awards. Motor vehicle brands, despite Honda being awarded the Fairfax Supreme Award in
2007, were noticeably absent. So too were appliance and electronics marketers. Regardless of these absentees,
the 2008 TVNZ/NZ Marketing Magazine Marketing Awards once again reflect the highest standards of marketing
this country has to offer.
All in all a most deserving crop of marketing talent.
DETAILS
First page: 18

ISSN: 01119044
Document type: News
Copyright: ((c) Profile Publishing Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand, and can not be used without prior
permission of the publisher.)
LINKS
Marketing Verde: responsabilidade social e

ambiental integradas na envolvente de
marketing/Green Marketing: integrated social
and environmental responsibility in the
marketing environment/Marketing Verde:
responsabilidad social y ambiental integrada en
la envolvente de marketing
Dalmoro, Marlon; Venturini, Jonas Cardona; Pereira, Breno Augusto Diniz . Revista Brasileira de Gestão
de Negócios ; São Paulo Vol. 11, Iss. 30, (Jan-Mar 2009): 38-52.
ABSTRACT
This study aims to describe and analyze as social and environmental responsibility is integrated in the marketing
strategy of a Coca-Cola Company franchisee. By the perceptions of Kama, Hansen and Juslin (2001), environment
marketing is described based on three hierarchical levels: strategic, structural and functional marketing. There has
been developed a qualitative approach through case study, in which the data were collected through semi-
structured interviews with people involved in the process of environmental and social management of the
franchisee company. Data treatment was used in the analysis of content. In the interviewer's perception, the
company is in advanced process of integration across the organization of a green marketing culture, primarily by
the relationship of the franchisee maintained with the Coca-Cola Company. It is observed that the franchisee

enterprise as the company, in general, are in a pro-active situation in green marketing terms, even if the
institutional environment does not comply with its fullest role. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
FULL TEXT
Headnote
RESUMO
O presente estudo tern como objetivo principal analisar e descrever como a responsabilidade social e ambiental
esta integrada na envolvente de marketing de uma unidade franqueada da Companhia Coca-Cola. Ao encontro das
percep-coes de Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2001), a envol¬vente de marketing e descrita, baseada em tres niveis
hierarquicos: marketing estrategico, estru-tural e funcional. Neste sentido, realizou-se uma abordagem qualitativa
com estudo de caso, no qual os dados foram coletados, por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas com pessoas
envolvidas no processo de gestao ambiental e social da empresa franqueada. No tratamento dos dados foi
utilizada analise de conteiido. Na percepcao dos entrevistados, a empresa encontra-se em um avancado processo
de integracao em toda a orga-nizacao de uma cultura de marketing verde, prin-cipalmente, pela relacao de
franqueado, mantida com a Companhia Coca-Cola. Observou-se que a empresa franqueada, bem como a
companhia, de modo geral, encontram-se numa situacao pro-ativa em termos de marketing verde, mesmo que o
ambiente institucional nao cumpra com o seu papel na plenitude.
Palavras-chave: Marketing verde. Gestao ambien¬tal. Responsabilidade social. Responsabilidade ambiental.
ABSTRACT
This study aims to describe and analyze as social and environmental responsibility is integrated in the marketing
strategy of a Coca-Cola Company franchisee. By the perceptions of Kama, Hansen and Juslin (2001), environment
marketing is described based on three hierarchical levels: strategic, structural and functional marketing. There has
been developed a qualitative approach through case study, in which the data were collected through semi-
structured interviews with people involved in the process of environmental and social management of the
franchisee company. Data treatment was used in the analysis of content. In the interviewer's perception, the
company is in advanced process of integration across the organization of a green marketing culture, primarily by
the relationship of the franchisee maintained with the Coca-Cola Company. It is observed that the franchisee
enterprise as the company, in general, are in a pro-active situation in green marketing terms, even if the
institutional environment does not comply with its fullest role.
Key words: Green marketing. Environmental management. Social responsibility. Environmental responsibility.
RESUMEN
El presente estudio tiene por flnalidad principal analizar y describir como la responsabilidad social y la
responsabilidad ambiental se integran en la envolvente de marketing de una unidad franquiciada de la Compania
Coca-Cola. De acuerdo con las opiniones de Kama, Juslin y Hansen (2001), la envolvente de marketing se describe
con fundamento en tres categorias jerarquicas: marketing estrategico, estructural y funcional. En este sentido se
realizo un enfoque cualitativo mediante estudio de caso, los datos se reunieron por medio de entrevistas
semiestructuradas con las personas que participan en el proceso de gestion ambiental y social de la empresa
franquiciada. En el tratamiento de los datos se utilizo el analisis de contenido. Segiin la opinion de los
encuestados, la empresa se encuentra en avanzado proceso de integracion en toda la organizacion de una cultura
de marketing verde, principalmente por la relacion de franquiciado establecida con la Compania Coca-Cola. Se
observo que la empresa franquiciada, como tambien la compania, en general, se encuentran en una situacion
proactiva en terminos de marketing verde, aunque el ambiente institucional no cumpla plenamente su papel.
Palabras clave: Marketing verde. Gestion ambiental. Responsabilidad social. Responsabilidad ambiental.
i CONTEXTUALIZACAO
A partir da Conferencia de Estocolmo, em 1972, o pensamento predominante na maioria das organizacoes, ate
entao, meramente economico voltou-se, tambem, para a questao social e ambien¬tal. Ratificando esse
pensamento, a criacao da Comissao Mundial sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento (CMMAD), em 1983, pela

Organizacao das Nacoes Unidas (ONU), rapida-mente difundiu esse pensamento, principal¬mente, apos a criacao
do Relatorio Nosso Futuro Comum, urn documento responsavel pelas pri-meiras conceituacoes oficiais, formais e
sistema-tizadas sobre o desenvolvimento sustentavel. O referido relatorio conceituou desenvolvimento
sustentavel como aquele "que permite satisfazer as necessidades presentes sem comprometer a capacidade das
geracoes futuras de satisfazer suas proprias necessidades" (WCED, 1987, p. 43).
Em 1992, no Rio de Janeiro, na Confe¬rencia das Nacoes Unidas sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento,
reconheceu-se a importan-cia de assumir a ideia de sustentabilidade em qual-quer programa ou atividade de
desenvolvimento. Neste aspecto, as empresas tern um papel rele-vante. Desde entao, auto res como Jacobi (1994)
percebem que a sustentabilidade vem emergindo como um novo paradigma de desenvolvimento, integrando
crescimento economico, desenvolvi-mento social e protecao ambiental como elemen-tos de desenvolvimento de
longo prazo, inter-dependentes, que se suportam mutuamente.
A disseminacao da sustentabilidade e fruto de um movimento que recrudesceu nos anos 60, nos Estados Unidos,
movido por uma maior cons-ciencia de grupos da sociedade em relacao a res-ponsabilidade das empresas na
preservacao do meio ambiente e dos direitos dos consumidores. No cenario brasileiro, passou a ser pauta na
agen¬da do setor privado com maior forca, a partir da decada de 90 (ALESSIO, 2004). Desde entao, res-
ponsabilidade social no setor empresarial e vista como a obrigacao da administracao de tomar decisoes e acoes
que irao contribuir para o bem-estar e os interesses da sociedade e da organiza-cao. Esta responsabilidade social
inclui responsa-bilidades economicas, legais, eticas, ecologicas e filantropicas (ALESSIO, 2004).
O acelerado crescimento demografico, tecnologico e industrial, do ultimo seculo, gerou reflexoes, por parte da
sociedade em geral, acerca do impacto deste crescimento na qualidade de vida das pessoas e na preservacao
ambiental. Questoes como responsabilidade social, desenvolvimento sustentavel e consumo consciente
passaram a fazer parte do dia-a-dia das empresas, da sociedade e do governo. Desta maneira, Gonzaga (2005)
aponta que o desafio posto pelo mercado aos seto-res de producao de bens e servicos e o de buscar as solucoes
de gestao que sejam economicamente adequados, socialmente aceitaveis e ambiental-mente sustentaveis.
Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2003) entendem que a responsabilidade social e ambiental esta, cada vez mais,
incorporada as estrategias das organiza¬coes. Esta nova abordagem originou o conceito de "Marketing Verde" que
e definido como a "ges¬tao holistica dos processos responsaveis por iden-tificar, antecipar e satisfazer as
necessidades dos clientes e sociedade, de forma lucrativa e susten¬tavel" (PEATTIE ;CHARTER, 2003, p. 35).
Diante do cenario relatado, este estudo tern como objetivo principal analisar e descrever como a responsabilidade
social e ambiental esta integrada na envolvente de marketing de uma unidade franqueada da Companhia Coca-
Cola. Para isso, foram seguidas as orientacoes de Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2003) que descrevem a envolvente de
marketing baseada em tres niveis hierarquicos: marketing estrategico, estrutural e funcional.
O presente artigo apresenta, apos a intro-ducao, o arcabouco teorico que evidencia os topicos de marketing verde,
gestao ambiental e o modelo teorico de referencia. Em seguida, sao detalhados os aspectos metodologicos do
estudo. Na sequencia, e apresentada a organizacao e analisado o caso em questao. Por fim, sao apre-sentadas as
consideracoes finais do trabalho.
2 ARCABOUgO TEORICO
As mudancas na sociedade estao forcando as empresas a considerarem varios grupos interes-sados na tomada
de decisao. Construir relaciona-mentos com clientes, fornecedores, empregados, comunidade e outros
stakeholders pode ser central para a competitividade e formar uma sustenta¬bilidade para o desenvolvimento das
estrategias (PEATTIE; CHARTER, 2003).
Gonzaga (2005) destaca que junto a demanda pelo uso sustentavel do meio ambiente, a vigilancia pelos valores
eticos das organizacoes empresariais tende a crescer. Neste sentido, a res¬ponsabilidade social tern sido uma
constante den-tro das organizacoes. A responsabilidade das organizacoes se divide em economica, social e
ambiental, categorias similares aquelas propos-tas no conceito de sustentabilidade (PEATTIE, 1995). A World
Business Council fos Sustainable Development (WBCSD) define responsabilidade social corporativa como o
negocio que contribui para o desenvolvimento economico sustentavel, trabalhando com empregados, as

respectivas famflias, comunidade local e sociedade, melho-rando, desta forma, a qualidade de vida (WBCSD,
2000).
Para praticar a responsabilidade social dese-jada pelas organizacoes, o marketing verde tern servido como uma
ferramenta para o desenvol¬vimento sustentavel e a satisfacao de diferentes stakeholders (KARNA; HANSEN;
JUSLIN, 2001). Sheth e Parvatiyar (1995) relatam que o desenvolvimento sustentavel pode ser consegui-do
apenas por organizacoes pro-ativas em termos de marketing e intervencoes governamentais ati-vas. Nesse
tocante, os autores sugerem um mode-lo bi-dimensional (Figura 1) na abordagem dos problemas ecologicos: do
marketing consumidor para o marketing sustentavel e da mao invisivel para uma mao mais visivel do governo.
2.1 Marketing verde
O conceito de Marketing Verde consiste no conjunto das atividades concebidas para produzir e facilitar a
comercializacao de qualquer produto ou servico com a intencao de satisfazer necessidades e desejos humanos,
causando, porem, um impacto minimo ao meio ambiente. Envolve, pois, modi-ficacao de produtos e embalagens,
bem como mudancas em processos de producao e publici-dade (POLONSKY, 1994).
Produtos concebidos com preocupacoes ecologicas e sociais permitem agregar valor comer-cial, tendo por
principio o potencial educacional e os valores que promovem, projetando uma ima-gem de alta qualidade, tanto
dos produtos como da organizacao (GONZAGA, 2005). Muitas vezes, tais vantagens so podem ser consideradas a
longo prazo, porque a curto prazo tendem a haver uma elevacao dos custos por conta do processo de adap-tacao
a novos procedimentos e tecnologias.
Churchill Jr. e Peter (2000, p. 44) assina-lam que marketing verde consiste em "atividades de marketing destinadas
a minimizar os efeitos negativos sobre o ambiente fisico ou melhorar a sua qualidade". Para Kotler (1995), o
marketing verde surge quando as empresas responderam as preocupacoes ambientais da populacao por meio do
desenvolvimento de produtos ecologicamente mais seguros, embalagens reciclaveis e biodegra-daveis, maior
controle da poluicao e operacoes mais emergenciais e eficientes. Completando, o autor afirma que o avanco do
marketing ecologi-co foi desencadeado pela nova dimensao que o meio ambiente passou a ocupar, como fator de
condicionamento mercadologico de negocios.
O primeiro desafio mercadologico para as organizacoes que decidem adotar o marketing ver¬de e o de operar com
praticas ambientais adequa-das sem deixar de ofertar qualidade, conveniencia e preco adequado aos
consumidores (SAUNDERS; MCGOVERN, 1997). O segundo desafio para implantar com exito uma estrategia de
marketing verde e conseguir fazer com que as politicas ambientais organizacionais sejam valorizadas por todos
os niveis hierarquicos (GONZAGA, 2005).
Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2003) identifi-cam tres condicoes necessarias para a adocao de uma estrategia de
marketing. A primeira e a dis-posicao do consumidor em pagar pela qualidade ambiental - tal disposicao pode
estar latente e precisa ser ativada, ou pode nao existir e precisa ser criada por meio de educacao e informacao
adequadas. A segunda condicao e a disponibiliza-cao de informacoes confiaveis sobre o produto ou servico e
seus atributos ambientais. Por fim, a ter-ceira se refere a protegao das inovacoes contra imitacoes por partes dos
concorrentes para com-pensar os investimentos em pesquisa e desenvol¬vimento.
Ottman (1994) destacaque as companhias que nao responderem as questoes ambientais se arriscam em
perderem a sintonia com o consu¬midor. O autor complementa afirmando que os atributos chamados de
"compatibilidade ambiental" (a qualidade verde de um produto) seriam determinantes na decisao de compra. O
autor entende que o marketing ecologico contribui para o fortalecimento da imagem da marca e como
consequencia o consumidor se sente seduzido por esta imagem, assumindo uma posicao de parcei-ro deste tipo
de proposta.
Urn produto sera ambientalmente correto se contiver determinadas caracteristicas, aponta-das por Ottman (1994):
* fabricado com a quantidade minima de materias-primas e com materias-primas renovaveis, reciclaveis e que
conservem recursos naturais no processo de extracao;
* fabricado com a maxima eficiencia ener-getica e de utilizacao de agua e com o mini-mo despejo de efluentes e

residuos;
* envasado em embalagens mais leves e mais volumosas;
* ser concentrado, mais duravel, ter utili-dade para multiplos propositos, ser mais facilmente consertado, ter maior
eficien¬cia energetica quando utilizado, conservar recursos naturais quando utilizado, ser re-ciclavel, ser
reutilizavel, ser biodegradavel, poder ser refabricado e poder ser substi-tuido por refil.
A sustentabilidade dos recursos naturais necessarios para a producao de bens destinados ao consumo humano
implica mudancas quanti-tativas e qualitativas da oferta e da demanda. A utilizacao do marketing verde pressupoe
a ideia de que seja possivel criar riquezas com a diminui-cao de impactos ambientais negativos e a promo-cao de
mudancas sociais que afetem os habitos de consumo no mercado (GONZAGA, 2005).
2.2 Gestao ambiental
Em relacao a preocupacao das empresas com o meio ambiente, Moura (1994) relata que elas tern certos
compromissos com meio ambiente: primeiramente, necessitam atuar em um quadro geral, balizado pela
legislacao ambiental; tambem por uma motivacao concorrencial, os clientes e os consumidores estao cada vez
mais predispos-tos a comprarem ou usarem produtos e servicos de empresas que respeitem o meio ambiente; e,
finalmente, por uma razao etica e de solidarieda-de relacionada com a parte da responsabilidade que empresas
tem para minimizarem o impacto ambiental de suas atividades.
As empresas podem dar diferentes respos-tas a gestao ambiental. Em uma resposta defensi-va, a empresa admite
enganos e erros por omissao e procura corrigi-los, porque agem baseadas na lei. Numa resposta acomodativa, a
empresa acei-ta a responsabilidade social pelo ato e o corrige em funcao de pressoes externas. Na resposta pro-
ativa, as empresas dao exemplo nas questoes sociais. Elas procuram aprender qual e o interesse publico e
respondem son inducao e pressao das partes interessadas (ALESSIO, 2004).
Miles e Covin (2000) definem duas linhas de pensamento para o gerenciamento ambiental:
* modelo de conformidade de gerenciamento ambiental: empresas somente cumprem com as leis e regulamentos;
* modelo estrategico de gerenciamento ambiental: empresas tentam maximizar o retorno para os acionistas pela
utiliza¬cao de uma estrategia ambiental pro-ativa visando a criar uma vantagem competitiva sustentavel.
Ja Kama, Hansen e Juslin (2003) apresen-tam tres grupos de empresas:
* pro-ativos green marketers: enfatizando o redicionamento por meio da sustentabi¬lidade e sistema de mercados
livres;
* reativos green marketers: enfatizando a sustentabilidade sob controle governa-mental;
* marketers consumidor: baixo indice de fatores de sustentabilidade.
Tres mecanismos basicos, segundo Schmidheiny (1992), podem ser usados para induzir as organizacoes a
internalizarem os custos ambientais ou a limitarem os danos que causam ao meio ambiente. O primeiro se refere
aos instrumentos de "comando e controle" gover-namental, por meio das regulamentacoes restriti-vas; o segundo
se refere a "autorregulamentacao", com a qual as organizacoes podem reduzir os cus-tos de adequacao,
antecipando-se as regulamen¬tacoes governamentais; o terceiro se refere aos "ins¬trumentos economicos", como
impostos e taxas, que interferem nos precos a ponto de estimular ou desestimular comportamento de producao e
consumo.
Segundo Ottman (1994), agestao ambiental se da com a criacao de uma etica ambiental que envolva todos os
niveis da organizacao. Neste sen-tido, Donaire (1995) afirma que as regulamenta¬coes formais do mercado
evoluiram do paradigma que visava somente a sustentacao economica, para o paradigma que considera a
responsabilidade social das empresas como um elemento funda¬mental. Essa mudanca de paradigma resulta
num modelo de gestao mais sustentavel. O modelo teo-rico de referenda, apresentado a seguir, visa a captar a
dimensao da responsabilidade social e ambiental no ambito dos diversos niveis da organizacao que sofrem
influencias das acoes de marketing.
2.3 Modelo teorico de referenda
O Modelo teorico de referenda (Figura 2) aborda as unidades de marketing (variavel inde-pendente) em relacao aos

valores do negocio no ambiente e no planejamento de marketing no ambiente (variaveis dependentes). Os valores
do negocio tambem influenciam o planejamento de marketing. O modelo e adaptado de Karna, Hansen e Juslin
(2003) e contem os componentes do plane¬jamento de marketing em tres niveis: estrategico, estrutural e
funcional, os quais sofrem uma influen-cia mutua. Marketing verde, neste modelo, signifi-ca que os temas
ambientais estao integrados dentro da decisao de marketing nos tres niveis do planeja¬mento de marketing e nos
valores do negocio disseminados por meio das unidades de marketing.
O modelo parte do pressuposto que a imple-mentacao do planejamento de marketing ocorre devido ao
desenvolvimento de estrategias (quan-to a produto, clientes e vantagens competitivas), de estrutura
(planejamento e sistema de informa-cao, organizacao e gerenciamento) e de funcoes (publicidade e comunicacao,
informacoes de marketing e preco).
Nesta secao, foram abordadas questoes teoricas acerca do uso sustentavel do meio ambi-ente, marketing verde,
gestao ambiental e para finalizar foi apresentado o modelo teorico que servira de referenda para a parte empirica
do estudo. O metodo que servira de guia para esta parte do trabalho e apresentado a seguir.
3 METODO DO TRABALHO
Em m'vel epistemologico, o presente estu¬do possui um corte transversal, com base numa abordagem qualitativa.
Neste tipo de estudo, as informacoes necessarias sao definidas ao acaso, o processo de pesquisa e flexivel e nao
estrutu-rado, a amostra e pequena e nao representa-tiva e a analise dos dados primarios e qualitativa. Neste tipo
de abordagem sao feitas constatacoes experimentais e o resultado e uma compreensao inicial. Dentre as tecnicas
utilizadas em pesquisas qualitativas, destacam-se: entrevistas em pro-fundidade, tecnicas projetivas e estudos de
caso (MALHOTRA, 2001).
O presente trabalho utiliza-se do metodo de estudo de caso que, nos ultimos tempos, se confi-gura numa das
estrategias mais utilizadas, quan-do pesquisadores procuram responder a questoes do tipo "como" e "por que"
(YIN, 2001). Diver-sas pesquisas sociais estao fundadas no estudo detalhado de casos particulates, ou seja, numa
analise intensiva, empreendida numa linica ou em algumas organizacoes reais. O estudo de caso nao e apenas um
metodo, mas a escolha de um objeto a ser estudado, examinando o fenomeno dentro de seu contexto (YIN, 2001).
Trata-se, portanto, de uma investigacao intensa, com descricao holis-tica e cuja analise ocorre em simples
instancia de um fenomeno ou unidade social.
Na concepcao de Creswell (1994), utili¬za-se o estudo de caso quando o pesquisador quer explorar uma ou
poucas entidades ou fenomenos (casos), limitado pelo tempo e atividade (grupo social) e quer coletar
informacoes usando uma variedade de procedimentos de coleta de dados durante um periodo de tempo. Na visao
de Mitchell (1983), os estudos de caso sao uma forma de organizar dados sociais preservando a caracteris-tica
unitaria do objeto social a ser estudado.
Quanto a estrategia de pesquisa, o estudo consiste em uma pesquisa descritiva, visto a utili-zacao de uma
literatura mais consolidada que per-mite tomar por base um modelo ja existente. Para Mattar (1996), a pesquisa
descritiva tern aplica-cao quando se pretende descrever as caracteristi-cas de grupos, estimar a proporcao de
elementos numa populacao especifica que tenham determi-nadas caracteristicas ou comportamentos e des-cobrir
ou verificar a existencia de relacao entre variaveis.
Creswell (1994) ressalta que a espinha dorsal de uma pesquisa qualitativa e a coleta extensiva de dados que se
enquadrariam em diver-sos tipos principais: entrevistas, observacoes, documentos e materiais audio-visuais.
Assim, para alcancar os objetivos propostos, foi realizada uma pesquisa bibliografica. Posteriormente, foram
realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com duas pessoas envolvidas no processo de gestao ambien¬tal e social
da empresa em estudo. Sendo elas: a coordenadora de meio ambiente (uma executiva selecionada) e o gerente de
operacoes (um execu-tivo tambem selecionado). Conforme Marconi e Lakatos (2002), a entrevista
semiestruturada e aquela cujo entrevistador segue um roteiro previa-mente estabelecido; em que as perguntas
feitas sao pre-determinadas, podendo haver mudanca no transcorrer da aplicacao.
A selecao dos entrevistados ocorreu com uma amostra nao-probabilistica intencional. Entende-se este tipo de
amostragem como aque¬la em que a selecao dos sujeitos da pesquisa parte do julgamento do pesquisador,

considerando que eles poderao oferecer as contribuicoes solicitadas (MATTAR, 1996). Na amostra nao-
probabilistica intencional, o pesquisador seleciona os membros da populacao que sao fontes de informacao pre-
cisa, sendo comum a escolha de profissionais especializados e conhecedores da realidade em estudo. Tal tipo de
amostra pode ser litil quando ha necessidade de incluir um pequeno mimero de unidades na amostra, ou quando e
preciso obter uma amostra enviesada (possuidora de caracteristicas especiais), tornando-se, nestes casos, mais
fidedigna e representativa que uma amostra probabilistica (AAKER; KUMAR; DAY, 2001).
Seguindo procedimentos metodologicos como auxi'lio a analise, foi organizada uma matriz de agrupamento
conceitual. Com ela, as entrevistas foram organizadas em categorias que possuem correspondencia com o
modelo teorico de referenda (Figura 2).
No tratamento dos dados, utilizou-se a tecni-ca de analise de conteiido, seguindo orientacoes de Bardin (1977).
Para o autor, esta tecnica visa, por meio de procedimentos sistematicos e objeti-vos de descricao do conteiido, a
geracao de indi-cadores que permitam a inferencia de conheci-mentos. A sua utilizacao e indicada quando os
dados a serem analisados se apresentam em forma de texto, ou de conjunto obtidos em textos escritos
(documentos oficiais, livros, jornais, documentos pessoais), em gravacoes de voz ou imagem (radio, televisao,
entre outros), ou em outras atividades que possam ser decompostas como a transcricao de uma entrevista
(FREITAS; JANISSEK, 2000).
As criticas feitas ao metodo de estudo de caso se referem a falta de objetividade e rigor cientifico, pois dependem,
fundamentalmente, da intuicao do investigador, estando sujeitas a sub-jetividade (YIN, 2001). Outra questao,
segundo Yin (2001) e o fato de o estudo de caso fornecer pequena base para generalizacoes cientificas, uma vez
que, por estudar um ou alguns casos nao se constitui em amostra da populacao e, por isto, torna-se sem
significado qualquer tentativa de generalizacao para populacoes. Em nenhum momento se esgota a possibilidade
de que somente estas sejam as respostas para a problematica desta pesquisa. O estudo de caso apresenta como
van-tagem, a grande profundidade com que permite explicar o caso em estudo, assim como relaciona-lo com
outros estudos.
4 AORGANIZACAO
A instituicao escolhida e uma empresa pro-dutora de refrigerantes, franqueada da Compa-nhia Coca-Cola, situada
a regiao sul do Brasil. O faturamento anual da referida empresa e por volta de duzentos e cinquenta milhoes de
reais, sendo que ela despende em torno de oitenta milhoes de reais na compra de insumos. O volume total de
refrigerantes vendidos pela empresa franqueada e de, em media, 140 milhoes de litros anuais. A Companhia Coca-
Cola, organizacao fundada em 1886, e atualmente lider mundial em fabricacao, comercializacao e distribuicao de
concentrados e xaropes de bebidas nao-alcoolicas, os quais sao utilizados por uma rede de engarrafadoras
franquea-das para produzir diferentes marcas de bebidas. Com sede em Atlanta - EUA, a empresa atua em cerca
de 200 paises. No Brasil, a Companhia, sediada na cidade do Rio de Janeiro, opera junta-men te a 17 grupos
fabricantes (franqueados), alem de outros dois grupos - um de suco e outro de cha gelado, que formam o Sistema
Coca-Cola.
Esta incutida na missao divulgada pela Com¬panhia contribuir com comunidades ao redor do raundo, por meio de
compromisso com progra-mas para educacao, saude, bem-estar, meio ambiente e diversidade. Almejando
contemplar este objetivo, a Companhia faz uso do sistema da Qualidade da Coca-Cola - SQCC. Este sistema visa a
coordenar e a orientar as atividades junto aos franqueados (engarrafadores). O SQCC apoia os quatros principios
da estrutura de cidadania corporativa definida pela Companhia Coca-Cola para todo o mundo, sendo eles: melhora
do local de trabalho, oferta de qualidade ao mercado, pre-servacao do meio ambiente e fortalecimento da
comunidade.
Alem deste sistema, a Companhia Coca-Cola estabelece para seus franqueados e fornece-dores o codigo de
conduta empresarial que esta¬belece os principios de conduta para as organiza-coes que mantem relacoes com a
companhia, bem como respeito as leis locais, legislacao trabalhista e direitos humanos. Observa-se que a
Companhia possui politicas definidas quanto as questoes ambientais e sociais. A manutencao das ativida¬des
comerciais por parte dos franqueados depen-de do cumprimento das politicas. Sendo assim, as empresas

franqueadas tornam-se casos de estudos interessantes, visto que possuem dispo-nibilidade politica explicita,
responsabilidade em cumprir regras pertencentes a franquia e conhe-cimentos avancados em termos de gestao
social e ambiental.
5 APRESENTACAO E ANALISE DOS RESULTADOS
A seguir sao apresentados os resultados obtidos a partir das entrevistas junto a coordena-dora de meio ambiente
e o gerente de operacoes da empresa. Para uma melhor exposicao, eles estao divididos conforme os construtos
propos-tos pelo modelo teorico e a matriz conceitual.
5. i Nivel estrategico
A primeira variavel do construto nivel estra¬tegico abordava a questao ambiental no ambito dos produtos. O
primeiro desafio mercadologico para as organizacoes que decidem adotar o marketing verde e o de operar com
praticas ambientais ade-quadas sem deixar de ofertar qualidade, conve-niencia e preco adequado aos
consumidores (SAUNDERS; MCGOVERN, 1997), visto que o principal fator de compra continua a ser, segun-do
Ottman (1994), a eficacia do produto, pois nao se compra um produto para salvar o planeta, mas para beneficiar-
se de sua utilidade.
O gerente de operacoes entrevistado desta-ca que a empresa possui algumas particularidades quanto aos
produtos, por ser uma franquia da Companhia Coca-Cola:
"Lancamento de novos produtos, mate¬rials e a aparencia dos produtos, como embalagens e rotulos, sao
determinados pela divisao Brasil. A empresa segue as normas da divisao Brasil, em que e feita uma serie de
estudos, desde a analise de mercado de produtos ate questoes ambientais. As referidas normas sao cria-das pela
matriz da Companhia Coca-Cola em Atlanta e adaptadas em cada pais pela divisao local."
Todas as estrategias sao normatizadas pela Companhia Coca-Cola, inclusive as questoes ambientais e de
responsabilidade social. Os fran¬queados devem seguir tais normas, contudo podem propor melhorias ao
sistema. Segundo a coordenadora de meio ambiente:
"Buscamos melhorar o sistema, como por exemplo: todo o sistema de agua, solo, efluentes, gasosos, produtos
quimicos, camada de ozonio e fruto de preocupa-cao. A agua e materia prima fundamental do nosso produto, e um
bem cuja tenden-cia e a escassez. Sendo assim, trabalha-mos com foco na reutilizacao, reducao dos indicadores
como a quantidade de agua utilizada nos produtos."
Os entrevistados colocam que a questao ambiental ganhou importancia nos liltimos cinco anos, periodo em que a
Companhia Coca-Cola comecou a implementar no mundo inteiro a gestao integrada. Este sistema de gestao
aborda, alem da qualidade, a seguranca alimentar, o meio ambiente e a seguranca de todas as pessoas que
possuem relacoes com a companhia:
"Se nos nao tivermos uma atuacao respon-savel em termos ambientais havera, certa-mente, um impacto negativo
sobre a marca. Entao, ao mesmo tempo essa acao e uma acao mercadologica e e uma acao que tem um objetivo
muito urgente de ser, porque sao as empresas as principais agentes que afetam o meio ambiente. Nos sabemos
que devido ao porte das operacoes das empre¬sas, certamente o peso sobre o meio ambien¬te e muito maior que
o peso das familias. Por isso, o meio ambiente se torna muito importante para nos, empresas."
A questao da percepcao dos consumido-res e abordada pela segunda variavel, visto que na medida em que os
consumidores dispoem de maior acesso a informacoes confiaveis, a novas tecnologias e as infraestruturas que
facilitem o consumo com responsabilidade ambiental, atitu-des ambientalistas vao sendo incorporadas ao estilo
de vida. (GONZAGA, 2005). Nesta tema-tica, os dois entrevistados afirmam que a questao ambiental do ponto de
vista do consumidor e muito incipiente, destacando que o consumidor ainda nao ve o ato de compra como um ato
poli¬tico no qual, por meio da compra, esta aceitando o conjunto de politicas dessa empresa. Neste sen-tido, o
gerente de operacoes destaca que:
"O nosso consumidor ainda nao e poli-tizado. Entao a questao ambiental so e sig-nificativa para ele quando
acontece algo de maior relevancia na midia, como por exemplo: a empresa X esta despejando uma quantidade de
residuos no meio ambien¬te. Sabendo disso, ele deixara de comprar produtos de tal empresa. Mas, nao existe
uma pro-atividade de o consumidor analisar a preocupacao ambiental da empresa antes de adquirir um produto."

A coordenadora de meio ambiente enten-de, tambem, que independente ou nao das acoes da Companhia, a
empresa franqueada se envolve com a comunidade em questoes relacionadas ao meio ambiente e social, com
campanhas sociais com instituicoes, distribuicoes de mudas de ar-vores e campanhas ecologicas em escolas.
A ultima variavel do construto esta no ambito das vantagens competitivas da empresa. O gerente de operacoes ve
que a questao ambiental tornar-se-a uma vantagem competitiva ao longo do tempo:
"Cada vez mais se olhara a questao ambiental se atendo a questoes que se agravam e apa-recem mais e mais na
midia. Eu acho que e algo que aumentara nos proximos anos, mas ainda nao e uma realidade, e somente meu
ponto de vista. Assim, preocupacao ambiental ainda nao e uma vantagem com¬petitiva consistente, mas pode vir
a ser."
As afirmacoes citadas corroboram com as posicoes de Motta e Rossi (2003), ao entenderem que, via de regra, no
Brasil, a necessidade de pre-servar o meio ambiente nao esta presente na mai¬or parte das decisoes de consumo
e que, mesmo quando o fator ambiental existe, perde-se a im-portancia para as vantagens e beneficios que a
utilizacao do produto pode proporcionar.
Outro destaque, conforme a coordenadora do meio ambiente, refere-se ao fato de que, quando o cliente pensa na
marca Coca-Cola, pensa direto em qualidade. Atualmente, a empresa esta buscan-do evoluir da qualidade, para
outras questoes como meio ambiente e responsabilidade social. Ottman (1994) acredita que a era do marketing
verde e fruto da constatacao de que as empresas passam a serem avaliadas, nao apenas com base no desempe-
nho de seus produtos ou servicos, mas, tambem, com base na sua responsabilidade social e ambiental. O autor
afirma que imagem, qualidade e impacto ambiental estao intimamente ligados.
5.2 Nivel estrutural
Outro construto abordado e referente ao nivel estrutural da organizacao. A primeira varia-vel formadora deste
construto aborda os valores e filosofia quanto ao gerenciamento das atividades da empresa. Kotler (1995)
salienta que os objeti-vos do marketing ambiental passam pela questao ambiental incorporada a cultura
empresarial e sao deixados de serem vistos apenas como um resul-tado, consequencia de algumas acoes
isoladas.
A coordenadora de meio ambiente frisa que na busca da insercao da questao social e ambiental na filosofia da
empresa se investe mui-to em educacao. Ela destaca que:
"A questao ambiental e a social ja estao inse-rida na organizacao e, vagarosamente, ten-taremos dissemina-la.
Nos trabalhamos com varias acoes estrategicas na area do meio ambiente, como por exemplo: um progra-ma que
a empresa desenvolve chamado reciclou-ganhou. Em tal programa, os consu-midores, distribuidores ou catadores
trazem as embalagens reciclaveis ate a empresa e trocam por premios. Quanto maior o incentivo dado ao
programa, maior sera coleta dessas embalagens, que estariam teoricamente esparramadas pelo mercado."
O gerente de operacoes aponta que a filoso¬fia gerencial da organizacao e que todos os stakeholders tenham um
comportamento ambiental correto:
"Temos um conjunto de politicas internas da organizacao e um exemplo e a gestao de residuos da fabrica e a
questao do reaprovei-tamento da agua. Sao politicas internas que, com o tempo, ja extrapolamos; ou seja, hoje
todos os nossos fornecedores criticos devem ser qualificados e avaliados dentro de criterios nao apenas de
qualidade, mas tambem ambientais e de seguranca."
Os entrevistados, de modo geral, afirmam que a empresa acaba tendo uma acao extremamente positiva na
sociedade, no sentido de ser um catalisador dessa responsabilidade ambiental e nao ser apenas um agente
isolado, formando uma rede de responsabilidade ambiental na qual todos os que participam do sistema tambem
sao responsaveis.
A segunda variavel identifica a forma pela quais as questoes ambientais impactam no plane-jamento e no sistema
de informacoes. Nesta varia¬vel, os dois entrevistados destacam a estrutura formal existente para controlar as
questoes ambien¬tais desde controles de gastos como agua, ener-gia, ate o proprio planejamento orcamentario
da empresa, que possui um centro de custo exclu-sivo para acoes de meio ambiente. O gerente de operacoes frisa:

"No planejamento sao alocados recursos bastante volumosos em relacao ao meio ambiente, ou seja, dentro de um
centro de custo nos alocamos valores referentes a analise de tratamentos de efluentes, desenvolvimento de
fornecedores e uma serie de outros fatores voltados ao meio ambiente."
O gerente de operacoes expoe, tambem, que o planejamento ambiental assumiu um fator determinante na
empresa por uma exigencia da companhia:
"Se nos nao tivessemos a certificacao ambiental, nao poderiamos manter a ope-racao de fabricacao e venda de
produtos Coca-Cola. Entao, isso obrigatoriamente foi tratado como uma questao estrategica e tern um
desdobramento formal dentro da organizacao."
Na envolvente do recrutamento e treina-mento de pessoal, a coordenadora de meio ambi¬ente afirma que os
funcionarios novos passam por um processo de integracao em que sao apresenta-das as filosofias da
organizacao na tangente social e ecologica, alem de treinamentos anuais aos fun¬cionarios.
O treinamento relacionado a questoes ambientais tern um papel determinante nas ativi-dades de marketing verde.
Segundo Ottman (1994), e por meio da criacao de uma etica ambiental que abranja toda a empresa que estra-
tegias de marketing verde podem ser executadas. Neste sentido, o gerente de operacoes coloca que:
"Todos os colaboradores da empresa rece-bem uma serie de treinamentos sobre ques¬toes ambientais, desde
coleta seletiva de lixo ate orientacoes a respeito de como agir da melhor maneira possfvel, em termos ambientais,
nas proprias residencias. O que nos queremos e que isso se torne uma filosofia nao so do acionista, ou de um
grupo especifico de stakeholders, mas tam-bem que tal fator esteja presente na men-te de cada trabalhador da
companhia."
A ultima variavel deste construto analisa como as questoes ambientais causam impactos na organizacao.
Calomarde (2000) sustenta que nao se pode pensar em um produto ambientalmente correto sem que se leve em
consideracao a orga¬nizacao, a cadeia logistica e todo o ciclo de vida do produto.E, por ciclo de vida,
compreendem-se nao so as caracteristicas do produto em si, mas tambem as materias-primas que o compoem o
processo produtivo, a utilizacao, descarte ou reutilizacao.
Nesta variavel observa-se, na concepcao dos entrevistados, que as questoes ambientais terao impacto nao so na
empresa especifica, mas em todos os canais de distribuicao, quando a regulamentacao comecar a ser mais rigida.
Desta maneira, acreditam estarem sendo pro-ativos em termos ambientais. Para o gerente de operacao:
"Alem de cumprir toda a legislacao ambien¬tal, nos queremos fazer mais, mesmo que o consumidor nao perceba
como um fator critico. Porque esta preocupacao se tornara um fator critico em dois momentos: quando a questao
ambiental for realmente vista como um fator critico no momento da compra, ou seja, quando houver uma visao
mais ela-borada de nossos consumidores e quando houver uma regulamentacao mais firme por parte dos orgaos
governamentais."
5.3 Nivel funcional
O ultimo construto trabalha a questao ambiental e social em nivel funcional. A primeira variavel deste construto
examina as questoes ambientais quanto ao sistema de informacao em marketing. Os entrevistados foram
enfaticos em dizer que as questoes ambientais sao vitais no pro¬cesso de decisao, ate mesmo por uma questao
de sobrevivencia. A empresa sabe que nao esta numa area em que ha recursos abundantes, como ener-gia e agua.
Desta forma, considera os fatores ambientais essenciais para o seu futuro.
As vezes, para alcancar metas ambientais estrategicas, pode ser necessario, a organizacao, pressionar
fornecedores a modificar suas ativi-dades, para que oferecam produtos com menor impacto ambiental embutido e
que minimizem o impacto de seu uso sobre o meio ambiente (GONZAGA, 2005).
Nessa linha, o gerente de operacoes coloca que as questoes ambientais e sociais causam impac¬to no momento
de escolha dos fornecedores:
"Muitas vezes nos deixamos de comprar de um fornecedor que tern um produto bom ou mais barato, porque esse
fornecedor nao e ambientalmente responsavel. Um grande exemplo sao as usinas de cana-de-aciicar. Muitas
usinas foram descadastradadas do sistema de fornecedores provaveis da Coca-Cola pois nao cumpriam com a
legislacao pertinente ao uso de pesticidas ou pelo fato de utilizarem mao de obra infantil".

A segunda variavel deriva do fato de o marketing verde ter incorporado uma gama de atividades, incluindo a
elaboracao e modificacao de produtos, mudanca nos processos produtivos, mudanca nas embalagens, como
tambem uma mudanca no perfil da propaganda.
A coordenadora de meio ambiente destaca que a comunicacao e direcionada aos diversos piiblicos envolvidos
com a empresa. Ela afirma que o contato com os fornecedores, as obrigacoes sociais e ambientais sao descritas e
colocadas em contratos para garantir o cumprimento. A propaganda na midia e direcionada aos clientes. Aos
funcionarios sao realizadas campanhas com folders e treinamen-tos. E, para completar, o gerente de operacoes
assegura que as acoes sao desenhadas nas exigen-cias legais e nas exigencias do sistema Coca-Cola.
Na mesma linha, as questoes ambientais causam impactos aos diversos piiblicos. Dinato (1998) aponta que
existe a dificuldade em "deci-frar" rotulos que evidenciem o aspecto estrategico da comunicacao verde.
A coordenadora de meio ambiente entende que as questoes ambientais tern impacto a partir do consumo
consciente. O gerente de operacoes ressalta que a Companhia Coca-Cola busca divul-gar todos os meios de
comunicacao com os clientes, mas a decisao de compra cabe ao consumidor final.
A ultima variavel deste construto e refe-rente ao impacto das questoes ambientais no preco dos produtos. Este e
um fator critico, porque segun-do Reinhardt (1999), prover qualidade ambiental alem das exigencias normativas,
deixa os custos da empresa superiores aos da concorrencia. O autor adverte, no entanto, que nao e economica-
mente logico prover mais beneficios que o legal-mente exigido, porque se torna mais dificil recu-perar os gastos
adicionais e ainda obter lucros.
A associacao de preco e utilizacao de marketing verde exige maiores esforcos das orga-nizacoes. Dinato (1998)
coloca que alem do pre¬co, um produto verde deve ser competitivo, atra-ente, deve ter as mesmas caracteristicas
que os outros, mas com vantagens. Por exemplo, um sabao em po, alem de nao poluir deve limpar bem a roupa e
nao ser muito caro. Caso contrario, somente pessoas muito conscientes em termos ambientais comprariam.
Esta falta de conscientizacao ambiental e destacada pelo gerente de operacoes:
"Acredito que o impacto infelizmente ainda e pequeno devido a falta de politizacao do cliente, pela nossa situacao
politico-econo-mica e pela falta de regulamentacao no mercado. No momento que houver uma regulamentacao
real, em que so podera se manter no jogo aquele que cumpre as regras, o impacto sera muito grande."
O gerente de operacoes destaca que no momento nao existe retorno financeiro direto por parte da empresa no que
diz respeito aos investi-mentos em termos de protecao ambiental. Con-tudo, para o entrevistado, o retorno da
empresa esta no cumprimento do papel que uma organi-zacao deste porte possui perante a sociedade.
A coordenadora de meio ambiente aponta a dificuldade que a empresa encontra para cumprir com as exigencias
legais:
"Muitas vezes, para nos cumprirmos com a legislacao e responsabilidades ambientais e sociais, temos que
enfrentar todo um aparato burocratico extremamente caro e ineficiente, ou seja, parece um contrassenso, mas e
isso que acontece."
As entrevistas, baseadas nos construtos em nivel estrategico, estrutural e funcional trouxeram um panorama das
estrategias no ambito social e ambiental aplicadas por uma empresa franqueada da Companhia Coca-Cola no
Brasil. Observa-se, que a preocupacao ambiental se encontra numa crescente; contudo muito ainda ha muito a ser
feito, com destaque para o consumo consciente. O marketing, na verdade, e visto como parte do problema ao
estimular o crescimento do consu¬mo (PEATTIE; CHARTER, 2003). No entanto, o marketing ambiental pode ser
parte da solucao quando usado para encorajar um consumo sus-tentavel e responsavel. A busca de
sustentabilidade e um processo que implica em obter, simultanea-mente, melhores condicoes de vida para a popu-
lacao e conservacao do meio ambiente. Isto envolve um conjunto de questoes, como: cresci¬mento economico,
exploracao dos recursos natu-rais, pobreza e distribuicao de renda. A nocao sobre sustentabilidade implica, ainda,
em uma necessaria interrelacao entre justica social, quali¬dade de vida, equilibrio ambiental e a necessidade de
desenvolvimento com capacidade de suporte.
A responsabilidade individual em relacao ao meio ambiente, enquanto consumidor, depen-de da educacao
individual, que fornece subsidios para a formacao de criterios e da cultura, que influencia o contexto maior, em que

as relacoes se estabelecem. A educacao do consumidor ou o seu conhecimento previo sobre as implicacoes do
consumo sobre o meio ambiente foi uma citacao recorrente. Observou-se nas entrevistas, que os consumidores
nao tern informacoes e se a tives-sem, poderiam fazer maiores esforcos.
A legislacao, portanto, tern o seu lugar, prin-cipalmente quando a informacao nao e suficiente e, cabe aos orgaos
governamentais, tornarem as empresas mais ativas nas questoes ambientais. Para obter sucesso com a
diferenciacao ambiental, e preciso que haja uma nova dimensao do produto ou servico, cujos valores possam ser
aprendidos pelos consumidores. Mesmo que, conforme Ottman (1994), nao existam produtos comple-tamente
verdes ou ecologicamente corretos, a conscientizacao ambiental nas organizacoes pode diminuir o impacto
ambiental deles.
6 CONSIDERACOES FINAIS
O presente trabalho visou a analisar e des-crever como a responsabilidade social e ambiental esta integrada na
envolvente de marketing de um franqueado da Companhia Coca-Cola. A abor-dagem teorica dada ao estudo e as
evidencias empiricas apresentadas visam a contribuir com os debates acerca do fenomeno de marketing verde.
Em relacao as praticas de marketing verde encon-tradas na empresa franqueada, observou-se que a empresa se
encontra em um avancado processo de integracao em toda a organizacao de uma cul¬tura de marketing verde.
Estes fatos devem-se, principalmente, a relacao de franqueada mantida com a Companhia Coca-Cola. A
companhia pos-sui uma preocupacao ambiental e social ja inte¬grada aos seus valores e, desta maneira, acaba
por infiuenciar os proprios franqueados.
Alem de cumprir com as exigencias legais e impostas pela Companhia Coca-Cola, a empresa franqueada
desenvolve atividades extras, demons-trando uma conscientizacao ambiental e social. A forca da marca Coca-
Cola tambem e utilizada para exigir de seus fornecedores que estes tambem cum-pram sua funcao social e
tenham respeito ambiental. Conclui-se que a empresa analisada e a Compa¬nhia Coca-Cola num todo, se
encontram numa situacao pro-ativa em termos de marketing verde. O estudo realizado carrega as limitacoes de
um estudo de caso, no entanto, torna-se vali-do pelo fato de apresentar as estrategias ambientais e sociais de
uma grande empresa produtora de refrigerante, alem de mostrar poh'ticas na area de uma companhia com
atuacao global que serve como referencia nas mais diversas areas da gestao organizacional. O fato de a empresa
estudada ser uma franquia da Companhia Coca-Cola, impos-sibilitou o aprofundamento do tema em questao em
algumas areas, como por exemplo, a area de marketing, visto que o comando destas operacoes e sediado na sede
da Coca-Cola Brasil. Torna-se valida a continuidade de estudos acerca de tal tematica, ampliando o escopo de
analise para diversos setores ou regioes, para gerar um avango cientifico e uma maior conscientizacao ambiental
e social de organizacoes e pessoas.
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estudo exploratorio na cidade de Sao Paulo. Revista de Administracao USP, Sao Paulo, v. 38, n. 1, p. 46-57,
jan./mar. 2003.
MOURA, P Construindo o futuro: o impacto global do novo paradigma, Rio de Janeiro: Mauad, 1994.
OTTMAN, J. A. Marketing verde. Sao Paulo: Makron Books, 1994.
PEATTIE, K. Environmental marketing management: meeting the green challenge. London: Pitman, 1995.
_____; CHARTER, M. Green marketing. In: BAKER, M. (Ed.). The marketing book. Gran Britannia: Ed. Butter Wealth,
2003.
POLONSKY, M. J. An introduction to green marketing. Electronic Green Journal, Los Angeles, v. 1, n. 2, 1994.
Dispomvel em: <http://repositories. cdlib.org/uclalib/egj/voll/iss2/art3>. Acesso em: 02 fev. 2008.
REINHARDT, F. L. Down to earth: applying business principles to environmental management. Boston: Harvard,
1999.
SAUNDERS, T; MCGOVERN, L. The bottom line of green is black. lOthed. New York: Harper Collins, 1997.
SCHMIDHEINY, S. Mudando o rumo: uma perspectiva empresarial global sobre desenvolvi¬mento e meio
ambiente. Rio de Janeiro: FGV, 1992.
SHETH, J.; PARVATIYAR, A. Ecological imperatives and the role of markentig. In. POLONSKY, M.; MINTU-WINSATT,
A. (Org). Environmental marketing: strategies, practice, theory and research. New York: The Haworth Press, 1995.
WORLD BUSINESS COUNCIL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - WBCSD. Building a better future: innovation,
technology and sustainable development. Paris, 2000.
WORLD COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT-WCED. Our common future. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1987.
YIN, R. Estudo de caso: planejamento e meto-dos. 2. ed. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2001.
AuthorAffiliation
Marlon Dalmoro1
Jonas Cardona Venturini2
Breno Augusto Diniz Pereira3
Recebido em 04 de abril de 2008 / Aprovado em 28 de outubro de 2008
Editores Responsaveis: Roberto Coda, Dr. e Evandir Megliorini, Dr.
Processo de Avaliacao: Double Blind Review
1 Mestre em Administracao pela Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM. [[email protected]]
Endereco do autor: Rua Floriano Peixoto, 1184 Santa Maria - RS Cep. 97015-372 - Brasil
2 Mestre em Administracao pela Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM. Professor da Universidade Federal
do Rio Grande do Sul, Escola de Administracao, Departamento de Ciencias Administrativas - UFRGS/EA/DCA.
[[email protected]]

Endereco do autor: Rua Washington Luiz, 855 Porto Alegre - RS Cep. 90.010-460 - Brasil
3 Doutor em Administracao pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS. Professor da Universidade
Federal Santa Maria - UFSM. [[email protected]]
Endereco do autor: Rua Floriano Peixoto, 1184 Santa Maria - RS Cep. 97015-372 - Brasil
DETAILS
Subject: Studies; Green marketing; Social responsibility; Franchisees; Soft drink industry
Company / organization: Name: Coca-Cola Co; NAICS: 312111
Classification: 9130: Experiment/theoretical treatment; 1540: Pollution control; 2410: Social

responsibility; 7000: Marketing; 9520: Small business
Publication title: Revista Brasileira de Gestão de Negó cios; São Paulo
Volume: 11
Issue: 30
Pages: 38-52
Number of pages: 15
Publication date: Jan-Mar 2009
Section: ÁREA TEMÁTICA: MARKETING
Publisher: Centro Universitário FECAP, mantido pela Fundação Escola de Comericio Álvares
Penteado (FECAP)
Place of publication: São Paulo
Country of publication: Brazil, São Paulo
ISSN: 18064892
Language of publication: Portuguese
Document feature: Tables References Diagrams

Copyright: Copyright Centro Universitário FECAP, mantido pela Fundação Escola de Comericio
Álvares Penteado (FECAP) Jan-Mar 2009
LINKS
USPTO Issues Trademark B LINE MARKETING to

B Line Marketing for Internet Marketing
Consulting, Search Engine Marketing Services
Publication info: US Fed News Service, Including US State News ; Washington, D.C. [Washington, D.C]22
Dec 2009.
FULL TEXT
ALEXANDRIA, Va., Dec. 22 -- B Line Marketing Llc Ltd., Oakland, Calif., has been issued the trademark B LINE
MARKETING (Reg. No. 3724953) by the USPTO.
The trademark application (serial number 77720140) was filed on April 22 and was registered on Dec. 15.
The services for which registration was sought are "Internet Marketing Consulting, Search Engine Marketing
Services". For more information about US Fed News trademarks please contact: Sarabjit Jagirdar, US Fed News,
Email:- [email protected].
DETAILS
Publication title: US Fed News Service, Including US State News; Washington, D.C.
Publication date: Dec 22, 2009
Dateline: ALEXANDRIA, Va.
Publisher: HT Digital Streams Limited

Place of publication: Washington, D.C.
Country of publication: India, Washington, D.C.
Publication subject: Public Administration
Source type: Newspapers
Document type: WIRE FEED
Document URL: https://search.proquest.c om/docview/472522928?accountid=50247
Copyright: Copyright © HT Media Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
LINKS
AccuData Integrated Marketing - New Digital

Marketing Solutions
Publication info: PR Newswire ; New York [New York]20 Aug 2012.
ABSTRACT

The Digital Solutions Team is introducing new digital data, online display advertising campaigns, email marketing,
social media marketing and mobile advertising campaign products and services to enhance and complement
current offerings.
FULL TEXT

FORT MYERS, Fla., Aug. 20, 2012 /PRNewswire/ -- AccuData Integrated Marketing, a leading direct marketing data
and solutions provider, is pleased to introduce its new Digital Marketing Solutions Team. This new team is
expanding AccuData's digital marketing offerings to its clients, including digital data, turn-key online display
advertising campaigns, email marketing, social media marketing and mobile advertising campaigns.
(Logo: http://photos.prnewswire.com/prnh/20120820/FL59214LOGO )
Mary Lou Knox, with over a decade of marketing and digital experience, joined AccuData to lead the new team in

the role of Senior Director. Ms. Knox was formerly the Vice President of Wave Direct, Inc., a privately held
marketing and advertising agency specializing in the B2B high tech arena. She has experience in delivering turn-
key digital marketing campaigns and working with industry vendors such as Google, PayPal and VMware. The
Digital Solutions Product Manager, Isabel Dail, was also formerly with Wave Direct. Isabel brings her expertise of
the ad network space, specializing in SEM, to the team. Cristen Solon, the Digital Solutions Project Manager, has
been serving AccuData clients in the role of Account Manager since early 2011.
"Fundamentally this represents a major change in direction for AccuData, which is very exciting," said Rich
Lancaster, CEO. "When you put together our recent acquisition of DaVinci Marketing Technologies with this new
group and our growth from offline data into the online data world you begin to see a very bright new future for the
company. More importantly, the expansion of digital marketing solutions will provide our direct and reseller clients
with more options to help them meet continually evolving direct marketing goals."
The Digital Solutions Team is introducing new digital data, online display advertising campaigns, email marketing,
social media marketing and mobile advertising campaign products and services to enhance and complement
current offerings. AccuData's goal is to provide "one stop shop" digital marketing solutions, which include
integration of the traditional direct marketing landscape. AccuData partners with top echelon social media
platforms such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter. In addition, AccuData also maintains extensive relationships
with notable ad networks in both the B2C and B2B arenas.
AccuData will be co-hosting a webinar August 22, 2012 at 2:00 p.m. Eastern with Brilig to launch a cooperative
marketplace for online advertising audience data. The webinar, Brilig Data University Series: Targeting the Auto
Market with Accudata will introduce AccuData and our national auto file to national ad networks.
For more information about AccuData's Digital Marketing Solutions, please visit www.AccuData.com or call us at
(800) 732-3440.
About AccuData Integrated Marketing
A leader in database marketing services, AccuData Integrated Marketing (www.AccuData.com) uses a full range of
data resources, powerful marketing analytics and database technology to accurately target qualified buyers and
increase ROI. For more than 20 years, AccuData's industry experts have been dedicated to helping clients develop
lead generation strategies and implement customized marketing solutions. Based in Fort Myers, Florida, AccuData
delivers results to more than 5,000 clients across the printing, agency, energy/utilities, travel/hospitality, financial
services, healthcare, ecommerce, retail and telecom industries.
Contact:
Crystal [email protected]
SOURCE AccuData Integrated Marketing
Credit: AccuData Integrated Marketing
DETAILS
Subject: Online advertising; Social networks; Direct marketing; Integrated marketing
Publication date: Aug 20, 2012
Dateline: FORT MYERS, Fla.

Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Aug 20, 2012
LINKS
Continuing Education Marketing Must Change

To Survive, Reports Marketing Services Provider;
"The Future of Continuing Education Marketing"
white paper by integrated marketing services
provider Genoo aims to help continuing
education programs find sustainable marketing
success.
Publication info: M2 Presswire ; Coventry [Coventry]14 May 2013.
ABSTRACT

"While working with continuing education programs, it's been clear what kind of pressures are working against the
programs," says Kim Albee, President of Genoo. "Because of the current economic climate, continuing education
programs face a lack of support and funding from administrations and the government. It is more important than
ever that these programs find ways to be self-sufficient with marketing."
"If I had to describe what marketing success for continuing education programs looks like in the future, I would say

it's marketing that can change on a dime in reaction to real-time metrics," says Albee. "Making decisions based on
the real impact previous marketing programs have had immensely improves an organization's marketing efficacy."
"I love working with continuing education programs," says Albee. "They provide an extremely worthwhile service,
and it's crucial that they have the support they need to attain self-sufficiency in order to stick around well into the
future."
FULL TEXT

M2 PRESSWIRE-May 14, 2013-Continuing Education Marketing Must Change To Survive, Reports Marketing
Services Provider; "The Future of Continuing Education Marketing" white paper by integrated marketing services
provider Genoo aims to help continuing education programs find sustainable marketing success.
(C)2013 M2 COMMUNICATIONS http://www.m2.com
May 14, 2013
Minneapolis, United States - Genoo, LLC, a leading online marketing service provider for small- and mid-size
businesses, has published "The Future of Continuing Education Marketing" white paper with the goal of helping
continuing education programs survive the changes coming in the years ahead.
"While working with continuing education programs, it's been clear what kind of pressures are working against the
programs," says Kim Albee, President of Genoo. "Because of the current economic climate, continuing education
programs face a lack of support and funding from administrations and the government. It is more important than
ever that these programs find ways to be self-sufficient with marketing."
According to the LERN Institute, the international association of lifelong learning programming, businesses are
undervaluing the need for workforce development. Businesses are less committed to educating their workers by
investing in professional development and contract training services. Additionally, central administrators don't
understand the financial realities facing continuing education programs.
To deal with these threats, continuing education programs need improved methods to market courses and
programs in order to improve recruitment, and retention, of students. The varying professional development,
personal enrichment, and contract training courses need to be marketed to consumers and businesses in different
ways.
That's why Genoo has offered marketing expertise and experience in helping continuing education organizations
complete their marketing goals together in its latest white paper "The Future of Continuing Education Marketing."
The white paper describes the four components of successful continuing education marketing programs. These
components are:
- Agility
- Adaptability
- Moving Fast
- Efficiency
Albee summarizes the combination of the four components in this way.
"If I had to describe what marketing success for continuing education programs looks like in the future, I would say
it's marketing that can change on a dime in reaction to real-time metrics," says Albee. "Making decisions based on
the real impact previous marketing programs have had immensely improves an organization's marketing efficacy."
"I love working with continuing education programs," says Albee. "They provide an extremely worthwhile service,
and it's crucial that they have the support they need to attain self-sufficiency in order to stick around well into the
future."
Continuing education marketers interested in this topic can download "The Future of Continuing Education
Marketing" here to learn more about the four components of effective continuing education marketing.
About Genoo, LLC
Genoo, LLC, is an integrated, all-in-one online marketing platform that gives small to mid-sized businesses the

online marketing and marketing automation tools they need to attract new leads and convert them into customers.
Genoo's mission is to give businesses the capabilities they need to excel in online marketing. Genoo's tools have
enough flexibility and functionality for large corporations, but are affordable and accessible to every marketer who
needs them.
Visit http://www.genoo.com for more information.
Press release distributed by: http://marketersmedia.com/continuing-education-marketing-must-change-to-survive-
reports-marketing-services-provider/12763
Kim Albee
Genoo, LLC.
Phone: 6128609771
Email: [email protected]
Address: 5224 Golden Valley Rd
((Comments on this story may be sent to [email protected]))
DETAILS
Publication title: M2 Presswire; Coventry
Publication date: May 14, 2013
Publisher: Normans Media Ltd
Place of publication: Coventry
Country of publication: United Kingdom, Coventry
Publication subject: Communications
Document type: News
Copyright: (Copyright M2 Communications, 2013)
LINKS

Mobile Network Marketing Corporation Releases
MobiPromo, a Technological First WiFi
Marketing System
Publication info: PR Newswire ; New York [New York]11 Dec 2013.
ABSTRACT

Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has released an industry first, stunning state-of-the-art Wi-Fi marketing
powerhouse system that promises to turn the conventional marketing concepts on its head. In a WiFi marketing
technological breakthrough Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has successfully added new layers to their
wireless proximity marketing device technologies that allows affiliate, campaign offer, and consumer location
details to be tracked on a hardware device by hardware device basis.
FULL TEXT

NEW YORK, Dec. 11, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has released an industry first,
stunning state-of-the-art Wi-Fi marketing powerhouse system that promises to turn the conventional marketing
concepts on its head. The MobiPromo System makes proximity marketing processes more effective and
significantly more convenient.
"The new MobiPromo Wi-Fi marketing system adds a complete new dimension to location-based marketing and
creates a dual interaction between merchants and consumers and vice-versa," says the spokesperson for the
company while explaining the multiple advantages of using the system, especially for merchants. "The technology
helps create a level playing field for traditional and online merchants without inflating overheads."
Unlike mobile marketing or direct response marketing systems, MobiPromo offers definite and clear-cut resolution
to all marketing issues. It is also designed to work with almost all wireless devices, regardless of content type or
interactive abilities. The amazing abilities and features of MobiPromo act as attractive incentives for consumers to
use the system repeatedly.
MobiPromo offers consumers a free Wi-Fi service along with several other incentives. They can receive
advertisements from local, regional, and national brand advertisers. The powerful and innovative White Label
mobile network marketing system can also deliver offers, deals, and discounts outside of the location-based
marketing arena of consumers by including mobile as well as web portals, which can be accessed from any
location by consumers. They can shop at home, add selected discounted offers of their liking to a built-in mobile-
wallet, and use their mobile phone to redeem offers in-store at their convenience.
The MobiPromo system works to the advantage of merchants as well. It is designed for marketers who don't shy
away from using innovative and newer path-breaking techniques in marketing their products and services.
With social media interaction, email, and text messaging integrated, merchants also benefit from the viral
possibilities.
MobiPromo is a 100 percent Cloud based platform that includes proximity marketing hardware devices that do not
require any configuration or maintenance. It is a comprehensive Plug and Play system, which can automatically
update with the advanced Set and Forget technology, once it is deployed. Merchants keep 100% of the collected
sale price.

Many online marketing experts believe that MobiPromo is the future of advertising, due to its unique ability to
deliver targeted advertisements geographically, contextually, by device type, and by the advertiser's direct
competitors, intercepting consumers who showcase products in-store with online vendors attempting to find a
better price. It has the ability to deliver advertisements around the clock at one price, and offers a platform that
can be managed exclusively by the advertiser. The system contains real-time tracking metrics and delivery of any
type of content, such as coupons, images, redemption codes, app dissemination, and even video infomercials.
Merchants are able to sign up and manage their advertisement accounts using MobiPromo platform and can
access analytics of their entire ad campaign effortlessly and in an easy-to-understand format. MobiPromo is not
only for the big players in the marketing industry looking for a way to target Mobile, but it works as effectively for
small and medium enterprises as well.
Included with the MobiPromo system is a technological breakthrough WiFi Affiliate Marketing System that
Revolutionizes the Way Affiliate Marketing is Done Globally
MobiPromo turns affiliate marketing on its head with their new, path-breaking Affiliate Network System.
MobiPromo WiFi affiliate marketing system transforms the traditional affiliate marketing publisher into a
SmartBox!
MobiPromo, the proprietary, direct response, location-based marketing system has revolutionized the affiliate
marketing business model with their innovative MobiPromo Wi-Fi Marketing system. The new system which
promises to be 100% fraud-free and parasite-free is being looked at by industry experts as a great game-changer in
affiliate marketing.
In a WiFi marketing technological breakthrough Mobile Network Marketing Corporation has successfully added
new layers to their wireless proximity marketing device technologies that allows affiliate, campaign offer, and
consumer location details to be tracked on a hardware device by hardware device basis.
"We have revolutionized the Affiliate Marketing Business Model that puts an end to spending money to drive traffic
to promote websites," says William Tait, the key person behind the whole concept. "Our MobiPromo Wi-Fi
Marketing system is a new patent pending technology which connects advertisers and consumers through a Wi-Fi
service that's free. The MobiPromo system is designed for progressive marketers and entrepreneurs who desire to
create a self-branded or sponsored Wi-Fi Marketing Network, and sell advertising services to local, regional, and
national merchants."
Affiliate marketers can now grow their networks unrestricted and with complete control. Eliminating the need to
continuously seek out and vet new affiliates instead just deploy more devices in their marketplace.
The MobiPromo Wi-Fi marketing system brings together consumers and advertisers through a free Wi-Fi service. It
is designed to give affiliate networks and marketers the resources to generate and track various factors
associated with effective affiliate marketing. For instance, they can generate and track direct-response sales leads,
sales of products and services, add e/m-commerce and run campaigns on Cost per Click, Cost per Thousand, and
Cost per Action.
The patent-pending technology also provides marketing professionals the tools to target advertisements location-
wise, behaviorally, by advertiser's competitors, on basis of consumer device manufacturers, OS and even browser
types. Unlike all other run-of-the-mill mobile marketing or direct response marketing system, MobiPromo is adept
at taking care of the multiple issues associated with affiliate marketing.
According to the promoters, it is designed to work with all types of wireless device and is not controlled by content
type or interactivity abilities. It encourages consumers to use the system repeatedly. The state-of-the-art White
Label mobile network marketing system is a ground-breaking concept that delivers advertisements from local,
regional, and national brand advertisers.
MobiPromo offers consumers a very simple, hassle-free and user-friendly connection method. A one-time, one-field
registration process is all the consumers have to undergo to use the service, regardless of their geographical
location, locally, nation-wide or even internationally. The system offers a downloadable consumer connection
reports which includes exhaustive consumer data, including opt-in and verified phones numbers.

The tracking technology is compatible with almost every type of shopping cart. It helps direct mobile users
seamlessly to an advertiser's portal while simultaneously tracking and recording the results of the campaign;
saving marketers tons of time and effort and making data collection a smooth and effortless process.
The MobiPromo system can even assign commissions based on fixed or commission based models, on a device
by device, and location by location performance basis. The devices come with connection speed and bandwidth
shaping abilities which are all configurable within the system admin.
MobiPromo is poised to change the way retail advertisers communicate with consumers. Clearly, MobiPromo is
set to completely revolutionize mobile marketing globally.
About MobiPromo:
MobiPromo is a White Label, direct and hassle-free marketing technology that works using proprietary Hardware
devices and Cloud-based technology. The system is beneficial to merchants and consumers in multiple ways. It
offers a free Wi-Fi service and delivers advertisements from local, regional, and national brands advertisers, with a
unique range of targeting and delivery options never seen before in the Mobile sector.
For more information, visit http://www.mobipromosystem.com.
About MobiPromo Wi-Fi Affiliate Marketing System:
MobiPromo Wi-Fi Affiliate Marketing System is a ground-breaking idea that's set to revolutionize the affiliate
marketing system in a big way. It offers marketers a truly fraud-free and parasite-free affiliate network system
where the affiliates are an option.
For more information, visit http://mobipromosystem.com/wifi-affiliate-marketing/
Contact Details:
Name: William TaitEmail: [email protected] Company: Mobile Network Marketing CorporationPhone:
1-800-286-3713City: Los AngelesState: CaliforniaCountry: United StatesWebsite:
http://www.mobipromosystem.com
SOURCE Mobile Network Marketing Corporation
Credit: Mobile Network Marketing Corporation
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Market strategy; Business models; Wireless access points
Dateline: NEW YORK

Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Dec 11, 2013
LINKS
Marketing Analytics Software Market by

Application (Social Media Marketing, Email
Marketing, SEO Marketing, Pay Per Click
Marketing, Display Marketing, Video Marketing,
Content Marketing), by Deployment - Global
Forecast to 2019
Publication info: PR Newswire ; New York [New York]29 Dec 2014.
ABSTRACT

[...]exchange rates, one of the economic factors, are expected to have a moderate rating of impact on this market.
[...]dollar fluctuations are not expected to seriously affect the forecasts in the emerging LA regions.
FULL TEXT

NEW YORK, Dec. 29, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- The marketing analytics market is setting a positive market trend. It
provides various benefits such as increased customer traffic, less time to create awareness of new products and
services, and better manageability of online marketing program. The marketing analytics software offers an
increased capability of solution to handle more number of customer transactions.
One of the major forces that are driving the marketing analytics software market is the increasing trend of traffic
analysis on the online marketing activities. The marketing analytics software is becoming an integrated
component in most business organizations. It is currently an essential feature for customer's experience on online
marketing activities and also changes the way in which enterprises deals with partners and suppliers as well as
empowers their workforce with access to information and services.

The major restraints in this market are installation cost of marketing analytics software and easy availability of
open-source solutions. These are the major factors which are restricting the growth of marketing analytics
software market. Besides, there are a few challenges that are lack of awareness about marketing analytics
software, lack of system integration in order to deploy the software, and lack of skilled labours to operate
marketing analytics software.
There are various assumptions that have been taken into consideration for market sizing and forecasting exercise.
Few of the global assumptions include political, economic, social, technological, and economic factors. For
instance, exchange rates, one of the economic factors, are expected to have a moderate rating of impact on this
market.
Therefore, dollar fluctuations are not expected to seriously affect the forecasts in the emerging LA regions.
The report will help the market leaders/new entrants in this market in the following ways: 1. This report segments
the market into application in marketing methods, deployment modes, and end users comprehensively. The report
provides the closest approximations of the revenue numbers for the overall market and the subsegments. The
market numbers are further split across the different verticals and regions. 2. This report will help in better
understanding of the competitor and gain more insights to better position one's business. There is a separate
section on competitive landscape, which includes competitor ecosystem and competitor portfolio comparison.
Besides, there are company profiles of top ten players in this market. In this section, market internals are provided
that can put one ahead of the competitors. 3. The report helps in understanding the pulse of the market. The report
provides information on key market drivers, restraints, challenges, and opportunities.
Read the full report: http://www.reportlinker.com/p02575129-summary/view-report.html
About Reportlinker ReportLinker is an award-winning market research solution that finds, filters and organizes the
latest industry data so you get all the market research you need - instantly, in one place.
http://www.reportlinker.com
Contact Clare: [email protected]:(339) 368 6001Intl:+1 339 368 6001
To view the original version on PR Newswire, visit:http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/marketing-
analytics-software-market-by-application-social-media-marketing-email-marketing-seo-marketing-pay-per-click-
marketing-display-marketing-video-marketing-content-marketing-by-deployment---global-forecast-to-2019-
300014284.html
SOURCE Reportlinker
Credit: Reportlinker
DETAILS
Subject: Market strategy; Competition; Marketing; Software
Dateline: NEW YORK

Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Dec 29, 2014
LINKS
Global Marketing Analytics Software (Social

Media Marketing, Email Marketing, SEO
Marketing, Pay Per Click Marketing, Display
Marketing, Video Marketing, Content Marketing)
Market - Forecast to 2019
Publication info: PR Newswire ; New York [New York]22 Jan 2015.
ABSTRACT

[...]the companies are deploying the marketing analytics software to decide their marketing strategy and elevate
their customer interaction method.
FULL TEXT

DUBLIN, Jan. 22, 2015 /PRNewswire/ --Research and Markets
(http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/367p6q/marketing) has announced the addition of the "Marketing
Analytics Software Market by Application, by Deployment - Global Forecast to 2019" report to their offering.
Marketing analytics software automates the process of analyzing marketing activities across multiple channels.
The software helps the marketers to get a complete view of their marketing activities. This holistic view helps them

to optimize their marketing campaign and expenditure. Thus, the companies are deploying the marketing analytics
software to decide their marketing strategy and elevate their customer interaction method. The marketing
analytics software market is expected to experience significant growth during the coming years as the need for the
digital marketing has increased. The customer behavior is continuously changing and it can be tracked and
understood from the abundant of data available over social media and support channels. Thus, the marketing
analytic software takes this complex data and filters it according to the segmentation.
This filtered data can help the marketer to know which customers are converting, what is the right medium to
reach the customer, what are the customer's requirements, and so on. The market landscape is shaped by the
factors such as mergers and acquisition by the key players, growth in budget for marketing analytics, and
changing customer behaviors. The marketing analytics software market is expected to register tremendous growth
in the coming years due to its features, which help the organizations with deeper insights about the market. The
software is used in both the marketing methods, i.e., Business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing as well as Business-
to-business (B2B) marketing. The B2C buyers use the software to understand what drives customers to convert,
and how specific marketing activities affect sales. Whereas, B2B buyers require sophisticated analytics software
that supports their sales processes and simplifies them. The top key players driving the marketing analytics
software market are Adobe, Accenture, Harte-Hank, IBM, Oracle, Pegasystem, Teradata, Wipro, and SAS. The global
marketing analytics market is expected to grow from $1.20 billion in 2014 to $2.10 billion by 2019, at a Compound
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 11.84%.
Key Topics Covered: 1 Introduction 2 Research Methodology 3 Executive Summary 4 Premium insights 5 Market
Overview 6 Industry Trends 7 Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By Application 8 Global Marketing
Analytics Software Market, By Vertical 9 Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By Deployment Model 10
Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By End User 11 Geographic Analysis 12 Competitive Landscape 13
Competitive Profile 14 Appendix Companies Mentioned:
Accenture
Adobe Systems incorporated
Experian
Harte-Hanks inc
IBM
Oracle
Pega-System
SASinstitute inc.
Teradata Corporation
Wipro Limited
For more information visit http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/367p6q/marketing
Media Contact: Laura Wood , +353-1-481-1716, [email protected]
To view the original version on PR Newswire, visit:http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-marketing-
analytics-software-social-media-marketing-email-marketing-seo-marketing-pay-per-click-marketing-display-
marketing-video-marketing-content-marketing-market---forecast-to-2019-300024368.html
SOURCE Research and Markets
Credit: Research and Markets
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Trends; Software industry; Market strategy; Behavior

Dateline: DUBLIN
Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Jan 22, 2015
LINKS
Global Marketing Analytics Software (Social

Media Marketing, Email Marketing, SEO
Marketing, Pay Per Click Marketing, Display
Marketing, Video Marketing, Content Marketing)
Market - Forecast to 2019
Publication info: PR Newswire Europe Including UK Disclose ; New York (Jan 22, 2015). [Duplicate]
FULL TEXT

DUBLIN, Jan. 22, 2015 /PRNewswire/ --Research and Markets
([http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/367p6q/marketing]) has announced the addition of the
["Marketing Analytics Software Market by Application, by Deployment - Global Forecast to 2019"] report to their
offering.
Marketing analytics software automates the process of analyzing marketing activities across multiple channels.
The software helps the marketers to get a complete view of their marketing activities. This holistic view helps them
to optimize their marketing campaign and expenditure. Thus, the companies are deploying the marketing analytics
software to decide their marketing strategy and elevate their customer interaction method.
The marketing analytics software market is expected to experience significant growth during the coming years as
the need for the digital marketing has increased. The customer behavior is continuously changing and it can be
tracked and understood from the abundant of data available over social media and support channels. Thus, the
marketing analytic software takes this complex data and filters it according to the segmentation.
This filtered data can help the marketer to know which customers are converting, what is the right medium to
reach the customer, what are the customer's requirements, and so on. The market landscape is shaped by the
factors such as mergers and acquisition by the key players, growth in budget for marketing analytics, and
changing customer behaviors.
The marketing analytics software market is expected to register tremendous growth in the coming years due to its
features, which help the organizations with deeper insights about the market. The software is used in both the
marketing methods, i.e., Business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing as well as Business-to-business (B2B) marketing.
The B2C buyers use the software to understand what drives customers to convert, and how specific marketing
activities affect sales. Whereas, B2B buyers require sophisticated analytics software that supports their sales
processes and simplifies them.
The top key players driving the marketing analytics software market are Adobe, Accenture, Harte-Hank, IBM,
Oracle, Pegasystem, Teradata, Wipro, and SAS.
The global marketing analytics market is expected to grow from $1.20 billion in 2014 to $2.10 billion by 2019, at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 11.84%.
Key Topics Covered:
1 Introduction
2 Research Methodology
3 Executive Summary
4 Premium insights
5 Market Overview
6 Industry Trends
7 Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By Application
8 Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By Vertical
9 Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By Deployment Model
10 Global Marketing Analytics Software Market, By End User
11 Geographic Analysis
12 Competitive Landscape
13 Competitive Profile
14 Appendix
Companies Mentioned:
Accenture
Adobe Systems incorporated
Experian
Harte-Hanks inc

IBM
Oracle
Pega-System
SASinstitute inc.
Teradata Corporation
Wipro Limited
For more information visit [http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/367p6q/marketing]
Media Contact: Laura Wood , +353-1-481-1716, [[email protected]]
DETAILS
Subject: Advertising; Advertising agencies; Software industry; Electronics industry; Polls

&surveys; Research and Markets
Location: Ireland United Kingdom United States of America
Publication title: PR Newswire Europe Including UK Disclose; New York
Dateline: DUBLIN, Jan. 22, 2015
Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright © 2015 PR Newswire Europe Limited. All Rights Reserved.
LINKS

Calculation of marketing ROI in marketing mix
models, from ROMI, to marketing-created value
for shareholders, EVAM 1/Cálculo del ROI de
marketing en modelos de marketing mix, del
ROMI, al valor creado del marketing para los
accionistas EVAM
Suárez, Mariano Méndez; Estevez, Macarena . Universia Business Review ; Madrid Iss. 52, (Fourth
Quarter 2016): 18-75.
ABSTRACT

In this paper we explain using a real example of a fast consumer good the construction of a Marketing Mix model
for calculating the return on marketing investment (ROMI) as a metric of profitability and the calculation of
economic value added of marketing (EVAM) as a metric of shareholders value creation. We propose a novel
approach for estimating the coefficient of the Adstock model using impulse response functions. We measure the
return of short-term advertising and its combination with long-term using as a variable brand awareness measured
with a tracking throughout the entire period analyzed. The result of the analysis indicates that short-term
advertising has a negative return which happens to be very positive when we consider the combined effect with
brand awareness. / En el presente artículo explicamos mediante un ejemplo real de un product de gran consumo la
construcción de un model de Marketing Mix para el cálculo del return on marketing investment (ROMI) como
metric de rentabilidad y el cálculo del valor económico añadido del marketing (EVAM) como metric de creación de
valor para los shareholders. Proponemos un método novedoso para la estimación del coefficient del model de
Adstock mediante impulse response functions. Medimos la rentabilidad de la advertising a corto plazo y el effect
conjunto de la advertising a corto y a largo plazo utilizando para ello la variable brand awareness medida a través
de un tracking de marca a lo largo de todo el periodo analizado. El resultado del análisis indica que la advertising a
corto plazo tiene un retorno negativo que pasa a ser muy positivo cuando tenemos en cuenta su effect combinado
con la brand awareness.
FULL TEXT

(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)
Mariano Méndez Suárez2
ESIC Business &Marketing School
* [email protected]
Macarena Estevez

Conento
* macarena.estevez@conento. com
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
brand awareness.
RESUMEN DEL ARTÍCULO
En el presente artículo explicamos mediante un ejemplo real de un product de gran consumo la construcción de un
model de Marketing Mix para el cálculo del return on marketing investment (ROMI) como metric de rentabilidad y
el cálculo del valor económico añadido del marketing (EVAM) como metric de creación de valor para los
shareholders. Proponemos un método novedoso para la estimación del coefficient del model de Adstock
mediante impulse response functions. Medimos la rentabilidad de la advertising a corto plazo y el effect conjunto
de la advertising a corto y a largo plazo utilizando para ello la variable brand awareness medida a través de un
tracking de marca a lo largo de todo el periodo analizado. El resultado del análisis indica que la advertising a corto
plazo tiene un retorno negativo que pasa a ser muy positivo cuando tenemos en cuenta su effect combinado con
la brand awareness.
KEY WORDS
Marketing Mix modeling, return on marketing investment (ROMI), economic value added of Marketing EVAM,
Modeling Advertising Effectiveness.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Modelos de Marketing Mix, retorno de la inversion en Marketing ROMI, valor económico añadido del Marketing
EVA, modelización de la eficacia publicitaria. 21
Cálculo del ROI de marketing en modelos de marketing mix, del ROMI, al valor creado del marketing para los
accionistas EVAM
1.INTRODUCTION
There is growing pressure from the senior management, investors and financial analyst for the marketing
departments of large companies to inform them of the return on investment from the campaigns they carry out,
owing to the substantial amount of financial resources they manage. According to the 2014 annual report of
telecommunications company Jazztel, their investment in marketing and customer service amounted to 214.7m

euros, compared to a 359.7m euro investment in fibre optic deployment (their main activity being the exploitation
of the same); that is, the company invested the equivalent of almost 60% of its fixed assets investing in marketing
activities.
Investments in fixed assets are always evaluated from a strictly financial perspective, using clear and widely
accepted metrics such as, for example, return on investment (ROI) and economic value added (EVA), been this
information provided in detail to shareholders, analysts and investors to enable them to make decisions on
resources allocation. However, this is not always the case with marketing investments. These tend not to be
sufficiently explained and, and owing to the lack of transparency, it is difficult for investors to know whether these
create value or not and, consequently, whether the investment will bring value to the shareholders (Kimbrough et
al. 2009). Despite the importance of transmitting information to the market about the result of marketing
strategies, there is still little agreement on how to measure profitability of these, even within the organisations
themselves.
In 1999 Bucklin and Gupta advocated the standardisation of methods for evaluating marketing profitability, owing
to the heterogeneity and opacity of the methods being used, especially by consultancy companies. In 2005,
Steward et al., of the Marketing Accountability Foundation, stated that apart from using traditional metrics (e.g.:
awareness, purchase intent and brand recommendation), the results of marketing actions needed to be financially
measureable using metrics such as Return on Marketing Investment (ROMI). The Foundation promotes the
adoption of standard procedures, to allow interested parties to monitor and cross-compare the returns obtained
and to compare them in time. More recently, Farris et al. (2015) insisted on the standardisation of the ROMI
definition, owing to its growing acceptance, but in many cases used and interpreted in very different ways.
The aim of this paper is to explain and clarify the calculation of economic metrics for measuring return on
marketing investment and estimating the value created for shareholders, especially regarding the short and long-
term effects of advertising. In the following section we will analyse the actual use of these economic metrics by
the marketing departments. We will then define and give an example of the calculation of the return on marketing
investment (ROMI) and the economic value added of marketing (EVAM). Then, using data from a project
undertaken for a consumer goods company, we will create the econometric model to obtain the contribution of the
main variables that affect sales, which will enable us to calculate the ROMI and EVAM. We will end by discussing
conclusions, limitations and future research lines.
2.THE USE OF ECONOMIC METRICS AND TRADITIONAL METRICS IN MARKETING
Since Kotler's (1977) definition of the concept of marketing effectiveness there has been a growing interest in the
development of quantitative methods for measuring the financial return of marketing actions, especially
advertising, in order to prove that these are investments from which a return can be expected and are not an
expense with an unquantifiable return. It is increasingly common, especially for large companies with a high level
of investment in advertising, to request the calculation of ROMI as a measure of the financial return on the
activities carried out to demonstrate that these create value for shareholders.
To learn about the implementation of the metric, in 2009 and 2011 the Lenskold Group conducted separate studies
entitled Marketing ROI &Measurement Study, requesting information about the use of economic metrics in
evaluating marketing performance. Both studies showed a growing tendency in the use of ROMI. In the 2011 study,
28% of those surveyed said they used ROMI as an indicator of profitability and 36% said they used another
financial metric. We should point out that in the 2009 study, the response regarding the use of ROMI was broken
down into two groups, one formed of companies considered to be "highly efficient and effective" and the other

formed of the other companies consulted. It is very insightful that in the first group 54% said they used ROMI as
their main economic metric, whereas this figure was only 29% in the second group.
Rogers and Sexton (2012) conducted a study that is more explicit about the use of more traditional metrics such
as brand awareness, purchase intent and brand recommendation. Of those surveyed, 22% made most of their
decisions based on brand awareness alone and, of these, 60% used only this metric to measure the profitability of
their actions. 82% of those surveyed were confused about the concept of ROMI, given that they didn't mention the
link between marketing investment and financial return.
Moreover, in the survey conducted by Mintz and Currim (2013) they break down the results of the use of marketing
metrics according to the main broadcast advertising channels and create a ranking in which these are ordered
according to their use. For companies that use traditional advertising, that is, with a high component of TV
advertising, the most frequently used metric is brand awareness, accounting for 60% of cases, with ROMI in 7th
position with 32% and EVAM in 27th position with 4%.
The data analysed regarding the use of financial metrics in marketing indicate that these still need to be adapted
to the language of senior management, shareholders and investors through tools such as ROMI and EVAM.
3.DEFINITION AND EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF ROMI AND EVAM
Farris et al. (2015) define ROMI as the result of dividing the increase in financial value created by the marketing
actions net the investment made in these actions by the investment in marketing. To estimate the increase of
financial value we calculate the difference between the sales made after the marketing actions (or incremental
sales) and the expected sales, if these haven't been done (or baseline sales). Econometric models are then used to
obtain the incremental sales. We will look at the creation of these models later on.
Once the incremental sales have been isolated, the calculation process is as follows: 1) we multiply these sales by
the price, obtaining J the incremental revenue; 2) we multiply these sales by their variable 22 cost, obtaining the
variable incremental cost; 3) we find the difference to give us the incremental gross margin; 4) from this value we
subtract the investment made in marketing; 5) we then divide the value obtained by the marketing Investment,
thus obtaining the ROMI:
...
The result of the operation can be interpreted either as euros earned/ lost per euro invested or as a percentage of
the return on investment made in advertising. For example, ROMI = 0.3 would mean that we have earned 30 euros
for each 100 euros invested, or that the campaign has had a return of 30%. If the ROMI value is negative, = -0.3, it
means we have lost 30 euros for each 100 euros invested, or have a return of -30%.
This calculation does not include fixed costs or depreciation, as we assume that these would not vary as a result
of the incremental sales generated by the campaign. We could ask why we haven't included income tax in the
formula, or tax saving as advertising is considered a tax deductible cost, but because we have made a quotient
between both and despite the fact that the absolute values will diminish, the ratio will remain constant:
...
Once we have obtained the ROMI, we then need to subtract the cost of the company's financial resources. This

cost is the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) which is an average of the cost of the longterm debt and the
return required by shareholders, or cost of capital. In some cases, certain companies use a value superior to the
WACC, known as the hurdle rate. The difference between the ROMI and the WACC gives us the return obtained
from the campaign:
Return = ROMI - wacc
The next step is to calculate the EVAM. Seggie, Cavusgil, and Phelan (2007) refer to this as a metric that allows us
to communicate the results outside the marketing departments, especially to shareholders, since there will be no
controversy owing to subjective opinions. Smyth and Lecoeuvre (2015) state its importance for measuring the
value created for shareholders by the marketing strategies.
In financial terms, EVA measures the contribution in value for the company from the investments made after
subtracting its financial cost; this is calculated by subtracting from earnings before interest and after taxes the
investment made multiplied by the cost of capital (for further information about EVA see Griffith 2004). By
adapting the formula to the incremental revenue obtained from the marketing activities we can calculate the EVAM
as:
EVAM = Incremental Profit (1-T) - Marketing Investment x wacc
Using an example to illustrate the calculation of the ROMI and the EVAM we can establish the following
hypotheses: incremental sales of 100,000 price units of 9 euros and variable cost of 6 euros. A marketing
investment of 200,000 euros, a WACC of 10% and tax rate of 30%. The ROMI would be:
...
We obtain a ROMI of 50%, from which we need to subtract the WACC of 10%, thus obtaining a return on investment
of 40%. The EVAM in this case would be 50,000 euros:
EVAM = 100,000 x (1-0.3) - 200,000 x 0.1 = 70,000 - 20,000 = 50,000
Now, basing ourselves on work carried out for a consumer goods company, we show the creation of the
econometric model to first find the incremental sales and then the calculation of the ROMI and EVAM obtained.
4.DATA
To explain the process of obtaining incremental sales, we will use the data of a Spanish leading product in the
dairy products category with beneficial health properties and a high level of advertising investment, especially in
television. The series consists of 298 observations with a weekly frequency and aggregated on Sundays between
2009 and 2014. This period is particularly difficult to model, since it includes both the peak of the economic crisis
that occurred in Spain and the start of the recovery in 2013 and 2014. Sales in the category have a high seasonal
component, with a positive impact in the first and last week of the month and with very pronounced falls in sales in
the summer months, November, bank holiday weekends, summer holiday periods and around Christmas. The initial
database includes over a thousand variables with data about the company itself and about sector competitors as
well as other economic variables. In addition to calculating the ROMI, this database allows the analysis of other
aspects of brand marketing performance, such as the calculation of price or crossed elasticity, advertising
elasticity, etc., and the measurement of the impact of campaigns featuring various celebrities or special actions. It

also allows us to measure the effectiveness of the positioning of the first and last advert after the commercial
breaks.
After an initial specification we move on to the econometric modelling process. This consists of deciding which
variables are important for analysis and which, therefore, are considered better for explaining, significantly, the
variation in sales during the period studied. We describe these variables below:
Sales by volume (Sales)
The sales correspond exclusively to a single product of the brand and are measured in litres. By including the
variable sales in litres as a dependent variable of the model, one would think that it would make more sense to use
a measure of sales in euros instead of by volume, and even more so considering that we want to measure the
return on marketing investment. But the problem is that sales in euros is a linear combination of the variables
sales by volume and price, so if we use this variable we would lose the information about the impact of price on
sales as we would not know whether the sales variations were due to changes in price or volume. In addition,
technically speaking and considering the methodology used for the linear regression, introducing the sales in
economic value causes some problems and distortions when establishing the variable that causes the variation in
sales. For example, if we base ourselves on a given week in which sales are 100 units and the price is 1 euro, in this
case the sales variable in euros would have a value of 100 euros. A week later if we reduce the price to 0.8 euros
and accompany it with a TV campaign to announce the reduction, we assume that the combined effect of these
two variables would mean an increase in sales to 120 units and our sales variable in euros would be 120x0.8 = 96
euros. The information received by the econometric model would be a 4% fall in sales in euros, dropping from 100
to 96 euros (when the sales by volume would actually have increased by 20%), and an increase in advertising
investment, which the model would interpret as a negative correlation between advertising and sales, being unable
to detect the price effect. However, if we use sales by volume we would provide the model with very different
information that would not cause distortions of economic logic: the increase in sales from 100 to 120 units is due
to the combined effect of two variables: the fall in price and the increase in advertising.
Weighted distribution
Weighted distribution is the measurement of the quality of distribution of a product, it tells us the percentage of
supermarkets or department stores in which the product is sold, but weighting this percentage against the
category's total sales volume in each centre; that is, the greater the sales volume in the centres where we are
present, the greater the weighted distribution. The product has an average weighted distribution of 99.9% and the
brand showed great interest in knowing what impact this variable has on sales given the high level of investment
required to maintain it.
Promotional Intensity Indexes
These indexes are obtained by dividing the sales from promotions by total sales. In our case, we have three
different kinds of promotions; Promotional Intensity Index with Special Display (PII SD); Promotional Intensity
Index with Leaflets (PII L), and the Promotional Intensity Index with Temporary Price Reduction (PII TPR).
Television Gross Rating Points (GRPs) at 20" and GRPs at 20" Special Actions (SA)
The GRPs measurement only takes into account people who have seen the ad broadcasted and who form part of
the target audience, excluding those who have seen it but are not part of this audience. It is the result of the

product of two variables: the percentage of our target audience who have seen the ad and the number of times the
ad has been seen multiplied by 100. Therefore, the GRPs are a measure of advertising pressure only on our target
audience, so 200 GRPs may mean that 100% of our target audience have seen the ad twice, or that 50% of them
have seen it four times. Using this variable instead of investment in euros is because of what occurred in the case
of sales, where the investment in euros is a linear combination of two variables: the number of GRPs and the cost
of these. So, for example, if there were a fall in the cost of GRPs due to circumstances in the TV market, the
econometric model would interpret this as a fall in advertising (introducing a distortion into the analysis) when, in
fact, the level of advertising pressure remains constant.
Given that TV campaigns consist of ads of varying duration in each campaign, in our case 11 different durations
from 5 seconds to 120 seconds, these formats need to be homogenised into a single format of 20 seconds; for
example, two seen ads of 30 seconds each are equivalent to three of 20 seconds. The data are provided by the
audience measurement company Kantar Media.
Investment in Internet and press advertising
In this case, and given that there is no measure equivalent to the GRPs for television for these variables,
advertising investment in euros is used, even at the risk of experiencing deviations caused by price fluctuations
over time.
Brand awareness
The brand awareness variable is expressed as a percentage and to calculate it we use brand tracking by the IPSOS
Social Research Institute. This quantifies the responses to the question: Had you already heard of the brand.before
today?. For the tracking, 700 telephone interviews a week were conducted throughout the entire analysis period, by
means of subsamples of 100 interviews a day, giving a total de 36,500 interviews per year. As we can see in Table
1, the values range between a minimum of 84%, an average of 96% and a maximum of 100% and they represent the
percentage of people who know of the brand.
Price differential with distributor brand (DB)
This variable measures the impact of price on sales. To calculate it, the total weekly sales by value (deflated by the
IPC) of all the distributor brands are added up and then divided by the total weekly sales of all these brands in
volume, giving us the weekly average price. Once this data has been obtained we subtract the price of the brand to
find out the difference.
Interest in searching for the category on the Internet
This variable measures the frequency of the search for keywords related to the beneficial health properties of the
brand, covering the entire period analysed in the regression, from 2009 to 2014. The data, provided by Google3
trends, are the result of dividing the number of searches for the keywords by the total number of searches in
Google at the same time and in the same place. To index these values from 0 to 100, the values obtained from this
quotient are divided by the highest figure in the entire range and then multiplied by 100.
Seasonal dummy variables
Some dummy variables will be introduced into the model, which will be given a value of 0 or 1 and will represent

factors such as seasonality. For example, the dummy variable May Bank Holiday Weekend, is given a value of 1 in
the week in which the May Bank Holiday Weekend occurs and for the rest of the time it has a value of 0. To be able
to include these variables in the model the brand must confirm that the phenomenon is an isolated, specific event.
Table 1 provides a statistical summary of the variables included in the model.
5.MODEL CREATION
Analysis of the duration of the short-term effect of advertising on sales, Adstock
By short-term advertising effect we mean the impact on sales produced by the advertising in the week itself and in
the weeks following the broadcast (this is not to be confused with the long-term effect, months or years, which will
be represented by the awareness variable). The duration of the short-term advertising impact is measured using
the Adstock model (Broadbent, 1979). The model quantifies the direct effect on the increase in sales that a
campaign may have over the weeks following its broadcast and its decrease after that using a geometric decay
model:
Adstockt = Advertising t + Adstock t1
Where Advertisingt can be GRPs or any other measurement of advertising investment, such as investment in
euros, at time t. Parameter quantifies the effect in this week of the advertising from the previous week. For
example, = 40% means that this week we maintain 40% of the advertising impact from the week before. This
impact decays at a rate of *, so in the following two weeks it will have dropped to 0.42 = 16%, and so on. Using
parameter it is possible to know the time in weeks in which the effect of the campaign will decay by up to 50% or
90%. For level = 40%, the time the effect of the campaign takes to decay to 90% would be calculated as ln(0.1)/A =
ln(0.1)/0.4 = 2.5 weeks.
The challenge of the Adstock model arises when we try to find out whether this delayed impact actually exists and,
if so, how to quantify it. Fry, Broadbent and Dixon (1999) propose three alternative methods for finding the value of
, but it is not clear from their analysis the extent to which the estimated delayed effect in sales is statistically
significant. Alternatively, we could use the estimates of Assmus, Farley and Lehmann (1984) in their meta-analysis
of 114 papers, and use an average parameter value of = 0.46, with a standard deviation of = 0.30. However, we do
not consider any these approaches appropriate so we propose a different approach, using impulse response
functions (Dekimpe and Hanssens, 1995, 1999), a method which, applied to the estimation of , to our knowledge
has not previously been reported in the literature.
Impulse response functions are based on the results obtained from a vector auto regressive (VAR) model. The
mathematical specification of the VAR model requires stationarity in the series used, meaning that the properties
of mean and variance in the series are maintained over time (albeit on a trend). If the series are not stationary, we
should calculate the first difference to achieve the objective of stationarity. The Augmented Dickie-Fuller test,
Table 2, shows that the sales series and the advertising variables are stationary, thus allowing the VAR analysis to
be performed at level.
In economic terms, stationarity in the sales series indicates to us that the impact of impulses on sales is
temporary and that once the sales have been diverted by innovations (for example, advertising), sales will recover
their average value after a certain time, which would imply that the series reverts back to its average market share
(Dekimpe and Hanssens 1999). That is, when we broadcast a campaign it would have two effects; one, a boost in

sales and, two, an increase in awareness. In order to maintain these effects we must continue to advertise,
because otherwise the effect on sales will gradually diminish once we stop advertising, falling to a level similar to
the initial one. If the series is not stationary, the effect of the impact would be permanent, diverting it from its
original properties; for example, we broadcast a campaign and this increases our sales, and then we stop running it
and sales are maintained at the new level achieved.
Impulse Response Functions using the VAR model
The following equation shows the VAR model used for K = 2 delays determined by the Hannan-Quinn (1979)
criteria and which for stationary series is as follows:
...
Yi,t is the vector (6x1) of endogenous variables: Sales, GRPS 20", GRPS 20" SA, Press, Internet and GRPS 20" of
Main Competitor. A is the constants vector (6x1), B(k)i the coefficient matrix (6x6) for lag k, Cit the vector of
exogenous variables including seasonal variables that affect the sales series and ?,~(0,) the covariance matrix of
the residuals. Once the VAR model has been estimated, its calculated its equivalent vector of infinite-order moving
averages, which will allow us to know the response of sales to an impulse in advertising variables of 1 standard
deviation. In Figure 1 we can see graphs showing the sales response to the increase of advertising variables, with
a confidence interval of 95% obtained through bootstrapping using the Gretl program.
Once we have obtained the response of sales to the increase in advertising variables we can then estimate their
duration with a confidence interval of 95% and assume that there is no effect when the confidence interval line
includes 0. Based on this we can establish as a hypothesis that the response decays to 90% in the middle of the
week where it disappears definitively, thereby obtaining the value that will allow us to estimate , Table 3.
We can see that we get the longest-lasting effect from Internet advertising. We consider this result to be logical
given that the product has an effect on health and that the advertising received while browsing the Internet may be
given more attention, thus generating a longer-lasting impact over time. The next variable with J the greatest
impact is GRPS 20", followed by GRPS 20" SA and 34 then Press. All these significant variables would be included
in the model after performing the Adstock transformation, each one with its estimated coefficient. As we can see
in Figure 1, the potential negative impact of GRPS 20" Main Competitor is not statistically significant at a
confidence interval of 95%, which may be logical given that the potential negative impact is distributed among all
competitors, and will therefore not be included in the model.
6.SALES MODELLING
We will separate the variables that we will use to explain sales into three groups. The first includes the marketing
mix variables: distribution, brand awareness, television advertising in different campaigns and formats and
advertising in other media; the second includes information about competitors, such as price differentials with
DBs; and the third group includes the economic and social factors that affect sales, such as the seasonality of the
same, variations in the economic cycle, and interest in searching for the category on the Internet. The model
responds to the following equation:
...
Yt is the value of the dependent variable Sales at time t, : is the coefficient of independent variable xtt at time t and

et is a whitenoise error term. Although Gujarati (2004, pg. 168) recommends to always include a constant term in
the regression models to avoid any specification problems and the risk of multicollinearity that results in a greater
variance of the coefficients (a less precise model), the author makes and exception when there is a strong a priori
expectation. In our case, given the significant effort invested by the brand in maintaining a very high level of
distribution, a strong emphasis is placed on knowing the individual effect of this variable and although the
constant variable provides information about the sales baseline and will include the effect of distribution, we have
decided not to include it and to use instead the weighted distribution variable.
To know in more detail the relationship between the variables of the adjusted model we calculated the correlation
matrix, which we can see in Table 4.
Once the structure of the correlation matrix has been verified we will then create the model, Graph 1; since it has a
R2 of 86.08% we interpret that we have captured 86% of the variability of the sales.
The variables included in the model, their coefficients and percentage of contribution to the total sales of the entire
period can be seen in Table 5.
The regression coefficient indicates the variation in sales due to the increase in one unit in the explanatory
variable, maintaining the rest constant. If the coefficient is positive it means that this variable has a positive
contribution to sales and vice versa.
In Graph 2 we can see the individual contribution of the different marketing mix variables to the total sales. The
weighted distribution is notable, accounting for 63.8% of sales, followed by brand awareness which contributes
32.4% of the sales. In third place is the negative effect of the price differential with the distributor brand which
subtracts 15.2% from sales. The advertising variable, which is the sum of the advertising effect of all the media in
the short term, contributes 6.8% to total sales.
7. ANALYSIS OF THE MODEL VARIABLES
Weighted Distribution
The contribution of the weighted distribution variable to total sales is 63.8% and we can assume that a distribution
as wide as that of the brand forms the basis of the sales baseline. This variable, although it could be likened to the
constant of the regression, includes information that the constant would not clarify, for example, how sales would
be affected by the loss of a specific market or the loss of a specific distribution channel.
Promotional Intensity Indexes
The sales obtained through promotions are the sum of the effects of the Promotional Intensity Indexes with
Special Display (PII SD), the Promotional Intensity Index with Leaflets (IIP F) and the Promotional Intensity Index
with Temporary Price Reduction (PII TPR), giving a joint sales contribution of 6.2%.
Short-term advertising
This includes the variables television GRPs and investment in euros, in press and Internet, all of them transformed
in Adstock. A large part of the advertising broadcasted consisted of providing information about the qualities of
the product and its beneficial effect on health; the aim was not only to make sales in the short term but also to

create brand awareness in the category in order to promote future sales.
The contribution of television advertising in both campaigns and special actions (SA) accounts for 6.3% of sales.
Advertising in Press and Internet has a joint sales contribution of 0.5%, giving us a total of 6.8%.
Brand Awareness
Clary and Dyson (2004) state that the current effect of short-term advertising (represented by the variables with
Adstock) on sales is insufficient for campaigns to be profitable. We need to also measure the accumulated effect
of advertising in the long term in order to know the real return from advertising. In our case, a contribution of 6.8%
from short-term advertising (and going by our experience over the years, the effect is usually less) to total sales
does not justify the high economic volume invested since, as we will see later, we will obtain a negative ROMI.
However, when reviewing the literature on the subject we see some interesting conclusions about the effects of
short-term advertising. Driver and Foxal (1986) conclude that short-term advertising, apart from the function of
generating sales, has other functions that relate to the long-term effect: i) Advertising must be accumulated over
time in order to reach a level whereby it is effective. ii) The actual recipients of the advertising are not necessarily
existing consumers, the impact of advertising can have later effects. iii) Advertising instils habits that will be
maintained by future advertising. iv) Advertising is subject to attrition and obsolescence and needs to be renewed.
In addition, Aaker and Day (1974) studied the hierarchy of advertising effects and conclude that advertising
influences awareness and that this in turn influences purchase behaviour. The accumulative effect of short-term
advertising (Clark, Doraszelski, and Draganska 2009) is one of the most important factors for generating
awareness.
Huang and Sarigöllü (2012) conclude that with regard to consumer goods there is a positive relationship between
awareness and sales results by means of the process: awareness -> test -> reinforce. We are aware that in order
for this process to be effective it must be complemented with the contribution of distribution and price promotions
(variables analysed separately in our model). Macdonald and Sharp (2000) find improvements in the brand's
results in the market in relation to awareness. They state that when consumers are choosing between products
with a different level of awareness they show a greater predilection for the better-known products, according to the
cycle: choose the product with greater awareness, try other products and then return to the product that has
greater awareness. In our case there is a special circumstance, in that the product analysed has positive effects on
health and in this case knowledge of the brand reduces the risk perceived by the consumer when making a
purchase decision (Moisesku 2009), thereby increasing the likelihood to buy.
Srinivasan, Vanhuele and Pauwels (2008) state the importance of including so-called mindset metrics in the
marketing mix models, and especially the awareness variable. The results from their study reveal that metrics such
as awareness have an effect on sales beyond the direct effects of advertising, price, distribution and promotions.
They therefore insist on the need to include in these types of models perceptual metrics that allow the capture of
the long-term positive effects of brand creation.
Because of these reasons, we consider it appropriate to include this variable in the model, and to use it as an
approximation to the longterm effect of advertising, although we are aware that awareness is a very rich variable
and is generated by a greater number of variables than maybe: other communication channels, distribution or the
product itself. In our model, the brand awareness variable contributes 32.37% to total sales, the second largest
amount after distribution. And it may help to explain the long-term effect of advertising investment strategies in
the creation of value for shareholders.

Dummies Special Actions May 2011 and October 2013
Including these two dates in the model is due to two special actions which were carried out by the brand in these
periods and together they had an impact of 0.2% on total sales.
Price
As can be expected, the price differential with distributor brand has a negative impact on total sales, this being -
15.2%.
Social Environment, Macroeconomic and Seasonal Variables
These include variables that reflect changes in the environment, such as the interest in searching for the category
on the Internet, which contributes 5.9% to sales and the incipient recovery of the Spanish economy in 2013 and
2014, with an impact of 1.8%. Moreover, variables that include the increases in sales in the first and last weeks of
the month because of the payment of salaries and the opening of shopping centres in some Autonomous
Communities in Spain on the first Sunday of every month, have a joint effect of 1.0%. Lastly, it includes variables
that encompass the fall in sales due to seasonal factors, with a joint effect of -2.9%.
To summarise, in Graph 3 we can see the individual weekly contribution to sales of the main variables analysed.
8. CALCULATION RETURN ON ADVERTISING: ROMI AND EVAM
Once we have created the model and isolated the contribution of each variable we will have the information we
need to be able to quantify in economic terms the return on investment in advertising. In Graph 4 we show the
sales generated by television, press and Internet advertising, which we consider to be short-term advertising, and
the sales generated through brand awareness, which we consider to represent the long-term impact of advertising.
To illustrate the analysis of the calculation of the ROMI and EVAM we will take the entire year 2013, during which
5.9% of total sales were due to short-term advertising, and 29.9% to the effect of brand awareness or long-term
advertising; the joint effect of both variables contribute 35.8% to total sales for the period. To calculate the ROMI
and EVAM we will assume a gross margin of 50% (PWC, 2015, pg. 18) of large companies in the sector, for the
investment cost we will use a WACC of 10% according to companies in the sector and we will assume a tax rate of
30%, in accordance with the current rates in Spain.
In light of this information and following the previously explained step by step process to calculate the incremental
revenue, we obtain the results detailed in Table 6, which shows the financial results of shortterm advertising
broken down into television, press and Internet and the sum of the effects of short-term advertising and brand
awareness representing the long term.
If we only take into account the short-term advertising, the ROMI is -33%, and once we subtract the WACC of 10%
we get an advertising return of -43%, the EVAM for the period would have been -1.9 M Euros; that is, we would have
destroyed value for shareholders of this amount. To calculate the economic impact of brand awareness we do not
include the investment made, which would be represented J by the accumulated advertising, the investment made
in distribution 42 and promotional campaigns of the previous years, given that in financial terms these can be
considered sunk costs, costs that are never included when evaluating an investment. By adding the effect of brand
awareness the result is totally different, in this second case the ROMI is 308%, and if we subtract the 10% of WACC

we get a return of 298% and this would have created value of 9.2 M euros for EVAM shareholders.
9. CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE LINES OF RESEARCH
For years there have been calls for the standardisation and clarification of the methods used for measuring ROMI
(for example, I PA 2008 and Farris et al. 2015). However, the authors have not found real examples of their
calculation, describing in detail the marketing mix econometric models needed to obtain them. These same
models also allow a calculation to be made of one of the most common measurements for creating value for
shareholders, EVA, which has been adapted by the authors to measure marketingcreated value, EVAM.
The estimation of the value of for Adstock using impulse response functions is a transparent way of measuring
the impact of advertising over time and it also allows us to know the significance of the estimations and to
establish the decay rate of the advertising effect with greater accuracy.
The study highlights the importance of measuring brand awareness and explains how to quantify it as a variable in
the marketing mix models. In our case, this variable contributes 32.4% to the total sales of the brand during the
period of study and is the second largest after distribution. If we only use short-term advertising to calculate the
ROMI for 2013, we get a value of -33%, and the EVAM shows a value decrease for shareholders of -1.9 M euros.
However, by adding the effect of brand awareness, the ROMI increases to 298% and the creation of value for
shareholders is 9.4 M Euros.
The proposed methodology meets three objectives: 1) In the day to day of marketing departments it allows them to
measure the results or effectiveness of the activities carried out, and it can be used to reshape the marketing mix
and to incentivise or disincentivise certain actions. 2) We can obtain information that shows us the economic
efficiency and profitability of investments which, apart from being a key aspect for marketing departments, is also
important for financial control departments. 3) As regards senior management and for communicating with
shareholders, investors and analysts, the information about value creation through EVAM will result in a greater
understanding of the investments made and will improve the information available to help them make more
informed decisions about investment allocation.
Regarding limitations, we would like to point out that this study has been conducted specifically for a product that
affects health, and for which knowledge of the brand is a very important aspect when making a purchase decision,
(Moisesku 2009), and we therefore believe that the results cannot be extrapolated to other product categories. But
we do believe, however, that the methodology can be extrapolated, which is why we propose a future line of
research, a broader study in which we can compare the results of ROMI and EVAM for other categories, especially
those that do not have this potential health-risk component, and can compare the effects of short-term advertising
and brand awareness in products with low perceived risk.
The aim of this paper is to explain and clarify the calculation of economic metrics for measuring return on
marketing investment and estimating the value created for shareholders
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NOTES
1. Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the editor and an anonymous
reviewer. This paper is part of the research project 06/16 funded by ESIC Business &Marketing School in
collaboration with CONENTO
2. Contact author: ESIC Business &Marketing School; Av. Valdenigrales s/n; 28223 Pozuelo de Alarcón (Madrid);
SPAIN
3. www.google.com/trends
Mariano Méndez Suárez2
ESIC Business &Marketing School

* [email protected]
Macarena Estevez
Conento
* macarena.estevez@conento. com
RESUMEN DEL ARTÍCULO
En el presente artículo explicamos mediante un ejemplo real de un producto de gran consumo la construcción de
un modelo de Marketing Mix para el cálculo del retorno de la inversión en marketing (ROMI) como métrica de
rentabilidad y el cálculo del valor económico añadido del marketing (EVAM) como métrica de creación de valor
para los accionistas. Proponemos un método novedoso para la estimación del coeficiente del modelo de Adstock
mediante funciones de impulso respuesta. Medimos la rentabilidad de la publicidad a corto plazo y el efecto
conjunto de la publicidad a corto y a largo plazo utilizando para ello la variable notoriedad de marca medida a
través de un tracking de marca a lo largo de todo el periodo analizado. El resultado del análisis indica que la
publicidad a corto plazo tiene un retorno negativo que pasa a ser muy positivo cuando tenemos en cuenta su
efecto combinado con la notoriedad de marca.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
brand awareness.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Modelos de Marketing Mix, retorno de la inversión en Marketing ROMI, valor económico añadido del Marketing
EVA, modelización de la eficacia publicitaria.
KEY WORDS
Marketing Mix modeling, return on Marketing investment ROMI, economic value added of Marketing EVAM,
Modeling Advertising Effectiveness.
Cálculo del ROI de marketing en modelos de marketing mix, del ROMI, al valor creado del marketing para los
accionistas EVAM1
Calculation of marketing ROI in marketing mix models, from ROMI, to marketing-created value for shareholders,
EVAM

1.INTRODUCCIÓN
Existe una presión creciente por parte de la alta dirección de los inversores y analistas financieros para que los
departamentos de marketing de las grandes compañías informen sobre la rentabilidad de las inversiones en las
campañas realizadas, debido a la gran cantidad de recursos económicos que gestionan. Según las cuentas
anuales del año 2014 de la compañía de telecomunicaciones Jazztel, su inversión en marketing y atención al
cliente fue de un total de 214,7M de Euros, frente a una inversión en despliegue de fibra óptica (cuya explotación
es su actividad principal) de 359,7M de Euros, es decir, la compañía invirtió en actividades de marketing un
equivalente a casi un 60% de la inversión en activo fijo.
Mientras que las inversiones en activo fijo son siempre evaluadas desde un punto de vista estrictamente
financiero, con métricas claras y ampliamente aceptadas, como por ejemplo, el retorno sobre la inversión (Return
on Investment, ROI) o el valor económico añadido (Economic Value Added, EVA) y la información siempre se
traslada de forma detallada a los accionistas, analistas e inversores para que puedan tomar sus decisiones de
asignación de recursos. Las inversiones en marketing no siempre están suficientemente explicadas y debido a la
falta de transparencia es complicado para los inversores saber si éstas crean valor o no y en consecuencia si la
inversión que se destina a las mismas aporta o no valor a los accionistas (Kimbrough et al. 2009). A pesar de la
importancia en la transmisión de la información al mercado del resultado de las estrategias de marketing, todavía
hay poco acuerdo en cómo medir la rentabilidad de éstas, incluso dentro de las propias organizaciones. En 1999
Bucklin y Gupta ya abogaban por la estandarización de los métodos de evaluación de la rentabilidad del marketing,
debido a la heterogeneidad y opacidad de los utilizados, especialmente por parte de las compañías consultoras.
En 2005, Steward et al. desde la Fundación "The Marketing Accountability Foundation" indican la necesidad de
que, aparte de las métricas tradicionales (por ejemplo: notoriedad, intención de compra o recomendación de
marca), los resultados de las acciones de marketing sean medibles financieramente con métricas como el Retorno
de la Inversión en Marketing (ROMI, Return on Marketing Investment). Desde la Fundación se promueve que se
adopten procedimientos estándar, de forma que las rentabilidades obtenidas puedan ser objeto de seguimiento y
comparación temporal y transversal por las partes interesadas. Más recientemente Farris et al. (2015) insisten en
la estandarización de la definición del ROMI debido a que cada vez tiene mayor aceptación, pero en muchos casos
se utiliza e interpreta de formas muy distintas.
El objetivo de este artículo, es explicar y clarificar el cálculo de las métricas financieras del retorno de la inversión
en marketing y de estimación del valor creado para los accionistas, especialmente por los efectos a corto y a largo
plazo de la publicidad. En la siguiente sección analizamos la implantación de estas métricas financieras. Después
definiremos y pondremos un ejemplo de cálculo del retorno de la inversión en marketing (ROMI) y del valor
económico añadido en marketing (EVAM, Economic Value Added of Marketing). A continuación, utilizando datos
de un proyecto realizado para una compañía de gran consumo, crearemos el modelo econométrico para obtener la
aportación de las principales variables que afectan a las ventas y de esta forma poder calcular el ROMI y el EVAM.
Finalizamos con las conclusiones, limitaciones y futuras líneas de investigación.
2.EL USO DE LAS MÉTRICAS FINANCIERAS Y LAS TRADICIONALES EN MARKETING
Desde la definición del concepto de efectividad de marketing de Kotier (1977), ha habido un progresivo interés en
el desarrollo de métodos cuantitativos para poder medir el retorno financiero de las acciones de marketing,
especialmente la publicidad, con el objetivo de demostrar que éstas son una inversión de la que se espera obtener
un beneficio y no un gasto del cual el retorno no es cuantificable. Especialmente en las grandes empresas con alta
inversión en publicidad, cada vez es más común que se solicite el cálculo del ROMI como medida de la
rentabilidad financiera de las acciones realizadas para demostrar que éstas contribuyen a la creación de valor

para los accionistas.
Para poder conocer la implantación de la métrica, Lenskold Group realizó en 2009 y 2011 sendos estudios
titulados: Marketing ROI &Measurement Study solicitando información sobre el uso de métricas financieras para
evaluar el desempeño de marketing, en ambos estudios se observa una tendencia creciente en el uso del ROMI. En
el estudio de 2011 un 28% de los encuestados declaraba usar el ROMI como indicador de rentabilidad frente a un
36% que declaraban usar alguna otra métrica financiera. Cabe destacar que en el estudio de 2009 la respuesta
sobre el uso del ROMI se desagrega en dos grupos, por un lado las empresas consideradas como "altamente
eficaces y efectivas" y por otro lado el resto de empresas consultadas. Resulta muy esclarecedor que de las
primeras un 54% declarara usar el ROMI como métrica financiera principal frente a un 29% de las segundas.
Rogers y Sexton (2012) realizan un estudio que es más explícito sobre el uso de métricas más tradicionales como
notoriedad de marca, intención de compra, o recomendación de marca. De los encuestados un 22% tomaba la
mayoría de sus decisiones usando sólo la notoriedad de marca y de éstos un 60% usaban sólo esta métrica para
medir la rentabilidad de sus acciones. En un 82% de los encuestados había confusión sobre el concepto de ROMI,
dado que no mencionaron que relaciona la inversión en marketing con el retorno financiero.
Por otro lado, en la encuesta de Mintz y Currim (2013) se desagregan los resultados del uso de métricas de
marketing en función de los canales mayoritarios para la emisión de publicidad y crean un ranking en el que éstas
son ordenadas en función de su uso. Para las empresas que realizan publicidad tradicional, entiéndase ésta como
la que tiene un alto componente de publicidad en televisión, la métrica más utilizada es la notoriedad de marca
con un 60% de los casos, el ROMI ocupa un puesto 7 con un 32% y el EVAM un puesto 27 con un 4%. Los datos
analizados sobre el uso de métricas financieras en marketing nos indican que sigue existiendo la necesidad de
adaptarlas al lenguaje de la alta dirección, accionistas e inversores a través de herramientas como el ROMI o el
EVAM.
3.DEFINICIÓN Y EJEMPLO DE CÁLCULO DEL ROMI Y DEL EVAM
Farris et al. (2015) definen el ROMI como el resultado de dividir el incremento de valor financiero creado por las
acciones de marketing neto de la inversión en estas acciones entre la inversión en marketing. Para calcular el
incremento de valor financiero calculamos la diferencia entre las ventas realizadas después de las acciones de
marketing (o ventas incrementales) y las ventas esperados, caso de no haberlas realizado (o ventas de nivel base).
Para la obtención de las ventas incrementales se utilizan modelos econométricos cuya creación ilustraremos más
adelante.
Una vez aisladas las ventas incrementales, el proceso de cálculo es el siguiente: 1) multiplicamos estas ventas por
el precio obteniendo el ingreso incremental; 2) multiplicamos estas ventas por su coste variable obteniendo el
coste variable incremental; 3) hallamos la diferencia de forma que obtenemos el margen bruto incremental; 4) a
este valor le restamos la inversión realizada en marketing; 5) dividimos el valor obtenido por la inversión en
marketing, obteniendo de esta forma el ROMI:
...
El resultado de la operación se puede interpretar bien como euros ganados/perdidos por euro invertido, o bien,
como porcentaje de rentabilidad sobre la inversión realizada en publicidad. Por ejemplo, un ROMI = 0,3 indicaría
que hemos ganado 30 euros por cada 100 euros invertidos o bien que la campaña ha tenido una rentabilidad del
30%. En el caso de que el valor hubiera sido negativo de ROMI = -0,3, hemos perdido 30 euros por cada 100 euros

invertidos o bien una rentabilidad del -30%.
En este cálculo no se incluyen los costes fijos ni las amortizaciones, dado que asumimos que éstos no varían por
las ventas incrementales generadas por la campaña. Cabría preguntarse por la no inclusión del impuesto sobre el
beneficio en la formula, ni del ahorro fiscal al ser considerada la publicidad un gasto fiscalmente deducible, pero
debido a que hacemos un cociente entre ambos y a pesar de que los valores absolutos disminuirán, la proporción
se mantendrá constante:
...
Una vez obtenido el ROMI, hemos de restar el coste de los recursos financieros de la empresa. Este coste es el
coste medio ponderado del capital, o por sus siglas en inglés wacc (weighted average cost of capital) que es un
promedio del coste de las deudas a largo plazo y de la rentabilidad requerida por los accionistas, o coste del
capital. En algunos casos, determinadas compañías usan un valor superior al wacc conocido como rentabilidad
mínima exigida (hurdle rate). La diferencia entre el ROMI y el wacc nos indica la rentabilidad obtenida de la
campaña:
Rentabilidad = ROMI - wacc
El siguiente paso es calcular el EVAM. Seggie, Cavusgil, y Phelan (2007) se refieren a éste como una métrica que
permite comunicar los resultados fuera de los departamentos de marketing, especialmente a los accionistas, dado
que no deja lugar a controversias causadas por las opiniones subjetivas. Smyth y Lecoeuvre (2015) indican su
pertinencia para aplicarlo a la medición del valor creado para los accionistas de las estrategias de marketing.
Financieramente, el EVA mide la aportación de valor para la empresa de las inversiones realizadas después de
detraer su coste de financiación; se calcula restando al beneficio antes de intereses y después de impuestos la
inversión realizada multiplicada por el coste del capital (para ampliar la información sobre el EVA se puede
consultar Griffith 2004). Adaptando la fórmula a los beneficios incrementales obtenidos en las acciones de
marketing podemos calcular el EVAM como:
EVAM = Beneficio Incremental (1-7) - Inversió en Marketing x wacc
Para ilustrar con un ejemplo el cálculo del ROMI y del EVAM establecemos las siguientes hipótesis: ventas
incrementales de 100.000 unidades precio de 9 Euros y coste variable de 6 Euros. Inversión en marketing de
200.000 Euros, wacc del 10% y tasa impositiva del 30%. El ROMI sería:
...
Obtenemos un ROMI del 50% al que hemos de restar el wacc del 10% obteniendo una rentabilidad de la inversión
del 40%. El EVAM sería en este caso de 50.000 Euros:
EVAM = 100,000 x (1-0.3) - 200,000 x 0.1 = 70,000 - 20,000 = 50,000
A continuación, basándonos en uno de los trabajos realizados para una compañía de gran consumo, ilustraremos
la creación del modelo econométrico para hallar las ventas incrementales y posteriormente el cálculo del ROMI y
del EVAM obtenidos.

4.DATOS
Para explicar el proceso de obtención de las ventas incrementales, utilizaremos los datos de un producto líder en
España en la categoría de productos lácteos con propiedades beneficiosas salud y con un alto nivel de inversión
publicitaria, especialmente en televisión. La serie consta de 298 observaciones con periodicidad semanal y
acumulada a los domingos entre los años 2009 y 2014. Este periodo es especialmente complicado para la
modelización, dado que incluye tanto el punto álgido de la crisis económica acaecida en España, como el inicio de
la recuperación de los años 2013 y 2014. Las ventas de la categoría tienen un alto componente estacional, con
influencias positivas de las primera y última semanas del mes y con caídas de ventas muy acusadas en los meses
de verano, noviembre, puentes, periodos vacacionales y en el periodo navideño. La base de datos inicial consta de
más de mil variables con datos tanto de la propia compañía, como de la competencia y del sector así como otras
variables económicas. Esta base de datos aparte del cálculo del ROMI, permite analizar otros aspectos del
desempeño de marketing de la marca, como puede ser el cálculo de las elasticidades precio o cruzadas,
elasticidades de la publicidad, etc. o bien medir el impacto de las campañas protagonizadas por diferentes
"celebrities" o en acciones especiales. Y también medir eficacia del posicionamiento en el primer y último anuncio
después de los cortes publicitarios.
Tras una especificación inicial se procede al proceso de modelización econométrica. Este proceso consiste en
plantear cuáles son las variables relevantes a analizar y que a priori se considera que explicarán en mejor medida y
de forma significativa las variaciones de las ventas a lo largo del periodo analizado. A continuación describimos
estas variables:
Ventas en volumen (Ventas)
Las ventas corresponden exclusivamente a un único producto de la marca y vienen medidas en litros. Al incluir la
variable ventas en litros como variable dependiente del modelo, cabría pensar que tendría más sentido utilizar una
medida de las ventas en Euros, en vez de una medida en volumen y más teniendo en cuenta que se busca medir el
retorno de la inversión en marketing, el problema es que las ventas en Euros es una combinación lineal de las
variables ventas en volumen y precio, de forma que si usamos esta variable perdemos la información del impacto
del precio en las ventas ya que las variaciones de estas no sabremos si se deben al precio o al volumen. Por otro
lado, técnicamente y teniendo en cuenta la metodología usada por la regresión lineal, el hecho de introducir las
ventas en valor económico genera algunos problemas y distorsiones a la hora de dirimir la variable causante de la
variación de las ventas. Por ejemplo, si partimos de una semana dada en la que las ventas son de 100 unidades y
el precio es de 1 Euro, en este caso, la variable ventas en Euros tendría un valor de 100 Euros. Una semana
después realizamos una disminución de precio a 0,8 Euros acompañada de una campaña de televisión para
anunciar la bajada, suponemos que el efecto conjunto de estas dos variables supone un aumento de ventas a 120
unidades y nuestra variable ventas en Euros pasa a ser de 120x0,8 = 96 Euros. La información que recibiría el
modelo econométrico sería una disminución de ventas en Euros de un 4% pasando de 100 a 96 Euros (cuando en
realidad las ventas en volumen habrían aumentado en un 20%) y un aumento de la inversión en publicidad, lo que
el modelo interpretaría como una correlación negativa entre publicidad y ventas al no detectar el efecto precio. Sin
embargo, si utilizamos las ventas en volumen aportaríamos al modelo una información bien distinta que no
provocaría distorsiones de lógica económica: el aumento de las ventas de 100 a 120 unidades es debido al efecto
conjunto de dos variables, por un lado la bajada de precio y por otro el aumento de la publicidad.
Distribución ponderada
La distribución ponderada es una medida de la calidad de la distribución de un producto, nos indica el porcentaje

de supermercados o grandes superficies en las que se vende, pero ponderando este porcentaje por el volumen
total de ventas de la categoría en cada centro, es decir, a mayor volumen de ventas en los centros en los que
estamos, mayor distribución ponderada. El producto tiene distribución ponderada media del 99,9% y la marca
demostró gran interés en conocer cuál es el impacto en ventas de esta variable dado el alto nivel de inversión de
su mantenimiento.
Índices de Intensidad Promocional
Estos índices se obtienen dividiendo las ventas realizadas en promoción entre el total de ventas. En nuestro caso
se incluyen tres tipos distintos de promociones; Índice de Intensidad Promocional en Exposición Especial (IIP EE);
Índice de Intensidad Promocional con Folletos (IIP F), y el Índice de Intensidad Promocional en Reducción
Temporal de Precios (IIP RTP).
Gross Rating Points de televisión (GRPS) a 20" y GRPS a 20" Acciones Especiales (AAEE)
La medida GRPS sólo tiene en cuenta a las personas que han visto el anuncio emitido y forman parte del público
objetivo, excluyendo a las que lo han visto pero no forman parte de este público. Es el producto de dos variables
que son, el porcentaje de nuestro público objetivo que ha visto el anunció y el número de veces que lo ha visto
multiplicado por 100. Por tanto los GRPS son una medida de presión publicitaria exclusivamente sobre nuestro
público objetivo, de forma que 200 GRPS podría significar que el 100% de nuestro público objetivo ha visto el
anuncio 2 veces o que el 50% de este lo ha visto 4 veces. El hecho de usar esta variable en vez de inversión en
euros se debe a que como ocurría en el caso de las ventas la inversión en Euros es una combinación lineal de dos
variables, número de GRPS y precio de estos, de forma que si por ejemplo, se da una bajada de precios en los
GRPS por circunstancias del mercado televisivo, el modelo econométrico la interpretaría como una disminución en
la publicidad (introduciendo una distorsión en el análisis) cuando en realidad el nivel de presión publicitaria se
mantiene constante.
Dado que las campañas de televisión se componen de anuncios con varias duraciones en cada campaña, en
nuestro caso 11 duraciones distintas desde los 5 segundos a los 120 segundos, es necesario homogeneizar estos
formatos a un único de 20 segundos, por ejemplo, 2 anuncios vistos de 30 segundos son equivalentes a 3 de 20
segundos. Los datos los proporciona la empresa de audimetría Kantar Media.
Inversión en publicidad en prensa e Internet
En este caso y dado que no se disponía de una medida equivalente a los GRPS de televisión para estas variables,
se utiliza directamente la inversión publicitaria en Euros, aún a riesgo de sufrir algunas desviaciones por las
fluctuaciones de los precios a lo largo del tiempo.
Notoriedad de marca
La variable notoriedad de marca se expresa en porcentaje y para su estimación se usan datos de los tracking de
marca elaborados por el Instituto IPSOS. Cuantifica las respuestas a la pregunta: ¿antes de hoy ha oído hablar de
la marca...? respecto al número total de encuestados. Para el tracking se realizaron durante todo el periodo de
análisis 700 entrevistas telefónicas semanales mediante submuestras diarias de 100 entrevistas, dando un total
de 36.500 entrevistas por año. Tal y como se puede observar en la Tabla 1, los valores oscilan entre un valor
mínimo del 84%, una media del 96% y un máximo de 100% y representan el porcentaje de personas que conocen la
marca.

Diferencial de precio con la marca de distribución (MMDD)
Esta variable mide el impacto del precio en las ventas. Para calcularla se suman las ventas totales semanales en
valor (deflactadas por el IPC) de todas las marcas de distribución y se dividen por las ventas totales semanales de
todas estas marcas en volumen dando el precio medio semanal, una vez obtenido el dato se resta al precio de la
propia marca para averiguar el diferencial.
Interés en la búsqueda de la categoría en Internet
Esta variable, mide la frecuencia de búsqueda de las palabras clave relacionadas con las propiedades beneficiosas
para la salud de la marca, cubriendo todo el periodo analizado en la regresión, desde 2009 hasta 2014. Los datos,
proporcionados por las tendencias de búsqueda Google3, son el resultado de dividir el número de búsquedas de
las palabras clave entre el número total de búsquedas en Google en el mismo tiempo y lugar. Para indexar estos
valores de 0 a 100, los valores obtenidos por este cociente se dividen por el dato más alto en todo el rango y se
multiplican por 100.
Variables estacionales "Dummy"
Dentro del modelo se introducirán algunas variables "dummy" o ficticias que toman valores de 0 ó1, y
representaran factores como la estacionalidad. Por ejemplo variable dummy puente de mayo, toma valor 1 en la
semana en la que ocurre el puente de mayo y el resto del tiempo toma valor 0. Para poder incluir estas variables en
el modelo es necesario que la marca confirme que el fenómeno es un hecho aislado y puntual.
En la Tabla 1 se puede observar el resumen estadístico de las variables incluidas en el modelo.
5.CREACIÓN DEL MODELO
Análisis de la duración del efecto de la publicidad a corto plazo en las ventas, Adstock
Como efecto a corto plazo de la publicidad entendemos el impacto en las ventas producido por esta en la propia
semana y en las posteriores a la emisión (no hemos de confundirlo con el efecto a largo plazo, meses o años y que
representaremos mediante la variable de notoriedad). La duración del impacto de la publicidad a corto plazo se
mide mediante el modelo de Adstock (Broadbent, 1979). El modelo cuantifica el efecto directo sobre el aumento en
ventas que puede tener una campaña a lo largo de las semanas posteriores a su emisión y su disminución a través
de un modelo de decaimiento geométrico:
Adstockt = Publicidadt + Adstockt1
Donde Publicidadt puede ser GRPS o cualquier otra medida de inversión publicitaria, como inversión en Euros, en
el momento t. El parámetro cuantifica el efecto que en esta semana tiene la publicidad de la semana anterior. Por
ejemplo, un = 40% implica que esta semana conservamos el 40% del impacto de la publicidad de la semana
anterior, este impacto decae a un ritmo *, de forma que en las dos semanas posteriores habrá disminuido al 0,42 =
16% y así sucesivamente. A partir del parámetro es posible conocer el tiempo en semanas en los que decaerá
hasta el 50% o bien al 90% el efecto de la campaña. Para el nivel de = 40% el tiempo que tarda el efecto de la
campaña en decaer el 90% se calcularía como ln(0,1)/A = ln(0,1)/0,4 = 2,5 semanas.

El reto del modelo de Adstock se plantea a la hora de averiguar si realmente este impacto retardado existe y en su
caso cuantificarlo. Fry, Broadbent y Dixon (1999), proponen 3 métodos alternativos para averiguar el valor de , pero
en su análisis no queda claro hasta qué punto el efecto retardado estimado es significativo en las ventas mediante
un contraste estadístico. Como alternativa se podrían usar las estimaciones de Assmus, Farley y Lehmann (1984)
en su metaanálisis de 114 artículos y usar un valor medio del parámetro = 0,46 con una desviación típica de =
0,30. Sin embargo ninguno de estos enfoques nos parece adecuado y proponemos un enfoque distinto a través del
uso las funciones de impulso respuesta (Dekimpe y Hanssens, 1995, 1999) método que aplicado a la estimación
de , bajo nuestro conocimiento, no ha sido utilizado anteriormente en la literatura.
Las funciones de impulso respuesta se basan en los resultados obtenidos de un modelo de vector autoregresivo
(VAR). La especificación matemática del modelo VAR exige que las series utilizadas sean estacionarias,
entendiendo por estacionariedad el mantenimiento de las propiedades de media y varianza a lo largo del tiempo en
la serie (aunque sea sobre una tendencia). Caso de que la serie no lo sea, habremos de realizar la primera
diferencia para conseguir el objetivo de estacionariedad. El test de Dickie-Fuller aumentado, Tabla 2, nos indica
que tanto la serie de ventas como las variables de publicidad son estacionarias, por lo cual se puede realizar el
análisis VAR en nivel.
Económicamente el hecho de que la serie de ventas sea estacionaria nos indica que los impactos en esta son
temporales y una vez desviadas las ventas por las innovaciones (por ejemplo publicidad), estas vuelven en un
cierto tiempo a recuperar su valor medio, lo que implicaría que la serie tiene un movimiento de reversión a su cuota
de mercado media (Dekimpe y Hanssens 1999). Es decir, cuando emitimos una campaña esta tendría dos efectos,
uno de un impulso en ventas y otro de un aumento en la notoriedad, para mantener estos efectos hemos de seguir
emitiendo publicidad dado que de otra forma el efecto en las ventas disminuirá progresivamente cuando dejamos
de emitirla hasta alcanzar un nivel similar al anterior. Caso de que la serie no sea estacionaria el efecto de los
impactos sería permanente, desviando ésta de sus propiedades originales, por ejemplo, emitimos una campaña y
esta hace aumentar nuestras ventas, dejamos de emitirla y estas se mantienen en el nuevo nivel alcanzado.
Funciones de Impulso Respuesta a través del modelo VAR
La siguiente ecuación presenta el modelo VAR utilizado para K = 2 retardos determinados por el criterio Hannan-
Quinn (1979) y que para series estacionarias tiene la siguiente forma:
...
Siendo Yt el vector (6x1) de las variables endógenas: Ventas, GRPS 20", GRPS 20" AAEE, Prensa, Internet y GRPS
20" del Principal Competidor. A el vector (6x1) de constantes, B(k)i la matriz (6x6) de coeficientes para el retardo k,
Cn el vector de variables exógenas incluyendo las variables estacionales que afectan a la serie de ventas y ?~(0,)
la matriz de covarianzas de los residuos. Una vez estimado el modelo VAR se puede calcular su vector equivalente
de medias móviles de orden infinito que nos permitirá conocer la respuesta de las ventas a un impulso en las
variables de publicidad de 1 desviación típica. En la Figura 1 se pueden ver los gráficos de la respuesta de las
ventas a los impulsos de las variables de publicidad con un intervalo de confianza del 95% obtenido mediante
bootstraping usando el programa Gretl.
Una vez obtenidas respuestas de las ventas al impulso de las variables de publicidad, pasamos a estimar su
duración con un intervalo de confianza al 95% y asumiremos que el efecto no existe cuando el intervalo de
confianza incluye la línea de 0. A partir de aquí establecemos como hipótesis que la respuesta decae al 90% en la
mitad de la semana donde desaparece definitivamente, obteniendo de esta forma el valor que nos permitirá

estimar , Tabla 3.
Podemos observar que el efecto de mayor duración es el de la publicidad en internet y consideramos lógico este
resultado, dado que el producto tiene efecto sobre la salud y que la publicidad recibida en la navegación por
internet puede ser tomada con mayor atención generando por tanto un impulso de mayor duración en el tiempo.
La siguiente variable con mayor impacto son los GRPS 20" seguidos por los GRPS 20" AAEE y la Prensa. Todas
estas variables significativas serán incluidas en el modelo después de haber realizado la transformación en
Adstock, cada una con su coeficiente estimado. Como podemos observar en la Figura 1 el posible impacto
negativo de los GRPS 20" del principal competidor no es estadísticamente significativo al incluir todos los
intervalos de confianza el 0, lo cual puede ser lógico dado que el posible impacto se reparte entre todos los
competidores, por lo tanto no serán contemplados en el modelo.
6.MODELIZACIÓN DE LAS VENTAS
Las variables que usaremos para explicar las ventas las separamos en tres grupos, el primero incluye las variables
del marketing mix: distribución, notoriedad de marca, publicidad en televisión en distintas campañas y formatos y
publicidad en otros medios; el segundo incluye información de la competencia, como diferenciales de precios con
MMDD; y el tercero resume los factores económicos y sociales que afectan a las ventas, como estacionalidad en
las mismas, variaciones en el ciclo económico, e interés de la búsqueda en internet de la categoría. El modelo
responde a la siguiente ecuación:
...
Donde Yt es el valor de la variable dependiente Ventas en el momento t, ßt es el coeficiente de la variable

independiente xtt en el momento t y et es un término de error de ruido blanco. Aunque Gujarati (2004, pág. 168)
recomienda incluir siempre el término constante dentro de los modelos de regresión para evitar posibles
problemas de especificación y también posibles riesgos de multicolinealidad que redunden en una mayor varianza
de los coeficientes (una menor precisión del modelo), el autor establece una excepción cuando existe una fuerte
expectativa a priori. En nuestro caso, dado el alto esfuerzo dedicado por la marca a tener un nivel muy elevado de
distribución, se puso mucho énfasis en conocer el efecto individual de esta variable y aunque la constante
proporciona información acerca del nivel base de las ventas e incluiría el efecto de la distribución, se opto por no
incluirla y utilizar en su lugar la variable distribución ponderada.
Para conocer en más detalle la relación entre las variables del modelo ajustado se realizó el cálculo de la matriz de
correlación que se puede observar en la Tabla 4.
Una vez verificada la estructura de la matriz de correlación se procede a la creación del modelo, Gráfico 1, dado
que tiene un R2 del 86,08% interpretamos que hemos conseguido capturar un 86% de la variabilidad de las ventas.
Las variables incluidas en el modelo, sus coeficientes y su porcentaje de aportación individual a las ventas totales
de todo el periodo se pueden ver en la Tabla 5.
El coeficiente de regresión indica la variación en ventas por el aumento de una unidad en la variable explicativa,
manteniendo el resto constante. Si el coeficiente es positivo significa que esta variable tiene contribución positiva
a las ventas y viceversa.
En el Gráfico 2 se puede observar la aportación individual de las distintas variables del marketing mix a las ventas

totales. Destaca la distribución ponderada, a la que se debe un 63,8% de las ventas, seguida de la notoriedad de
marca que aporta un 32,4% de las ventas. En tercer lugar se encuentra el efecto negativo del diferencial de precio
con la marca de distribución que resta un 15,2% a las ventas. La variable publicidad, que es la suma del efecto de
la publicidad en todos los medios en el corto plazo, aporta un 6,8% de las ventas totales.
7.ANÁLISIS DE LAS VARIABLES DEL MODELO
Distribución Ponderada
La aportación de la variable distribución ponderada es de un 63,8% a las ventas totales y podemos asumir que una
distribución tan amplia como la de la marca es el sustento del nivel base de ventas. Esta variable aunque pudiera
asimilarse a la constante de la regresión recoge información que la constante no aclararía, como por ejemplo,
cómo afecta a las ventas la salida de un determinado mercado o la pérdida de un determinado canal de
distribución.
Índices de Intensidad Promocional
Las ventas obtenidas a través de promociones son la suma de los efectos de los Índices de Intensidad
Promocional en Exposición Especial (IIP EE), el Índice de Intensidad Promocional con Folletos (IIP F), y el Índice de
Intensidad Promocional en Reducción Temporal de Precios (IIP RTP) dando una aportación conjunta a las ventas
de un 6, 2%.
Publicidad a corto plazo
Incluye las variables GRPS de televisión e inversión en Euros en prensa e Internet, todas ellas transformadas en
Adstock. Gran parte de la publicidad emitida consistió en aportar información sobre las cualidades del producto y
su efecto beneficioso para la salud, el objetivo no era sólo realizar ventas a corto plazo sino también crear
notoriedad de marca en la categoría para promover las ventas futuras. El aporte de la publicidad en televisión
tanto en campañas como en acciones especiales (AAEE), es de un 6,3% de las ventas. La publicidad en prensa e
Internet tienen una aportación conjunta de un 0,5% de las ventas. Dando un total de 6,8%.
Notoriedad de Marca
Clary y Dyson (2004) indican que el efecto actual de la publicidad a corto (representada por las variables con
Adstock) en las ventas no es suficiente para que las campañas sean rentables siendo necesario medir también el
efecto acumulado de la publicidad en el largo plazo para conocer la rentabilidad real de la publicidad. En nuestro
caso una aportación de la publicidad a corto de un 6,8% (y por nuestra experiencia a lo largo de los años, el efecto
suele ser menor) a las ventas totales no justifica el alto volumen económico invertido dado que como veremos
más adelante obtendremos un ROMI negativo. Sin embargo, revisando la literatura sobre el tema, observamos
algunas conclusiones interesantes sobre los efectos de la publicidad a corto plazo. Driver y Foxal (1986)
concluyen que la publicidad a corto plazo, aparte de la función de generar ventas, tiene otras funciones que se
relacionan con el efecto a largo plazo: i) La publicidad se ha de acumular durante un tiempo para alcanzar niveles
en los que sea efectiva. ii) Los receptores actuales de la publicidad no son necesariamente los consumidores
actuales, el impacto de la publicidad puede tener efectos posteriores. iii) La publicidad inculca hábitos que la
publicidad futura mantendrá. iv) La publicidad está sujeta a desgaste y a obsolescencia y necesita renovación. Por
otro lado, Aaker y Day (1974) analizan la jerarquía de efectos generados por la publicidad y concluyen que la
publicidad influye en la notoriedad y que ésta a su vez influye en el comportamiento de compra. Siendo uno de los

factores más importantes para la generación de la notoriedad el efecto acumulativo de la publicidad a corto plazo
(Clark, Doraszelski, y Draganska 2009).
Huang y Sarigöllü (2012) concluyen que para bienes de consumo existe una relación positiva entre notoriedad y
resultados en ventas a través del proceso: notoriedad -> prueba -> refuerzo. Somos conscientes de que para que
este proceso sea efectivo, ha de complementarse con la contribución de la distribución y promociones de precio
(variables analizadas por separado en nuestro modelo). Macdonald y Sharp (2000) encuentran mejoras en los
resultados de la marca en el mercado relacionadas con la notoriedad. Indican que los consumidores ante la
elección entre productos con diferencia en notoriedad muestran una mayor predilección por los más conocidos
según el ciclo: elección de producto con más notoriedad, prueba de otros productos y vuelta al producto con más
notoriedad. En nuestro caso se da la circunstancia especial de que el producto analizado tiene efectos positivos
para la salud y en este caso, el conocimiento de la marca disminuye el riesgo percibido por el consumidor a la hora
de tomar la decisión de compra (Moisesku 2009) aumentando de esta forma la probabilidad de compra.
Srinivasan, Vanhuele y Pauwels (2008) indican la pertinencia de incluir en los modelos de marketing mix las
denominadas "mindset metrics" y especialmente la variable notoriedad. En su estudio los resultados revelan que
métricas como la notoriedad tienen un efecto en las ventas más allá de los efectos directos de la publicidad, el
precio, la distribución o las promociones. Por ello insisten en la necesidad de incluir en este tipo de modelos
métricas perceptuales que permitan capturar los efectos positivos a largo plazo de la creación de marca.
Debido a estos motivos, consideramos adecuado incluir esta variable en el modelo y poder utilizarla como una
aproximación del efecto a largo plazo de la publicidad, aunque somos conscientes de que la notoriedad es una
variable muy rica y generada por un número mayor de variables como pueden ser otros instrumentos de
comunicación, la distribución o el propio producto. En nuestro modelo, la variable notoriedad de marca, tiene una
contribución a las ventas totales de un 32,37%, la segunda más importante después de la distribución. Y puede
ayudar a justificar el efecto a largo plazo de las estrategias de inversión publicitaria en la creación de valor para
los accionistas.
Dummies Acciones Especiales Mayo de 2011 y Octubre de 2013
El hecho de incluir en el modelo estas dos fechas se debe a dos acciones especiales que fueron realizadas por la
marca en esos periodos y que de forma conjunta tuvieron un impacto de un 0,2% en las ventas totales.
Precio
Como cabía esperar, el diferencial de precio con la marca de distribución tiene un impacto negativo en las ventas
totales siendo este de un -15,2%.
Variables de Entorno Social, Macroeconómico y Estacionales
Se incluyen variables que reflejan cambios en el entorno, como el interés por la búsqueda de la categoría en
Internet, que aporta un 5,9% de las ventas y la incipiente recuperación de la economía Española ocurrida en los
años 2013 y 2014, con un impacto de un 1,8%. Por otro lado, variables que recogen los aumentos en ventas en las
primera y última semanas del mes por el cobro de las nóminas y la J apertura en el primer domingo de mes de los
centros comerciales en 7o algunas Comunidades Autónomas Españolas, su efecto conjunto es de un 1,0%.
Finalmente, se incluyen variables que recogen la caída de ventas por factores estacionales, con un efecto conjunto
de un -2,9%.

Como resumen, en el Gráfico 3 se puede ver la aportación individual semanal a las ventas de las principales
variables analizadas.
8.CÁLCULO DE LA RENTABILIDAD PUBLICITARIA: ROMI Y EVAM
Una vez realizado el modelo y aisladas las aportaciones de cada variable, contamos con la información necesaria
para cuantificar en términos económicos el retorno de la inversión en publicidad. En el Gráfico 4 mostramos las
ventas generadas por la publicidad emitida en televisión, prensa e Internet, la que consideramos publicidad a corto
y las ventas generadas por la notoriedad de marca que consideramos que representa el impacto a largo de la
publicidad.
Para ilustrar el análisis del cálculo del ROMI y del EVAM tomaremos el año completo de 2013, durante el cual un
5,9% del total de ventas se deben a la publicidad a corto, y un 29,9% al efecto de la notoriedad de marca o
publicidad a largo, el efecto conjunto de ambas variables aporta un 35,8% de las ventas totales del periodo. Para el
cálculo del ROMI y del EVAM asumimos un Margen Bruto de gran compañía del sector de un 50% (PWC, 2015, pág.
18), para el coste de los recursos financieros usamos un wacc del 10% en consonancia con las empresas del
sector y asumimos una tasa impositiva del 30%, acorde con las tasas actuales en España.
A la luz de esta información y siguiendo paso a paso el proceso de cálculo del beneficio incremental explicado
anteriormente, se obtienen los resultados que se detallan en la Tabla 6, donde aparecen los resultados financieros
desagregados de la publicidad a corto plazo incluyendo televisión, prensa e Internet, y por otro lado, la suma de los
efectos de la publicidad a corto plazo y la notoriedad de marca representando el largo plazo.
Si sólo tenemos en cuenta la publicidad a corto plazo, el ROMI es de un -33% y una vez restado el wacc de un 10%
obtenemos una rentabilidad de la publicidad de un -43%, el EVAM del periodo habría sido de -1,9 M de Euros, es
decir, habríamos destruido valor para los accionistas por este importe. Para calcular el impacto económico de la
notoriedad de marca no incluimos la inversión realizada, que estaría representada por la publicidad acumulada, el
esfuerzo en distribución y en campañas promocionales de los años anteriores, dado que financieramente se
pueden considerar como costes hundidos, costes que nunca se incluyen al evaluar una inversión. Al añadir el
efecto de la notoriedad de marca el resultado es totalmente distinto, en este segundo caso el ROMI es de un 308%
al que si restamos el 10% de wacc nos da una rentabilidad del 298% y se habría creado valor para los accionistas
de un EVAM de 9,2 M de Euros.
9.CONCLUSIONES, LIMITACIONES Y FUTURAS LÍNEAS DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Desde hace años se viene abogando por la estandarización y clarificación de los métodos usados para medir el
ROMI (por ejemplo, IPA 2008 y Farris et al. 2015), sin embargo, a los autores nos les consta que se hayan
proporcionado ejemplos reales de su cálculo describiendo de forma detallada los modelos econométricos de
marketing mix necesarios para su obtención. Estos mismos modelos también permiten realizar el cálculo de una
de las medidas más comunes de la creación de valor para los accionistas, el EVA, que ha sido adaptada por los
autores para medir la creación de valor del marketing, EVAM.
La estimación del valor de para el Adstock a través de curvas impulso respuesta es una forma transparente de
medir el impacto de la publicidad en el tiempo y permite además conocer la significación de las estimaciones y
fijar con mayor precisión el tiempo de decaimiento del efecto de la publicidad.

El estudio destaca la importancia de medir la notoriedad de marca y explica como cuantificarla como variable en
los modelos de marketing mix. En nuestro caso, esta variable aporta un 32,4% de las ventas totales de la marca en
el periodo de estudio y es la segunda más importante después de la distribución. Si sólo usamos la publicidad a
corto para calcular el ROMI del año 2013, éste arroja un valor de un -33%, y el EVAM una disminución de valor para
los accionistas de -1,9 M Euros. En cambio, al añadir el efecto de la notoriedad de marca, el ROMI pasa a un 298%
y la creación de valor para los accionistas a 9,4 M de Euros.
La metodología planteada cumple tres objetivos: 1) En el día a día de los departamentos de marketing permite
medir los resultados o eficacia de las acciones realizadas, pudiendo servir para remodelar nuestro marketing mix e
incentivar o desincentivar determinadas acciones. 2) Permite obtener una información que nos indica la eficiencia
económica y la rentabilidad de las inversiones, que aparte de ser clave para los departamentos de marketing, es
trascendente para los departamentos de control financiero. 3) De cara a la alta dirección y para la comunicación
con accionistas, inversores y analistas la información de la creación de valor a través del EVAM ayudará a una
mejor comprensión de la gestión realizada y a mejorar la información disponible para que éstos puedan tomar sus
decisiones de asignación de recursos.
Como limitaciones, indicamos que esté análisis ha sido realizado específicamente para un producto que tiene
efectos en la salud, y para el cual el conocimiento de la marca es un aspecto muy importante a la hora de tomar la
decisión de compra, (Moisesku 2009), por lo cual, consideramos que los resultados no son extrapolables a otras
categorías de productos, sin embargo, pensamos que la metodología sí lo es y por eso proponemos como futura
línea de investigación un estudio más amplio en el que se puedan comparar los resultados de ROMI y EVAM para
otras categorías, especialmente en las que no exista ese componente de riesgo que implica su uso para la salud, y
poder comprobar en productos con bajo riesgo percibido, los efectos de la publicidad a corto y de la notoriedad de
marca.
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Sirkin, K. (2005). "Contributing to the Bottom Line: Marketing Productivity, Effectiveness and Accountability".The
Board Room Project. http://www.themasb.org/wp-content/ uploads/2009/04/marketing-productivity-
effectiveness-and-accountability-tbp-july-20051.pdf
NOTAS
1. Agradecimientos: Nos gustaría agradecer las valiosas aportaciones del editor y de un revisor anónimo. El
presente artículo forma parte del proyecto de investigación 06/ 16 financiado por ESIC Business &Marketing
School en colaboración con CONENTO.
2. Autor de contacto: ESIC Business &Marketing School; Av. Valdenigrales s/n; 28223 Pozuelo de Alarcón (Madrid);
ESPAÑA
3. www.google.com/trends
DETAILS
Subject: Studies; Return on investment; Marketing; Economic value added; Estimating

techniques; Dairy products
Location: Spain
Publication title: Universia Business Review; Madrid
Issue: 52
Pages: 18-75
Number of pages: 58
Publication date: Fourth Quarter 2016

Publisher: Universia Holding, S.L.
Place of publication: Madrid
Country of publication: Spain, Madrid
Publication subject: Business And Economics--Banking And Finance, Business And Economics--
Management
ISSN: 16985117
Document feature: Illustrations Equations Tables References Graphs
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3232/UBR.2016.V13.N4.01
Copyright: Copyright Universia Holding, S.L. Fourth Quarter 2016
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ODPOWIEDZIALNY MARKETING, CZYLI

MARKETING SPOŁECZNIE ZAANGAŻOWANY
Szewczyk, Monika 1 1 Doktorantka - Katedra Gospodarki wiatowej i Integracji Europejskiej, Wydzia
Ekonomiczno-Socjologiczny, Uniwersytet ódzki; [email protected] . Gospodarka w
Praktyce i Teorii ; Lodz Iss. 47, (2017): 77-88.
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)
Marketing describes the social processes involving the free exchange of goods and services, it is also called the
art of selling products. First of all, it is a process based on the planning and execution of ideas, setting prices, as
well as the promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services. The growing importance of the concept of
sustainable development and corporate social responsibility makes that the marketing strategies of companies
are beginning to be based on responsibility and honesty. That form of marketing leads to the implementation of
cause related marketing. It involves combining economic objectives of the company with social objectives. There
are many positive examples of such actions and activities led by companies. Unfortunately, there are also
controversial cases, often arousing distaste among consumers. They are caused by misunderstanding of ideas
and the desire to improve the company's image and catch the attention to the existence of the brand on the market
in an aggressive way. The aim of the study is to present the application of cause related marketing with the
principles of corporate social responsibility, as well as the controversy appearing in this area.
ABSTRACT (POLISH)
Marketing opisuje procesy spoeczne polegajce na swobodnej wymianie produktów i usug - nazywa si go równie
sztuk sprzedawania produktów. Przede wszystkim jest to proces oparty na planowaniu i realizacji pomysów,
ustalaniu cen, a take promocji i dystrybucji idei, towarów oraz usug. Wzrost znaczenia koncepcji zrównowaonego
rozwoju i idei spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu powoduje, e strategie marketingowe w firmach zaczynaj
bazowa na odpowiedzialnoci i uczciwoci. Tak postrzegana forma marketingu prowadzi do implementacji
marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego. Polega on na czeniu celów ekonomicznych firmy z celami spoecznymi.
Mona znale wiele pozytywnych przykadów takich akcji i dziaa prowadzonych przez przedsibiorstwa i sucych
spoeczestwu. Niestety pojawiaj si take kontrowersyjne przypadki, budzce czsto niesmak wród konsumentów.
Spowodowane s one niewaciwym zrozumieniem idei oraz chci poprawy wizerunku firmy i zwrócenia uwagi na
istnienie marki na rynku w agresywny sposób. Celem pracy jest przedstawienie zastosowania marketingu
spoecznie zaangaowanego z uwzgldnieniem zasad spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu, a take kontrowersji
pojawiajcych si w tym obszarze.
FULL TEXT
Headnote
Abstract
Marketing describes the social processes involving the free exchange of goods and services, it is also called the
art of selling products. First of all, it is a process based on the planning and execution of ideas, setting prices, as
well as the promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services. The growing importance of the concept of
sustainable development and corporate social responsibility makes that the marketing strategies of companies

are beginning to be based on responsibility and honesty. That form of marketing leads to the implementation of
cause related marketing. It involves combining economic objectives of the company with social objectives. There
are many positive examples of such actions and activities led by companies. Unfortunately, there are also
controversial cases, often arousing distaste among consumers. They are caused by misunderstanding of ideas
and the desire to improve the company's image and catch the attention to the existence of the brand on the market
in an aggressive way. The aim of the study is to present the application of cause related marketing with the
principles of corporate social responsibility, as well as the controversy appearing in this area.
Keywords: marketing, cause related marketing (CRM), corporate social responsibility (CSR)
JEL classification: M20, M14, M31
Streszczenie
Marketing opisuje procesy spoeczne polegajce na swobodnej wymianie produktów i usug - nazywa si go równie
sztuk sprzedawania produktów. Przede wszystkim jest to proces oparty na planowaniu i realizacji pomysów,
ustalaniu cen, a take promocji i dystrybucji idei, towarów oraz usug. Wzrost znaczenia koncepcji zrównowaonego
rozwoju i idei spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu powoduje, e strategie marketingowe w firmach zaczynaj
bazowa na odpowiedzialnoci i uczciwoci. Tak postrzegana forma marketingu prowadzi do implementacji
marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego. Polega on na czeniu celów ekonomicznych firmy z celami spoecznymi.
Mona znale wiele pozytywnych przykadów takich akcji i dziaa prowadzonych przez przedsibiorstwa i sucych
spoeczestwu. Niestety pojawiaj si take kontrowersyjne przypadki, budzce czsto niesmak wród konsumentów.
Spowodowane s one niewaciwym zrozumieniem idei oraz chci poprawy wizerunku firmy i zwrócenia uwagi na
istnienie marki na rynku w agresywny sposób. Celem pracy jest przedstawienie zastosowania marketingu
spoecznie zaangaowanego z uwzgldnieniem zasad spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu, a take kontrowersji
pojawiajcych si w tym obszarze.
Sowa kluczowe: marketing, marketing spoecznie zaangaowany, spoeczna odpowiedzialno biznesu
Wstp
W czasach globalizacji i rosncego postpu technologicznego, które prowadz do szybkiego rozprzestrzeniania si
informacji oraz rozszerzania si dziaalnoci gospodarczej na inne pastwa, mamy do czynienia z rosnc konkurencj
midzy firmami, a w szczególnoci midzy duymi korporacjami, rywalizujcymi na poziomie midzynarodowym.
Przedsibiorstwa rónej wielkoci i na rónym poziomie konkuruj, by osign jak najlepsze wyniki finansowe, które
zapewni im istnienie i moliwo kontynuacji dziaalnoci oraz dobr pozycj na rynku. By utrzyma lub osign podan pozycj
na rynku, firma stosuje zabiegi majce na celu przekonanie klienta do swoich usug i produktów, nawizuje z nim
relacje, a nastpnie stara si j utrzyma na stae, zapewniajc obustronne korzyci. Takie czynnoci i dziaania
skoncentrowane na konsumencie nosz nazw marketingu.
W perspektywie zmian klimatycznych i zwikszania si wiadomoci spoeczestwa wzrasta take potrzeba dbaoci o
rodowisko naturalne i czowieka. Szczególna rola w tym zadaniu przypada przedsibiorstwom, które w intensywny
sposób oddziauj na otoczenie. Poprzez swoj dziaalno wpywaj na konsumenta, korzystaj z zasobów rodowiska
przyrodniczego oraz przyczyniaj si do rozwoju gospodarczego. Planujc swoje strategie, firmy powinny bra pod
uwag potrzeby otoczenia, w którym si znajduj, a z uwagi na bezporedni kontakt z klientem cz strategii firmy, któr
jest marketing, powinna by planowana w sposób szczególnie odpowiedzialny.
Ponisza praca przedstawia wykorzystanie marketingu w sposób odpowiedzialny, zgodny z koncepcj spoecznej
odpowiedzialnoci przedsibiorstw. Prezentuje równie przykady aktywnoci w obszarze marketingu spoecznie
zaangaowanego oraz kontrowersje z nimi zwizane. Celem pracy jest przedstawienie znaczenia marketingu
spoecznie odpowiedzialnego i jego wpywu na przedsibiorstwa i spoeczestwo. Aby go zrealizowa, dokonano
analizy i oceny dziaa w obszarze marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego w praktyce, na wybranych przykadach.
Pojcie i istota marketingu
Marketing to bardzo szerokie zagadnienie, uwzgldnia wiele poj i narzdzi. Wedug Philipa Kotlera1 mona wyróni dwie
definicje marketingu: spoeczn i dyrektorsk. Okrelenia te przedstawiaj marketing z rónych punktów widzenia.
Spoeczne ujcie marketingu opisuje go jako proces spoeczny, poprzez który jednostki uzyskuj to, czego potrzebuj.

Proces ten odbywa si poprzez kreowanie, oferowanie oraz swobodn wymian produktów i usug. Za dyrektorska
definicja marketingu nazywa go sztuk sprzedawania produktów. Marketing traktowany jest przede wszystkim jako
proces polegajcy na planowaniu i realizacji pomysów, ustalaniu cen, a take promocji i dystrybucji idei, towarów
oraz usug, tak by kreowa wymian realizujc cele przedsibiorstw i jednostek2.
Realizacja dobrej strategii marketingowej opiera si przede wszystkim na kombinacji rónych form aktywnoci oraz
doborze odpowiednich rodków dziaania. Zawieraj si one w koncepcji marketing mix (4P), uwzgldniajcej cztery
podstawowe elementy oddziaywania na rynek. Do skadowych tych nale3:
- produkt (ang. product) - asortyment, jako, opakowanie, marka, czyli wszystkie cechy produktu istotne z punktu
widzenia konsumenta; w skad tego elementu marketing mixu wchodz dziaania wspierajce produkt, takie jak
gwarancja czy pomoc techniczna;
- cena (ang. price) - polityka cenowa, m.in. rabaty, warunki patnoci;
- miejsce, dystrybucja (ang. place) - kanay dystrybucji danego produktu, take rozwizania logistyczne czy wygoda
nabycia produktu;
- promocja (ang. promotion) - wszystkie dziaania komunikacyjne i promocyjne firmy, np. reklama.
Marketing suy realizacji celów przedsibiorstw i przez efektywne funkcjonowanie spenia wiele funkcji. Podstawow
rol marketingu jest gromadzenie i przekazywanie informacji rynkowej. Poza tym peni on równie funkcj edukacyjn i
spoeczn. Marketing ukierunkowany na nabywc przynosi mu szczególne korzyci, takie jak: szeroki wybór
asortymentu, konkurencyjna cena oraz jako, profity zwizane z akcjami promocyjnymi, np.: degustacja, nisze ceny, a
take wysoki standard obsugi oraz bogaty wybór róde informacji dotyczcych oferty. Mimo tak wielu korzyci, jakie
odnosi konsument, nie mona pomin negatywnych skutków stosowania zabiegów marketingowych. Na klientów w
sposób ujemny wpywaj takie zjawiska, jak: tworzenie przez firmy pozornie nowych produktów oraz przyspieszanie
zuycia wyrobów trwaego uytku, przesadne rónicowanie produktów czy te zbyt intensywna i agresywna reklama4.
Powszechne spojrzenie na marketing zakada, e jego celem jest taki wpyw na konsumenta, by naby on produkt, bez
uwzgldniania swoich realnych potrzeb. Wspóczesna interpretacja pokazuje szersze spojrzenie na marketing,
przede wszystkim skupia uwag firmy na kliencie. Do takich celów nale w szczególnoci5:
- okrelanie i zaspokajanie potrzeb konsumentów - rozpoznanie potrzeb, poznanie klienta, stworzenie
odpowiedniego produktu lub usugi;
- budowanie dobrych relacji z konsumentami - dbanie o dobry wizerunek firmy i zdobywanie lojalnoci klientów;
- pobudzanie i utrzymywanie potrzeb wród konsumentów - kreowanie popytu, w szczególnoci zwizanego z wejciem
nowego produktu na rynek;
- zachcanie i przyciganie nowych konsumentów zwizane z oferowaniem produktów o okrelonych cechach
podanych przez klientów.
Wobec wyej wymienionych celów marketingu istotnym pojciem wydaje si termin public relations (PR). S to
dziaania firmy majce na celu budowanie i utrzymywanie relacji przedsibiorstwa z jej otoczeniem. PR to narzdzie
komunikacyjne suce do kreowania pozytywnego wizerunku firmy oraz system reakcji na nieprzychylne informacje i
niekorzystne zjawiska wystpujce w firmie6. Public relations to relacje ze spoeczestwem - bardzo czsto traktowane
s jako dodatek do marketingu, a take pity element marketing mix (produkt, cena, dystrybucja, promocja).
Jednoczenie uznaje si PR za trwa funkcj zarzdzania, wpywajc na pozyskiwanie i utrzymywanie przychylnoci
obecnych oraz przyszych zainteresowanych firm, tak by jak najlepiej dopasowa cele firmy do oczekiwa tych osób7.
Rola i znaczenie zrównowaonego rozwoju i spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu
W czasach szybkiego rozwoju gospodarczego oraz nadmiernego wykorzystywania zasobów naturalnych
ogromnego znaczenia nabiera koncepcja zrównowaonego rozwoju. Wyznacza ona granice zrównowaonego
wzrostu zachowujcego w równowadze potrzeby gospodarcze, spoeczne i rodowiskowe, ze szczególnym
uwzgldnieniem potrzeb przyszych pokole. Jedna z podstawowych definicji zrównowaonego rozwoju okrela go jako
„proces zmian, w którym eksploatacja zasobów, kierunki inwestowania, kierunki postpu technicznego i zmiany
instytucjonalne pozostaj w harmonii i zachowuj bieco i na przyszo moliwoci zaspokojenia ludzkich potrzeb i
aspiracji"8. Zrównowaony rozwój mona nazwa nowoczesn strategi rozwoju spoeczno-gospodarczego, a przede

wszystkim podstaw do odpowiedzialnego prowadzenia biznesu we wspóczesnym wiecie. Zaoenia i zasady tak
okrelonego wzrostu staj si szczególnie istotne w wietle wzrostu wiadomoci spoeczestwa oraz zwikszajcych si
zagroe spoeczno-rodowiskowych. Problemy i potrzeby te stawiaj przede wszystkim ogromne wyzwanie dla wiata
biznesu.
Bardzo mocno zwizana z ide zrównowaonego rozwoju jest koncepcja spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu (ang.
corporate social responsibility - CSR). Wedug najnowszej definicji okrelania jest jako „odpowiedzialno
przedsibiorstw za ich wpyw na spoeczestwo"9. Oznacza to przede wszystkim, e firmy powinny by odpowiedzialne
za swoje dziaania i decyzje podejmowane w danym otoczeniu - spoeczestwie, spoecznoci lokalnej, rodowisku
naturalnym. Spoeczna odpowiedzialno biznesu powinna by wdraana na kadym szczeblu funkcjonowania
przedsibiorstwa, obejmuje przede wszystkim obszary takie, jak10:
- zaangaowanie spoeczne i rozwój spoecznoci lokalnej - prowadzenie dialogu spoecznego oraz wczenie
organizacji spoecznych i spoecznoci lokalnych w proces planowania i realizacji projektów, w szczególnoci
dotyczcych inwestycji spoecznych;
- prawa czowieka - poszanowanie godnoci kadego czowieka, przeciwdziaanie dyskryminacji, ochrona praw
pracowniczych;
- uczciwe praktyki operacyjne - etyczna dziaalno w stosunku do innych podmiotów, przeciwdziaanie korupcji oraz
dbao o uczciw konkurencj;
- rodowisko naturalne - zmniejszanie negatywnego wpywu firmy na otoczenie przyrodnicze, zmniejszanie emisji
zanieczyszcze, ograniczanie wykorzystywania zasobów naturalnych i energii oraz wszelkie dziaania
proekologiczne;
- praktyki w miejscu pracy - zapewnianie dobrych warunków pracy, dbao o rozwój i potrzeby pracowników;
- sprawy konsumenckie - utrzymywanie relacji z klientami oraz uczciwa i przejrzysta polityka marketingowa,
edukacja rynku, rzetelna informacja na temat oferowanych produktów i usug, ich wpywu na zdrowie i
bezpieczestwo klienta;
- ad organizacyjny - efektywne zarzdzanie firm.
Warto zaznaczy, e koncepcja CSR kadzie nacisk na sprawiedliwe traktowanie klientów, informowanie w sposób
rzetelny o produktach i usugach, edukacj konsumentów, a take uczciw polityk marketingow. Oznacza to, e
prowadzenie strategii marketingowej w firmie przyczynia si w szczególny sposób do odpowiedzialnoci danego
przedsibiorstwa za otoczenie, w którym si znajduje i dziaa. Warto doda, e odpowiedzialny marketing przynosi nie
tylko korzyci dla konsumenta, ale przede wszystkim przyczynia si do budowania pozytywnego wizerunku firmy i
dodatnio przekada si na jej wynik finansowy. Najlepszym rozwizaniem jest implementacja odpowiedzialnego
marketingu w firmie poprzez poczenie go z ide CSR oraz dobrze zaplanowan strategi PR.
Odpowiedzialny marketing
Wielu ekspertów uwaa, e postrzeganie marketingu w takim sam sposób jak dotd jest nieodpowiednie we
wspóczesnym wiecie. W czasach degradacji rodowiska przyrodniczego, zmniejszania si zasobów surowców
naturalnych, a take eksplozji demograficznej oraz biedy i ubóstwa moe si wydawa, e koncepcja marketingu staje
na przeszkodzie budowaniu trwaego dobrobytu spoeczestwa11. W zwizku z takim podejciem pojawia si wiele poj
uwzgldniajcych w szczególny sposób potrzeby spoeczestwa i wymagania rodowiska naturalnego. Jednym z nich
jest wspomniana powyej spoeczna odpowiedzialno biznesu. czc te koncepcje, mona zatem mówi o marketingu
odpowiedzialnym, humanitarnym, ekologicznym czy spoecznym. Idea marketingu spoecznego zakada okrelenie
oraz zaspokojenie potrzeb i interesów rynków w sposób konkurencyjny i wydajny, przy jednoczesnym zwikszaniu
dobrobytu spoeczestwa. Idea ta zakada wdroenie do praktyki marketingowej zasad etycznych i spoecznych, tak by
równoway cele, takie jak: powikszanie zysku firmy, spenianie oczekiwa klienta oraz dbao o interes spoeczny12.
Coraz czciej mówi si o marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanym czy te cause related marketing (CRM). Pojcia te
definiuje si jako poczenie celów ekonomicznych firmy z celami spoecznymi w ramach danej akcji, a konkretniej
nazywa si je metod suc tworzeniu programów opartych na potrzebach przedsibiorstwa, z jednoczesnym
rozwizywaniem problemów spoecznych13. Oczywistym celem wiata biznesu jest maksymalizacja zysków poprzez

pogbianie relacji z klientami. Jednoczenie istnieje wiele organizacji pozarzdowych, które d do realizacji celów
spoecznych. Jednak wsparcie od pastwa, które otrzymuj, nie zawsze jest wystarczajce. Wobec tego musz one
szuka innych róde pomocy i dotacji. Perfekcyjnym rozwizaniem wydaje si marketing spoecznie zaangaowany. W
ten sposób przedsibiorstwa mog poprawia swój wizerunek, budowa zaufanie i trwae relacje z konsumentami. Tym
samym organizacje non-profit s w stanie gromadzi fundusze na przeprowadzanie akcji wspierajcych potrzeby
spoeczestwa. Takie dziaania pozwalaj na osignicie wyniku win-win.
Korzeni CRM mona doszukiwa si na pocztku lat 80. XX wieku w Stanach Zjednoczonych. American Express
wprowadzi akcj, podczas której przy kadej transakcji przy uyciu karty firma przekazywaa jednego centa na projekt
renowacji Statui Wolnoci. Podczas akcji zaobserwowano wzrost liczby transakcji kart o 28%, a take wzrost liczby
jej uytkowników o 17%14. Dane te pokazuj, e akcja przyniosa korzyci samej firmie, a take przyczynia si w
pozytywny sposób do odnowy zabytku o duym znaczeniu dla spoeczestwa.
Marketing spoecznie zaangaowany definiowany jest jako dziaania komercyjne prowadzone przez przedsibiorstwa,
które wykorzystuj techniki, pienidze oraz strategie marketingowe po to, by wspiera wane spoecznie sprawy, a tym
samym umacnia wasny biznes. Poprzez takie przedsiwzicia kreuje si pozytywny wizerunek firmy oraz jednoczenie
zwraca si uwag na problem spoeczny, wspierajc go i powodujc wzrost funduszy przeznaczanych na dany cel15.
Marketing spoecznie zaangaowany przynosi bardzo wiele korzyci zarówno dla spoeczestwa, jak i przedsibiorstwa.
Do pozytywnych skutków wdraania CRM po stronie firm nale przede wszystkim: wzrost lojalnoci klientów,
polepszenie reputacji i wizerunku spoecznego, zwikszenie sprzeday, a take wzrost wraliwoci spoecznej
pracowników oraz wiksza motywacja. Do korzyci spoecznych mona zaliczy przede wszystkim: wikszy poziom
zaangaowania w realizacj celów spoecznych, efektywn realizacj celów statutowych organizacji non-profit, a take
popraw wizerunku spoecznego organizacji, co moe przekada si na wiksze moliwoci zaangaowania w inne
programy16.
Podsumowujc, marketing spoecznie zaangaowany wspiera okrelony cel spoeczny, tym samym przyczyniajc si do
poprawy sytuacji rynkowej i wizerunku firmy, która go wdraa. Warto jednak zaznaczy, e o powodzeniu takich dziaa
decyduje konieczna wspópraca biznesu, organizacji spoecznych oraz konsumentów.
Marketing spoecznie zaangaowany w praktyce
Mona przytoczy bardzo wiele przykadów dziaalnoci firm w obszarze marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego.
Jednym z najstarszych jest akcja firmy Austin Motor Company, która w 1942 roku przekazywaa darowizn na rzecz
Royal National Lifeboat Institution. Kady sprzedany przez firm silnik do statku bd odzi oznacza dodatkowe
fundusze kierowane na realizacj celów dziaalnoci instytucji17. Taka forma marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego
jest najczciej spotykan i wydaje si najprostsz do wdroenia z perspektywy firmy.
Do wspóczesnych przykadów CRM mona zaliczy takie akcje podejmowane przez przedsibiorstwa, jak np. program
„Podziel si posikiem" prowadzony przez firm Danone. Gównym celem tego programu jest walka z niedoywieniem
wród dzieci. Akcja opiera si na zbiórce rodków na sponsorowanie ciepych posików dla dzieci w szkoach. Jej
inicjatorem jest Danone, za bezporednim organizatorem zbiórki ywnoci zajmuje si Federacja Polskich Banków
ywnoci18. Zbiórka odbywa si w najwikszych sklepach w caej Polsce, corocznie od 2003 roku, w ostatni weekend
wrzenia. Zgromadzone produkty s dostarczane bezporednio organizacjom i instytucjom, takim jak: szkoy, domy
dziecka, wietlice czy inne jednostki pomagajce dzieciom i modziey.
Poza gównym celem programu, jakim jest przekazanie ywnoci najbardziej potrzebujcym dzieciom w Polsce,
zwraca si równie szczególn uwag na podnoszenie wiadomoci spoeczestwa w zakresie walki z niedoywieniem,
przede wszystkim wród dzieci, a take kadzie si nacisk na edukacj oraz aktywizacj organizacji czy te lokalnych
liderów do podejmowania samodzielnych dziaa na rzecz rozwizania problemu niedoywienia19.
Firma Danone, poza tym, e jest inicjatorem akcji, podejmuje równie inne konkretne dziaania w tym obszarze.
Prowadzi np. sprzeda produktów oznakowanych w specjalny sposób - cz zysku pochodzca z ich sprzeday
przekazywana jest wanie na walk z niedoywieniem. Ponadto firma prowadzi program grantowy „Masz pomys?
Podziel si Posikiem!", którego celem jest wsparcie w postaci dotacji dla lokalnych organizacji zajmujcych si
realizacj projektów majcych na celu edukacj ywieniow oraz wsparcie rozwoju psychicznego i fizycznego20.

Jako inne przykady wdraania idei marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego mona poda kampanie edukacyjno-
promocyjne organizowane przez róne firmy. Jedn z takich jest akcja firmy Frosta „Moe zadbajmy o morze",
wspóorganizowana z pozarzdow organizacj Marine Stewardship Council Polska (MSC Polska). Kampania ta ma na
celu edukacj w zakresie wiadomego wyboru konsumowanych ryb. W ten sposób firma zwraca uwag na problem
rodowiskowy, jakim jest niewystarczajca ochrona ekosystemu morskiego, a take nadmierna eksploatacja owisk
oraz nieodpowiedzialne praktyki rybackie. W ramach akcji uwiadamia si odbiorców na temat stanu mórz czy te
gatunków zagroonych ryb. Ponadto Frosta, jako firma sprzedajca produkty rybne, do swojej produkcji wykorzystuje
ryby pochodzce z certyfikowanych owisk. Na opakowaniach produktów mona znale certyfikaty MSC, wiadczce o
pozyskiwaniu ryb wedug zrównowaonych standardów21.
Poza wyej wymienionymi przykadami istnieje bardzo wiele innych akcji, programów czy te kampanii prowadzonych
przez przedsibiorstwa w zakresie CRM. Wikszo z nich czsto stanowi równie cz strategii CSR w firmie, a informacje
o nich mona znale na stronach internetowych firm w zakadkach zwizanych wanie ze spoeczn odpowiedzialnoci
biznesu. Przykady dziaa w obszarze marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego wyranie pokazuj ich zaleno od idei
CSR oraz wspólne obszary aktywnoci.
Kontrowersje zwizane z marketingiem zaangaowanym spoecznie
Tak samo, jak istnieje bardzo wiele pozytywnych przykadów dziaalnoci w obszarze CRM, tak równie mona
dopatrze si licznych przykadów dziaa wykorzystywania go w sposób niewaciwy lub kontrowersyjny. Dla
przeciwników i krytyków marketingu bardzo czsto poczenie go z aspektami spoeczno-rodowiskowymi to tylko tzw.
przykrywka dla realnego celu dziaa, jakim jest manipulacja klientem, tak by zakupi on produkt, który oferuje mu
firma.
Jedn z firm, która prowadzi kampanie marketingowe majce za zadanie zwróci uwag na problemy spoeczne, a
jednoczenie wywoujce wród wielu odbiorców pewne kontrowersje jest firma Adrian, zajmujca si produkcj rajstop.
Jedn z najbardziej kontrowersyjnych akcji zorganizowanych przez firm jest kampania reklamowa z 2015 roku. W
wielu polskich miastach, m.in. w Poznaniu, Gdasku czy odzi, pojawiy si billboardy, które przedstawiay kobiet w
czarnych poczochach opart o nagrobek cmentarny. Kolorystyka plakatu zostaa utrzymana w czarno-biaych
odcieniach, za powag zdjcia podkrela cytat z wiersza ks. Jana Twardowskiego: „Spieszmy si kocha ludzi tak
szybko odchodz" umieszczony tu pod sloganem firmy: „Adrian kocha wszystkie kobiety". Warto zaznaczy, e
billboardy pojawiy si na ulicach miast jesieni, w czasie zbliajcego si w Polsce wita zmarych.
Kampania spotkaa si z du kontrowersj oraz krytyk ze strony konsumentów, a take mediów. Komentowao j wiele
osób, w szczególnoci eksperci i specjalici w dziedzinie marketingu, komunikacji czy te etyki w biznesie. Poruszenie
nastpio równie wród internautów na portalach spoecznociowych. W wypowiedziach mona byo znale komentarze
opisujce kampani jako „niesmaczn", „bez klasy" czy te „mao inteligentn". Zarzucano równie autorom brak realnego
powizania produktu z wykorzystanym w reklamie cytatem ks. Twardowskiego22.
Autorzy reklamy podkrelali wymiar spoeczny kampanii oraz istot problemu, którego istnienie chcieli zaznaczy,
zostawiajc z boku swój produkt. „Nie reklamuj rajstop. Staraam si powiedzie, e ycie biegnie nieubaganie. e gonimy
czsto za rzeczami, które z pewnej perspektywy nie maj najmniejszego znaczenia. e jestemy dla siebie niemili i
nietolerancyjni"23 - tak ca kampani komentowaa wacicielka firmy i inicjatorka akcji promocyjnej.
W innych edycjach kampanii reklamowych firmy Adrian uywano take wizerunków osób oraz hase takich, jak: „Kady
ma prawo by sob" - zdanie z plakatu z Ann Grodzk, „Uzaleniona, nie znaczy gorsza" - haso z kampanii
przeprowadzonej wraz z Ilon Felicjask, wicemiss Polonia w 1993 roku, która dowiadczya problemów alkoholowych,
czy „Uwierz! Rak. To si leczy" - slogan z billboardu przedstawiajcego kobiet po mastektomii.
Wyej opisane podejcie do kampanii marketingowej mimo wszystko zwraca uwag na problemy i kwestie wane
spoecznie. Jednak finalnie wydaje si, e sposób, w jaki przeprowadzono kampanie, ma bardziej na celu zwrócenie
uwagi na firm ni na sam problem spoeczny. Poprzez takie zabiegi marketingowe konsument przede wszystkim
zapamituje nazw marki, poniewa byo o niej gono, a nie zawsze realnie zwraca uwag na problem, który zosta
poruszony. Kontrowersyjno takiej kampanii polega na wykorzystaniu w prowokacyjny sposób kwestii wraliwych
spoecznie, w celu uzyskania rozgosu i zainteresowania firm.

Podsumowanie
Zmiany zachodzce w yciu spoeczno-gospodarczym sprawiaj, e reorientacji ulegaj równie cele biznesowe. Obecnie,
poza maksymalizacj zysku, zwraca si równie szczególn uwag na potrzeby spoeczne. Jedn z form wdraania
nowych priorytetów sta si marketing spoecznie zaangaowany. Dziaania w jego obszarze s cile zintegrowane z ide i
zasadami spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci biznesu. Przykady spoecznych kampanii marketingowych pokazuj, jaki
potencja ma zaangaowanie biznesu w sprawy i problemy spoeczestwa. Istniej take przykady, które s dowodem na
to, i aktywizacja biznesu na tle spoecznym powinna by przemylana i wywaona. Zbyt agresywne uwypuklenie spraw
wraliwych spoecznie moe mie negatywny wpyw na firm. Przedsibiorstwa chcce wprowadza spoeczne dziaania
marketingowe powinny skupia si przede wszystkim na realnym problemie spoecznym, za korzyci wizerunkowe i
ekonomiczne naley traktowa jako warto dodan, a nie gówny cel dziaania. Analiza wybranych przykadów dziaa w
obszarze marketingu spoecznie zaangaowanego pokazuje wiele korzyci dla przedsibiorstw, ale take i zagroe, które
mog wynika z nieodpowiedniego dostosowania kampanii marketingowej do odbiorców.
Footnote
1 P. Kotier, Marketing, Dom Wydawniczy Rebis, Pozna 2015, s. 8.
2 Ibidem, s. 9.
3 D. Filar, Wspóczesny marketing. Skuteczna komunikacja i promocja. Podrcznik dla studentów specjalnoci
komunikacja urzdowa i biznesowa, UMCS, Lublin 2012, s. 22.
4 Ibidem, s. 21.
5 Cele marketingu, https://mfiles.pl/pl/index.php/Cele_marketingu (dostp: 31.07.2016).
6 Sownik finansowy, www.findict.pl/slownik/public-relations-pr (dostp: 30.07.2016).
7 A. Frczek, Public relations jako narzdzie komunikacji spoecznej, „Studia Gdaskie. Wizje i Rzeczywisto" 2011, t. 8,
s. 117.
8 Nasza wspólna przyszo. Raport wiatowej Komisji do Spraw rodowiska i Rozwoju, tum. U. Grzeloska, E.
Kolanowska, PWE, Warszawa 1991, s. 71.
9 Komisja Europejska, Odnowiona strategia UE na lata 2011-2014 dotyczca spoecznej odpowiedzialnoci
przedsibiorstw, KOM(2011) 681, wersja ostateczna, Bruksela 2011, s. 7.
10Social responsibility: 7 core subjects, www.iso.org/iso/sr_7_core_subjects.pdf (dostp: 31.07.2016).
11 P. Kotier,Marketing, s. 26.
12 Ibidem.
13 Encyklopedia CSR, https://odpowiedzialnybiznes.pl/hasla-encyklopedii/marketing-spolecznie-zaangazowany/
(dostp: 31.07.2016).
14 Cause Related Marketing: wprowadzenie i definicje, http://marketingspoleczny.pl/artykul. php?id_artykul=261
(dostp: 31.07.2016).
15 Wiedza - definicje. Cause Related Marketing, www.kampaniespoleczne.pl/wiedza_
definicje,2393,cause_related_marketing (dostp: 31.07.2016).
16 Encyklopedia CSR, https://odpowiedzialnybiznes.pl/hasla-encyklopedii/marketing-spolecznie-zaangazowany/
(dostp: 31.07.2016).
17 Cause Related Marketing: wprowadzenie i definicje, http://marketingspoleczny.pl/artykul. php?id_artykul=261
(dostp: 1.08.2016).
18 Podziel si posikiem, http://podzielsieposilkiem.pl/ (dostp: 1.08.2016).
19 Podziel si posikiem - Banki ywnoci, www.bankizywnosci.pl/pl/projekty/podziel-sie-posilkiem.html (dostp:
1.08.2016).
20 Danone - Podziel si posikiem, www.danone.pl/Spoleczna-odpowiedzialnosc/Spoleczenstwo/Podziel-sie-
Posilkiem (dostp: 1.08.2016).
21 Frosta zachca do dbania o morze,
www.kampaniespoleczne.pl/csrcrm,7340,frosta_zacheca_do_dbania_o_morze (dostp: 3.08.2016).
22 Reklama rajstop Adrian z grobem i cytatem ks. Twardowskiego. „Pokazujemy, e ycie biegnie nieubaganie",

www.wirtualnemedia.pl/artyku/reklama-rajstop-adrian-z-grobem-i-cytatem-z-ks-twardowskiego-pokazujemy-e-ycie-
biegnie-nieubaganie (dostp: 12.08.2016).
23 Ibidem.
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related_marketing.
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Sustainable development; Social responsibility

Company / organization: Name: Danone Group; NAICS: 311511, 312112
Alternate title: RESPONSIBLE MARKETING - CAUSE RELATED MARKETING
Publication title: Gospodarka w Praktyce i Teorii; Lodz
Issue: 47
Pages: 77-88
Publisher: University of ód
Place of publication: Lodz
Country of publication: Poland, Lodz
ISSN: 14293730
Language of publication: Polish
Document type: Journal Article
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1429-3730.47.06
Copyright: Copyright University of ód 2017
LINKS
Os Primeiros Estudos em Marketing: A Influência

da Filosofia e das Ciências nos Primeiros
Estudos em Marketing - Uma Análise da Obra
<i>Marketing Problems</i> de Melvin T.
Copeland
Sérgio Luis Ignácio De Oliveira; Amaral Moretti, Sérgio Luiz; Silva, Leonardo Aureliano . REMark : Revista
Brasileira de Marketing; São Paulo Vol. 16, Iss. 4, (2017).
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)
The purpose of this article is to analyze the influence of the sciences and the current philosophy in the early
twentieth century in the first studies in Marketing. To that end, was chosen the work Marketing Problems written
by Harvard professor Melvin T. Copeland in 1920, an important author in the early days of Marketing thinking. It
was tried to evidence how he, like other researchers of the period, was based on the methods used by the sciences
of the time in the search of a theoretical contribution to the nascent discipline. It is evident how the first studies in
Marketing appeared, focusing on the influence of the context, reflecting the 2nd. Industrial Revolution, which
presented demands that the traditional areas could not solve, resulting in a new space for the first analysts in
Marketing. The first courses, works and authors that contributed to the institutionalization of the area are
presented. Besides the analysis of the method used by the author as the classification and cataloging of
distribution phenomena, methodical description of the agents involved in the process and hierarchization of
distributors.
ABSTRACT (PORTUGUESE)
O propósito deste artigo é analisar a influência das ciências e da filosofia corrente no início do século XX nos
primeiros estudos em Marketing. Para isso, foi escolhido como objeto de pesquisa a obra Marketing Problems
escrito pelo professor de Harvard, Melvin T. Copeland em 1920, importante autor nos primórdios do pensamento
do Marketing. Procurou-se evidenciar como ele, a exemplo de outros pesquisadores do período, baseou-se nos
métodos usados pelas ciências da época na busca de um aporte teórico para a nascente disciplina. É evidenciado
como surgiram os primeiros estudos em Marketing, com foco na influência do contexto, reflexo da 2ª. Revolução
Industrial, que apresentou demandas que as áreas tradicionais não conseguiam resolver, abrindo espaço para os
primeiros analistas em Marketing. Apresentam-se os primeiros cursos, obras e autores que contribuíram para a
institucionalização da área. Além da análise do método usado pelo autor como a classificação e catalogação dos
fenômenos de distribuição, descrição metódica dos agentes envolvidos no processo e hierarquização dos
distribuidores.
FULL TEXT
_TVM:UNDEFINED_
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Research methodology; Market analysis; 20th century; Philosophy of

science
People: Copeland, Melvin T

Alternate title: THE FIRST STUDIES IN MARKETING: THE INFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHY AND
SCIENCES IN THE FIRST MARKETING STUDIES - AN ANALYSIS OF THE WORK
MARKETING PROBLEMS OF MELVIN T. COPELAND
Publication title: REMark: Revista Brasileira de Marketing; São Paulo
Volume: 16
Issue: 4
Section: Artigos
Publisher: Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE), PPGA
Place of publication: São Paulo
Country of publication: Brazil, São Paulo
Language of publication: Portuguese
Copyright: Copyright Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE), PPGA 2017
LINKS
MARKETING 2.0 APLICADO AL SECTOR

TURÍSTICO: LA FUNCIÓN COMERCIAL DE LOS
SITIOS WEBS DE LAS ORGANIZACIONES DE
MARKETING DE DESTINOS
Sala, Alba María Martínez 1 1 Universidad de Alicante. España [email protected] . Vivat
Academia ; Madrid Vol. 21, Iss. 143, (Jun-Sep 2018): 1-23,1A-22A.
ABSTRACT (SPANISH)
El artículo estudia evolutivamente la función comercial de las webs turísticas oficiales de los destinos españoles
cuya oferta se centra en el producto sol y playa, por ser este el motor principal del turismo en España, y por ser la
web una herramienta indispensable en la comercialización de sus productos y servicios. La metodología se basa
en una revisión bibliográfica sobre marketing e Internet en el sector turístico y sobre la función comercial de los
sitios webs en general y de los turísticos oficiales en particular. Se desarrolla un estudio exploratorio de las webs
turísticas oficiales españolas de los destinos cuya oferta se centra en el producto sol y playa mediante un análisis
de contenido de variables relativas a su función comercial, así como de su evolución desde la llegada del modelo
2.0. Se parte de la hipótesis de que las webs turísticas oficiales han evolucionado hacia modelos más comerciales
y se alcanzan unos resultados que verifican dicha hipótesis, pero evidencian una falta de aprovechamiento de las
ventajas del marketing 2.0. Por otra parte, el estudio sugiere una serie de medidas que las organizaciones de
marketing de destino deben adoptar con el fin de remediar estas deficiencias y optimizar la función comercial de
sus sitios webs.
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)
The article evaluates the development of the commercial role of the official Spanish tourist destinations' websites
which focus on the sun and beach product as this is the main attraction for tourists in Spain and because the
websites are essential marketing tools for tourism products and services. The methodology is based on the
literature review about marketing and Internet in the tourism sector, and on the commercial role of websites in
general, and in particular of the official ones. An exploratory study of the official Spanish touristic destinations
websites which focus on the sun and beach product is undertaken by means of the analysis of content of variables
concerning their commercial function, and of their evolution since the arrival of the model 2.0. The article starts
with the hypothesis that official tourism websites have evolved into more commercial models. The results
achieved by the study verify this hypothesis, but reveal failure to take advantage of the benefits that marketing 2.0
can offer. Furthermore, the study suggests a series of measures that destination marketing organisations should
adopt to remedy these shortcomings and optimise the commercial function of their websites.
ABSTRACT (PORTUGUESE)
O artigo estuda evolutivamente a funçao comercial das webs turísticas oficiais dos destinos espanhóis cuja oferta
centra-se nos produtos sol e praia, por ser o motor principal do turismo na Espanha e por ser a WEB uma
ferramenta indispensável na comercializaçâo de seus produtos e serviços. A metodologia baseia-se em uma
reviso bibliográfica sobre marketing e internet no setor turístico e sobre a funçao comercial das páginas webs em
geral e dos destinos turísticos oficias em particular. Desenvolve um estudo exploratório das webs turísticas
oficias espanholas dos destinos cuja oferta centra-se no produto sol e praia mediante uma analises de conteúdos
variáveis relativas a funçao comercial. Assim como de sua evoluçao desde a chegada do modelo 2.0. Partindo da
hipótese de que as Webs turísticas oficiais evolucionaram a modelos mais comerciais alcançando resultados que
verificam essa hipótese. Mas evidenciam uma falta de aproveitamento das vantagens do marketing 2.0. Por outra
parte, o estudo sugere uma série de medidas que as organizaçöes de marketing de destino devem adotar com a
finalidade de remediar estas deficiencias e otimizar a funçao comercial de suas páginas webs.
FULL TEXT
RESUMEN

sus sitios webs.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Turismo; web 2.0; Internet; marketing 2.0; comercialización; web turística oficial; ecommerce
ABSTRACT
The article evaluates the development of the commercial role of the official Spanish tourist destinations' websites
which focus on the sun and beach product as this is the main attraction for tourists in Spain and because the
websites are essential marketing tools for tourism products and services. The methodology is based on the
literature review about marketing and Internet in the tourism sector, and on the commercial role of websites in
general, and in particular of the official ones. An exploratory study of the official Spanish touristic destinations
websites which focus on the sun and beach product is undertaken by means of the analysis of content of variables
concerning their commercial function, and of their evolution since the arrival of the model 2.0. The article starts
with the hypothesis that official tourism websites have evolved into more commercial models. The results
achieved by the study verify this hypothesis, but reveal failure to take advantage of the benefits that marketing 2.0
can offer. Furthermore, the study suggests a series of measures that destination marketing organisations should
adopt to remedy these shortcomings and optimise the commercial function of their websites.
KEY WORDS
Tourism; website 2.0; Internet; marketing 2.0; commercialization; Official tourist website; e-commerce
RESUME
PALAVRAS CHAVE
Turismo; Web 2.0; Internet; Marketing 2.0; Comercializaçâo; Web turística oficial; ecommerce
Cómo citar el artículo
Martínez Sala, A. M. (2018). Marketing 2.0 aplicado al sector turístico: la función comercial de los sitios webs de
las organizaciones de marketing de destinos. [Marketing 2.0 applied to the tourism sector: the commercial
function of the websites of destination marketing organizations] Vivat Academia. Revista de Comunicación, 143,
01-23. doi: http://doi.org/10.15178/va.2018.143.01-23. Recuperado de http:/ /
www.vivatacademia.net/index.php/vivat/article/view/1065

1. INTRODUCCIÓN
El presente y las previsiones de futuro hacen del turismo un sector sólido sobre el que sustentar el desarrollo
socioeconómico de un territorio (Subdirección General de Conocimientos y Estudios Turísticos, Ministerio de
Industria, Energía y Turismo e Instituto de Turismo de España, 2016). Las oportunidades que ofrece este sector
han abocado en una fuerte competitividad incrementando el desarrollo de actuaciones de marketing encaminadas
a lograr una posición ventajosa en el mercado. Dichas actuaciones son emprendidas tanto por las
Administraciones Públicas como por las empresas privadas (Mediano Serrano, 2002). Simultáneamente, el
desarrollo de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación [TICs] ha derivado en una nueva forma de
planificar y consumir los productos y servicios turísticos (Buhalis y Law, 2008) potenciado el crecimiento del e-
commerce en el sector (Domínguez Vila y Araújo Vila, 2014).
En este contexto se aprecia una creciente preocupación por la aplicación del marketing y del marketing online
centrados en el consumidor (Cortés, 2009), así como por una gestión, también, con una clara orientación al cliente
(Bigné ,1996) que en el ámbito de la administración pública se manifiesta en las corrientes neoempresariales
(Campillo Alhama, 2013).
El presente trabajo analiza el grado de implementación del marketing online en el sector turístico de sol y playa en
relación a la función comercial de las webs turísticas oficiales. Se pretende establecer un conjunto de premisas
que sirvan para desarrollar webs que cumplan eficazmente su función comercial.
2. MARKETING E INTERNET EN EL SECTOR TURÍSTICO
La importancia de Internet en la sociedad actual queda patente en las cifras relativas a su penetración. El estudio
de la Asociación para la Investigación de Medios de Comunicación (2016) cifra en 17,9 millones, los españoles
usuarios de Internet. Entre los turistas también crece el número de usuarios (Google Travel Spain, Instituto de
Estudios Turísticos, Exceltur, Allianz, Secretaría de estado de Turismo del Ministerio de Industria, Energía y
Turismo del Gobierno de España y AddedValue, 2013). Estos datos son solo un atisbo de los cambios que se están
produciendo en las formas de consumo de información y de productos y servicios. Concretamente, en el ámbito
turístico ha surgido un nuevo perfil conocido como turista 2.0 (Suau Jiménez, 2012) quien no sólo se informa de la
oferta turística, sino que demanda su consumo a través de la Red (Domínguez Vila y Araújo Vila, 2014). Internet ha
supuesto cambios trascendentes en la planificación del viaje y en las reservas de los productos y servicios
turísticos (Duncan Ortega, 2009). Entre estos, el reemplazo de los intermediarios tradicionales, agencias de viajes
o touroperadores, por páginas webs (Lanquar, 2001). De ahí el énfasis de empresas y organismos turísticos en
invertir un mayor presupuesto en tecnología e innovación (Domínguez Vila y Araújo Vila, 2014) y el necesario
replanteamiento de las estrategias de marketing de los productos y servicios turísticos al poner en valor el
marketing online.
Durante la actual generación de marketing online: marketing 2.0, se han producido cambios importantes (Martínez
González, 2011) que afectan a los sitios webs turísticos. Estos se han vuelto más interactivos y mejores
técnicamente (Polo, 2009) para lograr una experiencia más satisfactoria del usuario y una mayor integración del
mismo en el sistema. Además, implementan herramientas de venta online (Martínez González, 2011) para
satisfacer las expectativas de los usuarios y de los responsables de los sitios webs. También se observan
cambios en el ámbito de los promotores del turismo con la entrada masiva en Internet de las instituciones
públicas que, ejerciendo su responsabilidad socioeconómica y conscientes de la importancia estratégica del
sector turístico, se mercantilizan adoptando procesos y herramientas propias del ámbito privado de la economía
(Martínez González, 2011).
De este modo en la era del marketing 2.0 se comienzan a integrar en la web turística las principales variables de
marketing (Luque y Castañeda, 2007), entre las cuales y en relación a la función comercial se destaca: e-producto,
los productos y servicios turísticos se presentan como en una tienda, con sus beneficios y atributos y e-venta, las
páginas y los sitios turísticos incorporan mecanismos que incentivan la venta y facilitan el pago inmediato
(Sánchez, 2002).
Pese al protagonismo de la función comercial y al auge del comercio online, referido en el siguiente epígrafe, en el

ámbito turístico, Internet se usa básicamente como canal de consulta (Google Travel Spain et al., 2013). Frente a
esta realidad las organizaciones de marketing de destinos [OMDs] deben proporcionar herramientas para la
selección, reserva y/o compra online de productos y servicios turísticos (Organización Mundial del Turismo, 1999,
2001) que respondan a las expectativas del turista 2.0 (Suau Jiménez 2012) y a las premisas del marketing 2.0. En
especial, en sus sitios webs por ser el principal canal de difusión y comercialización del destino turístico
(Fernández-Cavia, Díaz-Luque, Huertas, Rovira, Pedraza-Jiménez, Sicilia, Gómez y Míguez, 2013; Fernández Cavia,
Vinyals Mirabent y López Pérez, 2013a; Hallet y Kaplan-Weinger, 2010; Lee y Gretzel, 2012; Luna-Nevarez y Hyman,
2012; Palmer, 2005).
La comercialización online de los productos y servicios turísticos es clave para el desarrollo económico de los
destinos y un servicio demandado por el turista 2.0. El escaso papel que todavía desempeña Internet en la fase de
compra y reserva del proceso turístico plantea cuestiones en torno a las posibles causas. La primera y más obvia
se centra en las posibilidades que las webs ofrecen para realizar este proceso. Su estudio exige analizar la función
comercial de las webs turísticas oficiales por su papel clave, y por consiguiente la implementación de algunas de
las variables imprescindibles del marketing 2.0: e-producto y e-venta.
3.LA WEB COMO CANAL DE COMERCIALIZACIÓN
Desde el nacimiento de la web hasta 20052, vivimos la era del modelo web 1.0 cuyos intereses y objetivos
principales fueron: los contenidos, la rentabilidad, el público masivo y el comercio (Nafría, 2008). La tienda digital
Amazon, las webs de viajes Travelocity o Expedia entre otras muchas, fueron el máximo exponente de lo que
permitía Internet. En el ámbito del comercio electrónico, en España, el modelo web 1.0 tuvo un éxito sin
precedentes tal y como lo demuestran sus cifras de negocio (Figura 1).
Frente al modelo 1.0 empezaron a aparecer webs en las que el usuario abandonaba su tradicional papel pasivo en
favor de uno más activo hasta el punto de convertirse al mismo tiempo en destino y origen de la comunicación. La
web adquiría así una función eminentemente social. El fenómeno fue tan masivo y tan rápido que pronto se erigió
como un nuevo modelo web: el modelo 2.0 (O'Reilly, 2005).
La web 2.0 representa la fase actual y se caracteriza por el protagonismo que otorga a lo social (Lacalle, 2011). La
cuestión es si este carácter social contraviene la función comercial del modelo web anterior. Aunque con el
modelo web 2.0 se potencia la interacción con y entre individuos, también se promueve que la Red simplifique los
procesos comerciales de las organizaciones y el día a día de los consumidores. Por ello desde el punto de vista de
la función comercial el modelo 2.0 no dista del 1.0. Prueba de ello son las cifras resultantes de las transacciones
comerciales online desde la llegada del nuevo modelo (Figura 2).
En la actualidad se sigue usando Internet para vender, lo que cambia es la forma de vender y quién vende, tanto en
el sentido de asesorar e informar, pues ahora son los usuarios los principales prescriptores de los productos y
servicios (Caro, Luque y Zayas, 2015); como en el de vender, las operaciones entre particulares [C2P] son cada vez
más habituales (Cetelem, 2015).
4.LA FUNCIÓN COMERCIAL DE LAS WEBS TURÍSTICAS OFICIALES
Las webs son clave para el desarrollo del sector turístico pues constituyen la forma principal de consumo de
información turística (Law, Qi y Buhalis, 2010; Luna-Nevarez y Hyman, 2012; Park y Gretzel, 2007). Por ello los
destinos deben disponer de un sitio web oficial, único para la marca turística, que ejerza una función informativa y
persuasiva que favorezca la comercialización (Fernández Cavia et al., 2013a). En este sentido, los sitios webs
deben facilitar la realización de sucesivas etapas en el proceso de compra (Rastrollo Horrillo y Alarcón Urbistondo,
1999), y en la planificación del viaje y estancia turística (Díaz-Luque, Guevara Plaza y Antón Clavé, 2006).
En cuanto a las Administraciones Públicas, ámbito de esta investigación, estas actúan como agentes reguladores
y promotores del sector turístico a través de la Red (López Sánchez, Chica Ruiz, Arcila Garrido, Azzariohi y Soto
Benito, 2010). Para ello deben adoptar el papel de intermediarias en los procesos empresa-empresa [B2B] y C2P, y
proporcionar herramientas y canales de comercialización online. Sin embargo, los estudios realizados hasta la
fecha señalan que para las OMDs ejercer este papel no parece ser una prioridad (Díaz-Luque, Guevara Plaza, Caro
Herrero, 2004; Díaz-Luque et al., 2006; Díaz-Luque y Jiménez Marín, 2013; Fernández Cavia et al., 2013, Huertas

Roig y Fernández Cavia, 2006). El coste humano y técnico de gestión de estos canales podría ser el motivo de su
escasa implementación, pero tal y como señalan Díaz-Luque y Jiménez Marín (2013) al consumidor final le resulta
indiferente quien preste el servicio final lo que abre un amplio abanico de posibilidades para que las OMDs
incentiven la comercialización sin ejercer una intermediación directa. Los mencionados autores distinguen entre
las webs que ofrecen sistemas de compra y/o reserva propios y las que enlazan con otros. Dentro de estos
observan igualmente varias posibilidades: sistemas de reservas gestionados por colectivos profesionales del
destino o por intermediarios turísticos privados. Ambos son valorados positivamente (Díaz-Luque y Jiménez
Marín, 2013; Díaz Luque et al., 2006) si bien se debe señalar que en los últimos los destinos compiten
directamente con productos y servicios de otros destinos. Otro aspecto que se debe considerar a la hora
implementar aplicaciones comerciales en la web es la usabilidad, un factor determinante de la satisfacción del
usuario (International Organization for Standarization, 1998; Park y Gretzel, 2007; Yeung y Law, 2006). Se aconseja
en este sentido que las aplicaciones y herramientas se visualicen en la misma web, incluso en la misma ventana,
evitando redireccionar a los usuarios a otras webs pues esto provoca confusión y posibles abandonos (Nielsen,
1997).
Las modalidades de pago también deben ser contempladas pues determinan la finalización del proceso de
compra. Aunque Paypal lidera el ranking de formas de pago, la tarjeta de débito es otra opción muy valorada
(Cetelem, 2015; Institute Advertising Bureau Spain [IAB Spain] y Viko we are, 2015). Esto conlleva la necesidad de
ofrecer varias alternativas de pago para atender las necesidades de los turistas potenciales y reales. Y por último
cabe señalar la seguridad como otro de los criterios determinantes del e-commerce. Este ha sido señalado como
el aspecto más valorado en relación a las formas de pago por un 76% de los consumidores (Cetelem, 2015).
En lo que respecta a los productos y servicios turísticos objeto de esta función comercial se plantean las
siguientes categorías: alojamiento, transporte, restauración y actividades complementarias de índole deportivo,
cultural, de ocio, etc. Estas han sido analizadas, individual o conjuntamente, por autores como Díaz-Luque et al.
(2004), Díaz-Luque et al. (2006), Huertas Roig y Fernández Cavia (2006), Fernández Cavia et al. (2013a), Fernández-
Cavia et al. (2013) y Fernández Cavia, Vinyals Mirabent y López Pérez (2013b) en relación a la capacidad de
difusión y comercialización online de los productos y servicios turísticos como una funcionalidad determinante de
la calidad de una web turística oficial y que debe por ello ser analizada.
5.OBJETIVOS
La investigación parte de la hipótesis de que las OMDs han remodelado las webs turísticas oficiales, en base al
marketing 2.0, incorporando las variables: e-producto y eventa, para potenciar su función comercial.
Como hipótesis secundaria se plantea la posibilidad de que la variable e-venta no esté correctamente
implementada careciendo así de funcionalidad plena.
El trabajo que se presenta tiene como objetivo principal analizar la evolución de la función comercial, desde la
llegada del modelo 2.0, en las webs turísticas oficiales de los destinos españoles de sol y playa. Este es el
principal motor de la industria turística española y en consecuencia el más representativo.
Para contrastar las hipótesis anteriores se plantean los siguientes objetivos específicos:
O.1. Determinar si las webs objeto de estudio incluyen una sección o secciones orientadas a la comercialización
de los principales servicios turísticos: alojamiento, transporte, restauración y actividades complementarias;
analizar sus contenidos; y evolución (e-producto).
O.2. Determinar si las secciones o subsecciones de las webs relativas a estos servicios implementan aplicaciones
o funcionalidades internas y exclusivas (gestionadas por la OMD o por colectivos profesionales del destino), para
su compra y/o reserva (e-venta). Y analizar su evolución.
O.3.: Estudiar si estas secciones o subsecciones incentivan la comercialización de los productos y servicios
analizados proporcionando enlaces a otras webs (empresas proveedoras de productos y servicios turísticos o
intermediarios privados) (e-venta). Y analizar su evolución.
O.4.: Analizar la flexibilidad del sistema en lo que a variedad de opciones de pago se refiere: tarjeta, transferencia,
sistemas de pago online, etc. (e-venta), y su evolución.

O.5.: Evaluar la seguridad de los sistemas de pago ofertados (e-venta). Analizando su evolución.
6.METODOLOGÍA
La metodología de la presente investigación es empírico -analítica. Parte de una revisión bibliográfica sobre
marketing e Internet en el sector turístico y sobre la evolución de la función comercial de los sitios webs y más
específicamente de los turísticos oficiales. Se realiza también un estudio exploratorio de las webs turísticas
oficiales españolas de los destinos cuya oferta se centra en el producto sol y playa para evaluar la evolución de la
implementación de herramientas y funcionalidades comerciales desde la llegada del modelo 2.0. Su análisis
contempla 4 parámetros (P) acordes a los objetivos planteados (Tabla 1). La descripción de las variables, de sus
requisitos, así como de la escala de evaluación pueden consultarse en el Anexo.
La recopilación de datos se realiza a partir de un análisis de contenido de las webs. Los resultados se trasladan a
unos formularios diseñados ex profeso, e inspirados en metodologías de análisis e investigaciones previas de
páginas webs turísticas oficiales (Díaz-Luque et al., 2006; Díaz-Luque et al., 2004; Díaz-Luque y Jiménez Marín,
2013; Fernández Cavia et al., 2013a, 2013b; Fernández-Cavia et al., 2013; Huertas Roig y Fernández Cavia, 2006),
donde son cuantificados en base a dos escalas. Una escala binaria (0-1) para el análisis de la flexibilidad y la
seguridad, y una escala 0-2 para el resto de variables dado que sus indicadores pueden darse, aunque no en
condiciones óptimas.
El trabajo de campo se ha llevado a cabo en dos periodos, marzo- agosto 2005 y enero-mayo 2015, para analizar la
evolución de la función comercial de las webs tras la llegada del modelo 2.0.
Por último, la muestra la configuran los sitios webs de los destinos de sol y playa de las comunidades autónomas
españolas de mayor tráfico de turismo internacional y nacional (Subdirección General de Conocimientos y
Estudios Turísticos, 2014a; Subdirección General de Conocimientos y Estudios Turísticos, 2014b).
La selección de sitios webs se hizo en base a los siguientes criterios: carácter oficial; ámbito regional, provincial,
insular o municipal; dirigidas al turista final y en plenas condiciones de acceso y navegación (Tabla 2). Se ha
mantenido idéntica muestra en la segunda fase de la investigación, 2015, para poder analizar la evolución y
verificar así la hipótesis principal.
7.DISCUSIÓN Y RESULTADOS
7.1.Resultados del análisis de la presencia de secciones relativas a: alojamiento, transporte, restauración y
actividades complementarias; de la información publicada y de su evolución (e-producto)
El análisis de los contenidos (Figura 3) confirma que la mayoría de webs ofrecen información relativa a los
servicios señalados como los susceptibles de reserva y/o compra online.
En la primera fase de la investigación todos los sitios webs ofrecen información relativa a los servicios principales
a excepción de la web de Alicante en la que no se hace mención alguna a servicios de transporte. En cuanto al tipo
de información facilitada, en la mayoría de los casos se ofrece información de carácter general y específico. Las
webs que más cantidad de información proporcionan en las cuatro áreas son las de Andalucía, Cádiz, Islas
Baleares, Tenerife y Cataluña.
En segundo lugar, se posicionan las webs que ofrecen información genérica y específica, aunque parcial, así
evaluadas porque no contemplan información relativa a las cuatro categorías de productos y servicios. Esto
ocurre fundamentalmente en lo relativo al transporte en las webs de Costa Blanca y Castellón en las que no se
contemplan las cuatro principales vías de acceso. Además, en el caso de Castellón se ofrece también escasa
información de carácter específico relativa a actividades complementarias y restauración por lo que se la cataloga
en el tercer grupo. También en segundo lugar se sitúan las webs en las que la información, en la mayoría de las
secciones analizadas, es específica. Es el caso, por ejemplo, de la Comunidad Valenciana que solo en relación a
las actividades complementarias la información es insuficiente.
En tercer lugar, se encuentran las webs cuya información, aunque específica, se caracteriza por ser escasa. En
esta posición se encuentran las webs de Málaga, Almería y Gran Canaria. La web de Granada también se ubica en
este último grupo pues ofrece básicamente información genérica.
En cuanto a la evolución cabe constatar que en general la mayoría han mejorado en cuanto a cantidad y calidad de

contenidos. Las webs de la Comunidad Valenciana, Alicante, Castellón y Granada logran la puntuación máxima
pues han ampliado los contenidos iniciales relativos a alojamientos, transporte, actividades complementarias y
restauración. Andalucía, Cádiz y Cataluña se mantienen en el primer grupo. Gran Canaria mejora notablemente
pero no alcanza la puntuación máxima porque en lo relativo a restauración solo ofrece información genérica.
Costa Blanca y Almería mantienen la misma puntuación, la primera porque sigue ofreciendo información parcial en
relación al transporte; la segunda porque no ofrece contenido alguno relativo a alojamientos y restauración.
Ambas secciones se presentan bajo la forma de un buscador denominado "Socios" que no muestra resultados. El
título permite intuir que se trata de una sección en desarrollo que se completará con datos de socios registrados.
Islas Baleares y Tenerife que en la primera fase de la investigación estaban en el primer grupo pierden esta
posición. La primera porque en la nueva versión no ofrece contenidos específicos relativos a restauración. En la
segunda ocurre lo mismo y además la información relativa a compañías aéreas es parcial solo hace mención de
una compañía de carácter local, Binter, obviando las nacionales e internacionales.
A partir del análisis y de la consiguiente media aritmética de la variable e-producto se establece una
categorización de las webs basada en la siguiente tipología: categoría A (valor 2); categoría B (valores entre 1,50 y
1,75); categoría C (valores entre 0,5 y 1,25) y categoría D (valor 0) (Tabla 3).
7.2.Resultados del análisis de función comercial mediante aplicaciones exclusivas del destino integradas en la
web, y de su evolución (e-venta)
En el año 2005 solo tres webs implementan aplicaciones para el cumplimiento de la función comercial, y en todos
los casos solo se permite la reserva de algunos productos y servicios. Andalucía ofrece un enlace a una
plataforma propia, Séneca, consistente en una central de reservas de cualquier servicio turístico en las ocho
provincias andaluzas, pero no está integrada en la web. Tampoco lo está la que ofrece Islas Baleares para la
reserva de alojamientos. Esta es gestionada por una agrupación de cadenas hoteleras. Solo Cataluña ofrece, de
forma exclusiva y de manera integrada la posibilidad de reservar uno de los cuatro tipos de servicios analizados:
entradas para museos y monumentos.
En la segunda fase de la investigación y pese al desarrollo tecnológico la situación general no es muy distinta.
Andalucía ya no ofrece ninguna aplicación comercial. Sin embargo, la Comunidad Valenciana y Costa Blanca han
creado una plataforma exclusiva, Travel Open Apps, para la reserva de ciertos productos y servicios turísticos
(alojamientos, actividades complementarias y restauración), aunque la oferta no es muy completa. Por ejemplo, en
el ámbito de la restauración en Alicante, las búsquedas realizadas no han ofrecido ningún resultado. Islas Baleares
mantiene la posibilidad de realizar reservas de alojamiento, pero a través de otra plataforma: Avanthotel.com,
creada por las federaciones y asociaciones hoteleras del destino. En todos los casos descritos el usuario accede a
estas plataformas abandonando la web de origen. Solo tres páginas webs integran la reserva y/o compra online:
Castellón, que permite la reserva online de alojamientos de turismo rural, Tenerife que incorpora un sistema de
reservas de vuelos y campos de golf, y Cataluña que ofrece un buscador denominado "Experiencias" para
confeccionar paquetes turísticos compuestos de los cuatro tipos de servicios analizados, de todos ellos o de
algunos de ellos. Este buscador permite la reserva y/o compra online de dichos paquetes.
7.3.Resultados del análisis de la función comercial mediante enlaces a otras webs (e-venta), y de su evolución
En la primera fase de la investigación las webs que obtienen las peores puntuaciones en lo relativo a contenidos e
información, Málaga, Almería, Gran Canaria, Granada, Alicante y Castellón, son también las que menos enlaces
ofrecen siendo el transporte el área con mayores deficiencias, a excepción de Granada que solo alude a este
servicio. La mayoría de secciones relativas a productos y servicios de alojamiento, transporte, actividades
complementarias y restauración se presentan a modo de buscadores en los que los usuarios pueden delimitar sus
búsquedas mediante filtros. Los resultados obtenidos suelen ser enlaces a fichas más detalladas de la empresa
en las que se proporcionan fotografías y datos básicos, incluida la url.
En la segunda fase de la investigación, la tendencia se mantiene y las webs peor calificadas en lo relativo a
contenidos son también en su mayoría las que menos enlaces a otras webs ofrecen. Almería, no incluye datos ni
enlaces de empresas y organizaciones especializadas en restauración y alojamiento; Islas Baleares y Tenerife

ofrecen información parcial relativa al transporte y solo genérica en relación a la restauración, y en consecuencia
no proporcionan enlaces a webs de empresas de este sector.
Algunas webs ofrecen además enlaces a plataformas de intermediarios turísticos privados. Esta técnica conocida
como mashup es característica del modelo web 2.0 y consiste en agregar e integrar contenidos y servicios
procedentes de más de una fuente con el objetivo de crear algo nuevo y con un contenido informativo más rico. En
esta línea, en la primera fase de la investigación Tenerife ofrece un buscador de vuelos que enlaza con la
plataforma lastminute.com, aunque no está operativo. Alicante es otra de las webs que opta por recurrir a esta
técnica para los servicios de transporte enlazando con plataformas como Hotels by Tripadvisor, Skyscanner,
Jetcost, liligo.com, eDreams y Govoyages, o Rentalcars.com. Sus buscadores están integrados en la web. En el
caso de los vuelos, incluso los resultados, pero para la reserva y compra se redirige al usuario fuera de la web.
Andalucía también recurre a esta técnica para la comercialización de servicios de transporte aéreo, restauración,
actividades deportivas (Golf) y alojamiento. Tanto los buscadores como los resultados se muestran integrados en
la web, pero como en el caso anterior, la formalización solo se puede realizar abandonando la web de origen y
accediendo a plataformas como Gotogate, Viajar, Tripsta, Tripair, lol, eDreams, para los vuelos; Restaurantes.com,
para la restauración; GolfSwitch, para el golf; y Kayak, Tripadvisor y Trivago, para el alojamiento. En todos los
casos, excepto en el de la restauración, se pueden realizar compras online. Málaga también redirige a sus usuarios
a la plataforma Booking.com tras mostrar disponibilidades de alojamientos en su web.
7.4.Resultados del análisis de la flexibilidad y de la seguridad en el pago, y de su evolución
En la primera fase de la investigación ninguna de las webs ofrece posibilidades de compra online de manera
interna por lo que en ninguno de los casos procede el análisis de esta variable. En la segunda fase, solo Cataluña.
Esta web, como ya se ha explicado, ofrece un buscador denominado "Experiencias" que permite la reserva y/o
compra. Para ello, y previo registro o facilitando datos básicos y contraseña, redirige a la web del banco BBVA:
TPV Virtual. Solo se admite el pago con tarjeta bancaria.
El análisis acerca de la seguridad de los sistemas de pago se restringe también a la web de Cataluña en su
segunda versión analizada pues es la única que ofrece la posibilidad de compra online mediante el pago con las
tarjetas Visa y Mastercard. Ambas cuentan con acreditados sistemas de seguridad: Verified by Visa y MasterCard
SecureCode.
En la siguiente matriz se reflejan los resultados obtenidos en relación a la evolución de la implantación de la
variable e-venta
8.CONCLUSIONES
Los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que los destinos más representativos de la oferta turística española
de sol y playa han implementado la variable e-producto, integrando en sus estrategias de marketing premisas del
marketing 2.0 (Luque y Castañeda 2007). Sus webs han evolucionado hacia modelos más comerciales verificando
así la hipótesis principal. Sin embargo, salvo Cataluña, no han implementado otra de las variables esenciales del
marketing 2.0, e-venta (Sánchez, 2002). Lo que confirma también la hipótesis secundaria y explica en parte por
qué el canal online sigue siendo un canal de consulta en el sector turístico. Las OMDs siguen sin ofrecer un
servicio integral de planificación del viaje turístico (Díaz-Luque et al., 2004) pese a las nuevas herramientas
tecnológicas y a su responsabilidad en la promoción y comercialización de los destinos que representan (Martínez
González, 2011). Esta es una de las aportaciones de esta investigación, necesaria por el cambio constante que
caracteriza al ámbito online, y porque cuestiona conclusiones más optimistas, aunque referidas a las webs
turísticas en general (Martínez González, 2011).
Al respecto de la primera hipótesis, la mayoría de destinos analizados cuentan en la primera fase de la
investigación con una web orientada a la difusión de la oferta turística, cumpliendo una función básicamente
informativa. En aquel momento imperaba el modelo web 1.0 que primaba esta función, y aunque la distribución era
también uno de sus objetivos, el análisis realizado muestra que solo unas pocas webs lo consideraban e
incorporaban las herramientas y aplicaciones necesarias. Estas permitían reservar online y su gestión dependía de
la OMD o de asociaciones profesionales del destino, pero solo una, la de Cataluña, ofrecía el servicio integrado en

la web evitando un proceso disruptivo de comunicación en el desarrollo de la compra online (Díaz-Luque y
Jiménez Marín, 2013) y favoreciendo la usabilidad de la web (Nielsen, 1997).
En este sentido y en relación a la segunda hipótesis, aunque en 2015 hay más webs que incorporan herramientas
exclusivas de comercialización, en general, se limitan a la reserva de algunos de los productos o servicios
analizados. Solo Cataluña permite la compra de los cuatro, sin salir de la web, excepto para realizar el pago. La
alternativa a las plataformas exclusivas, es decir la inclusión de enlaces a las webs corporativas de las empresas
proveedoras de servicios turísticos, en 2005 tampoco era una práctica habitual. Solo el 46,5% de las webs ofrecían
los enlaces necesarios para que los usuarios pudieran formalizar el viaje turístico en Internet. En la segunda fase
de la investigación, salvo las webs de Islas Baleares y Tenerife, todas mejoran su puntuación relativa a la
información acerca los productos y servicios, o la mantienen, verificando así la primera hipótesis en lo que
respecta a la variable e-producto. Esto influye positivamente en el número de enlaces a webs corporativas de
organizaciones proveedoras de productos y servicios turísticos. Pero además se observa en algunas webs la
implementación de mashup que permiten la compra y/o reserva online mediante enlaces a plataformas de
intermediarios turísticos privados como: Hotels by Tripadvisor, Skyscanner, Jetcost, Liligo.com, eDreams, Trivago,
Booking.com, etc. Esta técnica resuelve fácil y económicamente la función comercial de la web y es una solución
para que las OMDs asuman su papel de intermediarios turísticos (DíazLuque et al. 2004; Díaz-Luque et al., 2006;
Díaz-Luque y Jiménez Marín, 2013; Fernández Cavia et al., 2013, Huertas Roig y Fernández Cavia, 2006). No
obstante, su implementación aun presenta deficiencias subsanables en términos de usabilidad. Las plataformas
deben integrarse en las webs y no obligar al usuario a abandonarlas generando confusión y posibles fugas
(Nielsen, 1997). Los resultados obtenidos, como se ha avanzado, verifican las dos hipótesis planteadas, dado que
la función comercial, aunque asumida, tal y como lo demuestra la evolución positiva de la variable e-producto, no
está correctamente implementada careciendo así de funcionalidad plena.
Los resultados confirman los de estudios anteriores como los de Díaz-Luque et al. (2004), Díaz-Luque et al. (2006),
Díaz-Luque y Jiménez Marín (2013), Huertas Roig y Fernández Cavia (2006) y Fernández Cavia et al. (2013a) que
concluyen la necesidad de mejorar los servicios de e-commerce para evitar la fuga de turistas potenciales. Para
ello las OMDs cuentan con diferentes alternativas que deben analizar y valorar en base a sus ventajas y
desventajas. Esta investigación contribuye a establecerlas. Relegar la comercialización de los productos y
servicios turísticos a las webs corporativas de las empresas proveedoras, aunque es una solución económica
conlleva varios riesgos. No solo obliga al usuario a abandonar la web, sino que se corre el peligro de que estas no
ofrezcan servicios de compra y/o reserva online, tal y como prueba la investigación realizada por Martínez María-
Dolores, Bernal García y Mellinas Canovas (2013). Los sistemas propios reportan grandes beneficios (DíazLuque,
Guevara, Caro y Aguayo, 2008; Díaz-Luque y Jiménez Marín, 2013) pero su desarrollo y mantenimiento implica
importantes costes humanos y materiales. Estos pueden evitarse mediante enlaces a plataformas creadas por
intermediarios turísticos privados, que gozan de mayor notoriedad y credibilidad y cuentan con mayores recursos
económicos y materiales, lo que les otorga una posición ventajosa. El problema es que estas ofertan los mismos
servicios de destinos turísticos competidores. Una solución intermedia es la cesión de la explotación comercial
online de los productos y servicios a empresas del sector turístico del destino, siguiendo las corrientes
neopúblicas de gestión administrativa (Campillo Alhama, 2013). Esto evita los costes de creación y desarrollo, y la
presencia de competidores del destino en el sistema, aunque estas plataformas no cuentan con la misma
audiencia que las privadas. Sin duda, la decisión final depende del posicionamiento del destino en el mercado y de
los objetivos, estrategias y medios de que disponga.
En relación a los dos últimos indicadores relativos a la variable e-venta, los resultados son concluyentes. Se
requiere mayor flexibilidad proporcionando como mínimo las modalidades de pago de mayor aceptación: sistema
Paypal y tarjetas de débito (Cetelem, 2015; IAB Spain y Viko we are, 2015). La primera es además la preferida por
su seguridad (IAB Spain y Viko we are, 2015). En el caso de la seguridad se debe garantizar mediante sistemas que
cuenten con el respaldo de entidades bancarias de credibilidad y prestigio, como ocurre en el caso analizado. Lo
que reafirma la hip?tesis secundaria.

Se ha descrito una realidad en la que el canal online es un elemento clave y presente en todo el proceso tur?stico.
La evoluci?n de las webs de destinos meramente informativas a las que incluyen servicios de comercializaci?n, el
desarrollo masivo de plataformas de comercializaci?n de hoteles, de vuelos, etc., y low cost, son algunos ejemplos
de una realidad tur?stica marcada por la tecnolog?a. Las OMDs deben comprender y gestionar los cambios que se
est?n produciendo y usar todas las herramientas que se les ofrecen y sin embargo se observa una deficiente
implantaci?n de la variable e-venta y en consecuencia de las premisas del marketing 2.0.
La importancia de la p?gina web oficial en el sector tur?stico y la evoluci?n constante que caracteriza al ?mbito
online sientan las bases de un campo de investigaci?n sin l?mites mientras Internet siga desarroll?ndose. La
investigaci?n realizada ha desvelado cuestiones relevantes en relaci?n a los sistemas de b?squeda y su usabilidad,
as? como a la conveniencia o no de desarrollar plataformas propias de reserva y compra online. Se pretende
tambi?n proseguir esta investigaci?n ampliando el tama?o muestral para incluir destinos internacionales cuya
oferta se basa en el producto sol y playa y otros nacionales como Tarragona, Gerona, Murcia, etc., que han
desarrollado webs susceptibles de formar parte del ?mbito de estudio.
1 Alba-María Martínez-Sala. Departamento de Comunicación y Psicología Social, Universidad de Alicante.
albamaria .martinez@ua .es.
2 Aunque el término web 2.0 fue acunado en el ano 2004 por el grupo editorial O'Reilly Media y Media Live
International, fue perfilado un año más tarde por Tim O'Reilly (O'Reilly, 2005) por lo que se fija en el año 2005 el
inicio de la era 2.0.
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AUTOR

Alba María Martínez Sala
Licenciada en Ciencias de la Información (Publicidad y Relaciones Públicas) por la Universidad Complutense de
Madrid y doctora en Bellas Artes (arte y diseño gráfico) por la Universidad Miguel Hernández. Docente en el Grado
de Publicidad y Relaciones Públicas, en el ámbito de la estrategia de la publicidad y de las relaciones públicas en
la Universidad de Alicante y en el Máster Oficial en Organización de Eventos, Protocolo y Relaciones
Institucionales de IMEP, en el de los eventos y el marketing relacional. Ha desempeñado su actividad profesional
además en varias organizaciones privadas. Sus principales líneas de investigación son la comunicación digital en
el ámbito público y privado, específicamente en el sector institucional turístico y en la empresa de franquicia.
Pertenece al grupo de investigación Compubes en la Universidad de Alicante.
http:/ / orcid.org/0000-0002-6852-6258
https: / / scholar.google.es/citations?hl=es&user=O9- QgoAAAAJ
ANEXO
Modelo de análisis de la función comercial en webs turísticas oficiales.
ABSTRACT
This article evaluates the development of the commercial role of the official tourist websites of the Spanish
destinations which offer focuses on the sun and beach product, as this is the main attraction for tourists in Spain
and because the websites are essential marketing tools for tourism products and services. The methodology is
based on the literature review about marketing and Internet in the tourism sector, and on the commercial role of
websites in general and, in particular, of the official tourist websites. An exploratory study of the official Spanish
tourist websites of destinations focusing on the sun and beach product is undertaken by means of the analysis of
content of variables concerning their commercial function, and of their evolution since the arrival of the model 2.0.
This article starts with the hypothesis that official tourist websites have evolved into more commercial models.
The results achieved by the study verify this hypothesis, but reveal failure to take advantage of the benefits that
marketing 2.0 can offer. Furthermore, this study suggests a series of measures that destination marketing
organizations should adopt to remedy these shortcomings and optimize the commercial function of their
websites.
KEY WORDS: Tourism; website 2.0; Internet; marketing 2.0; commercialization; Official tourist website; e-
commerce
RESUMEN
sus sitios webs.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Turismo; web 2.0; Internet; marketing 2.0; comercialización; web turística oficial; e-commerce
RESUME

PALAVRAS CHAVE: Turismo; Web 2.0; Internet; Marketing 2.0; Comercializaçâo; Web turística oficial; e-commerce
How to cite this article
Martínez Sala, A. M. (2018). Marketing 2.0 applied to the tourism sector: the commercial function of the websites
of destination marketing organizations. [Marketing 2.0 aplicado al sector turístico: la función comercial de los
sitios webs de las organizaciones de marketing de destinos] Vivat Academia. Revista de Comunicación, 143, 01-
23. doi: http://doi.org/10.15178/va.2018.143.01-23. Recuperado de http: / /
www.vivatacademia.net/index.php/vivat/article/ view/1065
1. INTRODUCTION
The present and future forecasts make tourism a solid sector on which to sustain the socioeconomic development
of a territory (General Subdirectorate of Tourism Knowledge and Studies, Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism
and Tourism Institute of Spain, 2016). The opportunities offered by this sector have led to strong competitiveness,
increasing the development of marketing actions aimed at achieving an advantageous position in the market.
These actions are undertaken both by Public Administrations as by private companies (Mediano Serrano, 2002).
Simultaneously, the development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has resulted in a new
way of planning and consuming tourism products and services (Buhalis and Law, 2008) boosting the growth of e-
commerce in the sector (Domínguez Vila and Araújo Vila, 2014).
In this context, there is a growing concern about the application of marketing and online marketing focused on the
consumer (Cortés, 2009), as well as management, also, with a clear orientation to the client (Bigné, 1996) that, in
the field of public administration, is manifested in neo-business trends (Campillo Alhama, 2013).
This paper analyzes the degree of implementation of online marketing in sun and sand tourism in relation to the
commercial function of the official tourist websites. It is intended to establish a set of premises that serve to
develop websites that effectively fulfill their commercial function.
2. MARKETING AND INTERNET IN THE TOURISM SECTOR
The importance of the Internet in today's society is evident in the figures relative to its penetration. The study by
the Association for Media Research (2016) states that the Spanish Internet users amount to 17.9 millions. The
number of users is also growing among tourists (Google Travel Spain, Institute of Tourism Studies, Exceltur,
Allianz, State Secretariat of Tourism of the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism of the Government of Spain
and AddedValue, 2013). These data are only a glimpse of the changes that are taking place in the forms of
consumption of information and products and services. Specifically in the tourism sector, a new profile known as
tourist 2.0 has emerged (Suau Jiménez, 2012) who is not only informed of the tourist offer but also uses it through
the Web (Domínguez Vila and Araújo Vila, 2014). The Internet has meant important changes in the planning of the
trip and in the reservations of tourist products and services (Duncan Ortega, 2009). Among them, the replacement
of traditional intermediaries, travel agencies or tour operators, with websites (Lanquar, 2001). Hence the emphasis
of companies and tourism agencies in investing a greater budget in technology and innovation (Domínguez Vila
and Araújo Vila, 2014) and the necessary rethinking of the marketing strategies of tourism products and services
by placing value on online marketing.
During the current generation of online marketing: marketing 2.0, there have been important changes (Martínez
González, 2011) that affect tourist websites. These have become more interactive and better technically (Polo,
2009) to achieve a more satisfying user experience and greater integration of the user in the system. In addition,
they implement online sales tools (Martínez González, 2011) to meet the expectations of users and those

responsible for the websites. There are also changes in the field of tourism promoters with the massive entry into
the Internet of public institutions that, exercising their socio-economic responsibility and aware of the strategic
importance of the tourism sector, are commercialized by adopting processes and tools from the private sector of
the economy (Mart?nez Gonz?lez, 2011).
This way, in the era of marketing 2.0, the main marketing variables (Luque and Casta?eda, 2007) began to be
integrated into the tourist website, among which and in relationship to the commercial function is e-product,
tourism products and services are presented as in a store, with their benefits and attributes, and e-sale, the tourist
pages and sites incorporate mechanisms that encourage sales and facilitate immediate payment (S?nchez, 2002).
Despite the prominence of the commercial function and the boom of online commerce, referred to in the following
section, in the tourism sector, the Internet is basically used as a reference channel (Google Travel Spain et al.,
2013). Faced with this reality, destination marketing organizations (OMDs) should provide tools for selection,
booking and / or online purchase of tourism products and services (World Tourism Organization, 1999, 2001) to
meet the expectations of tourists 2.0 (Suau Jim?nez 2012) and the premises of marketing 2.0. Especially on their
websites as they are the main channel of distribution and marketing of the tourist destination (Fern?ndez-Cavia
Diaz-Luque, Huertas, Rovira, Pedraza-Jim?nez, Sicily, Gomez and Miguez, 2013; Fern?ndez Cavia, Vinyals Mirabent
and L?pez P?rez, 2013 a; Hallet and Kaplan-Weinger, 2010; Lee and Gretzel, 2012; Luna-Nevarez and Hyman, 2012;
Palmer , 2005 ).
Online marketing of tourism products and services is key to the economic development of destinations and a
service demanded by the tourist 2.0. The limited role still played by the Internet in the phase of purchase and
reservation of the tourism process raises questions about the possible causes. The first and most obvious focuses
on the possibilities websites offer to carry out this process. Their study requires analyzing the commercial
function of official tourist websites for its key role, and therefore the implementation of some of the essential
variables of marketing 2.0: e-product and e-sale.
3.THE WEB AS A COMMERCIALIZATION CHANNEL
From the birth of the web to 20052, we lived in the era of the web 1.0 model, the main interests and objectives of
which were: content, profitability, mass public and commerce (Nafr?a, 2008). The Amazon digital store, the travel
websites Travelocity or Expedia, among many others, were the maximum exponent of what the Internet allowed. In
the field of electronic commerce, in Spain, the web 1.0 model was an unprecedented success, as shown by its
business figures (Graph 1).
As a result of model 1.0, webs began to appear in which the user abandoned his traditional passive role in favor of
a more active one to the point of becoming at the same time the destination and origin of the communication. The
web acquired an eminently social function. The phenomenon was so massive and so fast that it soon became a
new web model: model 2.0 (O'Reilly, 2005).
Web 2.0 represents the current phase and is characterized by the prominence given to the social (Lacalle, 2011).
The question is whether this social character contravenes the commercial function of the previous web model.
Although the web 2.0 model enhances interaction with and among individuals, it also promotes that the Web
simplifies business processes of organizations and everyday consumers. Therefore, from the point of view of the
business function, model 2.0 is not far from model 1.0. Proof of this are the figures resulting from online
commercial transactions since the arrival of the new model (Graph 2).
Nowadays the Internet is still used to sell, what changes is the way to sell and who sells, both in the sense of
advising and informing, because now users are the main prescribers of the products and services (Caro, Luque and
Zayas, 2015); as in selling, transactions between individuals [C2P] are becoming more common (Cetelem, 2015).
4.THE COMMERCIAL FUNCTION OF OFFICIAL TOURIST WEBSITES
Websites are key to the development of the tourism sector as they constitute the main form of consumption of
tourist information (Law, Qi and Buhalis, 2010, Luna-Nevarez and Hyman, 2012, Park and Gretzel, 2007). Therefore,
destinations must have an official website, unique for the tourism brand, which exercises an informative and
persuasive function that favors commercialization (Fernández Cavia et al., 2013a). In this sense, websites should

facilitate the accomplishment of successive stages in the purchase process (Rastrollo Horrillo and Alarcón
Urbistondo, 1999), and in the planning of the tourist trip and stay (Díaz-Luque, Guevara Plaza and Antón Clavé,
2006).
Regarding Public Administrations, the scope of this piece of research, they act as regulatory agents and promoters
of the tourism sector through the Network (López Sánchez, Chica Ruiz, Arcila Garrido, Azzariohi and Soto Benito,
2010). They must adopt the role of intermediary in the company-company processes [B2B] and C2P, and provide
tools and online marketing channels. However, the studies carried out to date point out that for OMDs to play this
role does not seem to be a priority (DíazLuque, Guevara Plaza, Caro Herrero, 2004, Díaz-Luque et al., 2006, Díaz-
Luque and Jiménez Marín, 2013, Fernández Cavia et al., 2013, Huertas Roig and Fernández Cavia, 2006). The
human and technical cost of these channels might be he reason for their scarce implementation but, as indicated
by Díaz-Luque and Jiménez Marín (2013), the final consumer is indifferent to who provides the final service, which
opens a wide fan of possibilities for the OMDs to encourage commercialization without direct intermediation. The
aforementioned authors distinguish between webs that offer their own purchase and / or reservation systems and
those that link with others. Within them, they also observe several possibilities: reservation systems managed by
professional destination groups or by private tourist intermediaries. Both are valued positively (Diaz-Jimenez
Luque and Marin, 2013;. Diaz Luque et al, 2006) although it should be noted that, in the last case, destinations
compete directly with products and services from other destinations. Another aspect to consider when
implementing business applications on the web is usability, a key determinant of user satisfaction (International
Organization for Standardization, 1998; Park and Gretzel, 2007; Yeung and Law, 2006). It is advised in this sense
that applications and tools should be displayed on the same website, even in the same window, avoiding
redirecting users to other websites as this causes confusion and possible abandonment (Nielsen, 1997).
Payment modalities must also be contemplated as they determine the completion of the purchase process.
Although Paypal leads the ranking of payment methods, the debit card is another highly valued option (Cetelem,
2015, Institute Advertising Bureau Spain [IAB Spain] and Viko we are, 2015). This entails the need to offer several
payment alternatives to meet the needs of potential and real tourists. And finally, security should be noted as
another of the determining criteria of e-commerce. This has been indicated as the most valued aspect in relation to
payment methods by 76% of consumers (Cetelem, 2015).
With regard to tourism products and services that are the object of this commercial function, the following
categories are considered: accommodation, transportation, catering and complementary activities of a sport,
cultural, leisure, etc. nature. They have been analyzed, individually or jointly, by authors such as Díaz-Luque et al.
(2004), Díaz -Luque et al. (2006), Huertas Roig and Fernández Cavia (2006), Fernández Cavia et al. (2013a),
Fernández-Cavia et al. (2013) and Fernández Cavia, Vinyals Mirabent and López Pérez (2013b) in relation to the
ability to online disseminate and market tourism products and services as a determinant of the quality of an
official tourist website that should therefore be analyzed.
5. OBJECTIVES
This piece of research is based on the hypothesis that OMDs have remodeled official tourist websites, based on
marketing 2.0, incorporating the variables e-product and e-sale, to enhance their commercial function.
As a secondary hypothesis, the possibility exists that the e-sale variable is not correctly implemented, thus lacking
full functionality.
The main objective of the paper presented herein is to analyze the evolution of the commercial function, since the
arrival of the 2.0 model, on the official tourist websites of Spanish sun and sand destinations. This is the main
engine of the Spanish tourism industry and consequently the most representative.
In order to contrast the previous hypotheses, the following specific objectives are proposed:
O.1. Determine if the websites under study include a section or sections oriented to the commercialization of the
main tourist services: accommodation, transportation, catering and complementary activities; analyze their
contents; and evolution (e-product).
O.2. Determine if the sections or sub-sections of the websites related to these services implement internal or

exclusive applications or functionalities (managed by the OMD or by professional destination groups), for their
purchase and / or reservation (e-sale). And analyze their evolution.
O.3 .: Study if these sections or subsections encourage the commercialization of the analyzed products and
services by providing links to other websites (companies providing tourism products and services or private
intermediaries) (e-sales). And analyze their evolution.
O.4 .: Analyze the flexibility of the system in terms of a variety of payment options: card, transfer, online payment
systems, etc. (e-sale), and their evolution . O.5 .: Evaluate the security of the offered payment systems (e-sale).
Analyzing their evolution.
6. METHODOLOGY
The methodology of this piece of research is empirical-analytical. It starts with a literature review on marketing and
Internet in the tourism sector and the evolution of the commercial function of websites and, more specifically,
official tourist websites. An exploratory study of the official Spanish tourist websites of the destinations focusing
their offer on the sun and sand product is also carried out to evaluate the evolution of the implementation of
commercial tools and functionalities since the arrival of model 2.0. Their analysis includes 4 parameters (P)
according to the set objectives (Table 1). The description of the variables, their requirements and assessment
scale can be consulted in the Annex.
Data collection is based on an analysis of the content of the websites. The results are transferred to forms
designed ex profeso, and inspired by analysis methodologies and previous research on official tourist websites
(Díaz -Luque et al., 2006, Díaz - Luque et al., 2004, Díaz-Luque and Jiménez Marín, 2013, Fernández Cavia et al.,
2013a, 2013b; Fernández-Cavia et al., 2013; Huertas Roig and Fernández Cavia, 2006 ), where they are quantified
based on two scales. A binary scale (0-1) for analyzing flexibility and security and a 0-2 scale for all other variables
as their indicators may occur, but not in optimal conditions.
The fieldwork has been carried out in two periods, March-August 2005 and January-May 2015, to analyze the
evolution of the commercial function of the websites after the arrival of model 2.0.
Finally, the sample is composed of the websites of the sun and sand destinations of the Spanish autonomous
communities with busiest international and national tourism (General Subdirectorate of Knowledge and Tourism
Studies, 2014A, General Subdirectorate of Knowledge and Tourism Studies, 2014b).
Selection of websites was based on the following criteria: official capacity; regional, provincial, insular or municipal
level; aimed at the final tourist and in full conditions of access and navigation (Table 2). The same sample has
been maintained in the second phase of research, 2015, in order to analyze the evolution and thus verify the main
hypothesis.
7.DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
7.1.Results of the analysis of the presence of sections related to: accommodation, transport, restoration and
complementary activities; of the published information and their evolution (e-product)
The analysis of the contents (Graph 3) confirms that most websites offer information regarding the services
indicated as those susceptible to online reservation and / or purchase.
In the first phase of research, all websites offer information related to the main services, with the exception of the
Alicante website, in which no mention is made of transport services. Regarding the type of information provided, in
general, information of a general and specific nature is offered. The websites that provide most information in the
four areas are those of Andalusia, Cádiz, Balearic Islands, Tenerife and Catalonia.
In the second place are the websites offering generic and specific information, albeit partial, evaluated this way
because they do not provide information on the four categories of products and services. This occurs mainly in
relation to transportation on the Costa Blanca and Castellón websites, where the four main access routes are not
considered. In addition, in the case of Castellón, there is also little information of a specific nature related to
complementary activities and restoration, so it is cataloged in the third group. Also in second place are the
websites in which the information, in most of the analyzed sections, is specific. This is the case, for example, of
Valencia where, only in relation to complementary activities, information is not enough.

Third, there are websites the information of which, although specific, is characterized by being scarce. In this
position you can find the websites of Málaga, Almería and Gran Canaria. The Granada website is also located in
this last group because it basically offers generic information.
Regarding the evolution, it should be noted that, in general, the majority have improved in terms of quantity and
quality of content. The websites of the V alencian Community, Alicante, Castellón and Granada achieve the
maximum score since they have extended the initial contents related to accommodation, transport,
complementary activities and restoration. Andalusia, Cádiz and Catalonia remain in the first group. Gran Canaria
improves notably but does not reach the maximum score because, in relation to restoration, it only offers generic
information. Costa Blanca and Almeria maintain the same score, the former because it continues to offer partial
information regarding transportation; the latter because it does not offer any content on accommodation and
restoration. Both sections are presented in the form of a search engine called "Partners" that does not show
results. The title suggests that this is a section in development that will be completed with data from registered
partners. Balearic Islands and Tenerife that, in the first phase of research, were in the first group lose this position.
The former because, in the new version, it does not offer specific contents related to restoration. In the second
case, the same thing happens and, in addition, the information relating to airlines is partial, only mentioning a local
company, Binter, ignoring national and international ones.
From the analysis and the resulting arithmetic mean of the e-product variable, a categorization of the websites is
established based on the following typology: category A (value 2); category B (values from 1.50 to 1.75); category
C (values from 0.5 to 1.25) and category D (value 0) (Table 3).
7.2.Results of the analysis of the commercial function through exclusive applications of the destination integrated
on the web, and their evolution ( e-sale )
In 2005 only three sites implement applications for compliance with the commercial function, and in all cases only
the reservation of some products and services is allowed. Andalucía offers a link to its own platform, Seneca,
consisting of a reservation head office for any tourism service in the eight Andalusian provinces, but it is not
integrated on the web. Nor is the one offered by the Balearic Islands for the reservation of accommodations. It is
managed by a group of hotel chains. Only Catalonia offers, exclusively and in an integrated manner, the possibility
of reserving one of the four types of analyzed services: tickets for museums and monuments.
In the second phase of research and despite the technological development, the general situation is not very
different. Andalusia no longer offers any commercial application. However, the Valencian Community and Costa
Blanca have created an exclusive platform, Travel Open Apps, for the reservation of certain tourism products and
services (accommodation, complementary activities and restoration), although the offer is not very complete. For
example, in the field of restoration in Alicante, the searches carried out have not provided any results. Balearic
Islands maintain the possibility of making accommodation reservations, but through another platform:
Avanthotel.com, created by the federations and hotel associations of the destination. In all the cases described
above, the user accesses these platforms leaving the website of origin. Only three web pages make up online
reservation and / or purchase: Castellón, which allows online booking of rural tourism accommodation, Tenerife
that incorporates a flight and golf course booking system, and Catalonia that offers a search engine called
"Experiences" to make tourist packages composed of the four types of analyzed services, of all of them or of some
of them. This search engine allows online reservation and / or purchase of said packages.
7.3.Results of the analysis of the commercial function through links to other websites (e-sale) , and their evolution
In the first phase of research, the websites that obtain the worst scores in terms of content and information,
Malaga, Almeria, Gran Canaria, Granada, Alicante and Castellón, are also the ones that offer less links, transport
being the area with the greatest deficiencies, with the exception of Granada, which only refers to this service. Most
sections related to products and services of accommodation, transport, complementary activities and restoration
are presented as search engines in which users can delimit their searches through filters. The results obtained are
usually links to more detailed files of the company in which photographs and basic data are provided, including the
url.

In the second phase of research, the trend is maintained and the lowest-rated websites in terms of content are also
mostly those that offer less links to other websites. Almería does not include any data or links of companies and
organizations specialized in restoration and accommodation; The Balearic Islands and Tenerife offer partial
information related to transport and only generic information in relation to restoration, and consequently they do
not provide any links to websites of companies in this sector.
Some websites also offer links to platforms of private tourist intermediaries. This technique known as mashup is
characteristic of the web 2.0 model and consists of adding and integrating content and services from more than
one source with the aim of creating something new and with richer information content. In this line, in the first
phase of research, Tenerife offers a flight search engine that links to the lastminute.com platform, although it is
not operational. Alicante is another website that chooses to resort to this technique for transport services linking
with platforms such as Hotels by Tripadvisor, Skyscanner, Jetcost, liligo.com, eDreams and Govoyages, or
Rentalcars.com. Its search engines are integrated on the web. In the case of flights, even the results, but for
reservation and purchase, the user is redirected from the web. Andalusia also resorts to this technique for the
commercialization of air transport, restoration, sports activities (Golf) and accommodation services. Both the
search engines and the results are integrated on the web, but as in the previous case, formalization can only be
done by leaving the website of origin and accessing platforms such as Gotogate, Viajar, Tripsta, Tripair, lol,
eDreams, for flights; Restaurants.com, for restoration; GolfSwitch , for golf; and Kayak, Tripadvisor and Trivago, for
accommodation. In all cases, except for restoration, online purchases can be made. M?laga also redirects its users
to the Booking.com platform after showing availabilities of accommodation on its website.
7.4.Results of the analysis of flexibility and security of payment, and of its evolution
In the first phase of research, none of the websites offers online purchase possibilities internally, so the analysis of
this variable is applicable in none of the cases. In the second phase, only Catalonia. This website, as already
explained, offers a search engine called "Experiences" that allows reservation and / or purchase. To do this, and
after registering or providing basic data and password, it redirects the user to the BBVA bank website: Virtual POS.
It only allows payment by credit card.
The analysis of the security of payment systems is also restricted to the website of Catalonia in its second
analyzed version because it is the only one that offers the possibility of buying online by paying with the Visa and
Mastercard cards. Both have accredited security systems: Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode.
The following matrix shows the results obtained in relation to the evolution of the implementation of the e-sale
variable
8.CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained herein allow us to conclude that the most representative destinations of the Spanish sun and
sand tourism offer have implemented the eproduct variable, integrating marketing 2.0 premises into their
marketing strategies (Luque and Castañeda 2007). Their websites have evolved towards more commercial models,
thus verifying the main hypothesis. However, except for Catalonia, they have not implemented another of the
essential variables of marketing 2.0, e-sale (Sánchez, 2002). This also confirms the secondary hypothesis and
explains in part why the online channel is still a channel of consultation in the tourism sector. OMDs still do not
offer an integral tourist trip planning service (Díaz-Luque et al., 2004) despite the new technological tools and their
responsibility in the promotion and commercialization of the destinations they represent (Martínez González,
2011). This is one of the contributions of this piece of research, necessary for the constant change that
characterizes the online environment, and because it questions more optimistic conclusions, although referred to
tourist websites in general (Martínez González, 2011).
Regarding the first hypothesis, the majority of the destinations analyzed herein have in the first phase of research
a website oriented to the dissemination of the tourist offer, fulfilling a basically informative function. At that time,
the Web 1.0 model prevailed, which was the focus of this function, and although distribution was also one of its
objectives, the analysis showed that only a few websites considered it and incorporated the necessary tools and
applications. They allowed online booking and their management depended on the OMD or professional

associations of the destination, but only one, that of Catalonia, offered the integrated service on the website,
avoiding a disruptive process of communication in the development of online purchase (Díaz-Luque and Jiménez
Marín, 2013) and favoring the usability of the web (Nielsen, 1997) .
In this regard and in relation to the second hypothesis, although in 2015 there are more websites that incorporate
exclusive marketing tools, they are generally limited to reserving some of the analyzed products or services. Only
Catalonia allows the purchase of the four, without leaving the website, except to make the payment. The
alternative to exclusive platforms, that is, the inclusion of links to the corporate websites of the tourist service
providers, in 2005 was not a usual practice either. Only 46.5% of the websites offered the necessary links so that
users could formalize the tourist trip on the Internet. In the second phase of research, except the websites of the
Balearic Islands and Tenerife, all improve their score relative to the information about the products and services, or
maintain it, thus verifying the first hypothesis in regard to the e-product variable. This positively influences the
number of links to corporate websites of organizations that provide tourism products and services. But in addition,
it is observed that some websites implement mashup that allows online purchase and / or booking through links to
platforms of private tourist intermediaries such as: Hotels by Tripadvisor, Skyscanner, Jetcost, Liligo.com,
eDreams, Trivago, Booking.com, etc. This technique easily and economically solves the commercial function of the
web and is a solution for the OMDs to assume their role as tourist intermediaries ( Díaz-Luque et al., 2004; Díaz-
Luque et al., 2006; DíazLuque and Jiménez Marín., 2013, Fernández Cavia et al., 2013, Huertas Roig and Fernández
Cavia, 2006). However, its implementation still has deficiencies that can be remedied in terms of usability.
Platforms must be integrated onto the websites and the user should not be forced to leave them, generating
confusion and possible leaks (Nielsen, 1997). The results obtained herein, as has been advanced, verify the two
hypotheses, given that the commercial function, although assumed, as evidenced by the positive evolution of the
e-product variable, is not correctly implemented, thus lacking full functionality.
The results confirm those of previous studies such as those by Díaz-Luque et al. (2004), Díaz-Luque et al. (2006),
Díaz-Luque and Jiménez Marín (2013), Huertas Roig and Fernández Cavia (2006) and Fernández Cavia et al.
(2013a) that conclude the need to improve e-commerce services to prevent leakage of potential tourists. For this,
OMDs have different alternatives that must be analyzed and evaluated based on their advantages and
disadvantages. This piece of research helps to establish them. Relegate the commercialization of tourism
products and services to the corporate websites of supplier companies, although it is an economical solution,
entails several risks. Not only does it force the user to leave the website but there is also a danger that they do not
offer online purchase and / or reservation services, as evidenced by the piece of research carried out by Martínez
María-Dolores, Bernal García and Mellinas Canovas (2013). Own systems report great benefits (Díaz-Luque,
Guevara, Caro and Aguayo, 2008, Díaz-Luque and Jiménez Marín, 2013) but their development and maintenance
imply significant human and material costs. They can be avoided through links to platforms created by private
tourism intermediaries, which enjoy greater notoriety and credibility and have greater economic and material
resources, which gives them an advantageous position. The problem is that they offer the same services as
competitive tourist destinations. An intermediate solution is the transfer of online commercial exploitation of
products and services to companies in the tourism sector of the destination, following the neopublic trends of
administrative management (Campillo Alhama, 2013). This avoids the costs of creation and development, and the
presence of competitors of the destination in the system, although these platforms do not have the same audience
as the private ones. Without a doubt, the final decision depends on the positioning of the destination in the market
and the objectives, strategies and means at its disposal.
In relation to the last two indicators related to the e-sale variable, the results are conclusive. Greater flexibility is
required, providing at least the most widely accepted payment methods: Paypal system and debit cards (Cetelem,
2015, IAB Spain and Viko we are, 2015). The first one is also preferred for its safety (IAB Spain and Viko we are,
2015). In the case of security, it must be guaranteed through systems that have the backing of credible and
prestigious banking entities, as in the analyzed case. What reaffirms the secondary hypothesis.
A reality has been described in which the online channel is a key and present element throughout the tourism

process. The evolution of the merely informative websites of destinations to those that include marketing services,
the mass development of platforms marketing hotels, flights, etc., and low cost, are some examples of a tourism
reality marked by technology. OMDs must understand and manage the changes that are taking place and use all
the tools that are offered to them and yet there is deficient implementation of the e-sale variable and consequently
of the premises of marketing 2.0.
The importance of the official website in the tourism sector and the constant evolution that characterizes the
online environment lay the foundations of a research field without any limits as long as the Internet continues to
develop. Research carried out has revealed relevant issues in relation to the search systems and their usability, as
well as the convenience or not of developing online reservation and purchase platforms. It is also intended to
continue this research by expanding the sample size to include international destinations the offer of which is
based on the sun and sand product and other national ones such as Tarragona, Gerona, Murcia, etc., which have
developed websites likely to be part of the scope of study.
1Alba María Martínez Sala. Department of Communication and Social Psychology, University of Alicante
[email protected]
2 Aunque el t?rmino web 2.0 fue acunado en el ano 2004 por el grupo editorial O'Reilly Media y Media Live
International, fue perfilado un a?o m?s tarde por Tim O'Reilly (O'Reilly, 2005) por lo que se fija en el a?o 2005 el
inicio de la era 2.0.
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AUTHOR
Alba-María Martínez-Sala

Bachelor's degree in Information Sciences (Advertising and Public Relations) from the Complutense University of
Madrid and Doctor of Fine Arts (art and graphic design) from Miguel Hernández University. Teacher in the Degree
of Advertising and Public Relations, in the field of advertising and public relations strategy at the University of
Alicante and in the Official Master in Organization of Events, Protocol and Institutional Relations of IMEP, in the
field of events and relational marketing. She has also performed her professional activity in several private
organizations. Her main lines of research are digital communication in the public and private sector, specifically in
the tourist institutional sector and in the franchise company. She belongs to the Compubes research group at the
University of Alicante.
http: // orcid.org/¿000-0002-6852-6258
https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=O9- QgoAAAAT
ANNEXED
Analysis model of the commercial function in official tourist websites
DETAILS
Subject: Tourism; Marketing; Web sites; Commercialization; Tourist attractions; Internet;

Websites; Content analysis; Literature reviews
Location: Spain
Alternate title: Marketing 2.0 applied to the tourism sector: the commercial function of the websites
of destination marketing organizations MARKETING 2.0 APLICADO AO SETOR
TURISTICO: A FUNÇAO COMERCIAL DAS PÁGINAS WEBS DAS ORGANIZAÇÖES DE
MARKETING DE DESTINOS
Publication title: Vivat Academia; Madrid
Volume: 21
Issue: 143
Pages: 1-23,1A-22A
Publication date: Jun-Sep 2018
Section: INVESTIGACIÓN
Publisher: Revista Vivat Academia
Place of publication: Madrid
Country of publication: Spain, Madrid

Language of publication: English; Spanish
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15178/va.2018.143.01-23
Copyright: © 2018. This work is published under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

(the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use
this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
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Progressive Dental Marketing Wins 2018

WebAward for Oral Surgeon Website
Publication info: PR Newswire ; New York [New York]27 Sep 2018.
FULL TEXT
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SOURCE Progressive Dental Marketing
CREDIT: Progressive Dental Marketing
DETAILS
Subject: Advertising campaigns; Marketing; Web sites; Continuing education; Consulting

firms
Location: United States--US
Publication date: Sep 27, 2018
Dateline: CLEARWATER, Fla., Sept. 27, 2018

Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Sep 27, 2018
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Illumine8 Marketing & PR Wins Pair of 2018

Gold MARCOM Awards
Publication info: PR Newswire ; New York [New York]29 Nov 2018.
FULL TEXT
FREDERICK, Md., Nov. 29, 2018 /PRNewswire-PRWeb/ -- Illumine8 Marketing &PR of Frederick, Maryland, is a two-
time gold winner of the 2018 MarCom Awards.
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Additional information about the MarCom Awards can be found at http://www.marcomawards.com or on our blog.
About Illumine8 Marketing &PR
Illumine8 is a marketing consultancy that combines business strategy, creativity, and customer-focused sales
practices to deliver sustainable and measurable results to help our clients meet and exceed their growth goals.
More information can be found at http://www.illumine8.com.

SOURCE Illumine8
CREDIT: Illumine8
DETAILS
Subject: Marketing; Communication; E-books; Awards &honors
Location: Turkey Russia United States--US Canada Saudi Arabia Germany Guam Singapore
Maryland England China South Korea
Company / organization: Name: MarCom; NAICS: 517210, 519130, 541511, 541512
Publication date: Nov 29, 2018
Dateline: FREDERICK, Md., Nov. 29, 2018
Document type: News
Copyright: Copyright PR Newswire Association LLC Nov 29, 2018
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Publication title: The American Behavioral Scientist (pre-1986); Thousand Oaks

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Publication year: 1978

Publication date: Mar/Apr 1978

Publisher: SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC.

Place of publication: Thousand Oaks

Country of publication: United States, Thousand Oaks

Publication subject: Social Sciences: Comprehensive Works, Psychology

Source type: Scholarly Journals

Language of publication: English; EN

Document type: article

ProQuest document ID: 194666541

Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/194666541?accountid=50247

Copyright: Copyright SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC. Mar/Apr 1978

Last updated: 2010-08-25

Database: ProQuest Central

INCENTIVE PLAN TO REDUCE MILK AIRED IN

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People: Bolish, William

Publication title: Morning Call; Allentown, Pa.

Publication year: 1984

Publication date: Jan 19, 1984

Publisher: Tribune Interactive, LLC

Place of publication: Allentown, Pa.

Country of publication: United States, Allentown, Pa.

Publication subject: General Interest Periodicals--United States

Source type: Newspapers

Language of publication: English

Document type: LOCAL

ProQuest document ID: 391904390

Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/391904390?accountid=50247

Copyright: Copyright Morning Call Jan 19, 1984

Last updated: 2017-11-06

Database: ProQuest Central

Forecasting accuracy, rational expectations, and

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Subject: Agricultural economics; Cattle industry; Rational expectations; Marketing;

Classification: 0503: Agricultural economics

Publication title: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses

Publication year: 1999

Publication date: 1999

Publisher: ProQuest Dissertations Publishing

Place of publication: Ann Arbor

Country of publication: United States

ISBN: 9780599686779, 0599686774

School: Michigan State University

School location: United States -- Michigan

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Source type: Dissertations &Theses

Language of publication: English; EN

Document type: Dissertation/Thesis

Publication / order number: 1398649

ProQuest document ID: 230642364

Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/230642364?accountid=50247

Last updated: 2016-05-16

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Marketing Hall of Fame The New Zealand

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