Part 4: Large-Scale Path Loss

1. Media Effects on Radio Waves

• Large-scale path loss:

• Attenuation due to distance.

• Reflection.

• Refraction.

• Diffraction.

• Scattering.

• Shadowing due to terrain obstructions (hills, buildings, etc).

• Small-scale path loss (fading).

2. Reflection

• Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object

which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating
wave. Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.

• When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having
different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted.

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 • If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into
the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and
there is no loss of energy in absorption.

• If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back
into the first medium without loss of energy.

3. Reflection from Dielectrics

• The Fresnel reflection coefficients:

E-field in the plane of incidence:

𝐸𝑟 𝜂2 sin⁡𝜃𝑡 − 𝜂1 sin⁡𝜃𝑖
Γ∥ = =
𝐸𝑖 𝜂2 sin⁡𝜃𝑡 + 𝜂1 sin⁡𝜃𝑖

E-field normal to the plane of incidence:

𝐸𝑟 𝜂2 sin 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜂1 sin 𝜃𝑡
Γ⊥ = =
𝐸𝑖 𝜂2 sin 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜂1 sin 𝜃𝑡

𝜇
Where 𝜂 = √ is the intrinsic impedance, 𝐸𝑡 = (1 + Γ)𝐸𝑖 , and 𝐸𝑟 = Γ𝐸𝑖
𝜖

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4. Brewster Angle

• If unpolarized (not perpendicular or parallel) signal is incident on a medium, there is an

incident angle, the Brewster angle, at which the light comes out perfectly perpendicular
polarized.

• If the incident signal is perfectly parallel polarized, there is no reflection at the

Brewster angle at all.

• Calculating the Brewster Angle

𝜀1
sin⁡(𝜃𝐵 ) = √
𝜀1 + 𝜀2

For the case when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a relative
permittivity⁡εr

√𝜀𝑟 − 1
sin⁡(𝜃𝐵 ) =
√𝜀𝑟2 − 1

• Example: Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on ground having a
permittivity⁡of⁡εr⁡=⁡4.

√(4)−1 3 1 1
• Solution: sin⁡(𝜃𝑖 ) = =√ =√ , 𝜃𝑖 = sin−1 ⁡√ = 26.56∘
√(4)2 −1 15 5 5

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5. Reflection from Perfect Conductors

• Since electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a perfect conductor a plane wave
incident on a conductor has all of its energy reflected.

• 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟
• Ei = Er (E-field in the plane of incidence)
• Ei = −Er (E-field normal to the plane of incidence)
• Γ⊥ = −1
• Γ∥ = 1

6. Refraction

• If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into
the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and
there is no loss of energy in absorption.
• This is similar to the case when light in air passes through another medium, such as
water or glass, it slows down. This causes the light waves to bend.

• Snell’s⁡Law
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
• n1 : index of refraction of initial medium
• n2 : index of refraction of the medium into which wave passes
• θ1 : angle of incidence
• θ1 : angle of refraction
• 𝑐: speed of light in vacuum

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 • 𝑣: speed of light in the medium

• Another form of Snell’s⁡Law

√𝜇1 𝜀1 sin⁡(90 − 𝜃𝑖 ) = √𝜇2 𝜀2 sin⁡(90 − 𝜃𝑡 )

7. Diffraction

• Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth,
beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions.
• Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into
the obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field still exists and often has
sufficient strength to produce a useful signal.
• The⁡ phenomenon⁡ of⁡ diffraction⁡ can⁡ be⁡ explained⁡ by⁡ Huygen’s⁡ principle,⁡ which⁡ states⁡
that all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets, and that these wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in
the direction of propagation.
• Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region.
The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is the vector sum of the
electric field components of all the secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.

8. Scattering

• When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out or
diffused in all directions.

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 • The surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance ℎ is less
than the following critical height:

𝜆
ℎ𝑐 =
8sin⁡𝜃𝑖

9. Propagation Models

• Wired channels are stationary and predictable, whereas radio channels are extremely
random and have complex models.
• Modeling of radio channels is done in statistical fashion based on measurements for
each individual communication system or frequency spectrum.
• Modeling of radio channels can be done using:
• Maxwell’s⁡equations:⁡⁡complex⁡and⁡impractical
• Free space path loss model: too simple
• More realistic models: consider reflection, diffraction, and scattering
• Simplified model (long-distance path model): good for high-level analysis
• Examples of propagation models:
• Free space model
• Two ray reflection model
• Knife-edge diffraction model
• Radar cross section model
• Log-distance path loss model
• Log-normal shadowing model
• Okumara model
• Hata model
• Longley Rice model
• Attenuation Factor Model
• Ray-tracing models

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10. Free Space Propagation Model

• The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them.

• Satellite communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically

undergo free space propagation.

• Friis free space equation:

𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) =
(4𝜋)2 𝑑2 𝐿

• Where 𝑃𝑡 is the transmitted power, 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) is the received power which is a

function of the T–R separation, 𝐺𝑡 is the transmitter antenna gain, 𝐺𝑟 is the
receiver antenna gain, d is the T–R separation distance in meters, L is the system
loss⁡factor⁡not⁡related⁡to⁡propagation⁡(L⁡≥⁡1),⁡and⁡λ⁡is⁡the wavelength in meters.

• The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, 𝐴𝑒 , by

4𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐺=
𝜆2
• The effective aperture 𝐴𝑒 is⁡related⁡to⁡the⁡physical⁡size⁡of⁡the⁡antenna,⁡and⁡λ⁡is⁡related⁡to⁡
the carrier frequency by
𝑐 2𝜋𝑐
𝜆= =
𝑓 𝜔𝑐

• The values for 𝑃𝑡 and 𝑃𝑟 must be expressed in the same units.

• 𝐺𝑡 and 𝐺𝑟 are dimensionless quantities.

• The⁡ miscellaneous⁡ losses⁡ L⁡ (L⁡ ≥⁡ 1)⁡ are⁡ usually⁡ due⁡ to⁡ transmission⁡ line⁡ attenuation,⁡
filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. A value of L = 1 indicates
no loss in the system hardware.

• The received power falls off as the square of the T–R separation distance. This implies
that the received power decays with distance at a rate of 20 dB/decade.

• The Path Loss for the Free Space Model

𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝐿(dB) = 10log⁡ = −10log⁡[ ]
𝑃𝑟 (4𝜋)2 𝑑2

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11. Far-field or Fraunhofer Region

• The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of d which are in the
far-field of the transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a
transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the far-field distance df, which is
related to the largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the
carrier wavelength.

• The Fraunhofer distance is given by:

2𝐷 2
𝑑𝑓 =
𝜆

• where 𝐷 is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna. Additionally, to be in

the far-field region

• 𝑑𝑓 must be: 𝑑𝑓 ≫ 𝐷 and 𝑑𝑓 ≫ 𝜆

12. Reference Distance

• It is clear that this equation does not hold for d = 0.

𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) =
(4𝜋)2 𝑑2 𝐿

• For this reason, large-scale propagation models use a close-in distance, 𝑑0 , as a known
received power reference point.

• The received power, 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑), at any distance 𝑑 > 𝑑0 , may be related to 𝑃𝑟 at 𝑑0 . The value
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑0 )may be predicted from the above equation or may be measured in the radio
environment by taking the average received power at many points located at a close-in
radial distance 𝑑0 from the transmitter.

• The reference distance must be chosen such that it lies in the far-field region, that is,
𝑑0 ≥ 𝑑𝑓 , and 𝑑0 is chosen to be smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile
communication system.

• Thus, using the above equation, the received power in free space at a distance greater
than 𝑑0 is given by

𝑑0 2
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) = 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑0 ) ( ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑑 ≥ 𝑑0 ≥ 𝑑𝑓
𝑑
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑0 ) 𝑑0
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑)dBm = 10log⁡[ ] + 20log⁡( ) 𝑑 ≥ 𝑑0 ≥ 𝑑𝑓
0.001W 𝑑

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 • The reference distance 𝑑0 for practical systems using low-gain antennas in the 1–2 GHz
region is typically chosen to be 1 m in indoor environments and 100 m or 1 km in
outdoor environments.

• Example

• Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1 m and
operating frequency of 900 MHz.

• Solution:

3 × 108 m/s
𝜆 = 𝑐/𝑓 = m
900 × 106 Hz
2(1)2
𝑑𝑓 = = 6m
0.33

• Example

• If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the transmit power in units of (a)

dBm, and (b) dBW. (c) If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the
antenna. What is Pr(10 km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.

• Solution:

a. Transmitter power in dBm

Pt (mW)
Pt (dBm) = 10 log [ ]
1mW
= 10 log[50 × 103 ] = 47.0dBm
b. Transmitter power in dBW
Pt (W)
Pt (dBW) = 10 log [ ]
1W
= 10log⁡[50 ∣= 17.0dBW
c.
Pt Gt Gr λ2 50(1)(1)(1/3)2
Pr = = = 3.5 × 10−6 W = 3.5 × 10−3 mW
(4π)2 d2 L (4π)2 (100)2 (1)
Pr (dBm) = 10 log Pr (mW) = 10 log(3.5 × 10−3 mW) = −24.5dBm

The received power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of dBm using d0 = 100m

and d = 10km

100
𝑃𝑟 (10km) = 𝑃𝑟 (100) + 20log⁡[ ] = −24.5dBm − 40dB
10000
= −64.5dBm

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13. Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model

• Free space propagation model is in most cases inaccurate when used alone.

• The two-ray ground reflection model considers both the direct path and a ground
reflected propagation path between transmitter and receiver.

• This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale
signal strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use
tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-sight microcell channels
in urban environments.

ℎ𝑡2 ℎ𝑟2
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟
𝑑4

• Note that it is independent of frequency.

• The path loss for the two-ray model (with antenna gains) can be expressed in dB

𝑃𝐿 (dB) = 40 log 𝑑 − (10 log 𝐺𝑡 + 10 log 𝐺𝑟 + 20 log ℎ𝑡 + 20 log ℎ𝑟 )

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14. Knife-edge Diffraction Model

 First, we need to study Fresnel Zones:

• The transmission is not concentrated in one line only but there are many lines of
transmissions around this line like ellipse.

• Concentric circles which define the boundaries of successive Fresnel zones

• Fresnel zones have the effect of alternately providing constructive and destructive
interference to the total received signal.

• The⁡radius⁡of⁡the⁡nth⁡Fresnel⁡zone⁡circle⁡is⁡denoted⁡by⁡rn,⁡and⁡has⁡nλ/2⁡path⁡difference,⁡
or⁡nπ⁡phase⁡difference⁡to⁡the⁡LOS.

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 𝑛𝜆𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑟𝑛 = √
𝑑1 + 𝑑2

• So, any obstacle found in the first Fresnel zone will cause a diffraction which will have a
phase difference with the direct path of 180 degree (so destructive diffraction).
However, in the second zone it will have a phase difference of 2*180 which is
constructive diffraction and so on.

• In general, if an obstruction does not block the volume contained within the first Fresnel
zone, then the diffraction loss will be minimal, and diffraction effects may be neglected.

• We usually consider the first zone since the signal in this zone has high power. As a rule
of thumb is that as long as 55% (many references say 60%) of the first Fresnel zone is
kept clear, the diffraction loss will be minimal.

• So, we can use the first Fresnel zone to calculate the height of antennas.

15. Knife-edge Diffraction Model

• This is the simplest of diffraction models.

• The diffraction loss in this case can be readily estimated using the classical Fresnel
solution for the field behind a knife edge.

• The attenuation caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a

diffracting knife edge.

• Approximate diffraction gain (loss) expressions:

• Gd (dB) = 0 v ≤ −1

• Gd (dB) = 20log⁡(0.5 − 0.62v) −1≤v≤0

• Gd (dB) = 20log⁡(0.5exp⁡(−0.95v)) 0≤v≤1

• Gd (dB) = 20 log (0.4 − √0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1v 2 ) 1 ≤ v ≤ 2.4

0.225
• Gd (dB) = 20log⁡( ) v > 2.4
v

• Fresnel diffraction parameter

2(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) 2𝑑1 𝑑2
v = ℎ√ = 𝛼√
𝜆𝑑1 𝑑2 𝜆(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )

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16. Diagram of Knife-Edge Geometry

• The difference between the direct path and the diffracted path, called the excess path
length⁡(Δ),⁡is given as

ℎ2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) n𝜆
Δ= =
2 𝑑1 𝑑2 2

• The corresponding phase difference is given by

2𝜋𝛥 2𝜋 ℎ2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 )
𝜙= ≈
𝜆 𝜆 2 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝜋 2
𝜙= 𝑣
2

• Note that :

𝛼 =𝛽+𝛾

𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝛼 = ℎ( )
𝑑1 𝑑2

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 • Example

• Compute the diffraction loss for the three cases shown in the given figures. Assume⁡λ⁡=⁡
1/3⁡m,⁡d1⁡=⁡1km,⁡d2⁡=⁡1⁡km,⁡and⁡(a)⁡h⁡=⁡25⁡m,⁡(b)⁡h⁡=⁡0,⁡(c)⁡h⁡=⁡−25⁡m.⁡Compare⁡your⁡
answers using values from the plot, as well as the approximate solution given by
equations. For each of these cases, identify the Fresnel zone within which the tip of the
obstruction lies.

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 • Solution

• For h=25 m:

2(𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) 2(1000 + 1000)

𝑣 = ℎ√ = 25√ = 2.74
𝜆𝑑1 𝑑2 (1/3) × 1000 × 1000

• From the plot, the diffraction loss is obtained as 22 dB.

• Using the numerical approximation in equations, the diffraction loss is equal to 21.7 dB.

ℎ2 (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) 252 (1000 + 1000)

𝛥= = = 0.625𝑚
2 𝑑1 𝑑2 2 1000 × 1000

• To find the Fresnel zone in which the tip of the obstruction lies, we need to compute n
which satisfies the relation⁡Δ⁡=⁡nλ/2.⁡For⁡λ⁡=⁡1/3⁡m,⁡and⁡Δ⁡=⁡0.625⁡m,⁡we⁡obtain

2𝛥 2 × 0.625
𝑛= = = 3.75
𝜆 0.3333

• Therefore, the tip of the obstruction completely blocks the first three Fresnel zones.
• For h=0 m

• Fresnel⁡diffraction⁡parameter⁡ν⁡=⁡0.

• From the plot or equation, the diffraction loss is obtained as 6 dB.

• For⁡this⁡case,⁡since⁡h⁡=⁡0,⁡we⁡have⁡Δ⁡=⁡0,⁡and⁡the⁡tip⁡of⁡the⁡obstruction⁡lies⁡in⁡the⁡middle⁡
of the first Fresnel zone.

• For h=-25 m

• v=⁡−2.74.

• From the plot, the diffraction loss is approximately equal to 1 dB

• From the equation, the diffraction loss is approximately equal to 0 dB

ℎ2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) 252 (1000 + 1000)

Δ= = = 0.625m.
2 𝑑1 𝑑2 2 1000 × 1000

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 2Δ 2 × 0.625
𝑛= = = 3.75
𝜆 0.3333
• It should be noted that although the tip of the obstruction completely blocks the first
three Fresnel zones, the diffraction losses are negligible, since the obstruction is below
the line-of-sight (h is negative).

• Example

• Given the following geometry, determine

• The loss due to knife-edge diffraction

• The height of the obstacle required to induce 6 dB diffraction loss. Assume f =

900 MHz.

• Solution :

• Redraw the geometry by subtracting the height of the smallest structure.

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 𝑐 3 × 108 1
𝜆= = = m
𝑓 900 × 106 3
75 − 25
𝛽 = tan−1 ⁡( ) = 0.2865 ∘
10000
75
𝛾 = tan−1 ⁡( ) = 2.15∘
2000
𝛼 = 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 2.434∘ = 0.0424rad
2 × 10000 × 2000
𝑣 = 0.0424√ = 4.24
(1/3) × (10000 + 2000)

• From the plot or equations, the diffraction loss is 25.5 dB.

• For⁡6⁡dB⁡diffraction⁡loss,⁡ ν⁡=⁡ 0.⁡The⁡obstruction⁡ height⁡h ost may be found using

similar⁡triangles⁡(β⁡=⁡γ),⁡as⁡shown⁡below.

ℎ′ 25
=
2000 12000

ℎ′ = 4.16⁡m

host=⁡ℎ′+25 m= 29.16 m

17. Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction

• When there are multiple obstructions, the problem becomes much more complicated.

• Many models have been developed to estimate the diffraction losses due to multiple
obstructions.

• Bullington suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent

obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-edge diffraction models.

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 This method oversimplifies the calculations and often provides very optimistic
estimates of the received signal strength.

18. Radar Cross Section Model

• The bistatic radar equation describes the propagation of a wave traveling in free space
which impinges on a distant scattering object, and is then reradiated in the direction of
the receiver, given by

𝑃𝑅 (dBm) = 𝑃𝑇 (dBm) + 𝐺𝑇 (dBi) + 20log⁡(𝜆) + 𝑅𝐶𝑆 [dB. m2 ]

−30log⁡(4𝜋) − 20log⁡𝑑𝑇 − 20log⁡𝑑𝑅

• where 𝑑𝑇 and 𝑑𝑅 are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter and
receiver, respectively.

• The scattering object is assumed to be in the far field (Fraunhofer region) of both the
transmitter and receiver.

• The variable RCS is given in units of dB · m 2, and can be approximated by the surface
area (in square meters) of the scattering object, measured in dB with respect to a one
square meter reference.

• In several European cities, RCS values for several buildings were determined from
measured power delay profiles. For medium and large size buildings located 5–10 km
away, RCS values were found to be in the range of 14.1 to 55.7 dB · m2.

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19. Log-distance Path Loss Model

𝑑
̅̅̅̅(dB) = 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐿 ̅̅̅̅(𝑑0 ) + 10𝑛log⁡( )
𝑑0

𝑑
10 log10 𝑃𝑟 = ⏟
⏟ 10 log10 𝑃0 − 10𝑛 log10
⏟ 𝑑0
𝑃 (dBm)
𝑟 𝑃 (dBm) 0
dB Pathloss

• where n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss
increases with distance, 𝑑0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined from
measurements close to the transmitter.

• In large coverage cellular systems, 1 km reference distances are commonly used,

whereas in microcellular systems, much smaller distances (such as 100 m or 1 m) are
used.

• The bars denote the average of all possible path loss values for a given value of 𝑑.

• The reference path loss is calculated using the free space path loss formula.

20. Log-Normal Shadowing Model

𝑑
̅̅̅̅(𝑑) + 𝑋𝜎 = 𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝐿 (𝑑)[𝑑𝐵 ] = 𝑃𝐿 ̅̅̅̅(𝑑0 ) + 10 nlog ( ) + 𝑋𝜎
𝑑0

𝑃𝑟 (𝑑)[𝑑𝐵𝑚] = 𝑃𝑡 [𝑑𝐵𝑚] − 𝑃𝐿(𝑑)[𝑑𝐵] (antenna⁡gains⁡included⁡in 𝑃𝐿(𝑑))

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 • where⁡ Xσ⁡ is⁡ a⁡ zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard
deviation⁡σ⁡.⁡It⁡describes⁡the⁡random⁡shadowing⁡effects.

• Note⁡ that⁡Xσ⁡is⁡proportional⁡to⁡the⁡logarithm⁡of⁡ the⁡power.⁡That’s⁡why⁡the⁡shadowing⁡

effect follows log normal distribution.

• In⁡practice,⁡the⁡values⁡of⁡n⁡and⁡σ⁡are⁡computed⁡from⁡measured⁡data.⁡

• The probability that the received signal level (in dB power units) will exceed a certain
value⁡γ⁡can⁡be⁡calculated⁡from⁡the⁡cumulative⁡density⁡function CDF(𝛾) as

𝛾 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑)
Pr[𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) > 𝛾] = 1 − CDF(𝛾) = 𝑄 ( )
𝜎

• Similarly,⁡the⁡probability⁡that⁡the⁡received⁡signal⁡level⁡will⁡be⁡below⁡γ⁡is⁡given⁡by

𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) − 𝛾
Pr⁡[𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) < 𝛾] = 𝑄 ( )
𝜎

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21. Q-Function

• Q-function= 1- CDF (for standardized normal distribution)

• Q-function or error function (erf) can be used to determine the probability that the
received signal will exceed (or fall below) a particular level.

1 𝑥2 ∞ 1 𝑧
𝑄(𝑧) = ∫   exp⁡(− ) 𝑑𝑥 = [1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 ( )]
√2𝜋 𝑧 2 2 √2

𝑄(−𝑧 ) = 1 − 𝑄(𝑧)

𝑄 (0) = 0.5

• Matlab has erf function.

To find the probability 𝑃𝑟 (𝑥 > 𝑥0 ) for non-standard Gaussian distribution with mean m
and standard deviation σ, first compute
𝑥0 − 𝑚
𝑧=
σ
𝑃𝑟 (𝑥 > 𝑥0 ) = 𝑄(𝑧)

22. Percentage of Coverage Area

• It is clear that due to random effects of shadowing, some locations within a coverage
area will be below a particular desired received signal threshold.

• For a circular coverage area having radius R from a base station, let there be some
desired received signal⁡threshold⁡γ.⁡

• We⁡ are⁡ interested⁡ in⁡ computing⁡ U(γ),⁡ the⁡ percentage⁡ of⁡ useful⁡ service⁡ area⁡ (i.e.⁡ the⁡
percentage⁡of⁡area⁡with⁡a⁡received⁡signal⁡that⁡is⁡equal⁡or⁡greater⁡than⁡γ).

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 2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
1 1
𝑈(𝛾) = ∫ [
Pr⁡ 𝑃𝑟 (𝑟) > 𝛾]𝑑𝐴 = ∫   ∫   Pr⁡[𝑃𝑟 (𝑟) > 𝛾]𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜋𝑅 2 𝜋𝑅 2 0 0

𝛾 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑟 (𝑟) 1 1 𝛾 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑟 (𝑟)
Pr⁡[𝑃𝑟 (𝑟) > 𝛾] = 𝑄 ( ) = − erf⁡( )
𝜎 2 2 𝜎√2

𝛾 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑟 (𝑟) 1 1 𝛾 − ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑟 (𝑟)
Pr⁡[𝑃𝑟 (𝑟) > 𝛾] = 𝑄 ( ) = − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 ( )
𝜎 2 2 𝜎 √2

1 1 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝛾 − [𝑃𝑡 − (PL(𝑑 0 ) + 10𝑛log⁡(𝑟/𝑑0 ))]
= − erf⁡( )
2 2 𝜎 √2

1 1 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝛾 − [𝑃𝑡 − (PL(𝑑 0 ) + 10𝑛log⁡(𝑅/𝑑0 ) + 10𝑛log⁡(𝑟/𝑅))]
= − erf⁡( )
2 2 𝜎 √2

𝛾 − 𝑃𝑡 + 𝑃𝐿 (𝑑0 ) + 10𝑛log⁡(𝑅/𝑑0 ) 10𝑛log⁡𝑒

Let 𝑎= , 𝑏=
𝜎 √2 𝜎 √2
1 1 𝑅 𝑟
𝑈(𝛾) = − 2 ∫   𝑟 ⋅ 𝑒𝑟𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏ln⁡ ) 𝑑𝑟
2 𝑅 0 𝑅
1 1 − 2𝑎𝑏 1 − 𝑎𝑏
= {1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑎) + exp⁡( ) [1 − erf⁡( )]}
2 𝑏2 𝑏

• By choosing the signal level such that ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

𝑃𝑟 (𝑅) = 𝛾 (i.e.⁡a⁡=⁡0),⁡U(γ)⁡can⁡be⁡

1 1 1
𝑈(𝛾) = {1 + exp⁡( 2 ) [1 − erf⁡( )]}
2 𝑏 𝑏

• Which may be evaluated for a large number of⁡values⁡of⁡σ⁡and n .

• For⁡ example,⁡ if⁡ n⁡ =⁡ 4⁡ and⁡ σ⁡ =⁡ 8⁡ dB,⁡ and⁡ if⁡ the⁡ boundary⁡ is⁡ to⁡ have⁡ 75%⁡ boundary⁡
coverage (75% of the time the signal is to exceed the threshold at the boundary), then
the area coverage is equal to 94%. So, 75% boundary coverage provides 94% area
coverage.

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Communication Systems-EE425
 • Example: Four received power measurements were taken at distances of 100 m, 200 m,
1 km, and 3 km from a transmitter. These measured values are given in the following
table.

• It is assumed that the path loss for these measurements follows the following model
where d0 = 100 m.
𝑑
𝑃𝐿(𝑑)[dB] = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝐿(𝑑)[dB] + 𝑋𝜎 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝐿(𝑑0 )[dB] + 10𝑛log⁡( ) + 𝑋𝜎
𝑑0

a) find the minimum mean square error (MMSE) estimate for the path loss exponent 𝑛.
b) calculate the standard deviation about the mean value.
c) estimate the received power at d = 2 km using the resulting model.
d) predict the likelihood that the received signal level at 2 km will be greater than -60
dBm.

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Communication Systems-EE425
 e) predict the percentage of area within a 2 km radius cell that receives signals greater
than -60 dBm, given the result in (d).

• Solution

(a) The MMSE estimate may be found using the following method. Let 𝑃𝑖 be the received
̂𝑖 be the estimate for 𝑃𝑖 using the path loss model
power at a distance 𝑑𝑖 ⁡and let 𝑃
𝑑 𝑛
( ) . The sum of squared errors between the measured and estimated values is
𝑑0
given by
k
^ 2
J(n) = ∑   (pi − pi )
i=1

• The value of ii which minimizes the mean square error can he obtained by
equating the derivative of J(n) to zero, and then solving for n.
^
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 (𝑑0 ) − 10𝑛log⁡(𝑑𝑖 /100m)

• ̂i in dBm
Recognizing that 𝑃(𝑑0 ) = 0dBm, we find the following estimates for P
^ ^ ^ ^
𝑝1 = 0, 𝑝2 = −3𝑛, 𝑝3 = −10𝑛, 𝑝4 = −14.77𝑛.

• The sum of squared errors is then given by

𝐽(𝑛) = (0 − 0)2 + (−20 − (−3𝑛))2 + (−35 − (−10𝑛))2 + (−70 − (−14.77𝑛))2

= 6525 − 2887.8𝑛 + 327.153𝑛 2
𝑑𝐽(𝑛)
= 654.306𝑛 − 2887.8
𝑑𝑛

• Setting this equal to zero, the value of n is obtained as 𝑛 = 4.4.

(b) The sample variance σ2 = J(n)/4 at n = 4.4 can be obtained as follows.

J(n) = (0 + 0) + (−20 + 13.2)2 + (−35 + 44)2 + (−70 + 64.988)2
= 152.36.
152.36
σ2 = = 38.09dB2
4
Therefore σ = 6.17 dB, which is a biased estimate. In general, a greater number of
measurements are needed to reduce σ2 .
(c) The estimate of the received power at d = 2 km is given by
^
𝑝(𝑑 = 2km) = 0 − 10(4.4)log⁡(2000/100) = −57.24dBm.
A Gaussian random variable having zero mean and σ = 6.17 could be added to this
value to simulate random shadowing effects at d = 2 km.

(d) The probability that the received signal level will be greater than —60 dBm is given by

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Communication Systems-EE425
 ¯
𝛾 − 𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) −60 + 57.24
Pr⁡[𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) > −60dBm] = 𝑄 ( ) = 𝑄( ) = 67.4%
𝜎 6.17
(e) If 67.4% of the users on the boundary receive signals greater than -60 dBm, then equation of
σ
U(γ) or its figure, 𝑛 = 1.4, may be used to determine that 92% of the cell area receives
coverage above -60 dBm.

23. Okumura Model

• Proposed by the Japanese engineer Yoshihisa Okumura in 1968.

• It is one of the most widely used models for signal strength in urban/suburban areas.

• This is valid roughly in the 150-to-1920 MHz range, although it can be extrapolated for
higher frequencies

• According to the Okumura model, the 50th percentile or median-path loss L50 is given
as

L50 (dB) = LF (dB) + A mu (fc, d) − G(hte ) − G(hre ) − GArea

(4π)2d2L
• Free-space-propagation loss: ⁡LF = 10log10 ⁡( )
Gt Gr λ2

• The transmit and receive antenna-height-gain factors:

hte
G(hte ) = 20log10 ⁡( )
200
hre
10log10 ⁡( ) hre < 3𝑚
G(hre ) = { 3
hre
20log10 ⁡( ) 3m ≤ hre ≤ 10m
3
• A mu (fc, d)⁡: The correction factor and it is a function of the carrier frequency fc
and distance d. It has been computed for different fc and d.

• GArea : The gain due to the environment. It has been computed for different
environment and given in different references.

• Example: Employing the Okumura model, compute the median loss at a distance of 8
km when the carrier frequency fc = 2.1 GHz, hte = 40⁡m, hre = 2⁡m in a large city. Given
that A mu (2.1GHz, 8⁡Km) = 34dB and GArea = 0

• Solution:

3 × 108
λ= = 0.143m
2 × 109

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Communication Systems-EE425
 (4π)2 × (8 × 103 )2
LF(dB) = 10log10 ⁡( )
0.1432
= 116.93dB ≈ 117dB
40
G(hte ) = 20log10 ⁡( ) = −14dB
200
2
G(hre) = 10log10 ⁡( ) = −1.76dB
3
L50 dB = LF + A mu (f, d) − G(hte ) − Ghre − GArea
= 117 + 34 − (−14) − (−1.76) ≈ 167dB

24. Hata Model

• Proposed by the Japanese engineer Masaharu Hata in 1980.

• The Hata model presents an analytical approximation for the graphical-information-

based Okumura model introduced previously.

• The median-path loss L50 ( dB) for urban areas under the Hata model is given as

L50 (dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log10 ⁡fcMHz − a(hre ) − 13.82log10 ⁡(hte )

+(44.9 − 6.55log10 ⁡hte )log10 ⁡dkm

• hre and hte in the Hata model are constrained as follows:

30m < hte < 200𝑚

1m < hre < 10𝑚

• The antenna-correction for a small-to-medium sized city is given as

a(hre ) = (1.1log10 ⁡fcMHz − 0.7)hre − (1.56log10 ⁡fcMHz − 0.8)dB

• The antenna-correction for a large city is given as

8.29(log10 ⁡1.54hre )2 − 1.1dB, fc ≤ 300MHz

a(hre ) = {
3.2(log10 ⁡11.75hre )2 − 4.97dB, fc > 300𝑀𝐻𝑧

• Example: Employing the Hata model, compute the median loss at a distance d = 8 km,
when the carrier frequency fc = 2.1 GHz, hte = 40 m, hre = 2 m for a large city.

• Solution:

2.1 × 109
fcMHz = = 2100
106
ahre = 3.2(log10 ⁡11.75 × 2)2 − 4.97 = 1.04dB

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Communication Systems-EE425
 L50 = 69.55 + 26.16log10 ⁡2100 − 13.82log10 ⁡2 − 1.04 + (44.9 − 6.55log10 ⁡40) log10 ⁡8
⏟ ⏟ ⏟
86.9dB 22.14dB 31.07dB
= 69.55 + 86.90 − 22.14 − 1.04 + 31.07dB
= 164.34dB

References

• Wireless Communications Principles and Practice by Theodore S.

Rappaport.Prentice Hall PTRPrenticeHall, Inc.Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. Second
Edition 2002.
• Principles of Electronic Communication by Louis E. Frenzel Jr. Published by McGraw-
Hill Education 2016. Fourth Edition.

• Principles Of Modern Wireless Communications Systems: Theory and Practice by Aditya

K. Jagannatham. 2016

• Course Notes for ECE 5325/6325 Wireless Communication Systems by Prof. Neal
Patwari, University of Utah, 2010.

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