Figure 3.1.2: (a) Salmonella bacteria are viewed with a light microscope.

(b) This scanning electron micrograph shows

Salmonella bacteria (in red) invading human cells. (credit a: modification of work by CDC, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,
Charles N. Farmer; credit b: modification of work by Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)

CAREERS IN ACTION: Cytotechnologist

Have you ever heard of a medical test called a Pap smear (Figure 3.1.3)? In this test, a doctor takes a small sample of cells
from the uterine cervix of a patient and sends it to a medical lab where a cytotechnologist stains the cells and examines them
for any changes that could indicate cervical cancer or a microbial infection.
Cytotechnologists (cyto- = cell) are professionals who study cells through microscopic examinations and other laboratory tests.
They are trained to determine which cellular changes are within normal limits or are abnormal. Their focus is not limited to
cervical cells; they study cellular specimens that come from all organs. When they notice abnormalities, they consult a
pathologist, who is a medical doctor who can make a clinical diagnosis.
Cytotechnologists play vital roles in saving people’s lives. When abnormalities are discovered early, a patient’s treatment can
begin sooner, which usually increases the chances of successful treatment.

Figure 3.1.3: These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from a Pap smear. Normal cells
are on the left. The cells on the right are infected with human papillomavirus. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman;
scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Cell Theory
The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the
movements of protists (a type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules.”

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In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” (from the Latin cella,
meaning “small room”) for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s, van
Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses and microscope construction enabled other scientists to
see different components inside cells.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying tissues and proposed the unified cell
theory, which states that all living things are composed of one or more cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that all new
cells arise from existing cells. These principles still stand today.

Section Summary
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so small that they cannot be viewed with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists must
use microscopes to study cells. Electron microscopes provide higher magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light
microscopes. The unified cell theory states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life,
and new cells arise from existing cells.

Glossary

microscope
the instrument that magnifies an object

unified cell theory

the biological concept that states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and new
cells arise from existing cells

Contributors and Attributions

Samantha Fowler (Clayton State University), Rebecca Roush (Sandhills Community College), James Wise (Hampton
University). Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-83...4-
e119a8aafbdd).

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3.2: Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains
Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro- = before; -karyon- = nucleus). Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists
are eukaryotes (eu- = true).

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its
surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular components are
found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ
from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle.
We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the
cell: a darkened region called the nucleoid (Figure 3.2.1).

Figure 3.2.1: This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.
Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised of sugars and amino acids, and many
have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 3.2.1). The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape,
and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella,
pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion, while most pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of
reproduction called conjugation.

Eukaryotic Cells
In nature, the relationship between form and function is apparent at all levels, including the level of the cell, and this will become
clear as we explore eukaryotic cells. The principle “form follows function” is found in many contexts. For example, birds and fish
have streamlined bodies that allow them to move quickly through the medium in which they live, be it air or water. It means that, in
general, one can deduce the function of a structure by looking at its form, because the two are matched.
A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles,
which have specialized functions. The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the
membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word “organelle” means “little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have
specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions.

Cell Size
At 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have diameters ranging from 10–
100 µm (Figure 3.2.2). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter them to quickly spread to other
parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells
have evolved different structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells would not be
possible without these adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume increases much more quickly than does cell

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surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more difficult for the cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the
processes inside the cell, because the relative size of the surface area across which materials must be transported declines.

Figure 3.2.2: This figure shows the relative sizes of different kinds of cells and cellular components. An adult human is shown for
comparison.

Section Summary
Prokaryotes are predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea. All prokaryotes have plasma
membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, a cell wall, DNA, and lack membrane-bound organelles. Many also have polysaccharide
capsules. Prokaryotic cells range in diameter from 0.1–5.0 µm.
Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but a eukaryotic cell is typically
larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is surrounded by a membrane), and has other membrane-bound
organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions. Eukaryotic cells tend to be 10 to 100 times the size of prokaryotic
cells.

Glossary

eukaryotic cell
a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and several other membrane-bound compartments or sacs

organelle
a membrane-bound compartment or sac within a cell

prokaryotic cell
a unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle

Contributors and Attributions

Samantha Fowler (Clayton State University), Rebecca Roush (Sandhills Community College), James Wise (Hampton
University). Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-83...4-

Access for free at OpenStax 3.2.2 https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/6981

 e119a8aafbdd).

This page titled 3.2: Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by OpenStax.

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3.3: Eukaryotic Cells
At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than do prokaryotic cells. Organelles allow for
various functions to occur in the cell at the same time. Before discussing the functions of organelles within a eukaryotic cell, let us
first examine two important components of the cell: the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm.

ART CONNECTION

Figure 3.3.1: This figure shows (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.
What structures does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not have? What structures does an animal cell have that a plant
cell does not have?

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The Plasma Membrane
Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane (Figure 3.3.2) made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded
proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule
composed of two fatty acid chains, a glycerol backbone, and a phosphate group. The plasma membrane regulates the passage of
some substances, such as organic molecules, ions, and water, preventing the passage of some to maintain internal conditions, while
actively bringing in or removing others. Other compounds move passively across the membrane.

Figure 3.3.2: The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. There are other components, such as
cholesterol and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane in addition to phospholipids and protein.
The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular =
microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma membrane. Such cells are typically found lining the small
intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. This is an excellent example of form matching the function of a
structure.
People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. The immune
response damages microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb nutrients. This leads to malnutrition, cramping, and
diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac disease must follow a gluten-free diet.

The Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope (a structure to be discussed
shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various chemicals (Figure 3.3.1). Even
though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it has a semi-solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it.
However, proteins are not the only organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides,
amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and derivatives of glycerol are found there too. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and
many other elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the
cytoplasm.

The Cytoskeleton
If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only components left?
No. Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules, plus a network of protein fibers that helps to maintain
the shape of the cell, secures certain organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and
enables unicellular organisms to move independently. Collectively, this network of protein fibers is known as the cytoskeleton.
There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, also known as actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules (Figure 3.3.3).

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 Figure 3.3.3: Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules compose a cell’s cytoskeleton.
Microfilaments are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular components, for example, during cell
division. They also maintain the structure of microvilli, the extensive folding of the plasma membrane found in cells dedicated to
absorption. These components are also common in muscle cells and are responsible for muscle cell contraction. Intermediate
filaments are of intermediate diameter and have structural functions, such as maintaining the shape of the cell and anchoring
organelles. Keratin, the compound that strengthens hair and nails, forms one type of intermediate filament. Microtubules are the
thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are hollow tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle
movement and are the structures that pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division. They are also the structural components
of flagella and cilia. In cilia and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules on the outside and
two microtubules in the center.
The centrosome is a region near the nucleus of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center. It contains a pair of
centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules.
The centrosome replicates itself before a cell divides, and the centrioles play a role in pulling the duplicated chromosomes to
opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the exact function of the centrioles in cell division is not clear, since cells that have the
centrioles removed can still divide, and plant cells, which lack centrioles, are capable of cell division.

Flagella and Cilia

Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are used to move an entire
cell, (for example, sperm, Euglena). When present, the cell has just one flagellum or a few flagella. When cilia (singular = cilium)
are present, however, they are many in number and extend along the entire surface of the plasma membrane. They are short, hair-
like structures that are used to move entire cells (such as paramecium) or move substances along the outer surface of the cell (for
example, the cilia of cells lining the fallopian tubes that move the ovum toward the uterus, or cilia lining the cells of the respiratory
tract that move particulate matter toward the throat that mucus has trapped).

The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system (endo = within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 3.3.3) in eukaryotic cells that work
together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, the

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endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which we will cover shortly. Although not technically within the cell, the plasma
membrane is included in the endomembrane system because, as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous
organelles.

The Nucleus
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 3.3.1). The nucleus (plural = nuclei) houses the cell’s DNA
in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let us look at it in more detail (Figure 3.3.4).

Figure 3.3.4: The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the nuclear envelope consists of two
phospholipid bilayers (membranes)—an outer membrane and an inner membrane—in contrast to the plasma membrane (Figure
3.3.2 ), which consists of only one phospholipid bilayer. (credit: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH)

The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus (Figure 3.3.4). Both the
inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and
the cytoplasm.
To understand chromatin, it is helpful to first consider chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made
up of DNA, the hereditary material, and proteins. This combination of DNA and proteins is called chromatin. In eukaryotes,
chromosomes are linear structures. Every species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of its body cells. For
example, in humans, the chromosome number is 46, whereas in fruit flies, the chromosome number is eight.
Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready to divide. When the cell is in the
growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the chromosomes resemble an unwound, jumbled bunch of threads.
We already know that the nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how does it do this? Some chromosomes have sections of
DNA that encode ribosomal RNA. A darkly staining area within the nucleus, called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli), aggregates
the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are then transported through the nuclear pores
into the cytoplasm.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 3.3.7) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that collectively modify proteins
and synthesize lipids. However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the endoplasmic reticulum: the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.
The hollow portion of the ER tubules is called the lumen or cisternal space. The membrane of the ER, which is a phospholipid
bilayer embedded with proteins, is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded
appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.
The ribosomes synthesize proteins while attached to the ER, resulting in transfer of their newly synthesized proteins into the lumen
of the RER where they undergo modifications such as folding or addition of sugars. The RER also makes phospholipids for cell
membranes.

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If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined to stay in the RER, they will be packaged within vesicles and transported
from the RER by budding from the membrane (Figure 3.3.7). Since the RER is engaged in modifying proteins that will be secreted
from the cell, it is abundant in cells that secrete proteins, such as the liver.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface (see
Figure 3.3.1). The SER’s functions include synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including phospholipids), and steroid hormones;
detoxification of medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism; and storage of calcium ions.

The Golgi Apparatus

We have already mentioned that vesicles can bud from the ER, but where do the vesicles go? Before reaching their final
destination, the lipids or proteins within the transport vesicles need to be sorted, packaged, and tagged so that they wind up in the
right place. The sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus (also called the
Golgi body), a series of flattened membranous sacs (Figure 3.3.5).

Figure 3.3.5: The Golgi apparatus in this transmission electron micrograph of a white blood cell is visible as a stack of
semicircular flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit:
modification of work by Louisa Howard; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
The Golgi apparatus has a receiving face near the endoplasmic reticulum and a releasing face on the side away from the ER, toward
the cell membrane. The transport vesicles that form from the ER travel to the receiving face, fuse with it, and empty their contents
into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications. The
most frequent modification is the addition of short chains of sugar molecules. The newly modified proteins and lipids are then
tagged with small molecular groups to enable them to be routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi. While some of
these vesicles, transport vesicles, deposit their contents into other parts of the cell where they will be used, others, secretory
vesicles, fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell.
The amount of Golgi in different cell types again illustrates that form follows function within cells. Cells that engage in a great deal
of secretory activity (such as cells of the salivary glands that secrete digestive enzymes or cells of the immune system that secrete
antibodies) have an abundant number of Golgi.
In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are incorporated into the cell wall
and some of which are used in other parts of the cell.

Lysosomes
In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell’s “garbage disposal.” Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. In single-celled eukaryotes, lysosomes are important
for digestion of the food they ingest and the recycling of organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic)
than those located in the cytoplasm. Many reactions that take place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, thus the
advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell into organelles is apparent.
Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-causing organisms that might enter the cell. A good example of
this occurs in a group of white blood cells called macrophages, which are part of your body’s immune system. In a process known
as phagocytosis, a section of the plasma membrane of the macrophage invaginates (folds in) and engulfs a pathogen. The
invaginated section, with the pathogen inside, then pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle
fuses with a lysosome. The lysosome’s hydrolytic enzymes then destroy the pathogen (Figure 3.3.6).

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