Science Research Writing For Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition)

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World Scientific
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Published by
World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
Head office: 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Glasman-Deal, Hilary, author.
Title: Science research writing : for native and non-native speakers of English /
Hilary Glasman-Deal, Imperial College London, UK.

Description: Second edition. | New Jersey : World Scientific, [2020] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019052120 | ISBN 9781786347831 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781786347848 (paperback) | ISBN 9781786348333 (ebook) |

ISBN 9781786348340 (ebook other)

Subjects: LCSH: English language--Technical English--Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
Technical writing--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | English language--Textbooks for foreign speakers.

Classification: LCC PE1475 .G57 2020 | DDC 808.06/65--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019052120
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Copyright © 2021 by World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to all my brilliant colleagues in

the Centre for Academic English at Imperial College London, particularly
Robin Mowat, Julie King and Julie Hartill, and to the many students and
academic staff at Imperial College London who have provided research articles
and input for this book.
I would also like to thank my dear children Ben, Daniel, Liora, Yoel, Jordana
and Alex for their enthusiasm, encouragement and patience, and my editor
at World Scientific Publishing, Koe Shi Ying, for her unflagging diligence and
professionalism.
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Preface to the Second Edition

Student: Dr Einstein, aren’t these the same questions as in last year’s exam?
Dr Einstein: Yes, but this year the answers are different.
Science research writing is changing and developing, influenced by factors

that are driving the way that science is communicated and the way that
research is accessed. These factors include the global nature of science
research, internet reading and the accelerating speed of scientific discovery,
all of which are revolutionising the communication models that existed in
the twentieth century.
The global nature of science research requires fast, effective and accurate
communication that can be understood by all participants in international
interactions and research collaborations. The language of science is not
owned by English speakers but by its many users worldwide. Researchers
who are not native English speakers frequently lead their field. These
researchers report their work in high-impact journals and need to write and
read research in their discipline fast and effectively. This is creating a global
science communication language that codifies research such that it can be
accessed by all users, in all countries, and at all levels.
Internet reading is another factor changing the way research is accessed,
and this in turn is influencing how it is written. The collaborative nature of
STEMM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and Medicine) and
increases in research funding have increased the volume of research
published annually and therefore the amount of reading required for
successful STEMM research. In the past, researchers would read hard copies
of a limited, carefully-curated set of print journals. Now, however, most
achieve a faster and more fluid access to a wider range of research on the
internet via information-surfing. Research activity involves extensive title-
scrolling to search for relevant studies, and readers may only read one section
of the research article — perhaps the Abstract, Results or Conclusion. As a
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b3779 Science Research Writing
Science Research Writing
result, titles have become more important, and parts of the research article,
particularly the Abstract or Summary, are developing in ways that enable
them to be read as independent, standalone documents.
A third factor driving the change in science research communication is

the need for speed. Science is moving forward almost faster than it can be
reported, and STEMM research requires writers to communicate highly
complex information as quickly as possible. In some cases this is to avoid
being ‘leapfrogged’ by other researchers; in others it is because links with
industry, patents and spin-off companies demand fast publication. If a paper
takes too long to write, there is a risk that it will be partially or completely
out of date — and therefore unpublishable — by the time it is submitted.
Scientists and journal editors therefore need to communicate the impact of
a study as quickly and simply as possible, and this, too, is shaping STEMM
research writing.
There are also changes in the nature of research itself: science is
becoming more specialised in some cases, and more interdisciplinary in
others. This creates a complex communication structure in which highly
specialised information sometimes needs to be accessed by non-specialists.
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All of these changes are having a profound effect on research writing,
with impacts on both the structure and the content of the traditional research
article. The form of the research article is in transition, changing to satisfy
the fast-moving needs of the research community. The function and content
of the Abstract is changing, the location of the Methods section is shifting,
the IMRD (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion) structure is loosening,
and markers of significance such as Research in Context panels, one-page
summaries and lists of Highlights are sometimes included, particularly in the
online version of the research article. To participate successfully in the current
research environment, researchers need to be aware of — and respond to —

these changes and developments in science research writing. They also need
to be prepared for those that are coming. This has resulted in two key changes
in the Second Edition of this book.
Changes in This Second Edition
The first change reflects the fact that science communication platforms are
in transition. In the First Edition, research articles in high-impact journals
across a wide range of disciplines were analysed to generate what was then
a set of fairly stable writing models for each section of the research article.
Those writing models have been significantly updated in this Second Edition
to reflect current patterns and trends in research writing, but they can
no longer be seen as stable representations. Researchers now need to
develop the ability to update their writing models alongside the next
round of changes and developments in science communication. Given the
fast-moving nature of the changes outlined above, the Second Edition aims
to develop writing strategies that are future-proof and which represent a
lifelong tool, irrespective of upcoming changes and developments in science
communication.
The Second Edition develops these strategies by encouraging writers
to use a reverse-engineering approach to writing. Most reading involves
passively approaching a text as a source of information. By contrast, reverse
engineering a text requires an active reading strategy that involves learning
to step back from the information itself and become aware of how that
information is delivered. Once developed, reverse engineering can be used
by STEMM research writers as a starting point to generate all text types in
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science research communication now and in the future, including grant

proposals, conference abstracts, Letters, technical reports and review
articles.
The approach is similar to that of Painting by Numbers, whose marketing
slogan was A beautiful oil painting the first time you try. Using a Painting by
Numbers kit may not turn you into Leonardo da Vinci, but it delivers a strategy
for producing recognisably similar paintings.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisa
In the same way, analysing the organisational scaffold, writing patterns

and language in a set of well-written research articles will deliver a strategy
for producing a credible, well-organised and readable research article that
conforms to the current conventions of comparable articles.
The second major change in the Second Edition is the title, and therefore
the readership, of the book. The First Edition was directed towards non-native
speakers of English. However, my experience of working with native speaker
researchers since then clearly demonstrates that although there are some
language issues that are specific to non-native speakers, the writing issues
are common to all STEMM research writers. The aim of all researchers is to
create successful and effective text out of data and information. Given the
complexity of most STEMM research projects, this requires a high level of
communicative competence. However, ‘academic English is no-one’s first
language’1, and native speaker researchers, even those at the highest level,
experience most of the same challenges as non-native speakers when writing
about their research. Experience has shown me that correct English grammar
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does not guarantee a successful text, and that the reverse is also true: a text
may be well-written and therefore communicate successfully and accurately
despite some language errors. I have therefore shifted the focus of the book
to language and writing issues that are common to both native and non-native
STEMM researchers, and particularly to those issues which have an impact
on meaning and readability.
Since the First Edition was published in 2009, Science Research Writing
has been translated into Chinese, Japanese and Korean, and is used around
the world at universities and research institutes, by instructors teaching
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Academic
Purposes (ESAP) to STEMM researchers and students, as well as by STEMM
researchers who are native speakers of English. These users of the book have
contributed to many of the changes in the Second Edition, including the
addition of a Checklist and Tips chapter that summarises the writing issues
dealt with in other Units.
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Introduction
Writing for a reader: wrapping information in a narrative
Science research writing is not simply about presenting information, or even

about presenting information clearly. In the first place, information itself is
neutral — it has no intrinsic function. If the writer does not explicitly identify
and communicate the function of the information and how it relates to the
rest of the text, the reader cannot understand why it is there. This interrupts
the flow of the article and therefore its readability. Secondly, science research
writing is about developing or changing the reader’s knowledge; this requires
a strong narrative wrapped around the information that leads logically and
patiently to the conclusions that the writer wishes to draw.
The writer’s familiarity with the scientific content of the research makes
it hard for that writer to see why a narrative is necessary. Prior to writing up,
the writer may have been working closely for months with colleagues who
share both general and specific knowledge of the topic and the study.
Communication within this group is very implicit, since those colleagues all
know why, how and what is being done. When the writer is ready to report
the study to outsiders, that implicit understanding can no longer be taken
for granted and a conscious effort must be made to consider how much can
be assumed about the reader’s knowledge and to supplement that knowledge
wherever necessary. This is particularly true given the increasingly
multidisciplinary nature of science research. The range of researchers and
stakeholders wanting access to science research is unpredictable, and it is
growing.
A written text is therefore not an information repository, nor is it a
naturally-occurring flow of words and sentences; it is an artefact created for
a reader. The aim is not simply to make it possible for the reader to
understand; the narrative should be strong enough to make it impossible
for the reader NOT to understand.
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What does a narrative wrap look like?

To communicate research, the science has to become language. A narrative
wrap is the communication scaffold that surrounds the information and makes
it intelligible to the reader. Decisions about titles, subheadings, paragraph
function and the order of graphics form part of the narrative wrap and create
a meaningful framework for the information. Within the text itself, narrative
is achieved by the writer commenting on and identifying the function of the
information, as well as by less obvious means such as paragraph-entry
sentences and choice of verb tense. Tools and guidance for the narrative
wrap are discussed throughout the book. The narrative wrap turns science
information/data into readable, effective text.
IDENTIFYING GENRE
AND READERSHIP CHOOSING THE NUMBER,
DIVIDING INTO ORDER AND POSITION
SUBSECTIONS OF GRAPHICS
PLANNING THE FUNCTION AND

PLANNING THE FUNCTION
ORDER OF SENTENCES WITHIN
AND ORDER OF
PARAGRAPHS
PARAGRAPHS
PLANNING: THE UNDERLYING NARRATIVE SCAFFOLD

SCIENCE INFORMATION/DATA
WRITING: THE ACTIVE NARRATIVE WRAP
COMMENTING ON
INFORMATION/DATA IDENTIFYING THE FUNCTION OF
FOR THE READER INFORMATION/DATA FOR
THE READER
MAKING GRAMMAR
CHOICES THAT MAKING VOCABULARY CHOICES
COMMUNICATE THAT HELP THE READER
THE FUNCTION OF
THE INFORMATION CREATING TITLES STARTING PARAGRAPHS
AND SUBTITLES AND SENTENCES IN
THAT HELP WAYS THAT SUPPORT
THE READER THE READER
Planning: The Underlying Narrative Scaffold
IDENTIFYING GENRE AND READERSHIP What am I constructing? A research

article, a review article, a grant proposal, a Letter, a poster and a conference
abstract are different genres, and each requires a different structure and a
different approach to content. Adopting a cut-and-paste approach as you
move between different genres results in a shapeless, unfocused text. Before
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Introduction
you begin planning your text, reverse engineer a current example of the
relevant genre as a model.
Who might read this? Where do I pitch the information level of my text?
What can I assume that all potential readers know? How quickly can I move
into scientific detail? Is the readership of this text likely to become more
interdisciplinary in the future?
DIVIDING INTO SUBSECTIONS Are there standard subsections for this type
of text in this field? How many subsections are normal in my target articles?
What is the average length of these subsections? Does my work fit neatly
and logically into these subsections? If not, is the way I have divided my text
into subsections more appropriate?
CHOOSING THE NUMBER, ORDER AND POSITION OF GRAPHICS (i.e. figures,
tables, images) Do I have a good reason for including each graphic? What is
the most logical order of my graphics? Where is each one most useful to the
reader? Position each graphic within the surrounding text so that it doesn’t
interrupt the narrative flow of the text but rather comes at a natural point within
the narrative, i.e. exactly when the reader becomes aware of wanting to see it.
PLANNING THE FUNCTION AND ORDER OF PARAGRAPHS Do all my paragraphs
have an identifiable function? Is that function clear to the reader? Is the order
of paragraphs logical?
PLANNING THE FUNCTION AND ORDER OF SENTENCES WITHIN PARAGRAPHS
Do all my sentences have an identifiable function? Is that function clear to
the reader, or will they wonder why I have included it here? Does each
sentence fit with the overall function of the paragraph? Does each sentence
follow logically from the next?
Writing: The Active Narrative Wrap
COMMENTING ON INFORMATION/DATA FOR THE READER Have I (perhaps

incorrectly) assumed that what I think about the information/data is obvious
to all potential readers?
IDENTIFYING THE FUNCTION OF INFORMATION/DATA FOR THE READER
Have I (perhaps incorrectly) assumed that the function of the information/
data is obvious to all potential readers?
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MAKING GRAMMAR CHOICES THAT COMMUNICATE THE FUNCTION OF THE

INFORMATION Have I thought about the meaning and impact of the verb tense
I am using in each sentence? Have I made grammar choices that resolve (or
create) potential ambiguity?
MAKING VOCABULARY CHOICES THAT HELP THE READER Have I considered
the needs of the global reader? Am I using vocabulary consistently?
STARTING PARAGRAPHS AND SENTENCES IN WAYS THAT SUPPORT THE
READER Does the start of each paragraph help the reader see where I am
going in that paragraph? Have I closed the gaps between sentences and
started them in a reader-friendly way?
CREATING TITLES AND SUBTITLES THAT HELP THE READER Does my title
represent and predict the content or is it just the original ‘working’ title that I
haven’t really thought about since I began the project? Is my title a normal
length for this type of article? Do my subsection titles work for the entire
subsection? Do my subtitles help the reader enter the subsection? Does
everything in this subsection ‘fit’ the subtitle? Are my subtitles a normal length
for this type of article? Are subtitles normally grammatical sentences in my
target articles? Are they supposed to summarise the content of the subsection?
What strategy is used in this book?

A classic approach to writing is the genre-based approach, which deals with
the structure and content of different types of texts. Genre-based instruction
is widely used to teach writing. However, although this approach is good at
telling writers what they need to do, it is less effective when it comes to
telling them how to do it. For example:
WRITING THE DISCUSSION SECTION:

Highlight the most significant results, but don’t just repeat what you’ve
written in the Results section. HOW DO I DO THAT? Show how these
results relate to the original question. HOW? Discuss whether or not
your results are consistent with what other investigators have reported.
TELL ME HOW! Look at alternative ways to interpret your results. HOW
DO I DO THAT? Discuss how your results fit into the big picture. HOW
EXACTLY DO I ‘DISCUSS’ THAT?
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Introduction
To answer questions of this type, users of this book are shown how to develop
a reverse-engineering approach. They are guided towards deconstructing
successful current research writing in their own field to create models for
their own writing. I have used this reverse-engineering approach at Imperial
College London and other universities around the world, analysing thousands
of recently-published research articles in a range of STEMM disciplines to
construct and validate the basic models, the grammar, and the language lists
in the book. The Centre for Academic English at Imperial College London uses
the approach to teach STEMM writing to early-stage researchers, as well as
training more experienced research writers to develop and apply it. A key
advantage of the reverse-engineering approach is that it responds well to
the fast-changing nature of research writing: once the strategy becomes
familiar, writers can adjust and update their models alongside the next round
of changes in science writing and publication platforms.
The aim of this book is to provide a quick, do-it-yourself guide for writing
science research for publication. The reverse-engineering approach can be
understood quickly, used independently, and tailored to the needs of all
STEMM research disciplines and all STEMM texts, including grant proposals,
conference abstracts and industry reports. The approach is descriptive rather
than prescriptive. Instead of offering advice or telling writers what to do and
what not to do, the aim is to begin by generating a highly accurate description
of the type of writing each individual writer wants to produce. Accurate
descriptions alone, however, do not generate written text — describing
something is not the same as being able to do it, so in addition to a description
of what to do, the key contribution of this approach is that it then helps the
writer to discover how to do it, and to apply that knowledge.
The strategy is as follows:

1. Build a sentence-based/paragraph-based model identifying the

functions of a successful text, for example: This sentence identifies a
gap in the research or This paragraph maps the contribution of this
study onto the literature.
2. Mine successful texts for vocabulary to communicate these functions,

for example, the words and phrases that identify a gap in the research.
3. Identify and master the relevant grammar, language and writing skills

that achieve these functions, for example, verb tense choices.
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4. Continually reinforce, adjust, update and develop 1–3 above via

reading in the field.
The last step in the process: Continually reinforce, adjust and develop
1–3 above via reading in the field is essential. Science research writing
is not a static genre; it is in transition, and successful writers need to be
willing and able to upgrade as the genre develops. The key to success is
to refer to a set of target research articles (or review articles, conference
abstracts etc.), update that set constantly and update the models
accordingly.
The models, grammar/language and vocabulary presented in each
chapter are the result of analysing over 2,500 recently-published research
articles in a range of STEMM disciplines in order to generate a toolkit that is
reliable and has high face validity.
Key messages:
· THE CONTENT OF SCIENCE RESEARCH SHOULD BE ACCESSIBLE TO ALL

READERS.
· THE READER NEEDS TO BE SHOWN THE FUNCTION OF DATA OR

INFORMATION, NOT JUST PRESENTED WITH IT.
· THE AIM IS NOT SIMPLY TO MAKE IT POSSIBLE FOR THE READER TO

UNDERSTAND; THE AIM IS TO MAKE IT IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE READER
NOT TO UNDERSTAND.
· EVIDENCE-BASED GUIDANCE CAN BE OBTAINED BY STUDYING THE

STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE OF SUCCESSFULLY-PUBLISHED PAPERS.
Who is this book for?

The book is designed to enable science researchers, both native and
non-native speakers of English, to write more effective research papers for
publication. The reverse-engineering strategy described in the book can also
be adapted to produce other research-related STEMM writing such as reports,
conference abstracts and review papers. In addition, since a research paper
is a microcosm of a thesis, it can also be used to write a PhD thesis. In fact,
many institutions permit PhD candidates to organise and submit the thesis
as a series of linked published papers, since this solves the problem of writing
the thesis and the relevant papers at the same time.
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Introduction
Why might I need it?

Science does not exist until it is published2. Good writing enhances the chance
of publication, and publication is a key goal of research; when you share your
work via publication you become part of the global science community. In
addition, high-quality publications attract funding and lead to participation
in high-level projects. Writing and publishing a research paper is also the best
way to develop your career. If you turn your thesis or project into a useful
paper, your CV will look more professional, and will be more competitive
internationally.
Good scientists, however, are not always good writers. Some find it
difficult to organise information optimally, or to represent their research
concisely and effectively. Others find writing burdensome and may feel
discouraged by the prospect of writing. This slows the writing process down —

sometimes to a total stop. In the current global context, research needs to
be published quickly. This book is designed to speed up this ‘lab-to-journal’
process by providing the information, vocabulary and skills you need so that
you can write quickly, confidently and independently.
As a science researcher, you read and understand highly complex material
in your field with little effort. However, you may find it harder to produce
well-written texts at that level, or you may feel that your writing does not
represent the content or impact of your work effectively. In this book you
will learn to use your existing reading ability and the material you read to
develop the relevant writing skills. You don’t need to learn much more than
you already know; you just need to make that knowledge active, rather than
passive. Science writing is easier than it looks.
Why not simply use proof-readers, or (in the case of non-native researchers)
translation software?
Turning to proof-readers or translators for help resolves some language
errors, but may not resolve writing issues. They may not notice some errors,
because a sentence which is grammatically correct will still be wrong if it
does not mean what the writer intended. The wrong verb tense, for
example, may make a finding (X occurred) look like a known and accepted
truth (X occurs). In addition, a proof-reader or translator may not check
whether your writing fits conventional patterns in your field. For example,
you may have forgotten to justify your choice of method or explain how
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your results relate to your original question. A proof-reader or translator

is unlikely to notice this, but it could mean that the peer reviewer or journal
editor rejects your paper as unprofessional. Another example is that if
your conclusions are translated in language that is more forceful or positive
than you intended, your paper may fail at the review stage because the
reviewer cannot find adequate justification in your results for the
conclusions thus stated.
There is an additional difficulty associated with using translators or
translation software. English academic writing follows certain cultural norms;
these are evident in the choice of vocabulary and even in the way information
is organised into paragraphs. If the cultural writing norms of the writer are
very different from those of the reader, the translated text will look odd, and
key aspects of research paper writing, such as explicitly identifying the value
of the study, may be so understated as to be unrecognisable. Another fast-
emerging issue is that ownership of confidential material is harder to control
once the material has passed through internet-accessible translation software
or editing tools.
Will the book help me to become the ‘first author’ of my paper?

The first author is more visible in the literature than co-authors, and is more
closely linked with the research (e.g. Wu et al., 2019). The rules and
conventions for the order of multiple authors vary across different research
disciplines, but if you depend on colleagues to do much of the writing for
you, this may affect your status as first author, so a central aim of this book
is to improve your ability to write independently.
Does the book focus on vocabulary and grammar?

Science is international. This has an impact on the language of science
publication, and drives both native-speaker writers as well as non-native
writers to communicate their research in language that is clear and
accessible to readers around the world. Whatever your first language, most
of the people who read your paper will not be native speakers of English.
Science research writing therefore uses a fairly restricted range of language
to express and negotiate meaning. This is good news for non-native speakers!
It means that they do not have to master the whole of English; to write
successful, clear papers it is only necessary to master a relatively small
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Introduction
subset of English vocabulary. The language used to negotiate meaning in a

research paper consists of a limited set of commonly-used words and
phrases. The non-technical vocabulary used in scientific writing also consists
of a limited set of words and phrases. These are used as a kind of code that
makes it possible to communicate accurately with researchers around the
world.
The issue around grammar is more complex. As noted above, correct
grammar does not ensure accurate or effective communication; equally, a
text may be well-written and therefore communicate successfully and
accurately despite some grammar errors. Rather than focusing on grammar
rules, the book directs all writers towards using grammar, for example verb
tense, in ways that communicate the intended meaning clearly and
unambiguously.
I have taught English for Academic Purposes to STEMM students for over
30 years. For the past 25 years I have been teaching PhD and post-doctoral
research writing in the Centre for Academic English at Imperial College
London, where I also consult with individual PhD students, postdocs and
academic staff — native speakers as well as non-native speakers — who are
writing a thesis, research paper, or textbook. I also deliver workshops to
research groups around the world. This book is based on the two most useful
things I have learned:
1. Science writing does not need to be stylish or elegant; its primary aim

is to communicate clearly and accurately. Using elegant English may
actually make your research article less accessible, or even less accurate.
For example, using a thesaurus to avoid repetition is counter-productive;
a framework should not suddenly become a methodology, an approach
or a model without warning. Repeating the same word creates an echo
which enables the reader to recognise and track concepts through the
paper, and ensures that the concepts themselves remain stable and
consistent.
2. Good organisation and good writing can compensate for language

errors, but error-free language does not compensate for poor
organisation or poor writing. A text in perfectly grammatical English will
be ineffective and even unintelligible if the information is jumbled or
presented incoherently.
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How does the book work?

The book takes the research article as a typical example of a STEMM text.
Reports, dissertations and theses are constructed in a similar way, but the
research paper is of a more manageable size for analysis.
The Units in the book are ordered according to IMRaD (Introduction,
Methods, Results, Discussion) for the sake of simplicity. Although IMRaD is
no longer the only available model for research writing, most research articles
do contain an Introduction, a description of what was done/used, the
outcome of what was done/used and a discussion of that outcome. However,
IMRaD is not normally the order in which the writer produces the research
paper, nor is it always the order in which it appears in a journal, or the order
in which the paper is likely to be read. Writers often produce the Methods
section first, then the Results, then the Discussion/Conclusion, then the
Introduction, and finally the Abstract and Title. In addition, some journals
present the Methods or Experimental section at the end of the paper or as
supplementary material. Readers, too, rarely read in IMRaD order. They may
begin with the Title/Abstract, but then jump straight to the Results section
or the Methods, depending on their interests. Nevertheless, in this book the
sections of a research paper are presented in the IMRaD format for ease of
reference, and to demonstrate the order of information as it generally appears
in print.
The book is divided into eight units. Unit 1 deals with the Introduction,
Unit 2 the Methods, Unit 3 the Results, Unit 4 the Discussion, Unit 5 extends
the reverse-engineering method used in previous Units to the Conclusion
section, Unit 6 deals with the Abstract, Unit 7 the Title and Unit 8 contains
a checklist and writing tips.
The structure of the first two units is similar. For example, Unit 1 begins
by building a basic generic model of an Introduction. Extracts from recently-
published Introductions are included to demonstrate how the model operates
in the real world. This is followed by a list of useful vocabulary taken from
over 2,500 recently-published research articles in different disciplines,
together with examples of sentence patterns that show how the words and
phrases are used in the Introduction. At the end of the Unit there is a Language
and Writing Skills section designed to respond to frequently-asked questions.
There are not many grammar exercises in the Language and Writing Skills
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Introduction
sections at the end of each Unit; this book is intended to be a fast and easily-
accessible guide rather than a language textbook. Where grammar issues
are discussed, the aim is not to identify rules for ‘correct’ grammar, but rather
to avoid ambiguity.
At this stage in Unit 1, you will have a robust generic model of an
Introduction, a list of useful words, phrases and sentence patterns for each
part of the Introduction model, and a language/writing skills guide that
responds to FAQs about grammar and writing skills in the Introduction. If you
do the tasks in the unit, you will be able to put the model, vocabulary and
language/writing skills together to write an Introduction. At the end of Unit 1

you write a simple Introduction using what you have learned and compare
it with a sample answer in the Key. This pattern is repeated in Unit 2.
In Units 3, 4, 5 and 6 you are encouraged to reverse engineer your own
target research articles to create the models, and then check and adjust them
against the generic, universal models presented in each Unit. The tasks
throughout the book are designed to help you develop reverse engineering
to the point where it becomes an automatic adjunct to your reading strategies.
If you read the book without completing the exercises and tasks, you will
have an intellectual understanding of what to do but you may find it hard to
put it into practice. Knowing what to do is not the same as knowing how to
do it. At the moment, you may be focusing very strongly on the information
content of research articles, and you may not be paying much attention to
the way that the content is delivered. However, once you become aware of
the structure and language used to deliver the content, this creates a ‘learning
circle’ in which your research reading actively and continually informs your
research writing.
What other material or books do I need?

As a science researcher you need to write in a way which is as similar as
possible to current successfully-published writing in your field. The book
shows you how to use the journal papers you read to develop the appropriate
writing skills, so you need to collect a set of target research articles before
you start. The set should consist of at least four recently-published research
papers from the journals you usually read. You will use these target research
articles to adapt what you learn to your own writing, and you should update
the set frequently.
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Your target research articles should:
· be written by a researcher/research team at an English-speaking

institution, or by a native speaker of English.
· deal with subject matter which is as close as possible to the kind of

research you are doing.
· be reasonably short (less than 15 sides including graphs and tables).

· be taken from the journals you wish to publish in.

· be no more than five years old, given the speed at which science

research writing is developing and changing.
· be research articles that you consider to be well written.*

· have clearly-defined Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and

Conclusion sections, or other identifiable subsections that fit the kind
of work you are doing. It will help if these have subtitles so that you
can locate them easily. The subtitles may vary in different disciplines
and in different journals; for example the Methods section may be
called Procedure, Model, Materials and Methods, Methodology,
Experimental, Data Collection or some other variation.
*I am grateful to Professor Monique Dorang for this point.
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Contents
Acknowledgements v

Preface to the Second Edition vii

Introduction xiii

Unit 1: How to Write the Introduction 1

1.1. The Structure and Content of the Introduction 3

1.2. Building a Model 4

1.3. Testing and Adjusting the Model 18

1.4. Useful Words and Phrases 45

1.5. Language and Writing Skills 53

1.6. Writing the Introduction 69

Unit 2: How to Write about Methods 73
2.1. The Structure and Content of the Methods Section 75





2.6. Writing a Methods Section 127

Unit 3: How to Write about Results 139
3.1. The Structure and Content of the Results 141



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3.5. Language and Writing Skills: The Certainty Continuum 183

Unit 4: How to Write the Discussion 189
4.1. How to Write the Discussion 191

4.2. Building Your Own Model
192
4.3. Testing and Adjusting the Basic Generic Model 209


4.5. Language and Writing Skills: Modal Verbs 229

4.6. Summary Discussion Exercise 242

Unit 5: How to Write the Conclusion 243




Unit 6: Writing the Abstract 263
6.1. Guidelines for the Abstract 266

6.2. Types of Abstract 269

6.3. A Generic Abstract Model 286

6.4. Language 290

6.5. Summary Abstract Exercise 297

Unit 7: Writing the Title 299
7.1. Check Average Length 304

7.2. Using Acronyms 305

7.3. Compare the Title Keywords to the Keyword List 306

7.4. Check the Grammar of the Title 307

7.5. Map and Model the Structural Content of the Titles

in Target Articles 309

7.6. Check that Expectations that the Title Suggests

Are Fulfilled in the Paper 310

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Contents
Unit 8: Checklist and Tips 313

8.1. Organising the Information 315

8.2. Creating Sentences 318

8.3. Grammar and Vocabulary 321

8.4. General 329

Sources and Credits 331

Appendix A: Prefixes Used in Science Writing 337

Appendix B: Research Verbs 341

Writing Skills Index 345

Language Index 347

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UNIT 1
How to Write the Introduction
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“9x6”
TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION*
Fig. 1.1 The shape of a research article
*Some journals call this section CONCLUSION and others call it CONCLUSIONS but this does not seem
to reflect the number of conclusions that are drawn.
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It is unfortunate that in an environment in which so many

individuals must publish for the sake of their own careers [...] that
only a limited effort is made to understand the structure of written
papers. It is an eminently teachable topic. Detailed, evidence-
based guidance is needed for potential authors, and can be derived
from a study of the structure of papers that are successfully
published in leading journals.3
1.1. The Structure and Content of the Introduction

As you can see, Fig. 1.1 is symmetrical. This is because many of the things
that are in the Introduction occur — often in reverse order — in the
Discussion. For example:
· At the start of the Introduction you write an opening sentence

which enables your reader to ‘get in’ or start your paper/thesis; at
the end of the Discussion you ‘get out’ by finding an appropriate
way to end.
· During the Introduction you generally present past or current research

and/or knowledge about the topic; in the Discussion you show how your
study contributes to that research or advances that knowledge.
· At some point in the Introduction you state the specific problem your

study focuses on or identify a gap in the existing research that will be
filled in your paper; in the Discussion you discuss to what extent you
have resolved that problem.
· At the end of the Introduction you need to enable readers to move

into the central section (usually the Methods and/or Results); at the
end of the central section you need to enable readers to move into the
Discussion.
Notice that the Introduction narrows towards the central report section,
and the Discussion widens after it. This represents the way information is
ordered in the Introduction and the Discussion: in the Introduction you start
out by being fairly general and gradually narrow your focus towards your
own study, and the opposite is true in the Discussion.
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1.2. Building a Model
The structure of the Introduction is similar in most research fields, and the
content links directly to the structure. This Unit will show you how to build
and use an Introduction model that answers the following three questions:
How do writers normally start an Introduction?
What is normally included in an Introduction, and in what order?
How do writers normally end an Introduction?
1.2.1 EXERCISE 1: How to build a simple model by

reverse engineering
Using the reverse-engineering approach discussed on pages xvii–xviii, look at

the first Introduction below and write a short description of what the writer is
doing in each sentence. Note that you are not describing or summarising what
the sentence is saying (the content of the sentence); instead, you are working
out what the sentence is doing (the function of the sentence). One way to
identify the function of a sentence is to look at the tense of the main verb.
What is that verb tense normally used for? Is the verb in the same tense as in
the previous sentence? If not, why has the writer changed the tense?
Remember that your model is only useful if it can be transferred to other
Introductions, so don’t include content words such as polymer or you won’t be
able to use the model to generate Introductions for your own research articles.
Keep your description simple; Sentence 7 has been done for you as a guide
to the level of detail to aim for. Once you have completed the description of the
first Introduction, test and adjust your model by applying it to the Introduction
in Section 1.3.1, and then to the Introductions in your target articles.
A light-weight chitin-PLA composite for load-bearing

biomedical applications
Introduction
1 Biomass-derived polylactide (PLA) has received much attention in
recent years due to its biodegradable1 and biocompatible2 properties.
2 Biomass-derived PLA is produced from renewable feedstocks such as
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corn and sugar cane. 3 It has outstanding molding properties for use
in biomedical applications such as scaffolds for tissue engineering3,4.
4 However, its weakness under impact has significantly limited its use.
5 Biomedical applications require materials with the lowest
possible toxicity so although metals such as aluminium have been used
to strengthen PLA for industrial applications5,6, these are not appropriate
for biomedical use7. 6 One way to strengthen polymers for biomedical
applications is to incorporate a layer of keratin, a material that occurs
naturally in the mammalian anatomy, and there has been extensive
research regarding keratin-PLA composites8,9,10. 7 For example, Penney
et al. (2012) showed that incorporation of keratin fillers in the PLA
matrix could be achieved using blending techniques8. 8 However,
although the effect of keratin on the mechanical properties of copolymer
systems was demonstrated over two years ago 9, keratin adds
considerably to the weight of the composite, and little attention has
been paid to the selection of an alternative biocompatible material.
9 The present paper presents a set of criteria for selecting such a
component. 10 On the basis of these criteria it then describes the
preparation of a biomass-derived polymer blend using chitin, a long-
chain polymer found in many places throughout the natural world.
11 This combination formed a novel lightweight copolymer in which
the incorporation of PI significantly increased resistance to impact while
retaining the biocompatible features of keratin.
In Sentence 1, the writer

In Sentence 7, the writer mentions a key research study in this area.
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1.2.2 Key

In Sentence 1 Biomass-derived polylactide (PLA) has received much
attention in recent years due to its biodegradable1 and biocompatible2
properties. the writer establishes the importance of this research topic.
If you wrote the writer introduces the study for Sentence 1, that won’t help
when you come to write your own research paper, because it doesn’t tell
you how to ‘introduce’ the study. You may have started previous Introductions
by describing the specific problem you are trying to solve, or the method you
plan to use, but when you look at published work in your field you will see
that this is not how most research papers begin, and therefore it may not be
the best way for you to begin. Many research articles begin by establishing
how or why the topic is useful or important, so in your target articles you will
often find something in the first sentence like much study in recent years or
a major role or widely-used.
What verb tense should I use in the first sentence?

Phrases that refer to recent time like in recent years or in the past five years
are normally followed by the Present Perfect tense (Much study in recent
years has focused on…/The status and function of the port has evolved rapidly
over the past three years.). If you are focusing on the current situation, it is
common to use the Present Simple tense (There are substantial benefits to
be gained from…). It’s worth noting, however, that what is recent or current
now will not be recent or current in five years’ time, so if you are hoping that
your research article will still be relevant five years from now, consider using
an identifiable date, e.g. since 2018.
What if I don’t have the confidence to say that my research is important?

If most authors of similar research papers in your field begin by establishing
the significance of the topic but you don’t, it may seem to the editor or reader
that your research topic is NOT important. Check your target journal — it’s
not a question of confidence; it is about writing in an accepted, conventional
way. If most target articles in your field begin this way, yours should too; don’t
be shy about stating why or how your research topic is important or useful.
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Do all research papers begin like this?

No, they don’t. As always, the target readership is the deciding factor. Some
research topics are very narrow, and all those who will want to read your
research paper are part of a small research community for whom a statement
about the importance of the field is unnecessary, and possibly even
inappropriate. In that case, it is common to begin with a statement about
the specific focus of research in the field, a definition of a key term or some
factual information necessary to understand the topic. An example of this is
Sentence 2:
In Sentence 2 Biomass-derived PLA is produced from renewable

feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane. the writer provides background
factual information for the reader.
Sentence 2 is in the Present Simple tense, which is the verb tense used for
accepted/established facts. Research papers often begin, either in the first
sentence or the first paragraph, with accepted or established facts. This
ensures that all readers have the appropriate background information to
process the rest of the paper.
So what kind of fact should I start with?

This depends on how wide your subject — and therefore your readership —

is. If your research area is very narrow, many of your readers will have a good
level of background knowledge and you can start with fairly specific
information. If your paper is likely to attract a wider or more interdisciplinary
audience, then you should start with more general background information
and even consider including background facts which seem obvious to you.
You can find good examples of that first fact by checking similar papers
published recently in your target journal.
Note that if you resubmit the paper to a different journal, the readership
of that journal may be either narrower or wider, so you cannot simply re-send
the original version. In particular, you may need to adjust the first sentence
to ensure that it responds to the needs of a different readership. The golden
rule is: check recent editions of the journal you are submitting to, and start
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your Introduction in the same way as other authors who have successfully
submitted their work on similar topics to that journal.
What if there are several background facts I want to start with, not just
one? How do I know which one to begin with?
The shape of the Introduction in Fig. 1.1 starts wide and gradually narrows. This
means that you start with a fairly general item of information, one that many
of your readers already know. This represents a ‘meeting place’ fact from which
all readers can start together, after which you can move on to more specific
information. Always show your readers the general picture before you proceed
to the details: show them the wall before you start to talk about the bricks!
How much background information should I provide?

It is extremely difficult to predict what knowledge readers bring to the paper.
Your readers are not part of your research group, so the background
information that is very familiar to you and your colleagues is not necessarily
known to all potential readers of your research paper. Given that most
research reading is now done via the internet, readers may access the paper
from a different discipline or even a non-STEMM discipline. As a general rule
it is better to provide slightly too much background information than slightly
too little.
In addition, if you jump straight from very general to very specific
information early in the Introduction this is likely to cause difficulties,
particularly for the interdisciplinary reader. It is therefore essential to close
the information gaps between the opening sentences (see Section 1.5.2) so
that all readers can move smoothly through the background information in
the Introduction.
I’m still not sure where to begin.

If you are still stuck for a first sentence, look at the keywords you are
considering. If similar recent papers in your target journal begin with a
definition of or a fact about one of those keywords, consider starting with
that; if they begin by establishing the importance of the topic, begin with
that. Remember the key message: EVIDENCE-BASED GUIDANCE CAN BE
OBTAINED BY STUDYING THE STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE OF SUCCESSFULLY-
PUBLISHED PAPERS.
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Can’t I start by describing the specific problem I am hoping to solve?

Most authors don’t, because it’s sometimes difficult to describe the specific
problem until readers have enough information to understand it. It’s also
very hard to limit yourself to one sentence about the problem you are hoping
to solve, and before you know it, you’ve written a lot of specific detail about
the problem which your readers can’t process because you haven’t yet given
them the relevant background.
In Sentence 3 It has outstanding molding properties for use in biomedical

applications such as scaffolds for tissue engineering3,4. the writer does
the same as in Sentences 1 and 2, but in more detail, using citation
references to support the background facts and the claim for importance.
There are citation references in Sentence 3 — does that mean that this is
part of a review of the research in this area?
No, a short review of previous and current research and knowledge usually
comes later in the Introduction, and is more likely to focus on the methods
or results of individual studies. This is simply a citation reference for the
background facts.
How do I decide whether or not to include a citation reference for the

background facts?
One reason for including a citation is that plagiarism (failing to give others
the appropriate credit for their work) is unethical. Secondly, a citation
reference gives your reader the chance to find and read the study mentioned.
The third reason is that failing to provide such references implies that you
are not familiar with research in your area.
Deciding whether to include a citation reference also depends on when
the study was published, and the extent to which the findings of that study are
accepted as facts by the research community. Many facts which are now
accepted by researchers began their life — perhaps years ago — as research
findings. For example, in Sentence 2, the information that Biomass-derived PLA
is produced from renewable feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane originally
came from research, and was probably initially reported in the Present Perfect
tense: Lawrence et al. have found that biomass-derived PLA can be obtained
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from renewable feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane or the Past Simple
tense: Lawrence et al. (2000) found that biomass-derived PLA can be obtained
from renewable feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane. However, once that
research finding becomes well established, such statements start to appear in
the Present Simple tense, with the citation attached: Biomass-derived PLA is
produced from renewable feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane (Lawrence
et al., 2000), and eventually the citation simply drops off and the information
becomes part of the accepted factual background to the topic: Biomass-derived
PLA is produced from renewable feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane.
The only way to get this right is to check current usage in your field.
A journal article from five years ago may use a verb tense that is now no longer
appropriate, so using that tense implies that you are not up to date with
developments in your field. Search engines such as Google Scholar are a good
resource for this. If most researchers in your field currently use the Present
Simple tense when they state a particular fact, follow their lead if you also state
that fact. If most are still including a citation reference, follow their lead. It is
exciting to realise that once your status as a published researcher is established
in your field, you will have earned the right to make such decisions yourself.
In Sentence 4 However, its weakness under impact has significantly

limited its use. the writer describes the general problem area or the
current research focus of the field (weakness under impact).
Notice that the writer is still not describing the specific problem which their
own research paper will deal with; s/he is referring to the current focus of
the field, i.e. the problem of weakness under impact. This is presented as a
problem which many researchers in this field are interested in, and which
leads to the specific problem that this paper will deal with.
In Sentence 5 Biomedical applications require materials with the lowest

possible toxicity so although metals such as aluminium have been used
to strengthen PLA for industrial applications5,6, these are not appropriate
for biomedical use7. the writer extends the problem area/current focus
of the field (toxicity).
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In Sentence 6 One way to strengthen polymers for biomedical

applications is to incorporate a layer of keratin, a material that occurs
naturally in the mammalian anatomy, and there has been extensive
research regarding keratin-PLA composites8,9,10. the writer links the
general problem area to published research and refers to other studies.
In Sentence 5, some citation references are in the middle of the sentence.

When should a citation reference come in the middle of the sentence?
When it is necessary to avoid confusion, for example if the citation only refers
to part of your sentence. Your citation location should make it clear which
part of the information comes from which study. This is not only a matter of
professional courtesy, it is also misleading to imply that all of the information
in a sentence comes from all of the studies cited at the end of that sentence.
In Sentence 7 For example, Penney et al. (2012) showed that incorporation

of keratin fillers in the PLA matrix could be achieved using blending
techniques8. the writer mentions a key research study in this area.
How many research studies should I mention in the Introduction?

As always, consult your target research articles. It is worth noting that if many
authors collaborate to write the paper, or if the paper itself takes a long time
to write, the literature and knowledge review in the Introduction may become
over-long and lose focus. Every study that you mention in the Introduction
should be both relevant and essential to the research background of your
own study, and should lead towards the motivation for your study.
How do I decide which research studies to mention in the Introduction?

Relevance is crucial. The literature and contributions review in a research
article is not a list or a summary of what you have read. It is a carefully-
narrated journey through selected relevant research and the contributions
of that research that has a specific aim: to demonstrate to the reader that
the study reported in the paper is justified, and that the approach is valid. If
you include irrelevant studies you will break the thread of the narrative.
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Deciding which research studies to include in the Introduction is directly

related to the problem or question that has provided the motivation for your
study, so select research that demonstrates the development and evolution
of research towards that problem or question.
Another function of the literature and contributions review in a research
article Introduction is that it identifies where the study is located on the research
‘map’ of the field. When you read a research paper you generally recognise
some of the studies mentioned in the Introduction, and this helps you see
where the study fits into the field. In the same way, the selection of names and
references you choose to mention in the Introduction will help your readers
to see where your study is located on the research ‘map’.
How do I organise and link those studies?

Ordering and organising those studies and linking them with a rational narrative
is essential. You can’t just pour a description of previous and current research
onto the page in any order and without a linking narrative, or it will look like a
shopping list. A carefully-planned and well-narrated literature and contributions
review makes it easy for the reader to understand how the research has
developed, and much more importantly, how and why it leads to your study.
To keep the review in the Introduction on track, plan and organise the
research contributions according to an organisational pattern. Here are three
possible patterns:
· General-to-specific

Writers frequently start with general research in the field, possibly a review

article, and gradually move to research that is closer to the problem or
gap dealt with in the present study. This is the most common pattern.
· Different approaches/theories/models

In some papers, studies are grouped according to the approach or

method they used. Grouping similar studies together helps you avoid the
‘tennis match’ effect where you go backwards and forwards beginning
each sentence with However or On the other hand.
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· Chronological order

This may be appropriate, for example, if the development of your field is

related to political decisions and laws such as those relating to pollution
or fracking.
To link the studies and contributions, consider words or phrases such as:
[ref] also observed that…

[ref] resolved this by…
[ref] were the first to…
A pioneering study by [ref] demonstrated…
A similar approach was used by [ref], who…
An alternative approach was proposed by [ref], who…
According to [ref], it is highly likely that…
Importantly, [ref] noted that…
In order to resolve this, [ref] analysed/developed...
In that study, although…
In their recent work, [ref] has suggested that…
It was later shown by [ref] that…
One [potential] implication of [ref]’s results is that…
Other studies have focused on…, for example, [ref] and [ref] attempted to…

Recently, it has been shown/suggested that…
Soon after, [ref] proposed…
Subsequently,…
Taken together, these studies suggest that…
The most systematic review is that in/of [ref]…,
These findings challenge the work of [ref], who…
This approach was further developed by [ref], who…
This methodology was adapted by…
To address this issue, [ref]…
To overcome these problems, a different approach was used by/in [ref].
Within five years, [ref] developed a…
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Signalling language like however/therefore can also effectively and

concisely drive the narrative from one item in the literature and contributions
review to the next. For more on this see Section 1.5.2 Linking sentences and
information together.
In Sentence 8 However, although the effect of keratin on the mechanical

properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago9,
keratin adds considerably to the weight of the composite, and little
attention has been paid to the selection of an alternative biocompatible
material. the writer identifies a problem or gap in the research.
This is where you begin to move towards your own paper or study, and the
specific problem you will deal with. This is normally done either by identifying
a gap in the existing knowledge or by indicating that there is a problem in
previous research. It is conventional to introduce it with a signal such as
However or Although, and these words have an ‘instant recognition’ feature
that alerts the reader to the gap. Note that in professional writing it is unusual
to put the gap or problem in the form of a question; it is normally stated as
a prediction, suggestion or hypothesis.
Don’t be shy about pointing out the problems in previous research. In
the first place it may be necessary to identify those problems in order to
explain why you have done your study. In the second place, the language
used here is usually respectful and impersonal, and therefore not offensive.
The reader may need more background information at this stage; for
example, details of the properties of the material which you are investigating,
or a description of the specific part of the device which you plan to improve.
Research writing requires a surprising amount of background information,
and it is better to offer slightly too much than too little.
At this stage you move directly to your own paper or study. You can describe
it, say what its purpose or focus is, give its structure or a combination of these.
In Sentence 9 The present paper presents a set of criteria for selecting

such a component. the writer describes the present paper or study.
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Should I use the passive or the active here?

This depends on factors such as the potential for ambiguity, the style of the
target journal and whether you prefer to focus on yourselves as authors or
on the study. See Section 1.5.3 Passive/Active choices for details and
guidance about this.
What verb tense should I use?

Writers normally use the Present Simple tense to describe the work itself
(This paper is organised as follows/This study focuses on…) and the Past
Simple tense to talk about the aim of the work (The aim of this project was…/
Our aim was…). This is because in ‘real time’, the aim existed before the work
was done. It is also possible to state the aim in the Present Simple tense (The
aim of this study/paper is…), particularly in cases where the aim is only
partially achieved.
In Sentence 10 On the basis of these criteria it then describes the

preparation of a biomass-derived polymer blend using chitin, a long-
chain polymer found in many places throughout the natural world. the
writer outlines the method reported in the paper.
Although writers often mention the method or results in the Introduction, if

you provide too much detail of these, the Introduction can become very long
and lose focus. As always, check current target articles for guidance.
In Sentence 11 This combination formed a novel lightweight copolymer

in which the incorporation of PI significantly increased resistance to
impact while retaining the biocompatible features of keratin. the writer
announces the main result, using language that explicitly identifies
the achievement of the study (‘happy’ J words) (novel, lightweight,
significantly increased).
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1.2.3 The Introduction model

These are the sentence descriptions collected in Section 1.2.2 by reverse
engineering the Introduction:
In Sentence 1, the writer establishes the importance of this research

topic.
In Sentence 2, the writer provides background factual information for
the reader.
In Sentence 3, the writer does the same as in Sentences 1 and 2, but
in more detail, using citation references to
support the background facts and the claim
of importance.
In Sentence 4, the writer describes the general problem area or the
current research focus of the field.
In Sentence 5, the writer extends the problem area/current focus of
the field.
In Sentence 6, the writer links the general problem area to published
research and refers to other studies.
In Sentence 7, the writer mentions a key research study in this area.
In Sentence 8, the writer identifies a problem or gap in the research.
In Sentence 9, the writer describes the present paper or study.
In Sentence 10, the writer outlines the method reported in the paper.
In Sentence 11, the writer announces the main result, using language
that explicitly identifies the achievement of
the study (‘happy’ J words).
We can streamline these so that our Introduction model has FOUR basic
components. It’s not necessary to use everything when you write an
Introduction; the model should be considered as a flexible menu.
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GENERIC INTRODUCTION MODEL

1 ESTABLISH THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC/FIELD
PROVIDE BACKGROUND FACTUAL INFORMATION
PRESENT THE GENERAL PROBLEM AREA/CURRENT RESEARCH FOCUS
2 PRESENT PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND
CONTRIBUTIONS: the research ‘map’
3 LOCATE A GAP IN THE RESEARCH
DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM YOU WILL ADDRESS
PRESENT YOUR MOTIVATION AND/OR HYPOTHESIS
IDENTIFY A RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY
4 DESCRIBE THE PRESENT PAPER, sometimes mentioning aims/
results/methods/conclusions, and often including ‘happy’ J
words
When you have looked at many Introductions, you will notice that:
· almost all research article Introductions begin with something in

Component 1.
· almost all research article Introductions end with something in

Component 4.
· in some Introductions, Component 2 is a summary of current knowledge.

This is generally in the Present Simple tense but may still need citation
references.
· in some Introductions the GAP or PROBLEM in Component 3 is not

stated explicitly. This is because the motivation for the study may be
simply to extend previous research, or the gap/problem may be implicit
in the description of the present study and its aims.
· additional background factual information in the Present Simple tense

occurs at every point where the author considers it necessary for
readers.
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1.3. Testing and Adjusting the Model
1.3.1 A demonstration of the model

To demonstrate the model, clues to the model components are in bold type
in the Introduction below. Read the Introduction carefully and note how the
vocabulary and verb tenses link up with the model.
Rapid fragmentation of neuronal networks at the onset of

propofol-induced unconsciousnessa
Introduction
General anesthesia is a drug-induced reversible coma commonly
initiated by administering a large dose of a fast-acting drug to induce
unconsciousness within seconds (1). This state can be maintained as
long as needed to execute surgical and many nonsurgical procedures.
One of the most widely used anesthetics is propofol, an i.v. drug that
enhances GABAergic inhibitory input to neurons (2–4), with effects in
cortex, thalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord (5–7). Despite the
understanding of propofol’s molecular actions, it is not clear how these
effects at molecular targets affect single neurons and larger-scale neural
circuits to produce unconsciousness.
The effects on macroscopic dynamics are noticeable in the EEG,
which contains several stereotyped patterns during maintenance of
propofol general anesthesia. These patterns include increased delta
(0.5–4 Hz) power (8, 9); increased gamma (25–40 Hz) power (9); an
alpha (~10 Hz) rhythm (10–12) that is coherent across frontal cortex;
and burst suppression, an alternation between bursts of high-voltage
activity and periods of flat EEG lasting for several seconds (13, 14). In
addition, slow oscillations (<1 Hz) have been well characterized in
deeply anesthetized animals and are associated with an alternation of
the neuronal membrane potential between UP (depolarized) and
DOWN (hyperpolarized) states (8, 15).
Although these patterns are observed consistently, it is unclear
how they are functionally related to unconsciousness under general
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anesthesia. Most studies have focused on a deep steady state of general

anesthesia and have not used a systematic behavioral measure to track
the transition into unconsciousness. This steady-state approach cannot
distinguish between patterns that are characteristic of a deeply
anesthetized brain and those that arise at the onset of unconsciousness.
Unconsciousness can occur in tens of seconds (4), but many
neurophysiological features continue to fluctuate for minutes after
induction and are highly variable between different levels of general
anesthesia (1, 16). Therefore, identifying the specific dynamics associated
with loss of consciousness (LOC) requires an examination of the transition
into unconsciousness, linking neurophysiology with behavioral measures.
In addition, the dynamic interactions between cortical areas that
underlie these EEG oscillations are not well understood, because few
studies have simultaneously recorded ensembles of single neurons and
oscillatory dynamics from sites distributed across the brain.
Consequently, how propofol acts on neural circuits to produce
unconsciousness remains unclear. A leading hypothesis suggests that
anesthetics disrupt cortical integration (17, 18). Identifying the
mechanism by which this disruption might occur requires a better
understanding of how the spatial and temporal organization of neural
dynamics evolves during induction of unconsciousness.
To address this question, we investigated both neuronal and
circuit-level dynamics in the human brain during induction of
unconsciousness with propofol. We obtained simultaneous recordings
of single units, local field potentials (LFPs), and intracranial
electrocorticograms (ECoG) over up to 8 cm of cortex, enabling us to
examine neural dynamics at multiple spatial scales with millisecond-
scale temporal resolution. We used a behavioral task to identify within
seconds the time at which patients became unresponsive to auditory
stimuli, which we defined as LOC.
Our results reveal a set of neurophysiological features that
accompany LOC that, together with previously reported effects (8, 9,
15), enable a multiscale account of this profound shift in brain state.
We find that LOC is marked by the abrupt onset of slow oscillations
(0.1–1 Hz) in the LFP. Power in the slow oscillation band rises sharply
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at LOC and maintains this increase throughout the post-LOC period.

Neuronal spiking becomes coupled to the local slow oscillation within
seconds of LOC: Spiking occurs only in short intervals of activity that
are interspersed with suppression lasting hundreds of milliseconds,
periodically interrupting information processing. These periods in which
activity may occur are not simultaneous across the brain, implying that
information transfer between distant (>2 cm) cortical networks is
impaired. Cortical networks therefore are fragmented both temporally
and spatially, disrupting both local and long-range communication.
However, small-scale (<4 mm) functional connectivity measures remain
similar to the conscious state, and neuronal spike rates can recover to
baseline levels after LOC despite continued unresponsiveness. This
result demonstrates that short periods of normal spike dynamics still
can occur during unconsciousness. We conclude that the slow
oscillation is a fundamental component of propofol-induced
unconsciousness, marking a functional isolation of cortical regions while
significant connectivity is preserved within local networks.
1.3.2 EXERCISE 2a: Identifying the model components

Here are two full-length Introductions from research articles in different
fields. Read them through and use the words/phrases in bold type to identify
the model components. Citation references are in bold type to draw your
attention to where they are considered necessary, and in most cases the
main verb is in bold to draw your attention to the verb tense.
1 Organic vapor phase deposition: a new method for the growth of

organic thin films with large optical non-linearitiesb
Introduction
There is considerable interest in organic materials with large second-order

hyperpolarizabilities for use in non-linear optical (NLO) devices such as
modulators and frequency doublers [1]. To achieve a high figure of merit for
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such NLP devices requires a material with a non-centrosymmetric bulk

structure and low dielectric constant.
To this end, NLP-active chromophores are traditionally incorporated into
a polymer matrix and electrically poled to achieve the necessary bulk symmetry.
However, such materials are limited by their low glass transition temperatures
and poor stabilities at elevated temperature.
Recently, single crystals of organic and organometallic salts [2–4] have
been shown to possess extremely large second-order (x(²)) NLP effects leading
to a high second harmonic generation (SHG) efficiency. The naturally non-
centrosymmetric crystal structures of these compounds obviates the need for
external poling. Furthermore, these salts have a high optical damage threshold
and sufficient stability with respect to temperature to withstand many
conventional semiconductor fabrication processes. In particular, highly pure
single crystals of the salt, 4’-dimethylamino-N-methyl-4-stilbazolium tosylate
(DAST) [2], have been shown to have a value of x(²) at least 10³ times greater
than that of urea due to dipole alignment of the cation and anion constituents
of the DAST structure. To illustrate this alignment, the DAST bulk crystal
structure is shown in the inset of Fig. 1.
For many applications, such as waveguide devices, it is desirable to
grow NLO materials into optical quality thin films. Although thermal
evaporation in a high vacuum environment has been used to grow thin films
of many organic [5–7] and inorganic materials, the technique is not always
applicable to highly polar molecules [8] or organic salts. For example, when
heated in vacuum, DAST decomposes before vaporization. Although in situ
reactions of multicomponent organic molecules to synthesize polymer films
previously has been demonstrated using vacuum techniques as physical
vapour deposition or vapour deposition polymerization [9], attempts in our
own laboratory at double-source co-evaporation of DAST neutral precursors
4’-dimethylamino-4-stilbazole (DAS) and methyl p-toluenesulfonate
(Methyltosylate, MT) to form DAST have been unsuccessful, due in part to
the radically different vapour pressures of DAS and MT, which leads to highly
non-stoichiometric growth.
In contrast, atmospheric or low pressure (e.g. milliTorr) vapour phase
epitaxy (VPE) has been used to grow epitaxial thin films of many III–V
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compound semiconductors, such as InP and GaAs, where there is a large

difference in the vapour pressures of the group III and group V atomic
constituents [10]. This method was recently extended to allow the growth of
III–V and II–VI semiconductors from volatile organic precursors [11]. Here, a
high vapour pressure compound (typically a metal halide or a metallorganic)
of each respective metal is carried independently, via a carrier gas, to a high
temperature reaction zone. In this zone, the compounds are deposited onto
a heated substrate where they thermally decompose and react to yield the
desired III–V compound. The excess reactants and reaction products are then
exhausted from the system via a scrubber.
In this paper we apply the techniques of VPE to grow films of DAST by
the reaction of two volatile organic materials in a hot-wall, atmospheric
pressure reactor. By nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, we find
that the stoichiometry of polycrystalline DAST films is >95% pure (limited
by instrumental sensitivity). Using X-ray diffraction and other analytical
techniques, we observe a significant dependence of film quality, such as
ordering and crystallite size, on the substrate composition and other
deposition conditions used for growth, suggesting that it may be possible
to generate optical quality thin films of DAST and similar organic salts and
compounds by OVPD using suitable substrates. To our knowledge, this is
the first demonstration of the deposition of ordered thin films of a highly
non-linear optically active organic salt using atmospheric vapour phase
techniques.
2 Identification and characterisation of the early differentiating cells in

neural differentiation of human embryonic stem cellsc
Introduction
The developmental processes of many organs and tissues in an embryo

originate from the pluripotent cells of the inner cell mass (ICM) in the blastocyst.
As development proceeds, these cells gradually acquire specialized traits,
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becoming committed to specific fates and losing their potential to differentiate

into other cell types. For example, the development of the central nervous
system is initiated following gastrulation by the induction of the neuroectoderm,
a process by which embryonic cells acquire a neural fate to form a single layer
of neuroepithelial cells [1]. These cells subsequently give rise to neural stem
and progenitor cells, which undergo further differentiation to neurons and glia
[2]. This multi-step cell fate determination that occurs during embryonic
neurogenesis is delicately orchestrated by many signalling pathways and
transcription factors. Although considerable efforts have been focused on
ascertaining the emergence of these earliest potential neural cells and the
regulatory mechanisms that govern the process of neural induction, they have
yet to be fully defined. This is largely due to the lack of adequate tissues from
the early developmental stages.
Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) derived from the ICM of blastocysts
are capable of self-renewal in culture indefinitely and meanwhile retain the
developmental pluripotency of the embryonic founder cells, having the
potential to differentiate into all the cells and tissues in a human body [3].
Therefore, they provide not only a potential source of specialized cells for
regenerative therapies but also a valuable in vitro model to study early human
development, particularly as the direct study of early human embryo
development is severely hampered by the inability to obtain adequate
amounts of tissues at all developmental stages. Although differentiation of
ESCs may not fully recapitulate the development of the embryo, increasing
evidence demonstrates that their lineage-specific differentiation nonetheless
reflects the developmental progression of that cell type in vivo [4–7]. Therefore,
the use of hESCs to investigate early human embryo development may provide
valuable insights into early developmental processes, including neural
induction.
The Oct4 transcription factor plays an essential role in the maintenance
of pluripotency and self-renewal of ESCs [8, 9] and is also a critical
reprogramming factor [10]. In mouse, Oct4 is initially expressed in all the
blastomeres of the morula, with its expression becoming successively
restricted to the ICM of the blastocyst. After gastrulation, the expression of
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Oct4 is concentrated in the primitive ectoderm and persists through E7.5

in unsegmented areas, but is downregulated as development continues. By
E9.5, its expression is limited to primordial germ cells [11]. In humans, Oct4
expression remained at stage 9 post-implantation embryos [12]. In the
absence of Oct4, embryos are unable to form pluripotent ICM and fail to
produce any other lineages, except for extraembryonic trophoblasts [13].
Correspondingly, forced downregulation of Oct4 in mouse and human ESCs
results in their differentiation into extraembryonic lineages [8, 14, 15]. Taken
together, this implies that Oct4 plays a significant role in embryogenesis
and early lineage differentiation.
We have previously shown that hESCs can be efficiently differentiated
to neural progenitors by the inhibition of BMP [16]. During the initial
differentiation, expression of Oct4 remains detectable for at least one week
until the formation of neuroepithelial cells after week 2. Little is known
about these early differentiating cells and it is not clear whether this initial
Oct4 expressing population differ from undifferentiated hESCs. In this study,
we carefully identified and isolated this initial differentiating cell population
and demonstrated that these cells are distinct from undifferentiated hESCs
and committed neural progenitor cells (NPCs), exhibiting intermediate
features between the two. The identification of these early neural
differentiating cells will provide a valuable cell source which can be used
to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that regulate neuroectoderm
development.
1.3.3 EXERCISE 2b: Identifying the model components

Here are six more full-length Introductions from research articles. Underline
the words and phrases that help identify the model components, then check
your answers with the Key on pages 35–44.
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1 The oxidative corrosion of carbide inclusions at the surface of uranium

metal during exposure to water vapourd
Introduction
The interaction between metallic uranium surfaces and water vapour is

considered to be most important in regard to the environmental corrosion
of the metal. Numerous studies have examined the initial stages of these
interactions [1–7]. However, there have been discrepancies in the published
data describing kinetic laws, pressure dependence of the reaction rate
constant and activation energies. The precise mechanism for uranium
corrosion is not entirely clear with different mechanisms proposed arising
from the results of the undertaking studies [1–7]. Existing discrepancies in
the published data may, in part, be related to differences in the provenance
and purity of the metal used by different groups. The reactivity of impurity
species such as carbide, may have affected recorded data. This work aims to
provide data for an improved understanding of the role of impurity phases
in the uranium–water reaction, samples of uranium containing 600 ppm
carbon were analysed during and after exposure to water vapour at 19 mbar
pressure, in an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). Samples
were analysed using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), focused ion
beam (FIB) imaging and sectioning and transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) with X-ray diffraction (micro-XRD).
2 A GPU-tailored approach for training kernelized SVMse
Introduction
Support Vector Machines (SVMs) are among the most popular general purpose
learning methods in use today. SVM learning amounts to learning a linear
predictor, with regularization (corresponding to a “large margin”) ensuring
good generalization even in very high dimensions. This predictor need not be
linear in the input representation: it is possible to learn a linear predictor in
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some extremely high dimensional space specified implicitly through a kernel

function. SVMs were originally suggested in the context of binary classification,
but more recently variants following the same principles have also been
developed and successfully applied to more complex prediction tasks such as
multiclass classification and prediction of structured outputs such as sequences.
Training an SVM amounts to solving a quadratic programming problem
(see Section 2). Although general-purpose quadratic programming solvers can
only handle fairly small SVM instances, much effort has been made in the past
two decades to design special purpose solvers that can handle large-scale SVM
instances. This effort resulted in widely-used packages that can solve both
“linear” SVMs (i.e. where the prediction is linear in the input representation)
and “kernelized” SVMs (where a non-linear kernel defines the linear prediction
space). For linear SVMs, stochastic methods such as PEGASOS [13] and
Stochastic Dual Coordinate Ascent [8] have recently been established as being
effective at solving extremely large SVM instances, typically in less time than
that which is required to read the data into memory. For kernel SVMs, most
leading solvers are based on decomposing the dual optimization problem into
small subproblems [11, 9, 4, 1, and see also Section 3]. Such approaches can
indeed handle fairly large problems, provided that the data fits in memory, but
it is not uncommon for training to require many hours or days, even using
state-of-the-art optimizers. There is therefore still a strong need for faster
training of kernel SVMs.
One attractive possibility for enabling faster SVM training is to leverage
the power of Graphical Processing Units (GPUs). GPUs are highly parallel,
structured, computational engines and are now available relatively
inexpensively and are found in many modern computers. In this paper we
discuss how SVM training can be efficiently implemented on a GPU, and present
such an implementation for both binary and multiclass SVMs.
Several authors have recently proposed using GPUs for kernelized SVM
training [3, 2] and related problems [6]. These previous approaches, however,
primarily focused on pointing out the advantages of implementing standard
algorithms on graphics hardware, typically using GPU matrix-multiplication
libraries, and not on how these algorithms can be modified to better take
advantage of the GPU architecture. We study various algorithmic choices for
SVM training in the context of GPUs, discuss how the optimal choices and
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algorithms on a GPU are different than those for a serial implementation, and
arrive at an implementation specifically designed for graphics hardware. As
with many previous approaches, we assume that the dataset fits in memory,
and focus mostly on the Gaussian kernel, although our implementation can
handle any kernel function which can be written in the form K(x, y) = f (||x||,
||y||, 〈x, y〉) (see Section 5.2), and our ideas apply even more broadly to any
kernel which is an aggregation of element-wise operations.
One particularly significant drawback of other GPU SVM solvers is their
lack of support for sparse datasets. On the CPU, taking advantage of sparsity
is a simple matter, and sparse datasets are encountered frequently enough
that many widely-used SVM solvers treat all input vectors as sparse, by default
[9, 4, 1]. On the GPU, however, maximum performance is only achieved if
memory accesses follow certain fairly restrictive patterns, which are difficult
to ensure with sparse data. In contrast to other GPU SVM solvers, our
implementation does take advantage of sparsity in the training set through a
novel “sparsity clustering” approach (Section 5.3).
Overall, our implementation is orders of magnitudes faster than existing
CPU implementations, and several times faster on sparse datasets than prior
GPU implementations of SVM training.
3 Signals from the surface modulate differentiation of human pluripotent

stem cells through glycosaminoglycans and integrinsf
Introduction
Human pluripotent stem (hPS) cells (embryonic stem cells and induced
pluripotent stem cells) are promising sources of specialized cells because of
two intrinsic properties: they can self-renew indefinitely and differentiate
into diverse cell types (1). To selectively guide hPS cell differentiation, precise
control cellular microenvironment is needed (2, 3). Considerable effort has
been devoted to identify soluble factors that promote differentiation.
Additionally, there is interest in developing matrices to support cells during
differentiation (4), yet much less is known about how signals from the matrix
influence cell fate.
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Matrigel is the most widely used substratum for hPS cell propagation
(5) and differentiation (6–12); it is derived from mouse sarcoma cells, and
although its principal components are laminin, collagen, and entactin,
Matrigel consists of up to 1,800 different proteins — including encapsulated
growth factors — whose levels vary significantly from batch to batch (13).
Accordingly, the contributions of Matrigel-delivered signals to specific
phenotypic outcomes — self-renewal or differentiation — are difficult to
characterize or control. Elucidating the effects of insoluble signals requires
defined substrata. Such defined substrata have been developed for the long-
term culture of undifferentiated hPS cells in defined media. A number of
surfaces have been described including recombinant proteins (14–16), fully
synthetic polymers (17–19), and peptide-modified surfaces (20–23). Surfaces
that present bioactive peptides have the advantage that they can be
programmed to interact with specific cell-surface macromolecules such as
the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and integrins.
Defined surfaces can be exploited for differentiation via two distinct
mechanisms. First, surfaces can be tailored to present ligands that promote
adhesion of specific cell populations during differentiation (24). Second,
surfaces can be devised to specifically activate (or mitigate) signal transduction
pathways. Here, we use a modular approach to exploit the aforementioned
modes to control hPS cell differentiation to each of the primary germ layers.
Our results reveal the advantages of defined surfaces for decoding the influence
of insoluble signals on cell fate.
4 Evaluation of the damage detection capability of a sparse-array

guided-wave SHM system applied to a complex structure under varying
thermal conditionsg
Introduction
Considerable effort has been expended on the development of structural health

monitoring (SHM) systems [1–7], because these are widely regarded as capable
of significantly reducing inspection costs of safety-critical structures in industries
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such as aerospace, nuclear, and oil and gas, among others. Successful SHM
systems can be considered as those which combine good sensitivity to defects,
preferably with the capability of localization and identification, with a low
sensor density.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) systems based on ultrasonic guided
waves generated by deployable arrays of transducers have been applied to the
inspection of pipeline, rail, and relatively simple platelike structures [8–14].
These systems take advantage of the fact that certain guided-wave modes are
able to propagate through several meters of the structure, often across various
structural features, from a single excitation point. Recently, focus has shifted
to the development of SHM systems based on guided waves, where a small
number of permanently attached transduction units would allow good coverage
and real-time, on-demand inspection of complex structures [15–18].
So far, effective commercial applications of systems based on guided
waves [9, 10, 13, 14] have been achieved only when processing of recorded
time-traces allows straightforward identification of individual reflections, which
can then be attributed either to benign structural features (e.g., stiffeners,
welds, and supports) or to defects. Simple pulse-echo or pitch-catch signals
from complex undamaged structures will usually consist of a large number of
interfering reflections that cannot be identified; these unwanted reflections
are a source of coherent noise, which is highly detrimental because it can mask
reflections from defects in the structure. In these cases, it is necessary to use
a benchmark or baseline signal [15, 16, 18], taken at initial stages of operation
of the structure, when the possibility of the presence of defects due to
fabrication processes has been eliminated by inspection through conventional
NDE techniques (NDT). Because the baseline contains information on the
interaction of the reflections from benign structural features in the absence
of critical defects, subtraction of a current signal from such a baseline will
eliminate the coherent noise to a certain degree; if cancellation of coherent
noise is sufficiently good, the remaining level of residual will contain only
changes in the signals caused by features that were not present initially, such
as defects [18]. The quality of the baseline subtraction therefore controls the
sensitivity of the system to defects.
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It is well known that environmental effects such as stress [19], ambient

temperature variations [20], and liquid loading [21] affect the velocity of guided
waves; this modifies the time-traces and leads to high levels of residual signal
if a single baseline, taken under different conditions, is used. Of these effects,
temperature variations are the most commonly encountered, and several
authors have developed compensation techniques for temperature changes.
These are usually based either on synthetically restoring the signal to the
amplitude and phase it had at the temperature at which a reference signal was
taken [16, 18, 22] or on a large and detailed look-up database of signals
representing environmental conditions commonly faced by the structure [23],
[24]; in this work, these methods are called optimal stretch and optimal baseline
subtraction, respectively. The advantages and limitations of each of these
techniques have been evaluated by different authors, and it has been shown
that combining these 2 methods results in a promising temperature
compensation strategy [18, 25, 26].
This paper demonstrates results obtained when a sparse-array guided-
wave SHM system was applied to a shipping container panel subjected to
uncontrolled temperature variations in a nonlaboratory environment. Initially,
the suitability of the A0 and S0 modes for this particular structure was evaluated
by studying transmission across the corrugations of the panel. Baselines were
acquired from the sparse array over several weeks and the stability of the
temperature compensation and baseline subtraction techniques was assessed.
Defects of different diameter were machined in the structure and the detection
capability of the system was verified.
5 Silica encapsulated heterostructure catalyst of Pt nanoclusters on

hematite nanocubes: synthesis and reactivityh
Introduction
Metal nanoparticles deposited on specific metal-oxide supports have shown

a unique activity as catalysts for heterogeneous reactions.1–4 Unfortunately, at
high reaction temperatures these metal/metal-oxide composite nanostructures
are unstable towards sintering.5–7 Recent work has shown that a porous shell
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of silica on active nanoparticulate catalysts can stabilize the nanoparticles at

high temperatures while maintaining the accessibility of the reactants to the
catalyst active sites.3,5,8 Encapsulating the metal/metal-oxide composite
nanostructures using a silica shell, however, is much more challenging than for
individual nanoparticles because a strong metal–support interaction is required
to avoid detachment during the coating process. The deposition of metal
nanoparticles on oxide support is critical for constructing such composite
structures.
Hematite (α-Fe2O3) has a variety of applications including pigments, gas
sensors, and catalysts.9–11 It is a highly desirable material due to its abundance,
low cost, stability, safety, and its resistance to corrosion. Several high surface
area nanostructures of hematite such as spherical particles,12,13 nanorods,14
nanocubes,15 nanotubes,16 and mesoporous17 structures have been synthesized
using solvothermal, 15 flame pyrolysis, 18 solution combustion, 13
electrodeposition,16 and nanocasting methods.17 Hematite nanostructures have
been investigated as catalysts for CO and CH4 oxidation reactions,19 and their
properties have been shown to depend upon specific crystal planes. 20,21
Halocarbons, including CCl 4, have been shown to undergo destructive
adsorption on the Fe-rich (001) plane of hematite.20,22 The adsorption of
arsenate has also been studied on (012), which is known to be the most
energetically stable plane of hematite.23 The (110) plane is the next most stable
following the (001) and (012) faces.24 Relatively little is known about the
reactivity of the (110) surface except the fact that it is active for CO oxidation.15
A high CO conversion was demonstrated at 230°C over this surface.
Nanoparticles of Pd alloys,25 Pt,25,26 and Au27 have shown particularly high
catalytic activity when supported on hematite. High conversion and selectivity
for hydrogenation reactions have been observed for Pt nanoparticles supported
on γ-Fe2O3.28 The deposition of metal nanoclusters on oxide surfaces has been
reported using colloid deposition26 and seed catalyzed reduction.5,27 Both
methods require pre-formed metal nanoparticles as a source.
Silica shell coatings on either metal or metal-oxide nanoparticles have
been reported using sol–gel,5,29 reverse micelles,3 aerosol pyrolysis,30 and atomic
layer deposition.7 Higher thermostability has been observed for the coated
nanoparticles presumably due to the stability of the coating providing effective
resistance to aggregation of the less stable core particles.31 The sol–gel method
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is relatively inexpensive and extendable to commercial scales, and to our

knowledge there has been no report of this method used to stabilize metal
nanoclusters on metal oxides support nanoparticles.
In this paper the synthesis and characterization of silica encapsulated Pt/α-
Fe2O3 heterostructures are reported. The Pt nanoparticles32,33 were ideally
deposited by photoreduction from salts on hematite nanocubes and we
compared this route with hydrothermal reduction of K2PtCl6 in glucose solution.
The following questions are addressed: (a) can Pt nanoparticles be deposited
on the surface of the nanocubes and the entire heterostructure encapsulated
in silica? (b) Is the core/shell heterostructure catalytically active? (c) Is the
composite structure stable at the high temperatures required for catalytic
reaction and regeneration?
6 Spatially resolved triboemission measurementsi
Introduction
Triboemission is the collective term for friction-stimulated emission of particles

(electrons, ions, neutral particles and photons) that occurs under the severe
conditions at the interface between sliding bodies [1]. This type of particle
emission is distinct from emission due to other external stimulation, for
example, by photons (photoemission [2]) or by heat (thermoemission [3]). The
mechanisms that give rise to triboemission are as yet poorly understood.
However, it is believed to initiate the chemical reactions that lead to the
formation of surface films in boundary lubrication [4, 5]. For example, widely
used zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) additives produce boundary films by
a mechanism that cannot be driven by contact temperatures and pressure
alone [6]. In addition to this, triboemission has been blamed for the degradation
of computer hard drive lubricants [7] and has also been linked to flash lights
during the fracture of rocks associated in earthquakes [8] and volcanic eruptions
[9]. In order to understand the role of emitted particles in these applications —
so that boundary lubrication can be enhanced and lubricant degradation
prevented — it is necessary to study the mechanisms by which emission occurs.
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For this reason, triboemission has been the focus of significant research efforts
for over half a century [10].
The first significant triboemission measurements were made by Nakayama
et al. [11] during scratch tests by a diamond tip. To achieve this, they used a
low-voltage-biased collector positioned close to the contact that registered
bursts of the electrical current due to the emission of negatively and positively
charged particles, while photon emission was measured using a photomultiplier
[12]. Their results showed that insulator materials produced significantly higher
levels of emission when scratched than metals. Kim et al. [13] investigated the
emission of electrons using channel electron multipliers (CEMs) and photons
using photomultipliers, during abrasion of MgO samples under vacuum. They
also measured the kinetic energy of the electrons using a retarding grid. In
these studies, photon emission was attributed mainly to deformation and
electrons emission to fracture. Molina et al. investigated the triboemission of
negatively charged particles under vacuum for a wide range of materials
(alumina, sapphire, silicon nitride and semiconductors) using a CEM in pulse-
counting mode [14–16]. The results from Nakayama et al. and Molina et al.
suggested that triboemission is related to material hardness [14, 17]. Emission
is also correlated strongly with the wear of the surface, highlighted by the
observation that repeated scratches along a single track result in a decrease
of emission with time, due to decreasing wear [14].
From these investigations, it is generally concluded that triboemission of
electrons is related to surface fracture during sliding contact. More specifically,
Dickinson et al. [18] put forward a charge separation model, as shown in Fig.
1. Here, an imbalance of charge is created between opposite faces of a crack
as it opens. Due to the small width of the crack, this electric field has a large
gradient, which encourages electrons to leave the negatively charged crack
face. Due to thermal vibrations, a portion of these electrons do not reach the
opposing face and are instead emitted into the surrounding environment. This
model, however, does not explain why the energy of the tribo-emitted electrons
can be lower than the work function of the sample [14]. To account for these
low-energy electrons, Dickinson et al. [18] suggested that the work function
of the surface could be locally decreased by small defects in the highly strained
areas.
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Since triboemission measurements typically contain no spatial

information, researchers have tried to gain insights into the emission
mechanisms by analysing the temporal characteristics of the recorded signals.
For example, Molina et al. [15] showed that emission patterns are not random
and proposed stochastic and chaos-deterministic approaches [16] to
characterize their evolution with time. Recently, Nakayama et al. [19, 20] and
Matta et al. [21] have made significant advances in infrared and ultraviolet
imaging of the triboplasma, generated at the rear of sliding contacts by gas
discharge under ambient conditions. The research described in the current
paper differs from these studies, since we are concerned with electron emission
mechanisms before interactions with surround gas take place.
One of the main limitations of electron triboemission experiments to date
is that they provide only ensemble average values, giving no information
relating to spatial location or direction. This shortcoming is, in part, responsible
for our lack of understanding of triboemission processes, since it prevents
emission measurements from being directly correlated with other surface
analyses, such as SEM and AFM. To address this issue, we present experiments
using a MCP, in which spatial maps of electron emission are obtained (see
Fig. 2). The MCP — which is effectively a dense array of electron multipliers —
is located within a vacuum chamber above a stationary diamond stylus that is
loaded against a rotating aluminium disc covered with a 5-µm oxide layer
(a brittle material on a soft substrate is likely to form cracks and thus induce
emission). In this way, bursts of electrons can be visualized, revealing the
pattern, direction and temporal characteristics of emission.
EXERCISE 3 Analyse and model the Introductions in your target research

articles. Once you have done this you will begin to read differently: as well
as reading for content, you will become aware of how that content is
delivered. Look at how the paragraphs and sentences start and how they link
together. You will start to see the scaffold that holds the information, and
this will develop into a lifelong reading-for-writing tool that updates
automatically every time you read a review article, a research paper, a
conference abstract or any other text.
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Key to EXERCISE 2b
Introduction
The interaction between metallic uranium surfaces and water vapour is

considered to be most important in regard to the environmental corrosion of
the metal. Numerous studies have examined the initial stages of these
interactions [1–7]. However, there have been discrepancies in the published
data describing kinetic laws, pressure dependence of the reaction rate constant
and activation energies. The precise mechanism for uranium corrosion is not
entirely clear with different mechanisms proposed arising from the results of
the undertaking studies [1–7]. Existing discrepancies in the published data
may, in part, be related to differences in the provenance and purity of the metal
used by different groups. The reactivity of impurity species such as carbide,
may have affected recorded data. This work aims to provide data for an
improved understanding of the role of impurity phases in the uranium–water
reaction, samples of uranium containing 600 ppm carbon were analysed during
and after exposure to water vapour at 19 mbar pressure, in an environmental
scanning electron microscope (ESEM). Samples were analysed using secondary
ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), focused ion beam (FIB) imaging and sectioning
and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with X-ray diffraction (micro-XRD).
2 A GPU-tailored approach for training kernelized SVMse
Introduction
Support Vector Machines (SVMs) are among the most popular general purpose
learning methods in use today. SVM learning amounts to learning a linear
predictor, with regularization (corresponding to a “large margin”) ensuring
good generalization even in very high dimensions. This predictor need not be
linear in the input representation: it is possible to learn a linear predictor in
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some extremely high dimensional space specified implicitly through a kernel

function. SVMs were originally suggested in the context of binary classification,
but more recently variants following the same principles have also been
developed and successfully applied to more complex prediction tasks such as
multiclass classification and prediction of structured outputs such as sequences.
Training an SVM amounts to solving a quadratic programming problem
(see Section 2). Although general-purpose quadratic programming solvers can
only handle fairly small SVM instances, much effort has been made in the past
two decades to design special purpose solvers that can handle large-scale SVM
instances. This effort resulted in widely-used packages that can solve both
“linear” SVMs (i.e. where the prediction is linear in the input representation)
and “kernelized” SVMs (where a non-linear kernel defines the linear prediction
space). For linear SVMs, stochastic methods such as PEGASOS [13] and
Stochastic Dual Coordinate Ascent [8] have recently been established as being
effective at solving extremely large SVM instances, typically in less time than
that which is required to read the data into memory. For kernel SVMs, most
leading solvers are based on decomposing the dual optimization problem into
small subproblems [11, 9, 4, 1, and see also Section 3]. Such approaches can
indeed handle fairly large problems, provided that the data fits in memory, but
it is not uncommon for training to require many hours or days, even using
state-of-the-art optimizers. There is therefore still a strong need for faster
training of kernel SVMs.
One attractive possibility for enabling faster SVM training is to leverage
the power of Graphical Processing Units (GPUs). GPUs are highly parallel,
structured, computational engines and are now available relatively
inexpensively and are found in many modern computers. In this paper we
discuss how SVM training can be efficiently implemented on a GPU, and present
such an implementation for both binary and multiclass SVMs.
Several authors have recently proposed using GPUs for kernelized SVM
training [3, 2] and related problems [6]. These previous approaches, however,
primarily focused on pointing out the advantages of implementing standard
algorithms on graphics hardware, typically using GPU matrix-multiplication
libraries, and not on how these algorithms can be modified to better take
advantage of the GPU architecture. We study various algorithmic choices for
SVM training in the context of GPUs, discuss how the optimal choices and
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algorithms on a GPU are different than those for a serial implementation, and
arrive at an implementation specifically designed for graphics hardware. As with
many previous approaches, we assume that the dataset fits in memory, and
focus mostly on the Gaussian kernel, although our implementation can handle
any kernel function which can be written in the form K(x, y) = f (||x||, ||y||,
〈x, y〉) (see Section 5.2), and our ideas apply even more broadly to any kernel
which is an aggregation of element-wise operations.
One particularly significant drawback of other GPU SVM solvers is their
lack of support for sparse datasets. On the CPU, taking advantage of sparsity
is a simple matter, and sparse datasets are encountered frequently enough
that many widely-used SVM solvers treat all input vectors as sparse, by default
[9, 4, 1]. On the GPU, however, maximum performance is only achieved if
memory accesses follow certain fairly restrictive patterns, which are difficult
to ensure with sparse data. In contrast to other GPU SVM solvers, our
implementation does take advantage of sparsity in the training set through a
novel “sparsity clustering” approach (Section 5.3).
Overall, our implementation is orders of magnitudes faster than existing
CPU implementations, and several times faster on sparse datasets than prior
GPU implementations of SVM training.
3 Signals from the surface modulate differentiation of human pluripotent

stem cells through glycosaminoglycans and integrinsf
Introduction
Human pluripotent stem (hPS) cells (embryonic stem cells and induced
pluripotent stem cells) are promising sources of specialized cells because of two
intrinsic properties: they can self-renew indefinitely and differentiate into diverse
cell types (1). To selectively guide hPS cell differentiation, precise control cellular
microenvironment is needed (2, 3). Considerable effort has been devoted to
identify soluble factors that promote differentiation. Additionally, there is interest
in developing matrices to support cells during differentiation (4), yet much less
is known about how signals from the matrix influence cell fate.
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Matrigel is the most widely used substratum for hPS cell propagation (5)
and differentiation (6–12); it is derived from mouse sarcoma cells, and although
its principal components are laminin, collagen, and entactin, Matrigel consists
of up to 1,800 different proteins — including encapsulated growth factors —
whose levels vary significantly from batch to batch (13). Accordingly, the
contributions of Matrigel-delivered signals to specific phenotypic outcomes —
self-renewal or differentiation — are difficult to characterize or control.
Elucidating the effects of insoluble signals requires defined substrata. Such
defined substrata have been developed for the long-term culture of
undifferentiated hPS cells in defined media. A number of surfaces have been
described including recombinant proteins (14–16), fully synthetic polymers
(17–19), and peptide-modified surfaces (20–23). Surfaces that present bioactive
peptides have the advantage that they can be programmed to interact with
specific cell-surface macromolecules such as the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
and integrins.
Defined surfaces can be exploited for differentiation via two distinct
mechanisms. First, surfaces can be tailored to present ligands that promote
adhesion of specific cell populations during differentiation (24). Second, surfaces
can be devised to specifically activate (or mitigate) signal transduction pathways.
Here, we use a modular approach to exploit the aforementioned modes to control
hPS cell differentiation to each of the primary germ layers. Our results reveal the
advantages of defined surfaces for decoding the influence of insoluble signals on
cell fate.
4 Evaluation of the damage detection capability of a sparse-array guided-

wave SHM system applied to a complex structure under varying thermal
conditionsg
Introduction
Considerable effort has been expended on the development of structural health

monitoring (SHM) systems [1–7], because these are widely regarded as capable
of significantly reducing inspection costs of safety-critical structures in
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industries such as aerospace, nuclear, and oil and gas, among others. Successful
SHM systems can be considered as those which combine good sensitivity to
defects, preferably with the capability of localization and identification, with
a low sensor density.
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) systems based on ultrasonic guided
waves generated by deployable arrays of transducers have been applied to the
inspection of pipeline, rail, and relatively simple platelike structures [8–14].
These systems take advantage of the fact that certain guided-wave modes are
able to propagate through several meters of the structure, often across various
structural features, from a single excitation point. Recently, focus has shifted
to the development of SHM systems based on guided waves, where a small
number of permanently attached transduction units would allow good coverage
and real-time, on-demand inspection of complex structures [15–18].
So far, effective commercial applications of systems based on guided
waves [9, 10, 13, 14] have been achieved only when processing of recorded
time-traces allows straightforward identification of individual reflections, which
can then be attributed either to benign structural features (e.g., stiffeners,
welds, and supports) or to defects. Simple pulse-echo or pitch-catch signals
from complex undamaged structures will usually consist of a large number of
interfering reflections that cannot be identified; these unwanted reflections
are a source of coherent noise, which is highly detrimental because it can mask
reflections from defects in the structure. In these cases, it is necessary to use
a benchmark or baseline signal [15, 16, 18], taken at initial stages of operation
of the structure, when the possibility of the presence of defects due to
fabrication processes has been eliminated by inspection through conventional
NDE techniques (NDT). Because the baseline contains information on the
interaction of the reflections from benign structural features in the absence
of critical defects, subtraction of a current signal from such a baseline will
eliminate the coherent noise to a certain degree; if cancellation of coherent
noise is sufficiently good, the remaining level of residual will contain only
changes in the signals caused by features that were not present initially, such
as defects [18]. The quality of the baseline subtraction therefore controls the
sensitivity of the system to defects.
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It is well known that environmental effects such as stress [19], ambient

temperature variations [20], and liquid loading [21] affect the velocity of guided
waves; this modifies the time-traces and leads to high levels of residual signal
if a single baseline, taken under different conditions, is used. Of these effects,
temperature variations are the most commonly encountered, and several
authors have developed compensation techniques for temperature changes.
These are usually based either on synthetically restoring the signal to the
amplitude and phase it had at the temperature at which a reference signal was
taken [16, 18, 22] or on a large and detailed look-up database of signals
representing environmental conditions commonly faced by the structure
[23, 24]; in this work, these methods are called optimal stretch and optimal
baseline subtraction, respectively. The advantages and limitations of each of
these techniques have been evaluated by different authors, and it has been
shown that combining these 2 methods results in a promising temperature
compensation strategy [18, 25, 26].
This paper demonstrates results obtained when a sparse-array guided-
wave SHM system was applied to a shipping container panel subjected to
uncontrolled temperature variations in a nonlaboratory environment. Initially,
the suitability of the A0 and S0 modes for this particular structure was evaluated
by studying transmission across the corrugations of the panel. Baselines were
acquired from the sparse array over several weeks and the stability of the
temperature compensation and baseline subtraction techniques was assessed.
Defects of different diameter were machined in the structure and the detection
capability of the system was verified.
5 Silica encapsulated heterostructure catalyst of Pt nanoclusters on hematite

nanocubes: synthesis and reactivityh
Introduction
Metal nanoparticles deposited on specific metal-oxide supports have shown

a unique activity as catalysts for heterogeneous reactions.1–4 Unfortunately, at
high reaction temperatures these metal/metal-oxide composite nanostructures
are unstable towards sintering.5–7 Recent work has shown that a porous shell
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of silica on active nanoparticulate catalysts can stabilize the nanoparticles at

high temperatures while maintaining the accessibility of the reactants to the
catalyst active sites.3,5,8 Encapsulating the metal/metal-oxide composite
nanostructures using a silica shell, however, is much more challenging than for
individual nanoparticles because a strong metal–support interaction is required
to avoid detachment during the coating process. The deposition of metal
nanoparticles on oxide support is critical for constructing such composite
structures.
Hematite (α-Fe2O3) has a variety of applications including pigments, gas
sensors, and catalysts.9–11 It is a highly desirable material due to its abundance,
low cost, stability, safety, and its resistance to corrosion. Several high surface
area nanostructures of hematite such as spherical particles,12,13 nanorods,14
nanocubes,15 nanotubes,16 and mesoporous17 structures have been synthesized
using solvothermal,15 flame pyrolysis,18 solution combustion,13 electrodeposition,16
and nanocasting methods.17 Hematite nanostructures have been investigated
as catalysts for CO and CH4 oxidation reactions,19 and their properties have been
shown to depend upon specific crystal planes.20,21 Halocarbons, including CCl4,
have been shown to undergo destructive adsorption on the Fe-rich (001) plane
of hematite.20,22 The adsorption of arsenate has also been studied on (012), which
is known to be the most energetically stable plane of hematite.23 The (110) plane
is the next most stable following the (001) and (012) faces.24 Relatively little is
known about the reactivity of the (110) surface except the fact that it is active
for CO oxidation.15 A high CO conversion was demonstrated at 230°C over this
surface.
Nanoparticles of Pd alloys,25 Pt,25,26 and Au27 have shown particularly high
catalytic activity when supported on hematite. High conversion and selectivity
for hydrogenation reactions have been observed for Pt nanoparticles supported
on γ-Fe2O3.28 The deposition of metal nanoclusters on oxide surfaces has been
reported using colloid deposition26 and seed catalyzed reduction.5,27 Both
methods require pre-formed metal nanoparticles as a source.
Silica shell coatings on either metal or metal-oxide nanoparticles have
been reported using sol–gel,5,29 reverse micelles,3 aerosol pyrolysis,30 and atomic
layer deposition.7 Higher thermostability has been observed for the coated
nanoparticles presumably due to the stability of the coating providing effective
resistance to aggregation of the less stable core particles.31 The sol–gel method
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is relatively inexpensive and extendable to commercial scales, and to our

knowledge there has been no report of this method used to stabilize metal
nanoclusters on metal oxides support nanoparticles.
In this paper the synthesis and characterization of silica encapsulated Pt/α-
Fe2O3 heterostructures are reported. The Pt nanoparticles32,33 were ideally
deposited by photoreduction from salts on hematite nanocubes and we
compared this route with hydrothermal reduction of K2PtCl6 in glucose solution.
The following questions are addressed: (a) can Pt nanoparticles be deposited
on the surface of the nanocubes and the entire heterostructure encapsulated
in silica? (b) Is the core/shell heterostructure catalytically active? (c) Is the
composite structure stable at the high temperatures required for catalytic
reaction and regeneration?
6 Spatially resolved triboemission measurementsi
Introduction
Triboemission is the collective term for friction-stimulated emission of particles

(electrons, ions, neutral particles and photons) that occurs under the severe
conditions at the interface between sliding bodies [1]. This type of particle
emission is distinct from emission due to other external stimulation, for
example, by photons (photoemission [2]) or by heat (thermoemission [3]). The
mechanisms that give rise to triboemission are as yet poorly understood.
However, it is believed to initiate the chemical reactions that lead to the
formation of surface films in boundary lubrication [4, 5]. For example, widely
used zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) additives produce boundary films by
a mechanism that cannot be driven by contact temperatures and pressure
alone [6]. In addition to this, triboemission has been blamed for the degradation
of computer hard drive lubricants [7] and has also been linked to flash lights
during the fracture of rocks associated in earthquakes [8] and volcanic eruptions
[9]. In order to understand the role of emitted particles in these applications —
so that boundary lubrication can be enhanced and lubricant degradation
prevented — it is necessary to study the mechanisms by which emission occurs.
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For this reason, triboemission has been the focus of significant research efforts
for over half a century [10].
The first significant triboemission measurements were made by Nakayama
et al. [11] during scratch tests by a diamond tip. To achieve this, they used a
low-voltagebiased collector positioned close to the contact that registered
bursts of the electrical current due to the emission of negatively and positively
charged particles, while photon emission was measured using a photomultiplier
[12]. Their results showed that insulator materials produced significantly higher
levels of emission when scratched than metals. Kim et al. [13] investigated the
emission of electrons using channel electron multipliers (CEMs) and photons
using photomultipliers, during abrasion of MgO samples under vacuum. They
also measured the kinetic energy of the electrons using a retarding grid. In
these studies, photon emission was attributed mainly to deformation and
electrons emission to fracture. Molina et al. investigated the triboemission of
negatively charged particles under vacuum for a wide range of materials
(alumina, sapphire, silicon nitride and semiconductors) using a CEM in pulse-
counting mode [14–16]. The results from Nakayama et al. and Molina et al.
suggested that triboemission is related to material hardness [14, 17]. Emission
is also correlated strongly with the wear of the surface, highlighted by the
observation that repeated scratches along a single track result in a decrease
of emission with time, due to decreasing wear [14].
From these investigations, it is generally concluded that triboemission
of electrons is related to surface fracture during sliding contact. More
specifically, Dickinson et al. [18] put forward a charge separation model, as
shown in Fig. 1. Here, an imbalance of charge is created between opposite
faces of a crack as it opens. Due to the small width of the crack, this electric
field has a large gradient, which encourages electrons to leave the negatively
charged crack face. Due to thermal vibrations, a portion of these electrons
do not reach the opposing face and are instead emitted into the surrounding
environment. This model, however, does not explain why the energy of the
tribo-emitted electrons can be lower than the work function of the sample
[14]. To account for these low-energy electrons, Dickinson et al. [18] suggested
that the work function of the surface could be locally decreased by small
defects in the highly strained areas.
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Since triboemission measurements typically contain no spatial

information, researchers have tried to gain insights into the emission
mechanisms by analysing the temporal characteristics of the recorded signals.
For example, Molina et al. [15] showed that emission patterns are not random
and proposed stochastic and chaos-deterministic approaches [16] to
characterize their evolution with time. Recently, Nakayama et al. [19, 20] and
Matta et al. [21] have made significant advances in infrared and ultraviolet
imaging of the triboplasma, generated at the rear of sliding contacts by gas
discharge under ambient conditions. The research described in the current
paper differs from these studies, since we are concerned with electron emission
mechanisms before interactions with surround gas take place.
One of the main limitations of electron triboemission experiments to date
is that they provide only ensemble average values, giving no information
relating to spatial location or direction. This shortcoming is, in part, responsible
for our lack of understanding of triboemission processes, since it prevents
emission measurements from being directly correlated with other surface
analyses, such as SEM and AFM. To address this issue, we present experiments
using a MCP, in which spatial maps of electron emission are obtained (see Fig.
2). The MCP — which is effectively a dense array of electron multipliers — is
located within a vacuum chamber above a stationary diamond stylus that is
loaded against a rotating aluminium disc covered with a 5-µm oxide layer (a
brittle material on a soft substrate is likely to form cracks and thus induce
emission). In this way, bursts of electrons can be visualized, revealing the
pattern, direction and temporal characteristics of emission.
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1.4. Useful Words and Phrases
1.4.1 Language task

EXERCISE 4 Look carefully through the Introductions in this Unit and in your
target research articles. Underline or highlight all the words or phrases that
could be used in the four areas below and then compare your suggestions
with the words and phrases listed in Section 1.4.2. For example:
1 ESTABLISHING SIGNIFICANCE
Look for words and phrases such as widespread and much research in recent
years.
2 PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND CONTRIBUTIONS

You can’t spend the rest of your life writing they did/showed/found;
sometimes you need to be more specific, so look for verbs describing what
exactly was done, for example calculated, monitored, identified.
3 GAP/PROBLEM/PREDICTION
Look for ways to say exactly how previous and/or current research is not yet
complete, or has not addressed the problem your paper deals with, for
example inefficient, unclear, few studies have focused on…
4 THE PRESENT PAPER

Look for descriptions of the present paper, its aims, strategy or advantages,
for example we propose, our approach, successful.
1.4.2 Language for the Introduction

This section lists words and phrases for the Introduction from analysis of over
2,500 published research articles in different disciplines. The list only includes
words and phrases which appear frequently and are therefore considered
normal and acceptable by writers and editors.
The list will also keep the flow of writing moving. Underneath each list
there are examples of how the words and phrases are used in sentences, so
look at the sentence examples as well as the list when you are feeling stuck
and can’t think of what to write or how to continue.
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1 ESTABLISHING SIGNIFICANCE (usually in the first sentence)
(an) advantage attracted (much) attention

(an) attractive approach benefit/beneficial
(a) central problem common/ly
(a) challenging area cost-effective
(a) considerable number during the past (two) decades
(a) crucial issue emerging
(a) current challenge extensively studied
(a) dramatic increase for many years
(an) essential element frequent/ly
(a) focus on great potential
(a) fundamental issue importance/important
(a) global concern major
(a) growth in popularity many/most
(an) increasing number multidisciplinary interest
(an) interesting aspect much study in recent years
(a) key technique now
(a) leading cause (of) numerous investigations
(a) number of of growing/great interest
(a) popular method often
(a) powerful tool/method play a key/major role (in)
(a) primary cause (of) principle
(a) (wide) range (of) recent/ly
(a) rapid development relevant
(a) remarkable variety several
(a) significant increase today
(a) striking feature typical
(a) traditional technique valuable
(a) useful method well-documented
(a) variety of well-known
(a) vital aspect wide/ly
(a) worthwhile study widespread
worldwide
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Here are some first sentences taken from research article Introductions:
· The status and function of the port has evolved rapidly in recent years.

· Since the discovery of the first isolated graphene layer, many chemical

approaches have been developed.
· The increasing pressure to eliminate lead has stimulated great interest

in the search for lead-free solders.
· Fourier transforms are widely used in image processing to characterise

textures in images.
· The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is an emerging energy storage

technology.
· Steady-state multiphase upscaling has become increasingly popular

because it is fast, robust and computationally cheap.
· The optic thalamus has been the subject of numerous investigations.

· Malaria affects as many as 216 million people annually, with 445,000

deaths occurring primarily in children under 5 years old.*
· Control of serum phosphorus levels is a central goal in the management

of patients with chronic renal failure.
· Heat transfer phenomena play an important role in welding.

*Note that such numbers may change over time, so consider including a date
(e.g. in 2019).
2 VERBS USED TO REFER TO/DESCRIBE RESEARCH ACTIVITY AND

CONTRIBUTIONS IN PREVIOUS AND CURRENT RESEARCH
achieve create focus on produce

address deal with generate propose
analyse define identify prove
apply demonstrate imply provide
argue describe improve put forward
assess design interpret recognise
assume detect introduce report
attempt determine investigate resolve
calculate develop measure reveal
categorise discover mention review
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carry out discuss model revise

challenge enhance modify show
claim establish monitor solve
clarify estimate note state
collect evaluate observe study
compare examine obtain suggest
conclude explain perform support
conduct explore point out test
confirm extend predict use
consider find present verify
Note: Use these verbs throughout, for example at the end of the Introduction, when you
say what you did in your study or what is in your paper.
Here are some examples of how these are used:
· The effect of keratin on the mechanical properties of copolymer systems

was demonstrated more than two years ago.
· Minelli et al. describe the use of experts’ opinions and empirical

evidence.
· NDE systems have been applied to the inspection of pipelines.

· Several authors have developed compensation techniques for temperature

changes.
· The advantages and limitations of each of these techniques have been

evaluated by different authors.
· Kim et al. investigated the emission of electrons using channel electron

multipliers (CEMs).
· Dickinson et al. put forward a charge separation model.

· For simplicity, they only considered the homogeneity ranges in their

model.
· They were the first to recognise the importance of studying the effect of

genetic variation.
· Initial attempts focused on determining the cause of…

· The results on pair dispersion are reported in…

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3 GAP
Group 1: PROBLEM/CRITICISM
absent inflexible (a) challenge

complicated insufficient (a) defect
controversial misleading (a) difficulty
costly not able to… (a) disadvantage
deficient not ideal (a) drawback
disappointing not sufficiently… (a) flaw
doubtful not/no longer useful (a) gap
expensive of little value (a) lack
false over-simplistic (a) limitation
far from (ideal) poor (an) obstacle
fragile problematic (a) problem
hard to (detect) restricted (a) risk
impractical severe (a) shortcoming
inaccurate time-consuming (a) weakness
inadequate unable to (to) be confined to
incapable (of) undesirable (to) fail to
incompatible unnecessary (to) fall short of
inconsistent unrealistic (to) ignore
inconvenient unsatisfactory (to) lag behind
incorrect unsuccessful (to) miscalculate
ineffective unsuitable (to) misjudge
inefficient unsupported (to) misunderstand
inferior (to) neglect
(to) overlook
(to) suffer (from)
Note: These are often signalled by words such as however, although, while, nevertheless,
despite.
Group 2: RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
(an) alternative more work is needed

(the) next step not addressed
(to) demand clarification not dealt with
(to) need to re-examine not studied
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(to) raise the question not well understood

(to) remain controversial suggest/s that…
(to) remain unstudied there is an urgent need…
(to) require (clarification) to the best of our knowledge
few studies have… unanswered
ideal candidate unclear
incomplete unexamined
it is/seems possible that… unproven
little evidence is available unsolved
little work has been done
Note: Research opportunities are often communicated by using modal verbs such as
may/might/could/would.
· The fact that these galaxies are so massive may make them ideal

candidates for protocluster searches.
· Little attention has been paid to the selection of an alternative

biocompatible material.
· How propofol acts on neural circuits to produce unconsciousness

remains unclear.
· The main drawback of this approach is that it is unable to provide

quantitative information.
· Little is known about these early differentiating cells and it is not

clear whether this initial Oct4 expressing population differ from
undifferentiated hESCs.
· One of the limitations of electron triboemission experiments to date is

that they provide only ensemble average values.
· This shortcoming is responsible for our lack of understanding of

triboemission processes.
· However, the search for a stable oral prostaglandin preparation has

been largely unsuccessful.
· The high absorbance makes this an impractical option.

· An alternative approach is necessary.

· Determining the function of these proteins remains a challenge.

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· Although there is general agreement regarding the timing of sea-level

events, their amplitude remains controversial.
· These can be time-consuming and are often technically difficult to

perform.
4 THE PRESENT WORK
(to) attempt (is) organised as follows: ‘happy’ words J

(to) compare (is) set out as follows: able to
(to) concentrate (on) (our) approach accurate
(to) describe (the) present work advantage
(to) determine (this) paper effective
(to) develop (this) project efficient
(to) discuss (this) report excellent
(to) enable (this) section fully
(to) enhance (this) study innovation
(to) evaluate (this) work new
(to) facilitate aim novel
(to) focus on goal potential
(to) identify intention powerful
(to) improve objective practical
(to) investigate purpose promising
(to) offer relevant
(to) outline robust
(to) predict simple
(to) present straightforward
(to) propose successful
(to) provide superior
(to) report unique
(to) reveal valuable
(to) solve
(to) succeed
· Our study focuses on…

· To address this question, we investigated…

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· Section V provides several relevant conclusions obtained from the

study reported in this paper.
· The main objective of this study was to describe and examine…

· In this paper we present a robust method for…

· The proposed method combines GWAS data with information from

bioinformatics databases in a coherent and reproducible way.
· In this study, we carefully identified and isolated…

· New correlations were developed with excellent results.

· We show that use of glass reactors can be effective.

· To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the…

· This paper introduces a scheme which solves these problems.

· To address this issue, we present experiments using an MCP.

· Our design is both simple and accurate, and can be fully integrated

into…
· This paper is organised as follows:

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1.5. Language and Writing Skills
This section deals with four topics that are important in the Introduction and
elsewhere:
VERB TENSE CHOICES
LINKING SENTENCES TOGETHER
PASSIVE/ACTIVE CHOICES
PARAGRAPHING
1.5.1 Verb tense choices

As we have seen, most writers present previous research and contributions
in the Introduction: the research ‘map’. They use a range of verb tenses to
do this, generally the Past Simple, the Present Simple and the Present Perfect.
The decision of which of these three tenses to use is rarely determined by
the rules of grammar; in most cases the decision is made on the basis of
meaning. Using a particular verb tense to present previous research and
contributions represents a choice about the function of that sentence rather
than a grammatical imperative. You choose between Past Simple, Present
Simple and Present Perfect according to what you want to say about a
particular study or contribution, or how you want the reader to interpret it.
In this section we will look at what governs these choices.
Choosing between Past Simple and Present Simple

They found that the pressure increased as the temperature rose.
They found that the pressure increases as the temperature rises.
They found that the dielectric structure possessed a full photonic bandgap.
They found that the dielectric structure possesses a full photonic bandgap.
The Past Simple just describes what the authors found in their study; the
findings are linked to that study and are not presented as permanent truths.
By contrast, choosing the Present Simple reflects a belief that the findings
are strong and reliable enough to constitute a permanent truth.
Note, however, that as we saw in Section 1.2.2, many background facts
presented in the Present Simple began their life as research findings stated
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in the Past Simple, and graduated to Present tense status as they became
established and accepted. This means that a journal article from five years
ago may use a verb tense that is no longer appropriate, and using that tense
now would give the impression that you are not up to date with developments
in your field. When you are writing about previous research and contributions,
check which verb tense is currently being used for that particular finding
or fact. Search engines such as Google Scholar are a good resource for this,
but make sure you search only recent research.
Choosing between Past Simple and Present Perfect

They found that the pressure increases as the temperature rises.
They have found that the pressure increases as the temperature rises.
They found that the dielectric structure possesses a full photonic bandgap.
They have found that the dielectric structure possesses a full photonic
bandgap.
In these sentences:
(a) Past Simple I lived in Tokyo for five years …but I don’t live there
anymore.
(b) Present Perfect I have lived in Tokyo for five …and I still live there
years now.
the difference between (a) and (b) is the ‘time’ of the event, i.e. whether or
not the writer is still living in Tokyo. In these sentences, however:
(c) Past Simple I broke my glasses …but I have another pair/I

repaired them.
(d) Present Perfect I have broken my …and so I can’t see well now.
glasses
the difference is more complex, and more important for you as a STEMM
research writer. In (c) and (d), the ‘time’ of the event isn’t the key difference;
it’s possible that both (c) and (d) happened last month, this morning, or one
nanosecond ago. The event in (d) is in the Present Perfect tense because it
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is more relevant to the situation now than the event in (c). Why is this idea
of current relevance important when you write an Introduction? Look at this
sentence from the Introduction in Section 1.2.1:
However, although the effect of keratin on the mechanical properties

of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago9, keratin
adds considerably to the weight of the composite, and little attention
has been paid to the selection of an alternative biocompatible
material.
In this sentence, the writer changes from the Past Simple (was demonstrated)
to the Present Perfect (has been paid) in order to communicate that the
latter refers to a current gap in the research. The choice of Present Perfect
therefore implies that this research article will now pay attention to the
selection of an appropriate biocompatible material.
Compare this with the following sentence, in which the writer does not
change tense, but continues in the Past Simple:
However, although the effect of keratin on the mechanical properties

of copolymer systems was demonstrated over two years ago9, keratin
adds considerably to the weight of the composite, and little attention
was paid to the selection of an alternative biocompatible material.
In the Past Simple, the sentence means that little attention was paid THEN,
i.e. two years ago. Perhaps attention has been paid to this problem since
then, or perhaps the problem has since been solved. Tense changes are always
meaningful, and they always signal a change in the function of the information,
so don’t choose or change tense randomly.
Check this information about tenses by looking at the way the Past Simple
and Present Perfect are used in the Introductions of your target articles. Look
in particular at the way the Past Simple tense and the Present Perfect tense
are used to describe previous research and the contributions of previous
research.
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1.5.2 Linking sentences and information together

As a sentence progresses, it becomes easier for the reader to predict where
it is going. Take a look at the following sentence:
If you’re paying attention to this sentence, you can probably predict
what the last word will____.
It’s fairly easy to predict the last word of that sentence, but it’s much
harder to predict the first word of the next sentence. At the end of each
sentence, writers stop and think about what to write next, but in that thinking
time — which may be seconds, hours, days or even weeks — the gap between
the two sentences starts to stretch, and may become too wide for the reader
to negotiate. The gap between sentences is a dangerous space. Your job as
a writer is to close the gap as tightly as possible, so that readers can effortlessly
connect one piece of information to the next. Connecting information is not
only good for the reader, it is also good for the writer, because it encourages
him/her to develop ideas and text in a logical way.
The way that a sentence starts and links to the previous sentences is central
to its success, the success of the paragraph and the success of the text as a
whole. There are four ways to start a sentence that make the connection with
the previous information clear. One way is to overlap, meaning to repeat
something from the previous sentence early in the next one:
This steady-state approach cannot distinguish between patterns that

are characteristic of a deeply anesthetized brain and those that arise
at the onset of unconsciousness. Unconsciousness can occur in tens of
seconds…
… implying that information transfer between distant (>2 cm) cortical
networks is impaired. Cortical networks therefore are fragmented both
temporally and spatially, disrupting both...
The pattern of inflammation during an asthma attack is different from
that seen in stable asthma. In stable asthma the total number of
inflammatory cells does not increase.
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… although metals such as aluminium have been used to strengthen

PLA for industrial applications5,6, these are not appropriate for biomedical
use7. One way to strengthen polymers for biomedical applications is…
Elucidating the effects of insoluble signals requires defined substrata.
Such defined substrata have been developed for the long-term culture
of undifferentiated hPS cells in defined media.
A second way is to use a pro-form (This method, These systems) to glue the
sentences together:
On the basis of these criteria it then describes the preparation of a

biomass-derived polymer blend using chitin, a long-chain polymer found
in many places throughout the natural world. This combination formed
a novel lightweight copolymer…
The effects on macroscopic dynamics are noticeable in the EEG, which
contains several stereotyped patterns during maintenance of propofol
general anesthesia. These patterns include increased delta power…
Most studies have focused on a deep steady state of general anesthesia
and have not used a systematic behavioral measure to track the
transition into unconsciousness. This steady-state approach cannot
distinguish between…
Many researchers have suggested ways to reduce cost without affecting
the quality of the image. These methods rely on data structures built
during a preprocessing step.
One of the main limitations of electron triboemission experiments to
date is that they provide only ensemble average values, giving no
information relating to spatial location or direction. This shortcoming
is, in part, responsible for our lack of understanding…
Note that when you use pro-forms, it is easier for the reader if you repeat
exactly the same noun as you used the first time. If you have described
something as a device, the pro-form you use to refer to it next time should
be this device, not this technique or this method.

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You can begin sentences with It, They, These or This, but it may be difficult
for the reader to work out what these words refer to. Look at these examples:
· This result was statistically significant and is in line with results in

previous studies. This suggests that…
Does This refer to the fact that the result was statistically significant or

that the result is in line with results in previous studies? Or both?
· The existence of small amounts of impurities will change these properties

and they are easily detectable.
Does they refer to ‘impurities’? ‘small amounts of impurities’? ‘these

properties’?
A third way is not to finish the sentence at all, but to join it to the next
sentence with a semicolon. Joining sentences with a semicolon works well
when there are two consecutive sentences that are very closely related,
particularly if one of them is short. Using a semicolon to join sentences in
this way feels like a long comma rather than a full stop.
The procedure for testing whether components are operationally safe

usually takes many hours; this means that tests are rarely repeated.
Simple pulse-echo or pitch-catch signals from undamaged structures
usually consist of interfering reflections that cannot be identified; these
unwanted reflections are a source of coherent noise, which can mask
defects in the structure.
Due to the small width of the crack, this electric field has a large
gradient; this encourages electrons to leave the negatively charged
crack face.
Sentence length is an important factor in readability, so if you use a semicolon

to join sentences in this way, check the overall length of the sentence.
Sentences with fewer than 20 words are understood by 90% of readers at
first reading; those with more than 40 words are understood by only 10% of
readers at first reading. The average sentence length in STEMM research
articles is approximately 23.
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The fourth way is to use a signal such as therefore or however to

communicate the function of the sentence. They are helpful if they are used
correctly, but signals are not simply ‘glue’ to hold sentences together; if
they are not used accurately, they can do more harm than good. A sentence
beginning with Moreover tells the reader that the function of the sentence
they are reading is the same as the previous one; in other words, if the
previous sentence presented a reason for doing something, this one must
do the same. If the previous sentence presented a disadvantage of
something, this one must present a further disadvantage. Similarly, a
sentence beginning with Therefore or Consequently must present or describe
an effect, result or outcome that is directly linked to an identifiable reason
or cause. The causal relationship should be either obvious or made explicit
to the reader, rather than existing mainly in the mind of the writer. If it is
not obvious, perhaps this indicates that more information is needed before
using Therefore.
Here are some examples of signals arranged according to their function.
It is not a long list because only those which are common in current STEMM
writing are included.
CAUSE
The experiment was unsuccessful ________ the measuring instruments were
inaccurate.
The experiment was unsuccessful ________ the inaccuracy of the measuring
instruments.
due to (the fact that) as

on account of (the fact that) because
in view of (the fact that) since
· as can also mean when, so if there’s any possibility of confusion, choose

a different signal. For example, it is not clear whether As means Because
or When in the sentence: As repeated melting homogenised more
material, the phase transitions became less prominent.
· since can also mean from that time, so if there’s any possibility of

confusion, choose a different signal.
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RESULT
The measuring instruments were calibrated accurately, ________ the
experiment was successful.
therefore hence thus

consequently as a result so
CONTRAST/DIFFERENCE
British students are all vegetarians, __________ Norwegian students eat
meat every day.
however on the other hand by contrast

whereas while in contrast
but
· on the contrary and conversely don’t fit into this category because

they don’t just communicate difference; they communicate the fact
that exactly the opposite is true. You can’t use them in the sentence
above because vegetarians and meat eaters aren’t opposites, they’re
just different. However, you could use them in the following sentence:
Some experiments used uncalibrated instruments and succeeded;
conversely, other experiments used carefully calibrated instruments
and failed.
· Also, remember that while often means at that/the same time, so if there’s

any possibility of confusion, choose a different signal, such as whereas.
UNEXPECTEDNESS
A _______ it was difficult, a solution was quickly found.
B _______ the difficulty, a solution was quickly found.
C It was difficult; ________ a solution was quickly found.
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A B C
although despite nevertheless
even though in spite of however
though regardless of yet
notwithstanding but
nonetheless
even so
Note that however and but can be used to express CONTRAST/DIFFERENCE

as well as UNEXPECTEDNESS, so if you want to emphasise UNEXPECTEDNESS,
choose one of the other signals from this list.
ADDITION/LISTING
We used a batch processing system because it was more effective.
___________ it was significantly less expensive.
in addition also
moreover secondly (etc.)
furthermore in the second place (etc.)
what is more,
Note that besides has more or less the same meaning as the items in the list
above, but it’s more powerful and is therefore better in persuasive contexts.
TRANSITION
The drug is extremely effective and easy to administer. ________ cost, it is
approximately the same price per dose as existing drugs.
with regard to with respect to

as to as for
regarding turning now to
It’s not necessary (and it looks formulaic) to start every sentence with a signal.
Signals are emphatic, and starting each sentence with one creates a jerky, over-
emphatic text. To ensure that the information in your text is logical and easy to
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follow, consider using repetition linkage instead of a signal. This means repeating
words across sentences, and particularly at the start of a sentence, to ensure
that the reader is carried carefully from one item of information to the next.
Checking that sentences and information are explicitly linked is a valuable
self-editing tool, as it forces you to examine the relationships between your
sentences. Good linkage helps to create flow.
In the Introduction to Rapid fragmentation of neuronal networks at the
onset of propofol-induced unconsciousness below, sentence-to-sentence
linkage is in bold type, and repetition linkage is in italics. It’s surprising how
much linkage and repetition there is in the text — and how easy it is to read
and understand as a result. After you have looked at this example, check the
way sentence linkage and repetition linkage operate in the Introductions of
your target articles and the other Introductions in this Unit.
General anesthesia is a drug-induced reversible coma commonly

initiated by administering a large dose of a fast-acting drug to induce
unconsciousness within seconds (1). This state can be maintained as
long as needed to execute surgical and many nonsurgical procedures.
One of the most widely used anesthetics is propofol, an i.v. drug that
enhances GABAergic inhibitory input to neurons (2–4), with effects in
cortex, thalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord (5–7). Despite the
understanding of propofol’s molecular actions, it is not clear how these
effects at molecular targets affect single neurons and larger-scale neural
circuits to produce unconsciousness.
The effects on macroscopic dynamics are noticeable in the EEG,
which contains several stereotyped patterns during maintenance of
propofol general anesthesia. These patterns include increased delta
(0.5–4 Hz) power (8, 9); increased gamma (25–40 Hz) power (9); an
alpha (∼10 Hz) rhythm (10–12) that is coherent across frontal cortex;
and burst suppression, an alternation between bursts of high-voltage
activity and periods of flat EEG lasting for several seconds (13, 14). In
addition, slow oscillations (<1 Hz) have been well characterized in
deeply anesthetized animals and are associated with an alternation of
the neuronal membrane potential between UP (depolarized) and DOWN
(hyperpolarized) states (8, 15).
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Although these patterns are observed consistently, it is unclear

how they are functionally related to unconsciousness under general
anesthesia. Most studies have focused on a deep steady state of general
anesthesia and have not used a systematic behavioral measure to track
the transition into unconsciousness. This steady-state approach cannot
distinguish between patterns that are characteristic of a deeply
anesthetized brain and those that arise at the onset of unconsciousness.
Unconsciousness can occur in tens of seconds (4), but many
neurophysiological features continue to fluctuate for minutes after
induction and are highly variable between different levels of general
anesthesia (1,16). Therefore, identifying the specific dynamics
associated with loss of consciousness (LOC) requires an examination of
the transition into unconsciousness, linking neurophysiology with
behavioral measures.
In addition, the dynamic interactions between cortical areas that
underlie these EEG oscillations are not well understood, because few
studies have simultaneously recorded ensembles of single neurons and
oscillatory dynamics from sites distributed across the brain.
Consequently, how propofol acts on neural circuits to produce
unconsciousness remains unclear. A leading hypothesis suggests that
anesthetics disrupt cortical integration (17, 18). Identifying the
mechanism by which this disruption might occur requires a better
understanding of how the spatial and temporal organization of neural
dynamics evolves during induction of unconsciousness.
To address this question, we investigated both neuronal and circuit-
level dynamics in the human brain during induction of unconsciousness
with propofol. We obtained simultaneous recordings of single units,
local field potentials (LFPs), and intracranial electrocorticograms (ECoG)
over up to 8 cm of cortex, enabling us to examine neural dynamics at
multiple spatial scales with millisecond-scale temporal resolution. We
used a behavioral task to identify within seconds the time at which
patients became unresponsive to auditory stimuli, which we defined
as LOC.
Our results reveal a set of neurophysiological features that
accompany LOC that, together with previously reported effects (8, 9,
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15), enable a multiscale account of this profound shift in brain state.

We find that LOC is marked by the abrupt onset of slow oscillations
(0.1–1 Hz) in the LFP. Power in the slow oscillation band rises sharply
at LOC and maintains this increase throughout the post-LOC period.
Neuronal spiking becomes coupled to the local slow oscillation within
seconds of LOC: Spiking occurs only in short intervals of activity that
are interspersed with suppression lasting hundreds of milliseconds,
periodically interrupting information processing. These periods in which
activity may occur are not simultaneous across the brain, implying that
information transfer between distant (>2 cm) cortical networks is
impaired. Cortical networks therefore are fragmented both temporally
and spatially, disrupting both local and long-range communication.
However, small-scale (<4 mm) functional connectivity measures remain
similar to the conscious state, and neuronal spike rates can recover to
baseline levels after LOC despite continued unresponsiveness. This
result demonstrates that short periods of normal spike dynamics still
can occur during unconsciousness. We conclude that the slow oscillation
is a fundamental component of propofol-induced unconsciousness,
marking a functional isolation of cortical regions while significant
connectivity is preserved within local networks.
1.5.3 Passive/Active choices

Towards the end of the Introduction you usually say what you will do or
present in the research article, and you need to decide whether those
sentences will be in the Passive or the Active.
There are three options: using we/our, using the passive, and restructuring
the sentence so that it is in the active, with a non-human subject (This study
demonstrates that…/Section 1 presents…). The decision of whether to use
active, passive or a non-human subject such as This study is connected to
style and communicative accuracy.
With regard to style, the first thing to do is — as always — to check the
journal in question, so start by looking at your target articles. Science writing
has traditionally favoured the passive, perhaps because it seems more
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objective, but this is changing in some fields and in some journals. The passive
is still common, particularly in descriptions of methods or experimental
procedures, but many interdisciplinary or free-flowing research areas are
more flexible and tolerant.
With regard to communicative accuracy, if you use the active, it is
important to keep the referent of we/our consistent. This is because there
is a risk that the referent of we/our may become unstable and even change
from one sentence to the next. This can have an impact on the ownership
of the sentence content. In one sentence we/our may refer to ‘me and the
other authors of this paper’ (we investigated), in another it may refer to ‘me,
the other authors of this paper and everyone in my research field, possibly
even you (the reader) too (our knowledge/when we consider), and in another
sentence it may refer to ‘me, the other authors of this paper, everyone in my
research field, possibly even you…and my grandmother’, i.e. people in general
(we know). If you are using we/our to refer to people in general, it may be
clearer to use a construction with It (It is known/thought that…).
A third option is to rewrite the sentence using a non-human grammatical
subject (The present paper describes an algorithm for clustering sequences
into index classes/This study presents a set of criteria for selecting such a
component/Section 2 reviews existing methods).
1.5.4 Paragraphing

Why is good paragraphing important?
Paragraphs are powerful non-verbal text elements that provide a visual and
intellectual separation between ideas and concepts. A good paragraph generally
has a single unifying function, for example, summarising the implications of the
results or explaining why a particular technique was used. Every sentence and
indeed every part of every sentence should be relevant to the central function
of the paragraph and drive that function forward; ‘loose’ or irrelevant items
interrupt the narrative and cause confusion. If the function of the paragraph is
clear to the writer, it will be easier to make it clear to the reader.
Good paragraphing is key to text planning, and good text planning is
essential for fast, effective text production. Getting lost in the middle of a
paragraph and not knowing how to end it or where to go next is stressful
and time-consuming for the writer. The result is often an interruption in the
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flow of information, and both reader and writer may find it hard to pick up
the narrative again. Good paragraphing is a key component of the narrative
scaffold that enables readers to process information and, equally importantly,
helps writers to create that information.
How long should a paragraph be?

Two common errors in paragraphing are clusters of short or single-sentence
paragraphs, and paragraphs that are too long and lose their way. In both
cases, it’s hard for readers to follow the writer’s train of thought. Paragraphs
are marked either by indenting the first line or by a double space between
paragraphs. Over the years, readers develop a very strong response to these
visual signals. This means that each time the reader begins a new paragraph,
there is a conditioned response that prepares them for a change or shift to
something different. Clusters of short or single-sentence paragraphs make
the reading process very jerky because they evoke that ‘something different’
response inappropriately; in most cases the writer has simply put ideas down
randomly rather than organised them into reader-friendly units. Similarly,
overlong paragraphs that begin with one idea and end with another or contain
too many ideas indicate that the writer has forgotten the reader entirely and
is simply ‘dumping’ information. In both cases, the result is a text that is not
reader-friendly and may be confusing.
Check target texts to determine normal paragraph length for that type
of text in your field. For example, average paragraph length in research articles
is around 150–170 words; some paragraphs exceed 230 words and others
are below 80, but it is unusual to find a research article in which many or
most paragraphs are over 230 words or under 80.
How do I learn good paragraphing?

To understand how good paragraphing works, it is worth looking at why
readers are encouraged to skim texts before reading them. Skimming is based
on the principle that knowing what a text is about beforehand speeds up the
reading process: the more you know about what you are going to read, the
faster and more effectively you read. For example, if you read the last page
of a murder mystery before you finish the book, the rest of the story is less
exciting, but you will read faster. You don’t waste time wondering who the
murderer is; you know it’s the victim’s brother, so whenever his name is
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mentioned you concentrate and read carefully — but you don’t bother to
read the details about the other suspects. This enables you to read faster by
giving you the confidence to ignore things which you know are not relevant.
How does skimming work? And what is the connection between skimming
and good paragraphing?
Skimming focuses your attention on the first line or sentence of each
paragraph. These sentences provide a simple, basic ‘map’ of the topics
covered in the text, the order in which they are presented and the general
direction of the text; in other words, what the text is about and where it is
going. Skimming generally follows the following pattern:
1. READ the title…to predict the content.

2. CHECK the date and the name/s of the authors.
3. READ the Abstract/Summary/Highlights.
4. LOOK QUICKLY at the figures/tables to see how much/what type
of visual data is included.
5. LOOK QUICKLY at the subtitles and the first line or sentence of
each paragraph to get a ‘map’ of the paper.
6. READ the Conclusions/last paragraph to see where the paper is
going.
How can I use this to help me to write good paragraphs?

Number 5 above is LOOK QUICKLY at the subtitles and the first line or
sentence of each paragraph to get a ‘map’ of the paper. The importance of
the first line or sentence of a paragraph is so well-established that there are
even macros that select these from a text and present them as a document
that can be used as a way of taking notes without reading. This is because it
is conventional in academic writing to start with an entry sentence or phrase
which presents the topic, function or aim of the paragraph (see examples on
the next page). The other sentences then discuss that topic, describe it, define
it in more detail, develop it, give examples of it, rephrase it, explain it, etc.
When the topic moves too far away from the first sentence, the writer begins
a new paragraph, often with a new entry sentence.
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So what’s the strategy?

· List each topic/concept/idea that you want to discuss and then order

them logically for the reader.
· List the bullet points you want to include for each topic, and then order

the bullet points logically for the reader.
· Consider how many paragraphs you will need for each topic.

· Check that each paragraph has a function within that topic, for

example to provide factual background/describe the advantage or
disadvantage of a method/present an existing theory/explain why
you agree with something/provide a detailed example/compare
different techniques.
· Make sure that the function of the paragraph is clear to the reader.

· Consider using a statement of intent at the beginning of the paragraph

to present the focus or topic of the paragraph and/or link it with the
previous paragraph. You can use the sentence linkage strategies
described in Section 1.5.2 or explicit phrases such as:
According to this theory, … These data suggest that…

An alternative approach is… This is important because…
Another key feature is… This process occurs in two stages.
Having collected the data, … To address this question, …
Here, we present… To confirm…, we…
In order to explore this, … Turning now to…
On the basis of this finding, … We argue that…
Our next goal was… When we consider…
The first evidence for this is… With regard to…
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1.6. Writing the Introduction
In this Unit you have seen that conventional science writing patterns are easy
to identify and that they generate text that is readable and effective. In this
section you will write an Introduction by bringing together everything in this
Unit: the model, the language and writing skills, and the vocabulary.
1.6.1 Write the Introduction

For Exercise 5 below, follow the streamlined Introduction model on page 17
and use the vocabulary in the Language section. Your sentence patterns
should be similar to those in your target articles, in the Introductions printed
here, and the language should be similar to that in Section 1.4.2. A model
answer is provided on page 70.
EXERCISE 5 Imagine that you have just completed a research project to
design a bicycle cover which can protect cyclists from injury, pollution, or just
from rain. Perhaps you provided a computer simulation of its use, or modelled
the ventilation system. Perhaps you were involved in the aerodynamics, or
the polymer construction of the material for the cover — or any other aspect
of the project.
Write the Introduction for your research article. The title of your paper is
A cover for the single-person pedal-powered vehicle, and you should write
an Introduction of approximately 250–350 words. Follow the model as closely
as possible; make sure your Introduction contains the four main components
of the model and use the vocabulary in this Unit for each component. You can
lie as much as you like, and of course you will have to create fake research
references.
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1.6.2 Key

A cover for the single-person pedal-powered vehicle
Introduction
Urban air pollution has become a central issue in transport policy
decision-making. Air quality in city centres is linked to the level of vehicle
emissions2, and urban transport policy in the UK aims to reduce the
use of private cars in city centres by 25% within the next ten years3. As
a result, much research has focused on developing environmentally-
friendly commuter vehicles such as the Single-Person Pedal-Powered
Vehicle (SPPPV). However, although there has been an increase in the
sale of SPPPVs, safety and comfort issues need to be addressed if the
number of users is to increase to a level at which a significant effect on
environmental pollution can be achieved.
Researchers have studied and improved many safety aspects of
the SPPPV. In 1999, Wang et al. responded to the need for increased
safety by designing an SPPPV surrounded by a ‘cage’ of safety bars4,
and in 2002 Martinez introduced a reinforced polymer screen which
could be fitted to the safety bars to protect the cyclist’s head in the
event of a collision5. The issue of comfort has also been addressed by
many design teams; in 2008 Kohl et al. introduced an SPPPV with a
built-in rain/sun umbrella, which could be opened at the touch of a
button6, and more recently, Martinez7 added a mesh filter which can
be placed over the entire cage to reduce the risk of environmental
pollution. However, it has been suggested that both the shape of the
umbrella and the weight of the mesh filter negatively affect aerodynamic
efficiency (Zhang et al., 2019).
In this study, we model the aerodynamic effect of these safety and
comfort features and use the data thus obtained to propose a new
design which balances design parameters with optimum aerodynamic
performance.
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TIPS FOR WRITING A READER-FRIENDLY, EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION

· Plan the whole Introduction, paragraph by paragraph, before you start

creating sentences.
· Remember that your Introduction and the research questions or gap

you identify must align with the rest of the article, and particularly the
Discussion/Conclusion.
· Don’t jump too fast from very general to very specific information early

in the Introduction.
· Remember that your familiarity with the topic may mean that you are

not aware of the reader’s need for background information, particularly
if you are aiming for an interdisciplinary audience.
· Consider the density of the information and try to match eye-reading

speed with brain-processing speed. This may mean using examples or
paraphrases to slow down the flow of content, expanding concentrations
of information, or breaking long sentences into smaller, well-linked units.
· The way a paragraph starts and links to the previous paragraph is key to

the success of that paragraph and the text as a whole. Think about the
best way to start each paragraph before you begin typing it.
· The way a sentence starts and links to the previous sentence is key to the

success of that sentence, that paragraph, and the text as a whole. Think
about the best way to start each sentence before you begin typing it.
· Be aware that you will always understand what you have written, but

you’re not writing for yourself — what is important is that your reader
can understand it. Write for a reader, not for a colleague.
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UNIT 2
How to Write about Methods
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TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION*
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2.1. The Structure and Content of the Methods Section
The Methods section has a more flexible structure and content than the
Introduction, and its title reflects the many different activities involved in
scientific research. In some journals it is called Methods; in others it may be
called Materials and methods, Experimental, Test methods, Simulations,
Model, Experimental design, Experimental work, Experimental techniques,
or Methodology. It may even have a specific title such as Calibration or
Model-controlled test, but for simplicity, it will be referred to here as the
Methods section.
As discussed previously, the rate at which science research is produced
and the way it is communicated affect the structure and the content of
research papers. The number of papers published in peer-reviewed journals
is increasing, and so is publication using channels such as conference
proceedings, open archives and home pages. The total volume of science
research published every year and accessible on the internet is estimated to
be doubling every ten years; some estimate that approximately 3 million
scientific papers are now published every year. This has a huge impact on
the way that scientists read and access information, and this impact is evident
in the way that the Methods are communicated.
Scientists aim to ‘move rapidly through the literature to assess and exploit
content with as little actual reading as possible’4. This has generated an
information-surfing approach in which readers often move directly from the
Title/Abstract to the Results or even straight to the Conclusion, bypassing
the Methods section unless it is the section they are interested in, or is very
short. This reading strategy, together with manuscript length restrictions in
print journals, is changing the way many Methods sections are communicated.
A long detailed or technical description of the method may not appear in the
main manuscript of the paper but rather via an online link to supplementary
materials.
This does not mean that the writer can ignore the reader’s need for
information about the method in the rest of the paper. The readers’
acceptance of those results and conclusions is linked to their acceptance of
the method. If there is little or no information about the method in the rest
of the paper, this may affect the overall credibility of the study, particularly
if the amount of supplementary material discourages reading. The reader
needs sufficient information about the method for the results and conclusions
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to make sense, and this is generally achieved by including that information

in the Results section (see Unit 3). As always, the best guide to the balance
between information about the method in the main manuscript and in the
supplementary material is to examine your target articles.
As Pop and Salzberg5 note, although placing supplementary material
outside the main manuscript can improve readability, extensive use of
supplementary materials may have a range of negative effects; for example,
readers may have to sift through many — in some cases hundreds of — pages
of supplementary text to find the information they need. In addition, the
extent of supplementary information makes it difficult to carry out appropriate
peer-reviewing, particularly where there is a need for urgency. A further issue
noted by Pop and Salzberg is that some journals, for example, Nature, state
explicitly that they do not encourage deposition of references within SI as
they will not be live links and will not contribute towards citation measures6.
Citations in supplementary materials are not normally tracked by citation
indexes, and this has impacts for scholarship, and for ownership of
information. Given these issues, it is likely that the rules and strategies for
including and accessing supplementary material will be reviewed and revised
over the next decade. Pop and Salzberg’s proposal that “supplementary items,
irrespective of format, be directly hyper-linked from the text itself. Such
references should be to specific sections of the supplementary material…”5
is a way of resolving at least some of these issues.
In whatever form it appears in the future, the Methods section is likely
to retain its primary function: to contain enough detailed information to
ensure that other researchers can replicate the work done and obtain similar
results. This means that the content, language, and narrative aspects of the
Methods section are also likely to remain relatively stable, and this Unit will
proceed on that basis.
Whether your target articles are 5-page articles accompanied by 100+
pages of Supplementary Materials, or articles in which the method or
experiments are reported fully in the main manuscript, using the reverse-
engineering strategy in this Unit will ensure that your writing is as similar as
possible to your target articles. For reasons of conciseness, this Unit will refer
to Methods sections found within the main body of the paper.
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Writing an effective Methods section is not simply a matter of writing up the

detailed notes you made during the research period. Your notes were written
for yourself, but the Methods section is written for a reader. The reader not
only needs to know what the method was; equally importantly, s/he also needs
information about the method. This unit will show you how to build and use
a model for the Methods section that answers the following three questions:
What are some common ways to start the Methods section?
What is normally in the Methods section, and in what order?
What are some common ways to end the Methods section?
2.2.1 EXERCISE 1: How to build a simple model

Look at the Methods section below and write a short description of what the
writer is doing in each sentence. As with the Introduction, you are not
describing or summarising what the sentence is saying (the content of the
sentence); instead, you are working out what the sentence is doing (the
function of the sentence). One way to find out what the writer is doing in a
sentence is to look at the tense of the main verb. What is that verb tense
normally used for? Is the verb in the same tense as in the previous sentence?
If not, why has the writer changed the tense?
Remember that your model is only useful if it can be transferred to other
Methods sections, so don’t include content words such as groundwater in
your description of the model, or it won’t generate Methods sections for
other research articles, including your own.
Keep your description simple; Sentence 4 has been done for you as a guide to
the level of detail you should aim for. Once you have completed the description of
the first Methods section, test and adjust your model by applying it to the Methods
section in Section 2.3.1, and then to the Methods sections in your target articles.
A method to analyse levels of dissolved CO2 in pristine groundwater
Method
1 The current investigation involved collecting and analysing groundwater
samples from six wells in the Mahomet Aquifer region to determine levels
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of dissolved CO2. 2 This region is in the Midwestern United States, and

since groundwater in this area contains virtually no modern contaminants
[11] wells in this area have been frequently used to interpret groundwater
evolution [2, 3, 7].
3 A total of 18 3 mL samples were collected for analysis; three from
each well. 4 Prior to collection, stagnant water was pumped out of the
wells using a Grundfos® Redi-Flo II electric submersible pump. 5 pH
levels were monitored during pumping using a pH meter (Sartorius AG,
Professional Meter PP-50, Gottingen, Germany) until stable pH readings
were obtained, at which point the samples were taken. 6 The samples
were transferred to amber glass bottles, which were sealed tightly and
then stored under refrigeration at 5°C to prevent contamination until
they could be analysed. 7 Samples were shipped directly to two separate
laboratories at Imperial College London, where the amount of dissolved
organic carbon was measured using a revised version of the method
established by the Illinois Sustainable Technology Center [12]. 8 This
method uses a carbon analyser with a detection limit of 0.050 mg L−1,
which ensured highly sensitive detection of carbon residues. 9 All filters
used were glass or stainless steel, and although two samples were at
risk of CFC contamination as a result of brief contact with plastic and
other anthropogenic materials at the source location, variation among
samples was negligible.

In Sentence 4, the writer provides details of what was done/used,
and details of the sequence of events.
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2.2.2 Key

In Sentence 1 The current investigation involved collecting and
analysing groundwater samples from six wells in the Mahomet Aquifer
region to determine levels of dissolved CO2. the writer provides an
overview of the method, including the aim of the investigation (to
determine levels of dissolved CO2) and the source of the sample (six
wells in the Mahomet Aquifer region).
If you just wrote that the writer introduces the method here, that won’t help
you when you come to write your own research article, because it doesn’t
tell you how to ‘introduce’ the method.
Can I just begin by describing the method?

Yes. Some writers begin immediately by describing the method, or the
materials, or the source of the materials. This is appropriate where the research
focus and/or the journal readership is narrow and those who are likely to read
the research article are familiar with this type of method. If this is not the
case, it is more reader-friendly to start with some introductory material.
One way to introduce the method is to start with a general statement about
what was done and/or used, and then break it down to produce the details.
This is more reader-friendly than beginning with highly specific details which
the reader must put together to construct a coherent understanding of the
method. This is not the reader’s job. In addition, if the reader begins ‘bottom-
up’ with the details rather than ‘top-down’ with a general overview, each reader
may construct a slightly different understanding of the method. Beginning with
general statements about what was done/used (In all cases/Most sites), ensures
that you and your reader share the same framework and makes it easy for you
to create a logical narrative flow from one sentence to the next. Remember:
show your reader the wall before you start to talk about the bricks!
Here are three common ways to introduce the Methods:
· Offer a general overview by outlining the parameters of the work, for

example the number of tests, the materials/equipment and perhaps the
purpose of the investigation.
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· Provide information about the source of the materials/equipment or

background information such as the properties, characteristics of the
materials/equipment.
· Refer back to something in the previous section, such as the aim of the

project or the problem you are addressing.
In Sentence 2 This region is in the Midwestern United States, and since

groundwater in this area contains virtually no modern contaminants
[11] wells in this area have been frequently used to interpret groundwater
evolution. [2, 3, 7]. the writer provides background information (is in
the Midwestern United States) and justifies his/her choice via factual
information (contains virtually no modern contaminants) and references
to other studies (have been frequently used).
How much background information do I need to give?

Consider your readership in terms of the following two questions: What
can ALL potential readers be assumed to know about this method in
general? What do they ALL need to know in order to understand your
specific method? In this case, given the journal readership and the potential
stakeholders who may want to access this study, the writer has decided
that s/he cannot assume that the reader knows where the Mahomet
Aquifer region is located. The only way to make these decisions is to pay
attention to this when you are reading — what do other writers do in your
target research articles? How much background information do they
provide?
Do I need to state the reasons for the choices I made? Isn’t it obvious?
In Sentence 2, the writer justifies the choice of location via factual information
and reference to previous studies. Your reasons are obvious to you, but they
are not always obvious to readers. If you don’t provide justification for your
choices, the reader may wonder why you did things in a particular way, or
why you used a particular procedure. This has a negative effect: if you don’t
explain why you made certain choices then readers may not accept your
method, and this will eventually affect the way they evaluate your study.
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Many writers believe that this section is just an impersonal description

of what was done or used; in fact, there is a strong communicative element
in the Methods section. In this description of your materials and methods,
you need to communicate not only This is exactly what I did/used but also
I had good reasons for making those decisions. As stated earlier, the reader
needs information about the method, and providing your reasons enables
the reader to understand and accept the choices you made.
For example, your notes might read: An Ag wire was attached to the anode
layer with Ag paste and the cathode layer was sealed with wax, but in the
Methods section that you submit to a journal, you might add: An Ag wire was
attached to the anode layer with Ag paste in order to form an electrical contact,
and the cathode layer was sealed with wax to keep it from being exposed to
the plating bath. You may have chosen a particular material because of its
properties; if so, say what those properties are. You may have chosen specific
equipment or software because of what it can do; if so, say what it can do.
In Sentence 3 A total of 18 3 mL samples were collected for analysis;

three from each well. the writer makes a general statement about the
procedure that was used.
If I provided a general overview at the start of this subsection, do I need to

make another general statement about the procedure?
Not necessarily; consult your target articles. As mentioned earlier (Section
1.5.4), a paragraph in academic writing often starts with a paragraph-entry
sentence, i.e. a sentence which presents the focus or topic of the paragraph.
The general statement in Sentence 3 is a paragraph-entry sentence, and like
the one at the start of the Methods section, enables the writer to move in a
‘top-down’ direction by establishing a general framework into which details
can be slotted. These sentences often start with phrases like Most of the tests
or In all cases (see the list in Section 2.4.2).
How do I decide whether to use mL or ml?

As always, check the use of abbreviations and symbols in current editions of
your target journal or the SI (Système International d’Unités). Many journals
recommend using mL rather than ml to avoid possible confusion between 1, l
and L.
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In Sentences 4 and 5 Prior to collection, stagnant water was pumped

out of the wells using a Grundfos® Redi-Flo II electric submersible pump.
pH levels were monitored during pumping using a pH meter (Sartorius
AG, Professional Meter PP-50, Gottingen, Germany) until stable pH
readings were obtained, at which point the samples were taken. the
writer provides details of what was done/used, and details of the
sequence of events (prior to, until, at which point).
How much detail do I need to provide?

One of the challenges of producing a successful Methods section is the need
to have ‘a reasonably accurate idea about what specific other people know’7.
By the time you write up your research you have repeated your experiments
or simulations many times, and you have become very familiar with the
quantities, equipment and software, the sequence or steps in the procedure,
and the time needed for each step. In addition, most of your daily interaction
is likely to be with colleagues who have become equally familiar with your
project. However, the readers of your paper are not your colleagues, and what
you can assume that other people know depends on the readership of the
journal you are aiming for. In addition, the tendency of researchers to access
research and data via search engines means that your readership may — now
or in the future — be wider and more interdisciplinary than you think. For
these reasons, it is better to give slightly too much information than too little.
Can I just use simple words like 'then' and 'next' instead of detailed sequence
language (prior to, until, at which point)?
then and next communicate the order of events, but they may not give the
reader enough information about the sequence to replicate it exactly. For a
list of useful sequence language see pages 104–106.
In Sentence 6 The samples were transferred to amber glass bottles,

which were sealed tightly and then stored under refrigeration at 5°C to
prevent contamination until they could be analysed. the writer
continues to describe what was done in detail, using language which
communicates that care was taken (tightly), and providing justification
(to prevent contamination until they could be analysed).
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In this sentence, the writer uses tightly to demonstrate that the work
was carried out carefully. Your aim is not only to report your work and
communicate your conclusions, it is also to encourage your reader to accept
those conclusions. To this end, it is important to present yourself as a
competent and careful researcher whose conclusions are therefore likely to
be reliable.
In Sentence 7 Samples were shipped directly to two separate laboratories

at Imperial College London, where the amount of dissolved organic
carbon was measured using a revised version of the method established
by the Illinois Sustainable Technology Center [12]. the writer provides
more details of what was done/used, referring to and citing existing
methods.
Note the language used to demonstrate that the authors were competent
and careful. They could simply have written: Samples were shipped to two
laboratories at Imperial College London, but including the words directly and
separate communicates that they were careful and that the study is,
therefore, reliable.
Why provide citation references for existing methods, especially if they are
well known?
In most cases, part of your own method comes from, or is based on, a
method developed by another researcher. If that part of the method is
well known and the appropriate citation reference is provided, you don’t
need to describe it in full but you may still need to provide an appropriate
reference. You will find vocabulary and sentence patterns for this in
Section 2.4.2, Option 1 (page 109).

Check current usage in your field by inputting the method into a
search engine such as Google Scholar. As a method becomes more and
more established, the citation occurs less frequently, and the method
eventually becomes part of the background information as described in
Section 1.2.2 (pages 9–10). Once that has happened, a citation reference
becomes unnecessary.
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But if that part of my method is available in the literature and I also include
the citation reference, why should I describe that part of the method at all?
Why can’t readers just find the reference and read it for themselves?
Readers do not have time to waste and it is unprofessional to require them
to look up a reference if the information is necessary to understand the paper
they are reading. Writers therefore often describe the procedures, equipment
or materials that they used even if they are well known and/or identical to
those in existing methods. This can be done in the following way: The assay
was carried out as in [1]. Briefly, samples were…, followed by a basic
description.
It is common to describe existing or standard methods in the Present
Simple: “...dissolved organic carbon was measured using a revised version
of the method established by the Illinois Sustainable Technology Center [12].
This method uses a carbon analyser with a detection limit of 0.050 mg L−1,
which ensured…”.
Note that in this case, the method used by the writer is not identical to
the cited method (using a revised version of the method established by the
Illinois Sustainable Technology Center). Comparisons between your materials
and methods and those of other researchers in the same field are an
important topic for the Methods section. Your method may be identical to
others you mention (Option 1 on page 109), similar (Option 2), or significantly
different. When yours is significantly different to existing methods, the
difference may represent the key contribution of your study (Option 3).
These comparisons form part of a central feature of all STEMM research
writing: mapping a study onto existing literature and knowledge in order to
identify its contribution. The literature in the field is a thread that runs through
a research article from beginning to end. Starting in the Introduction by
setting out the research background to the study, the thread is picked up in
the Methods and Results sections by comparing your methods and results
with others, and eventually, in the Discussion/Conclusion section, by
identifying the contribution your study has made to the existing knowledge
and literature on the topic.
Remember that citation references do not automatically go at the end
of a sentence (see page 11). In the Methods section, you need to be
particularly careful about the location of your citation references or you may
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accidentally credit someone with work they have not done — perhaps even
with your own work. This is a surprisingly common error.
In Sentence 8 This method uses a carbon analyser with a detection

limit of 0.050 mg L−1, which ensured highly sensitive detection of carbon
residues. the writer provides more information about the procedures
that were used, and justifies the choice made using language that
specifies the advantage (ensured highly sensitive).
Justification is common throughout this section; as before, the aim is to pre-

empt possible criticisms of your choices, to assure the reader that you had
good reasons for those choices, and/or to provide those reasons.
In Sentence 9 All filters used were glass or stainless steel, and although
two samples were at risk of CFC contamination as a result of brief contact
with plastic and other anthropogenic materials at the source location,
variation among samples was negligible. the writer mentions a possible
difficulty or problem in the method.
Why would I mention problems in the method? Won’t it make me look bad?
When you look at your first set of results, you may realise that you could
have achieved better results by adjusting your simulation parameters or
changing the experimental conditions. Should you delay writing the paper
while you repeat the work and improve your method? What happens if you
learn more next time too; should you delay again while you repeat the work
again? And again? In this scenario, you may never actually write it up. Science
does not truly exist until it is published8, and delaying publication until the
project is perfect is neither realistic nor advisable. You need to stop at a
certain point and write the paper, including your subsequent awareness of
potential limitations or difficulties.
There are two good reasons for mentioning problems or limitations. First,
it is common to end a research article with suggestions for future work, and
these are often linked to problems or limitations that were noted in the study
being reported. These suggestions encourage other researchers to respond
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and their work places your study in the continuum of research on the topic.
However, it is not a good idea to mention those problems or limitations for
the first time right at the end of the research article, as this may affect the
reader’s confidence in your work. It is more effective to mention them first
where they occur — in this case, in the Methods section — and then refer to
them again at the end of the article. It’s easy to imagine what kind of sentence
might occur at the end of the paper we are looking at: Future studies should
further reduce the risk of CFC contamination by removing plastic and other
anthropogenic materials from the source location prior to collecting samples.
The second reason is that if you don’t mention difficulties or problems
that occurred, it appears as though you are unaware of them. This gives a poor
impression of your competence. If you ignore or try to hide imperfections (such
as a data set which was too small, or equipment that was not ideal), the reader
may doubt your legitimacy as a researcher. By contrast, mentioning them
demonstrates a high level of self-awareness, thereby enhancing the reliability
of the study.
But how can I talk about problems in my work without looking like a
failure?
Conventionally, writers use language that minimises the problem and its effects,
minimises your responsibility, maximises the good aspects and/or suggests a
solution. In the example above, the writer acknowledged that there was a
problem and minimised it (brief contact/negligible). You can find examples of
the language to refer to problems and difficulties in a conventional, professional
way in the language list on pages 111–112.
2.2.3 A Methods model

Here are the sentence descriptions we have collected:
In Sentence 1, provides an overview of the method, including the

the writer aim of the investigation and the source of the sample.
In Sentence 2, provides background information and justifies his/her
the writer choice via factual information and references to other
studies.
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In Sentence 3, makes a general statement about the procedure that

the writer was used.
In Sentences 4 provides details of what was done, and details of the
and 5, the writer sequence of events.
In Sentence 6, continues to describe what was done in detail, using
the writer language which communicates that care was taken,
and providing justification.
In Sentence 7, provides more details of what was done/used,
the writer referring to and citing existing methods.
In Sentence 8, provides more information about the procedures that
the writer were used, and justifies the choice made using
language that specifies the advantage.
In Sentence 9, mentions a possible difficulty or problem in the
the writer method.
We can streamline these so that our Methods model has SIX basic
components. Unlike the Introduction model, in which most of the
components are likely to be used, in the Methods section the model should
be considered as a ‘menu’: select the items which are appropriate to your
research topic and which reflect the norms in the journal you are submitting
to. If you did not encounter any problems or issues, for example, you won’t
use the sixth component. In some cases, the Methods section also includes
graphics such as figures, maps, photographs or tables, so this has been added
to the model.
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GENERIC METHODS MODEL

1 PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF/STATEMENT ABOUT THE METHODS
RESTATE THE AIM/GAP FROM THE INTRODUCTION
DESCRIBE/GIVE THE SOURCE OF MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT USED
2 PROVIDE DETAILS OF THE MATERIALS/METHODS e.g. temperature, sequence
· ± justify choices
· ± indicate that you took appropriate care
3 DESCRIBE/DISCUSS THE CONTENT OF A FIGURE/TABLE
4 REFER TO MATERIALS/METHODS IN OTHER STUDIES
· to compare
· to justify your choices
5 PROVIDE BACKGROUND INFORMATION IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
· to support the reader
· to justify your choices
6 INDICATE ISSUES OR PROBLEMS
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Language that exemplifies these six model components is in bold type in the
Methods section below.
Identification and characterisation of the early differentiating cells

in neural differentiation of human embryonic stem cellsc
Materials and methods

Flow cytometry analysis and cell sorting
Cells were detached into single cells by trypsin/EDTA, incubated with

antibody directly (for surface antigens) or following fixation with 4%
paraformaldehyde (for 15 min) and permeation with 100% ethanol (2
min) (for nuclear proteins). Cells were analysed using a BD FACSCalibur
and CELLQUEST software. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)
was carried out with BD FACSAria II after staining live cells with
antibodies against cell surface antigens. Magnetic-activated cell sorting
was performed with Dynal magnetic beads (Invitrogen) following the
manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, 25 ml (25 µl (1 × 107)) Dynabeads
were pre-coated with 1 µg primary antibody by incubation at 4°C for
30 minutes in 1 ml buffer 1. Pre-coated beads were then incubated
with cells (0.5 ml) at 4°C for 30 minutes with gentle tilting and rotation.
2 ml buffer 1 was added into the tube to limit trapping of unbound
cells before placing the tube onto the magnet for 2 minutes. For
negative selection, the supernatant, containing the unbound cells, was
transferred to a fresh tube for further experiments. For positive
isolation, the bead-bound cells were gently washed with buffer 1 and
collected in appropriate solution/medium for further experiments.
Gene expression analysis by quantitative RT-PCR (qRTPCR)
Total RNA was extracted using TRI reagent solution (Sigma) following
the manufacturer’s instructions. Remaining traces of DNA were
removed by DNase I treatment (Invitrogen). Reverse transcription and
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qPCR were performed as described previously [45]. RNA without

reverse transcription was used as a negative control. The relative gene
expression levels were calculated by calibrating their Ct values with
those of housekeeping genes, HPRT and GAPDH, and then normalized
to undifferentiated hESCs. The standard deviation was calculated from
at least four qPCRs from three independent experiments.
2.3.2 EXERCISE 2a: Identifying the model components

Here are three Methods sections from research articles in different disciplines.
They have been edited for length, and ellipses are marked as […]. The words/
phrases in bold type will help you identify the model components. Pay attention
to the verb tenses, and think about why each verb is in that particular tense.
1 Influence of electrodes on the photon energy deposition in

CVD-diamond dosimeters studied with the Monte Carlo code PENELOPEj
The MC code system PENELOPE 2003 (Salvat et al. 2003) and the main
program PENCYL were used to calculate the absorbed dose in the detector
and surrounding water phantom. In order to minimize the time of the
simulations, the geometry of the diamond layer and electrodes was simplified
by adopting an infinite-slab geometry […] Since the present study focuses
on the metal/diamond/metal interface phenomena, the housing of the
detector was regarded as water equivalent and thus replaced by water. The
influence of metallic electrodes of different thicknesses on the absorbed dose
to the diamond was investigated. Electrodes made of silver were simulated
first. Silver is a common material because it has a high electrical conductivity,
forms ohmic contact with diamond and the technology of its thermal
deposition as well as contacting the detector with silver epoxy glue is well
established. […]
A careful selection of simulation parameters was needed in order to
preserve accuracy while completing the calculations within reasonable CPU
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times. In the course of the simulations, each particle (a primary or secondary

photon, electron or positron) was transported until its energy fell below the
corresponding pre-selected absorption energy, Eabs; when this happened, its
energy was deposited locally and simulation of the particle was discontinued.
The mixed algorithm implemented in PENELOPE for the tracking of electrons
and positrons is governed by specific simulation parameters, namely C1, C2,
Wcc and Wcr, whose definitions and role are explained at length in Salvat et al.
(2003). For the sake of brevity, here we just enumerate them and quote the
adopted values. […]. We found it convenient to use different simulation
parameters depending on the distance of the particles to the active layer and
electrodes. To this end, we considered that the detector, where the most
‘conservative’ simulation parameters were selected, was surrounded by three
‘shells’ of water with successively increasing thickness and values of Eabs. […].
In this way, charged particles which were far away from the detector and did
not have sufficient energy to reach it were absorbed and no longer simulated.
[…] This procedure substantially reduced the simulation time. In fact this
approach is equivalent to the variance-reduction technique called range
rejection, but did not require any changes in the main program and could be
implemented straightforwardly through the input file.
2 The effect of particle size distribution on froth stability in flotationk
2. Methodology
2.1. Experimental system

The experimental system is a 4 L closed loop, continuously overflowing bench-
scale flotation cell. The continuous recycle of concentrate as feed to the cell
allows for steady state conditions to be established. The design of the cell is
based upon the standard mixing tank by Costes and Couderc [7].
The cell is cylindrical and has an internal diameter of 180 mm. It is of
equal width and height, stirred by a six bladed Rushton impeller connected via
a 2:1 rpm ratio stepped gearbox (supplied by Automation International Ltd)
to the motor, supplied by Marelli Motori. Four baffles are installed to a height
of 120 mm at 90° intervals. At the base is an air reservoir, separated from the
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cell by a frit (manufactured by Carbis Filtration Ltd), 110 mm in diameter and

1.3 mm in thickness, centred below the impeller. The frit has a mesh hole-size
of 20 µm, fabricated from multiple sintered layers. Attached to the exterior of
the cell is a launder, angled at 10° from back to front that has a width of 60
mm. The experimental system is shown in Fig. 1.
A single species system is described in this paper; this can be used to
determine the effects of changing operating variables, for example air rate,
into the flotation cell. Spherical silica ballotini for the experiments were supplied
by Sigmund Lindner. Pre-sized distributions were sourced with ranges from
40–70 µm, 70–110 µm and 90–150 µm. Three particle sets were created by
mixing the pre-sized material, obtaining the particle size distributions presented
in Fig. 2. Representative diameters for the three particle sets are shown in
Table 1, where it can be seen that particle set A has the coarsest particles and
the broadest size distribution while particle set C is the finest of the three. This
allows investigation into the effects of relatively small variation in particle size
distribution on air recovery and flotation performance.
For each experiment, 900 g of ballotini were used. The ballotini were
initially prepared by mixing with 2 L of 5 × 10–4 M sodium hydroxide solution,
based on a similar preparation procedure as set out by Ata et al. [3]. This
was undertaken to strip the ballotini surfaces of impurities. The ballotini were
washed with deionized water and then mixed with 2.9 L of deionized water
to form a slurry with a pulp pH of 7.9 in suspension. The collector,
Tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB), was added at a concentration
of 278.4 ppb. The slurry was then allowed to mix at 915 Hz for 30 min. Methyl
isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) was then added at 352 ppm, and the slurry allowed
to mix for a further 5 min.
Air rates for the experiments were selected from a range between 10 and
30 lpm (litres per minute) as shown in Table 2. This range corresponds to
superficial gas velocities of 0.66–1.97 cm s−1. A further 15 min of conditioning
was then allowed with the froth overflowing before the first air rate was
selected. At this time, dosing started with additional MIBC at a rate of 4.2 ml
h−1 of 102 ppm MIBC solution to maintain froth stability. Froth depth (from cell
lip to pulp-froth interface) was maintained at 7.5 cm by adjusting the recycle
pump as required.
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2.2. Measurement
For each air rate, 5 min of conditioning was allowed, before 5 min of on-line
data collection. The height of the overflowing froth above the lip of the cell
was measured via an on-line laser (0D1300, supplied by ifm electronic) and
the data recorded through LabVIEW [24]. The velocity of the overflowing froth
was measured using a camcorder (Panasonic Video NVGS37) through
FrothTracker, a block-matching image analysis program developed in-house.
The output values were then used to calculate air recovery using Eq. (1).
In order to sample the concentrate, a scoop was fitted to the lip of the
flotation cell for 20 s at the end of each measurement period. The sample
was weighed, and the mass of the solid and liquid phases determined by
decanting the liquid into a measuring cylinder. The sample was then returned
to the launder. Only one sample was taken for each air rate tested, as removing
too much of the concentrate leads to a destabilisation of the experimental
system.
3 Effect of muscle compensation on knee instability during ACL-deficient

gaitl
Methods
A three-step approach was used to determine the muscle forces needed to

restore ATT in the ACLd knee. First, joint motion, ground-reaction forces, and
muscle forces for normal walking were obtained from a forward dynamic
simulation (1). Second, these data were input into a model of the lower limb
that included a detailed 3D model of the knee. A static equilibrium problem
was then solved at 23 points of the gait cycle to determine ATT over the full
gait cycle for both an intact and ACLd knee (24, 25). Third, using the muscle
forces obtained for normal gait as a baseline, two further static equilibrium
problems were solved over the whole gait cycle to determine the quadriceps
and hamstrings forces needed to restore ATT in the ACLd knee to first the
intact level and then the maximum allowable level. Intact ATT was defined
as the amount of ATT calculated for normal walking in the intact knee (24).
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Maximum allowable ATT was defined as the amount of ATT calculated for
maximum isometric contractions of the quadriceps (i.e., maximum isometric
knee extension) in the intact knee (23). Maximum allowable ATT was used
as the upper limit of knee instability because some researchers have shown
that ACLd subjects often perform activities with ATT levels above those
observed in the healthy knee (10, 32). Thus, maximum allowable ATT
represents the limit of ATT that a healthy knee might comfortably achieve (33).

Maximum allowable ATT was calculated with the lower extremity model (see
below) by simulating a seated maximum isometric knee extension. In these
simulations, the model knee was placed at joint angles corresponding to
those found in walking, the quadriceps muscles were maximally activated,
and a constraint was applied at the level of the ankle to prevent the knee
from extending (23).
A 3D model of the body was used to determine lower limb muscle forces
during normal walking. The skeleton was modeled as a 10-segment, 23-df
articulated chain. Each hip was represented as a 3-df ideal ball-and-socket
joint, each knee as a 1-df hinge joint, each ankle as a 2-df universal joint, and
each metatarsal joint as a 1-df hinge (1). The model was actuated by 54
musculotendinous units, each unit represented as a three-element muscle
in series with tendon. The dynamic optimization problem was to find the
muscle excitation histories, muscle forces, and body motions subject to
minimum metabolic energy consumed per unit of distance moved. The joint
angles, ground reaction forces, and muscle activation patterns obtained from
the simulation were similar to the same measures obtained from healthy
subjects who walked at their preferred speeds (1, 2). Details concerning the
walking model and dynamic optimization solution obtained for normal gait
are reported by Anderson and Pandy (1, 2).
Anterior tibial translation of the intact and ACLd knee was calculated
using another model of the lower limb that included a detailed 3D model of
the knee (the lower-limb model). Five segments were used to represent the
lower limb in this model: thigh, shank, patella, hindfoot, and toes. These
segments were connected together by five joints: hip, tibiofemoral joint,
patellofemoral joint, ankle, and metatarsal joint (Fig. 1). The hip, ankle, and
metatarsal joints were represented in exactly the same way as in the walking
model. At the knee, six generalized coordinates described the movements of
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the tibia relative to the femur, and another six coordinates described the
movements of the patella relative to the femur. A complete description of the
model can be found in Shelburne et al. (24).
The geometry of the distal femur, proximal tibia, and patella was based
on parasagittal sections of the bones obtained from 23 cadaveric knees. The
contacting surfaces of the femur and tibia were modeled as deformable (19).
The model of patellofemoral mechanics was based on the assumptions that
the patellar tendon was inextensible and that interpenetration between the
facets of the patella and the patellar surfaces of the femur can be neglected.
The geometry of the cruciate and collateral ligaments, posterior capsule, and
anterolateral structures of the knee was modeled using 13 elastic elements
(Fig. 1B). Thirteen muscles were represented in the lower-limb model (Fig. 1A).
The paths of all muscles, except vasti, hamstrings, and gastrocnemius, were
identical with those incorporated in the walking model. Whereas vasti,
hamstrings, and gastrocnemius were each represented as one muscle in the
walking model, the separate portions of each of these muscles were included
in the lower-limb model (18, 19).
The relative positions of the femur, tibia, and patella in the intact knee
were found by assuming the lower limb was in static equilibrium at each instant
during the simulated gait cycle; thus, the inertial contributions of the shank,
patella, hindfoot, and toe segments were neglected in these calculations.
Specifically, muscle forces, ground reaction forces, joint angles of the hip, ankle,
and metatarsals, and the flexion-extension angle of the knee obtained from
the walking simulation were used as inputs to the model. The unknown
translations and rotations of the bones at the knee were found by performing
a forward integration of the equations of motion at each time step of the
walking simulation until the accelerations and velocities of all the joints
approached zero (24). These calculations were repeated with the ACL removed
from the model to estimate the amount of ATT during ACLd gait (25).
Four simulations of ACL-deficient walking were performed. The model
of the lower limb was used for these calculations. In each simulation a static
equilibrium problem was solved at 23 points of the gait cycle (as described
above for the intact and ACL-deficient knee) subject to the following
conditions. In the first two simulations, quadriceps force was decreased to
determine whether this change alone could reduce ATT in the ACLd knee first
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to the amount calculated for the intact knee (intact ATT; simulation 1), and
second, to the amount calculated for maximum isometric knee extension
(maximum allowable ATT; simulation 2). In each of these simulations,
quadriceps force was decreased by decreasing the force in each of the three
vasti (medialis, intermedius, and lateralis) as a percentage of its peak isometric
strength. The forces in all three muscles were decreased by the same
percentage each time. The output of simulations 1 and 2 were a decrease in
quadriceps force and the resultant change in extensor moment. In the next
two simulations, hamstrings force was increased to determine whether this
change alone could restore ATT in the ACLd knee first to the amount calculated
for the intact knee (simulation 3), and second, to the amount calculated for
maximum isometric knee extension (simulation 4). In each of these
simulations, hamstrings force was increased by increasing the force in each
of three hamstrings (biceps femoris long head, semimembranosus, and
semitendinosus) as a percentage of its peak isometric strength. The forces in
all three muscles were increased by the same percentage each time.
Experimental evidence suggests that a hamstrings facilitation strategy is
characterized by increased activity of both the medial and lateral hamstring
muscles (14). […]
2.3.3 EXERCISE 2b: Identifying the model components

Here is another extract from a Methods section. This time, identify the model
components yourself.
Pore-scale contact angle measurements at reservoir conditions using

X-ray microtomographym
2. Method
2.3. Image processing
After acquisition the images were filtered using a non-local means edge
preserving filter [30,31]. They were then corrected for any beam hardening
or softening artefacts created during image reconstruction by modelling these
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artefacts as radially symmetric Gaussian functions. The centre of this function

was allowed to take any point in the x and y dimensions, but was assumed
to be uniform in the z direction. As segmentation of images containing a
partial saturation of multiple fluids is significantly more difficult than the
segmentation of dry images [32], the use of simple grey-scale segmentation
was insufficient. Instead a seeded watershed algorithm was used, with the
seed generated by the use of a 2D histogram [33]. This segmented image was
then analysed in 3D to identify each unique disconnected ganglion, which
was then labelled.
A subvolume was then extracted around each unique ganglion and
resegmented using the same 2D histogram-based watershed method detailed
above, as the beam hardening and softening correction may not remove all
lateral variations in grey-scale value across the image. Local segmentation was
therefore likely to be more accurate than the primary global segmentation.
The edges of each phase were found on this new segmented image using
a 3D Sobel filter [13]. The intersection of the edges of all three phases (scCO2,
brine and solid) was labelled as the contact line which could be traced in 3D.
Finally a bilinear filter was applied to the resampled slice to eliminate possible
angular quantisation due to the voxelized nature of the image. The contact
angle was then measured by resampling the data onto a plane with a normal
parallel to the contact line at a specific point (Fig. 2). The measurement was
taken according to the best interpretation of the tangential direction of the
relevant surfaces at the contact line and no effort to “smooth” the surfaces
was made. This can be seen in Fig. 3F, where the tangential direction on the
grain surface at the contact point is seen to be at a significant angle to the
larger scale attitude of the grain surface. The resulting variation in contact
angle was reported as part of the distribution shown in Fig. 4.
Contact angles were measured manually on the unsegmented data by
tracing two vectors tangential to the scCO2–brine interface and the rock surface.
The angle between these lines was then measured through the non-wetting
phase with a 3D angle measurement tool (Fig. 3). Measurements were
performed at 300 points randomly selected along the scCO2–brine–rock contact
lines of different ganglia. The contact angle was not measured on the
segmented data, as the angle measured was highly sensitive to the detail of
segmentation close to the contact line, where we would expect the
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segmentation to be least accurate. In contrast, tracing the interface between

the scCO 2 and the brine visually was relatively simple, making angle
measurement more accurate and robust. All image processing was conducted
within the Avizo Fire 8.0 (Visual Sciences Group, www.vsg3d.com) and imageJ
programs.
EXERCISE 3 Analyse and model the Methods sections in your target research
articles. Instead of reading for content, pay attention to how that content is
delivered. You will start to see the scaffold that holds the information, and
this will develop into a lifelong reading and writing tool that updates
automatically every time you read a review article or a research paper.
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2.4.1 Language task

EXERCISE 4 Look through the Methods sections in this Unit and in your target
research articles. Underline or highlight all the words or phrases that
you think could be used in the four areas below, and then compare your
suggestions with the words and phrases listed in Section 2.4.2. For example:
1 DESCRIBE/GIVE THE SOURCE OF MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT USED

Look for words and phrases such as were obtained from.
2 PROVIDE DETAILS ABOUT MATERIALS AND METHODS
± JUSTIFICATION
± INDICATE THAT YOU TOOK APPROPRIATE CARE
Look for verbs that communicate what the writers did, such as design,
formulate, install, measure, transfer.
Look for language that describes sequences accurately, such as prior to,
subsequently, at that point.
Look for language that communicates reasons for choices or advantages of
choices, such as in order to, with the aim of, accurate, to ensure.
Look for language that communicates that care was taken, such as gently,
precisely, immediately.
3 COMPARE WITH MATERIALS/METHODS IN OTHER STUDIES
Look for language that communicates the similarities or differences between
your method and other methods, for example: adapted from, similar to,
instead of.
4 INDICATE ISSUES OR PROBLEMS
Look for language such as slightly problematic, unavoidable, challenging.
2.4.2 Language for the Methods section

This section lists words and phrases for the Methods section from analysis
of over 2,500 published research articles in different disciplines. The list only
includes words and phrases which appear frequently and are therefore
considered normal and acceptable by writers and editors.
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The list will also keep the flow of writing moving. Underneath each
list there are examples of how the words and phrases are used in
sentences, so look at the sentence examples as well as the list when you
are feeling stuck and can’t think of what to write or how to continue.
GIVE THE SOURCE OF THE MATERIALS/SAMPLES/EQUIPMENT USED
is commercially available was collected was performed (by/in)

was a kind gift (from) was devised was provided (by)
was acquired was/were found (in) was purchased (from)
was carried out was generated was supplied (by)
was chosen was modified was used as received
was conducted was obtained was used as supplied
· A three-step approach was used to determine the muscle force.

· The extracts were obtained by using two different methods.

· The fetal bovine serum used in this study was provided by Gibco, UK.

· Dextran standard 5000 was purchased from Sigma Aldrich.

· A laboratory-scale fixed-bed reactor was used in this study.

· The cell lines were a kind gift from Dr David Louis (Massachusetts

General Hospital, MA, USA).
· The inclusion criteria used here are a modified version of those in a

previous study22.
· All volumetric lung images were acquired from healthy asthmatic

subjects.
· In the majority of the tests, the chickens were kept in a temperature

test chamber.
SUPPLY ESSENTIAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION and/or DESCRIBE

MATERIALS/SAMPLES/EQUIPMENT USED
You may need to give a detailed description of the equipment/apparatus
or instrument you used or constructed, or describe a photograph or
diagram so that the reader can visualise it. To do this accurately, you need
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a range of language to describe spatial relationships, positions and

locations, such as:
above over on top (of) Verbs

adjacent adjoining align
across along against arrange
assemble
at the front on the front in the front
attach to
below under underneath bisect
beside alongside connect
converge
boundary edge border couple
circular rectangular conical embed
downstream upstream (of) encase
enclose
equidistant equally spaced fasten
exterior interior fit
in the vicinity in close proximity nearby fix
install
inside within intersect
lateral sideways horizontal join
on each side on either side on both sides locate
mount
on the right/left to the right/left orient
opposite facing place
out of range within range position
situate
parallel (to/with) perpendicular (to) space
symmetrical asymmetrical surround
· In the experiment, source and detector were positioned on opposite

sides.
· The apparatus consists of a circular tube fitted with rectangular-winglet

tape (RWT) vortex generators.
· The compression axis is aligned with the rolling direction…

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· The source light is polarised horizontally and the sample beam can be

scanned laterally.
· The microtubules that were embedded in collagen gel were oriented

perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
· Measuring stations were spaced 20 cm apart, starting 2 cm downstream

of the pipe entrance.
· A scanner was mounted on top of a metal structure, while pots were

placed underneath, over a cart moving at constant speed in the
direction perpendicular to the line of acquisition.
In which sentence/s below was the table placed closest to the wall?
The table was placed against the wall.

The table was placed alongside the wall.

The table was placed beside the wall.

The table was placed flush with the wall.

The table was placed in contact with the wall.

The table was placed next to the wall.

The table was placed right against the wall.

In which sentence/s below was the clock positioned closest to the door?
The clock was positioned just above the door.

The clock was positioned slightly above the door.

The clock was positioned immediately above the door.

The clock was positioned directly above the door.

The clock was positioned right above the door.

LANGUAGE TO PROVIDE SPECIFIC AND PRECISE DETAILS OF MATERIALS
AND METHODS
(i) VERBS
Verbs in the Methods section fall into three categories. The first contains
general academic research verbs such as attempt, consider, conduct,
determine, investigate, report, verify. These can be found in Appendix B:
Research Verbs. The second category contains verbs which are highly specific
to a particular discipline, for example anneal, clone, dissect, ionise, infuse.
These are not included in the list because they are not useful in other
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disciplines. The list below contains examples of the third category: technical
verbs used in a wide range of disciplines to specify what was done or used.
was adapted was divided was operated

was added was eliminated was optimised
was administered was employed was performed
was adopted was estimated was placed
was adjusted was evaluated was plotted
was altered was examined was positioned
was analysed was excluded was prepared
was applied was exposed was processed
was arranged was extracted was produced
was assembled was fabricated was quantified
was assessed was filtered was recorded
was assumed was formulated was recovered
was attached was generated was regulated
was calculated was immersed was removed
was calibrated was implemented was repeated
was carried out was included was represented
was characterised was incorporated was restricted
was collected was initiated was retained
was combined was input was retrieved
was compared was inserted was sampled
was computed was installed was scored
was conducted was inverted was selected
was connected was isolated was separated
was constructed was located was simulated
was controlled was maintained was solved
was converted was maximised was stabilised
was created was measured was substituted
was defined was minimised was synthesised
was derived was modelled was tracked
was designed was modified was transferred
was determined was monitored was treated
was discarded was normalised was varied
was distributed was obtained was utilised
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(ii) SEQUENCE LANGUAGE
A precise description of the timing and order of each step in a procedure is

essential to enable readers and peer reviewers to visualise it and, if they
want, to repeat the procedure and compare their results with yours. Words
like then or next describe the order of events, but they don’t provide
information about how long each step took or how soon the next step
occurred. To do this you need a more precise sequence vocabulary. This
sequence language is equally important when describing the results.
The words and phrases that communicate sequence in STEMM writing
can be divided into eight groups, as follows:
Group 1 contains words/phrases referring to events that occurred before
beginning the experiment/simulation, or before you began observing your
results:
It was apparent beforehand that a reduction in temperature would be a
desirable outcome.
Group 2 marks the beginning of the experiment/simulation, or the first step/
result you are describing:
At the beginning the temperature was stable, as predicted.
Group 3 contains words/phrases which tell you the order in which events
occurred, but don’t give information about the timing of the sequence:
The temperature was increased to 49°C and then reduced to 30°C.
The drop in temperature may have occurred soon after the temperature
reached 49°C or it may have occurred a long time after; the word then only
tells the reader the order of events.
Group 4 is used to communicate that there was (only) a short period of time
between two events, or that an event occurred after a short waiting period:
The temperature increased to 49°C but soon dropped to 30°C.
Group 5 communicates that the period of time between the events was long,
or that the event being described occurred near the end of the sequence:
The temperature was increased to 49°C and later reduced to 30°C.
Group 6 is extremely useful and important. It contains words and phrases
which communicate that two or more events occurred at the same time/
during the same period, or that one event began at exactly the same moment
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as another ended, i.e. that the two events interfaced. Items in this group
are sometimes used to communicate a possible causal relationship or a
correlation between the events:
The temperature dropped sharply when we reduced the pressure.
Group 7 marks the end of a sequence:
At the end there was a noticeable drop in temperature.
Group 8 refers to events that occurred after you finished your experiment/
simulation or after you finished observing the results:
At the end there was a noticeable drop in temperature but it was decided
afterwards to omit this from the input data.
Put each word/phrase below in the correct group.
after earlier in time secondly

afterwards eventually initially shortly after
as finally instantly simultaneously
as soon as firstly lastly soon
at once followed by later straight away
at first following later on subsequently
at that point formerly meanwhile then
at the beginning immediately next to begin with
at the end in advance once to start with
at the same time in due course originally towards the end
at the start in the beginning previously until
beforehand in the end prior to when
directly in the meantime quickly while
KEY
Group 1: before the beginning
beforehand formerly originally prior to
earlier in advance previously initially
Group 2: at the beginning/first step

at first at the start in the beginning to begin with
at the beginning firstly initially to start with
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Group 3: steps/order
after followed by next secondly (etc.)
afterwards following previously subsequently
earlier formerly prior to then
Group 4: after a short while

quickly shortly after soon
Group 5: at a late or later stage; after a while/ longer waiting period

eventually in time subsequently
in due course later towards the end
later on
Group 6: one point/period occurring almost or exactly at the same time as

another
as immediately simultaneously
as soon as instantly straight away
at once in the meantime until
at that point meanwhile when
at the same time once while
directly
Group 7: at the end/last step

at the end finally
eventually in the end
lastly
Group 8: after the end

afterwards later
eventually later on
subsequently
JUSTIFY CHOICES
This includes phrases that introduce the reasons for the methodological or
procedural choices you made, such as in order to, and a list of ‘happy’ words
and verbs that communicate the advantage/s of those choices.
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by doing…, we were able to 'happy' words  Verbs

chosen for/to accurate achieve
designed for/to consistent allow
for brevity direct avoid
for convenience easy compensate (for)
for maximum effect excellent confirm
for (the sake of) simplicity important determine
for the following reasons: precise enable
in an attempt to relevant enhance
in order to robust ensure
offer a means of satisfactory establish
our aim was to simple facilitate
provide a way of/to suitable guarantee
selected on the basis of useful improve
so as to include
so/such that increase
the advantage of CAUSE and RESULT limit
the reason for signalling connectors minimise
thereby (See pages 59–60) obtain
thus overcome
to take advantage of permit
to this end prevent
which/this allowed provide
which/this permitted reduce
which meant that remove
with the aim of simplify
validate
· For brevity, these equations are not included in this paper.

· To make the problem tractable, we reduced the number of possible

scenarios.
· Zinc oxide was drawn into the laminate with the intention of enhancing

delaminations and cracks.
· A highly conductive filler is added to the matrix in order to ensure

electrical conductivity above the required level.
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· The advantage of using three-dimensional analysis was that the out-of-

plane stress field could be obtained.
· By partitioning the array, we were able to identify all the multipaths.

· For simplicity, only a single value was analysed.

· The samples were dried before being weighed, so allowing accurate

calculation of the ratio of soil to stones.
· For verification purposes, tests were repeated for 9 different

combinations of temperature and strain rate.
· The survey was administered during the spring, which avoided problems

of low activity during the summer months.
· Our control drug was given to all patients, therefore we were able to

separate the effects of increased pH from other factors.
INDICATE THAT APPROPRIATE CARE WAS TAKEN
Most of the items in the box below are in adverb form (accurately), but they
can also occur in adjective form (accurate).
accurately entirely immediately rigorously

always every/each independently separately
appropriately exactly individually smoothly
at least firmly never strictly
both/all frequently only successfully
carefully freshly precisely suitably
completely fully randomly tightly
constantly gently rapidly thoroughly
correctly good reliably uniformly
directly identical repeatedly vigorously
· Care was taken to maintain strict anaerobic conditions during extract

preparation.
· These cells were then washed thoroughly at least three times.

· To prevent an emulsion from forming, only gentle, repeated inversion

was used.
· The specimen was monitored constantly for 24 hours.

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· Frequent readings were taken to update the stress conditions smoothly.

· The specimen was tightly clamped at two corners to minimize any

unexpected gaps.
· After irradiation, the reaction mixture was carefully condensed.

· 6 pristine specimens were handpicked under a microscope.

· We used a reliable analytical method based on high-performance liquid

chromatography.
COMPARE WITH or REFER TO MATERIALS/METHODS IN OTHER STUDIES

Option 1: The material/method you used is exactly the same as the one
you cite.
according to as reported by/in given by/in

as described by/in* as reported previously identical to
as detailed by/in as suggested by/in in accordance with
as explained by/in can be found in previously shown in/by
as in described elsewhere the same as that of*/in
as proposed by/in details are given in using the method of/in
following x et al.
*Note: by and of are usually followed by the name of the researcher or research team (as
described by Ross or using the method of Ross et al.) whereas in is usually followed by the
work (as described in Ross et al. [2020]).
Another way to do this is simply to provide the relevant research

reference at the appropriate place in the sentence: We used the Shapiro-
Wilk test 11 to determine whether a given sample was from a normal
population.
Option 2: The material/method you used is similar to the one you cite.
a (modified) version of largely the same (to) adapt

adapted from more or less identical (to) adjust
almost the same as partly based on (to) alter
based on practically the same (to) change
essentially identical similar (to) (to) modify
essentially the same slightly modified (to) refine
except for/that virtually the same (to) resemble
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following x et al. with some adjustments (to) revise

in essence with some alterations (to) vary
in line with with some changes
in principle with some modifications
Option 3: The material/method you used is significantly different from the

one you cite.
a novel step was… CONTRAST (to) adapt

adapted from signalling (to) adjust
although in many ways similar connectors, e.g.: (to) alter
although in some ways similar (to) change
although similar to (to) modify
based on however (to) refine
except for/that whereas (to) resemble
instead (of) by contrast (to) revise
loosely based on (to) vary
partly based on
unlike
with the following modifications:
Note: As you see, most of these can be used in Option 2 as well as Option 3. When you use
them in Option 2 you may not need to state the differences between the procedure/material
you used and the one you cite. In Option 3 those differences are significant and you should
say exactly what they were, particularly if they improved the method.
· The method was essentially the same as that previously described

elsewhere5 for use in X. tropicalis.
· We follow Sobral et al. (2013) and apply one magnitude of dust

extinction to all of our HAEs.
· The analytical method was adapted from British Pharmacopeia7.

· The method used was identical to that previously reported in ref. 17.

· Activated calf thymus DNA was prepared as decribed by Pedrali-Noy

and Weissbach (17).
· We modified the Du and Parker filter to address these shortcomings and

we refer to this modified filter as the MaxCurve filter.
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· Data were collected using a revised version of the Portrait Values

Questionnaire (9).
· However, in this study, instead of using a coil around the membrane

cell, we placed the coil on top of the cell.
INDICATE WHERE PROBLEMS OCCURRED
minimise minimise maximise

problem responsibility good aspects
(no big deal) (not my fault)
did not align precisely as far as possible acceptable
immaterial impossible fairly well
it is recognised that impractical quite good
less than ideal inevitably reasonably robust
minimal (it was) difficult to
minor deficit (it was) hard to
negligible limited by
not identical necessarily refer to a possible
not perfect not possible solution:
not significant problematic Future work should…*
only approximate unavoidable Future work will…*
rather time-consuming unworkable
slightly disappointing
slightly problematic
unimportant
(very) small
*Note: There is an important difference between future work should and future work will.
Future work should suggests a direction for future work, and invites the research community
to take up the challenge and produce the research, whereas future work will communicates
the writer’s own plans, intentions or work currently underway.
· Despite our routine of monthly examinations, follow-up was not perfect.

· It was slightly difficult to deposit a uniform film of the liquid, probably

owing to its low viscosity.
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· Although some duplication was unavoidable, this was minimized by

the frequent use of cross references.
· The probability is very small, and hence we believe such contaminants

have only a negligible effect on this study.
· Varying the diameter required the machine to be recalibrated, which

was rather time-consuming.
· Although centrifugation did not remove all the excess solid drug, the

amount remaining was negligible.
· Due to the lack of multiwavelength data it was not possible to apply

additional broad-band selections.
· Inevitably, considerable computation was involved.

· This procedure was slightly problematic in that the program reported

successful setup even if a nonexistent file was specified.
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This section deals with three language areas which are important in the
Methods section:
OWNERSHIP: VERB TENSE AND THE AGENTLESS PASSIVE
PREPOSITIONS
USING A AND THE
2.5.1 Verb tense and the agentless passive

Before you write the Methods section, look at your target articles and the
Guide for Authors in your target journal to find out whether it is written
mainly in the passive or the active. Although active verbs (we investigated/
we conclude) are common in research writing, some processes may still
normally be expressed in the passive in the Methods section.
Science writers generally use an agentless passive verb (was/is found),
rather than passive + agent (was/is found by us), so in most cases those who
actually performed the verb are not mentioned. This creates a high risk of
ambiguity because the agentless passive looks identical whether it is
describing your own work (samples were collected using a sterile swab) or
the work of another researcher (samples were collected using a sterile swab).
This type of ambiguity is highly detrimental to the success of your research
paper as it risks you losing ownership of your contribution and unknowingly
crediting another researcher with all or part of your work.
A second potential ambiguity comes from the use of verb tense in the
Methods section. The Past Simple tense is usually used to report what you
did, whereas the Present Simple tense is used to describe standard procedures
or equipment. A mistake in verb tense in the passive may therefore change
the meaning of the information; for example, your own work may become
confused with a standard procedure you are describing:
Reporting what you did (Past Simple agentless passive):

A flexible section was inserted in the pipe.
Describing a standard procedure (Present Simple agentless passive):
A flexible section is inserted in the pipe.
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It is essential to meticulously detect and resolve this type of ambiguity.

If not, it will be difficult or impossible for the reader or reviewer to work out
when you are referring to your own work and when you are referring to the
work of other researchers or to standard procedures. This is highly detrimental
to the success of your research paper. Unfortunately, your familiarity with
the project makes it harder to see where there might be ambiguity: the
meaning of what you have written always seems obvious to you, but that
doesn’t mean that it is obvious to the reader.
Remember that one of the key messages at the start of the book was
that THE AIM IS NOT SIMPLY TO MAKE IT POSSIBLE FOR THE READER TO
UNDERSTAND; THE AIM IS TO MAKE IT IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE READER NOT
TO UNDERSTAND. One way to make sure that your own contribution is clear
and easy to identify is by marking it with language like In this study. Here are
five possible uses of the agentless passive that you might need in the Methods
section, and suggestions for ways to make your meaning clear:
What do you mean? How can you make it clear?

1 X was (collected/ Move to the active: We collected/
•

modified) by me in the modified X.
procedure or work Add words or phrases such as here/in
•

that I carried out. this work/in our model.
Use a ‘dummy’ grammatical subject such
•

as This experiment/The procedure
described above.
2 X was (collected/ Give a citation reference.
•
modified) by the Add words/phrases such as in their work/
•

person whose in that model.
procedure or work I Use a ‘dummy’ grammatical subject such
•

am using as a basis for as That experiment/The probe used in
mine or comparing their study.
with mine.
3 X is (collected/ You may need a citation reference even if
•

modified) normally, it is a standard procedure, depending on
i.e. as part of an how well known the procedure is.
established or Use phrases such as using standard
•

standard procedure. procedures/as in 5.
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4 X is (collected/ Explicitly identify the content of the
•

modified) as you can Figure as your own work: The
see in Fig. 1, and it was experimental setup used here is shown in
collected/ modified by Fig. 3.
me. Move to the active: We collect/modify X.
•
5 X was (collected/ •
Move to the active: We collect/modify X.
modified) by me, but Add words or phrases such as here/in
•

in my field/this journal this work/in our model.
the Present Simple Use a ‘dummy’ subject such as This
•

tense is used. equation/The model.
Owning your own work and separating it from existing work is of

paramount importance. When you have finished writing your Methods
section, check every single sentence to ensure that the verb is in the right
tense, i.e. that it is communicating the function/meaning you want, and that
you are not simply assuming that it will be obvious to the reader.
2.5.2 Prepositions

Prepositions have an impact on meaning. Evidence of something is a measurable
sign that it is there or that it exists, whereas evidence for something is a sign
that it might be there, or that it might exist. Some verbs depend entirely on
the preposition for their meaning: X was substituted for Y means that X replaced
Y, whereas X was substituted with Y means that Y replaced X.
Even if English is your first language, you are writing for a global audience,
some of whom may have difficulty understanding preposition meanings, so
it pays to be careful. Here are FIVE useful strategies for improving your
preposition use:
1 Start by paying more attention to prepositions

How many of the following prepositions: of for with on in through at over
from about can you find in these edited extracts? The answer is given in
brackets after each extract.
A helium-neon laser beam, having a wavelength of 633 nm, was directed
•

onto the sample, through a chopping wheel, at an angle 59° from the
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normal. The specularly reflected beam was absorbed onto a black card,
and the scattered light was collected at normal incidence to the sample
using an X10 microscope objective. (8)
The solutions were placed in the refluxing bath immediately after
•

mixing, and the temperature of the bath was increased to 70°C in 15
min and kept there for 2 h. The solutions were then aged for 24 h at
room temperature, before being diluted with an equal volume of EtOH
and stirred for 10 min, to give the solution used for spin coating. (11)
The film is placed in a sealed chamber on the sample stage of the
•

ellipsometer; first dry N2 gas is passed through the chamber to
empty the pores, and after N2 has been bubbled through, the liquid
adsorbate is passed over the sample to fill the pores. By assuming that
all the accessible pores are completely empty or filled with adsorbate,
the pore volume and index of the solid skeleton can be determined.
Measurement of nf for both the dry and saturated films allows both
vp and ns to be determined with the assumption that np has the same
value as that of the bulk adsorbate in the saturated case, and of air
(np = 1) in the dry case. (15)
The IR camera that we used in the setup is a Raytheon Radiance HS,
•

and operates in the 3–5 µm spectral region. It is sensitive (with a 1 ms
integration time) to surface temperature changes of ~0.03°C, and can be
operated at full frame rates of 140 Hz with that sensitivity. We have also
observed the effects reported here with a microbolometer focal plane
array camera, operating in the long wavelength of the IR. (11)
Hexagonally packed intermediate (HPI) layer from Deinococcus
•

radiodurans, a kind gift of Dr. W. Baumeister, was extracted from whole
cells (strain SARK) with lithium dodecyl sulfate, and purified on a Percoll
density gradient. A stock solution (1 mg/ml protein) was stored in
distilled water at 4°C. Porin OmpF trimers from E. coli strain BZ 1 10/
PMY222 (Hoenger et al., 1993) solubilized in octyl-polyoxyethylene were
mixed with solubilised dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine (Sigma Chemical
Co., St. Louis, MO) at a ratio (w/w) of 0.2 and a protein concentration
of 1 mg/ml. 1,2-Dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE) from
Sigma was solubilized in chloroform:hexane (1:1) to a concentration of
1 mg/ml. The resulting solution was diluted in buffer solution (150 mM
KCl, 10 mM Tris, pH 8.4) to a concentration of 100 µg/ml. (20)
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2 Pay attention to the verb + preposition clusters used to describe processes

in your target research articles
Here is an edited extract from the Methods section on pages 90–91. Some
of the prepositions are obvious, others less so. Would you have chosen these
prepositions?

The MC code system PENELOPE 2003 (Salvat et al. 2003) and the main
program PENCYL were used to calculate the absorbed dose in the detector
and surrounding water phantom. In order to minimize the time of the
simulations, the geometry of the diamond layer and electrodes was simplified
by adopting an infinite-slab geometry […] Since the present study focuses
on the metal/diamond/metal interface phenomena, the housing of the
detector was regarded as water equivalent and thus replaced by water. The
influence of metallic electrodes of different thicknesses on the absorbed
dose to the diamond was investigated. Electrodes made of silver were
simulated first. Silver is a common material because it has a high electrical
conductivity, forms ohmic contact with diamond and the technology of its
thermal deposition as well as contacting the detector with silver epoxy glue
is well established. […]
A careful selection of simulation parameters was needed in order to
preserve accuracy while completing the calculations within reasonable CPU.
In the course of the simulations, each particle (a primary or secondary photon,
electron or positron) was transported until its energy fell below the
corresponding pre-selected absorption energy, Eabs; when this happened, its
energy was deposited locally and simulation of the particle was discontinued.
The mixed algorithm implemented in PENELOPE for the tracking of electrons
and positrons is governed by specific simulation parameters, namely C1, C2,
Wcc and Wcr, whose definitions and role are explained at length in Salvat
et al. (2003). For the sake of brevity, here we just enumerate them and quote
the adopted values. […]. We found it convenient to use different simulation
parameters depending on the distance of the particles to the active layer
and electrodes. To this end, we considered that the detector, where the most
‘conservative’ simulation parameters were selected, was surrounded by three
‘shells’ of water with successively increasing thickness and values of Eabs. […].
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Here are some examples of verb + preposition clusters. Add to this list
by mining your target articles.
was applied across all cohorts was infused within 5 minutes

was calcinated at 450°c was input into a model
was calcined in static air was labelled with a dye
was calibrated against real-world data was maintained in this condition
was considered for analysis was manufactured in mild steel
was converted into fatty acids was manufactured with steel pins
was cultured on coated plates was mapped against the reference genome
was cured in an autoclave was normalised for exon length
was degassed in a vacuum oven was performed at quasi-static rates
was degassed with argon was performed on tissue samples
was degreased in acetone was placed under vacuum
was divided into rectangular cells was precipitated with isopropanol
was exposed to heat was propagated in 1:3 ratio
was extracted from frozen samples was propagated with Invitrogen
was extracted with a Hilbert transform was replaced with feed gas
was fitted with a plastic tube was retrieved from the database
was grit-blasted with grade 60 grit was spread onto the surface
was ground with a mortar and pestle was subjected to impact
was grown on a mineral medium was transferred into a well plate
was incubated for 2 h was treated with primary antibodies
3 Consider replacing prepositions with words that make the meaning clear
This is particularly important at the start of a sentence, because as noted
earlier (Section 1.5.2), the way that a sentence starts is central to its success.
Instead of:
From this estimation, we ranked the search results obtained and then

classified them according to size.
Consider writing:
Using this estimation, we ranked the search results and then classified

them according to size.
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When you write:

With the increase in computer processing speeds, the time taken for

simulations has reduced.
Do you mean as a result of the increase or at the same time as the increase?
When you write:
With many attempts, we were able to position the probe in the centre

of the tissue.
Do you mean after many (failed) attempts or in several cases?
The preposition with is particularly problematic. Look at that dog with one
eye can either mean USING one eye (close one of your eyes when you look)
or HAVING one eye (the dog only has one eye). In addition, with can
communicate intention in some contexts, whereas by suggests lack of
intention: being hit with a metal bar is intentional, whereas being hit by a
metal bar suggests lack of intention. In another example, if X was coated with
Y, that probably means Y was the material used to coat X. To indicate the
process used to coat X, it is clearer to write X was coated by (doing) Y.
4 Look for patterns in preposition use

When you look at your target research articles, you may notice that using
occurs more often than with, and that by often comes before a process
description ending with the suffix -ing. Here are some examples:
was analysed USING a computing cluster was generated USING clinical covariates
was assessed USING an Instron 4507 was improved USING a shielding gas mix
was calculated USING another was modeled USING 13 elastic elements
was carried out USING a Ministat 251 was mounted USING adhesive tape
was computed USING a flow algorithm was optimised USING Bayesian criteria
was conducted USING an optical microscope was performed USING an X-ray diffractometer
was controlled USING an automatic system was performed USING a mapping algorithm
was designed USING an eArray platform was quantified USING the phase-locking factor
was developed USING a laser was removed USING a grinder
was evaluated USING an analog scale was reported USING the HGVS nomenclature
was evaporated USING a rotary evaporator was selected USING a filter
was extracted USING a reagent solution was solved USING the penalty method
was filtered USING a Butterworth filter was sonicated USING a Branson Sonificator
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was achieved BY electroplating was extracted BY applying a filter

was assessed BY analysing… was formed BY incorporating…
was assessed BY angiography was initiated BY administering a drug
was calculated BY dividing… was precipitated BY adding…
was confirmed BY immunostaining was prepared BY chemical vapour deposition
was determined BY measuring ATP levels was prepared BY dissolving…
was differentiated BY withdrawal of bFGF was replaced BY bFGF
5 Avoid strings of prepositional phrases

Linked prepositional phrases tend to ‘infect’ each other, resulting in muddled
sentences. In a sentence such as: He gave a lecture about liver cancer at the
hospital last January, it’s not clear whether the lecture or the liver cancer
occurred at the hospital, or whether the lecture or the cancer cases occurred
in January. Consider reformulating it as:
Last January he gave a lecture at the hospital; the subject was liver

cancer.
A sentence with multiple prepositional phrases, like the one below, is even
more difficult for the reader to process:
The tray with the samples was placed in the oven at 250°C with

protective gloves to avoid injury for one hour.
Were the gloves in the oven too? Was the aim to avoid injury only for an
hour? Consider reformulating it as:
The tray containing the samples was placed in the oven for one hour

at 250°C. Protective gloves were worn to avoid injury.
Similarly, the precise novelty is difficult to identify in sentences such as:
This is the first study to use X-ray imaging over a period of five years

to measure contact angles within oil-bearing rocks at reservoir
conditions.
Was this the first study to use X-ray imaging? The first to use X-ray imaging
over a period of five years? The first to use it to measure contact angles
within oil-bearing rocks? The first to do all this at reservoir conditions?
Your meaning is always clear to you, but that doesn’t mean it’s clear to
every reader.
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2.5.3 Using A/AN (indefinite article), Ø (zero article),

and THE (definite article)
Article use is not determined by grammar alone; articles have a profound

communicative function and writers often need to choose between
grammatically correct articles in order to communicate clearly. A sentence
may be grammatically correct whether the writer uses the or a, but it will not
mean exactly the same thing. Therefore, while there are grammar rules
underlying article use, context often plays a significant role in deciding whether
to use a/an, Ø, or the. This is particularly relevant in the communication of
highly technical and complex information, where article choice sometimes
depends on what the writer wants to communicate, or on the assumed level
of shared knowledge between reader and writer.
A good starting point is the rule that singular countable nouns must take
an article, such as a or the, but like many grammar rules, applying it is not
straightforward. In the first place, it is by no means clear which nouns are
countable — and even when you know that a noun is countable, how do you
decide between a and the?
This section will consider the following three questions:
1. What exactly is a countable noun?

2. Should I use a/an, Ø, or the?

3. Where a/an and the are both possible, is there a difference in meaning?

Question 1: What exactly is a countable noun?
A countable noun is a noun that can form a plural. Some nouns are countable,
some are uncountable, and some can be countable or uncountable depending
on how they are used. For example, many so-called uncountable nouns like
death or childhood can also form plurals:
There have been three deaths this year from pneumonia.
Our childhoods were very different; I grew up in France and she grew

up in China.
and so can nouns like industry:
Many industries rely on fossil fuels.
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“9x6”
So when you use a noun like industry, stop and think — do you mean industry
in general (uncountable) or particular industries (countable)? In addition,
materials such as concrete and steel, which are normally considered uncountable,
can be used countably when they are used by those who are experts in that
material:
We have developed steels containing only elements that produce

certain radioactive isotopes.
Here is a list of uncountable nouns that are useful in a STEMM context. Try
and identify those which can also form plurals, and then check your answers
in the Key.
absence earth industry protection

advice economy information purity
age education insurance quantity
agriculture electricity intelligence reality
aid energy knowledge research
air environment life risk
analysis equipment light safety
atmosphere evidence loss salt
behaviour existence machinery sand
blood experience noise science
business failure nutrition strength
calculation fear oil stuff
cancer fire organisation technology
capacity food oxygen temperature
childhood fuel paper transport
concrete harm philosophy treatment
danger health physics trouble
death heat policy truth
democracy height pollution velocity
design help power vision
disease history pressure waste
distribution independence progress water
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KEY
Nouns which CANNOT be used countably, i.e. do not have a plural form, are
in bold type. To use these nouns in the plural, add another noun: items of
equipment/methods of transport/types of evidence.
absence earth industry protection

advice economy information purity
age education insurance quantity
agriculture electricity intelligence reality
aid energy knowledge research
air environment life risk
analysis equipment light safety
atmosphere evidence loss salt
behaviour existence machinery sand
blood experience noise science
business failure nutrition strength
calculation fear oil stuff
cancer fire organisation technology
capacity food oxygen temperature
childhood fuel paper transport
concrete harm philosophy treatment
danger health physics trouble
death heat policy truth
democracy height pollution velocity
design help power vision
disease history pressure waste
distribution independence progress water
Question 2: Should I use a/an, Ø, or the?

You may have read that a/an is used for general reference and the is used
for specific reference, but in the sentence:
There is a book on the shelf above my desk.
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“9x6”
a book clearly refers to a specific book, in fact the aim of the sentence is to
specify or identify that book. So if the general/specific criterion doesn’t help
you to select a/an or the, how do you choose?
Using a/an
(i) Use a/an when you mention a singular countable noun for the first

time:
I bought a cheese sandwich and an apple. The sandwich was OK but

the apple had a little worm in it.
Although both sentences refer to the same (specific) cheese sandwich

and apple, the first uses a and the second uses the. This is because the
first time the writer mentions the cheese sandwich or the apple, only s/
he knows about them — but the second time, both the writer and the
reader share that knowledge. The switch to the is therefore not grammar-
based; it is context-based and reflects the fact that knowledge is shared
by both reader and writer. This concept of shared knowledge is highly
relevant to research writing.
(ii) Use a/an when it doesn’t matter, or you don’t know, or the reader

doesn’t know which thing/person you mean:
Bring me a pen please. (It doesn’t matter which pen)
She works in a bank. (I/you don’t know which bank)
The subject spoke to an interviewer. (I know which one but you don’t)
(iii) Use a/an to make a general statement about a countable noun in the

singular:
A semiconductor can conduct electricity under certain conditions.
Using Ø
(i) Use Ø to make a general statement about a countable noun in the

plural:
Ø Semiconductors can conduct electricity under certain conditions.

(ii) Use Ø to make a general statement about an uncountable noun:

Ø Pollution is generally the result of human activity.

(iii) Use Ø when you mention a plural countable noun for the first time:

We conducted Ø DNA arrays on Ø silicon chips.

(iv) Use Ø for a fully uncountable noun, or a noun in its uncountable

meaning:
These acids may undergo Ø oxidation.

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We found many applications in Ø industry.
Using the
(i) Use the when there is really only one possibility:

The opening was located in the centre of each mesh.
We report the discovery of the smallest possible carbon nanotube.
(ii) Use the when it is definitely known to the reader:

They arranged to meet in the café. (The café where they usually meet)
Did she get the job? (The job we both know she wanted)
The cheese sandwich was very good. (The cheese sandwich I mentioned

earlier)
(iii) Use the when it is obvious to the reader, even if the thing or person

has not been mentioned:
I bought a new computer but the keyboard was faulty.
This is where the concept of shared knowledge becomes important.
As soon as computer is mentioned, the reader and writer can be safely
assumed to ‘share’ keyboard. Accurately and sensitively determining what
you can safely assume to be shared knowledge is central to the success of
your text.
Question 3: If a/an and the are both possible, is there a difference in

meaning?
In some cases there is a real difference in meaning. For example:
1. The nodes should be attached to Ø two receptor sites.

2. The nodes should be attached to the two receptor sites.
In sentence 1 there are many receptor sites, whereas in sentence 2 there

are only two OR two previously identified receptor sites. This is similar to
the difference between X is a cause of Y (one of many causes) and X is the
cause of Y (the only cause). Here is a similar example:
1. This effect may hide a connection between A and B.

2. This effect may hide the connection between A and B.
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“9x6”
In sentence 1 there may be a connection between A and B, whereas in

sentence 2 there is a known connection between A and B.
In other cases there is no difference in meaning but the choice reflects
the assumed knowledge of the reader. For example:
1. Ø Improvements in virus-detecting software have recently become very

important.
2. The improvements in virus-detecting software have recently become

very important.
Sentence 1 could be in a national newspaper, whose readers may not be

aware of the improvements. Sentence 2 could be in a computing journal,
whose readers are assumed to have a high level of shared knowledge with
the writer, and who would therefore be familiar with these improvements.
To illustrate the role of shared knowledge, consider whether you would
use a or the in the sentence below if:
a) you were booking a plane ticket on the telephone.

b) you were booking a plane ticket while sitting in the travel agent’s office.

I’m going to have ______baby next month, so I would like a very comfortable
seat.
The concept of shared knowledge has important implications for journal

publishing, and for interdisciplinary access to the content of your research
article. If you are submitting the article to a journal which has a wide
readership, you cannot assume that your key terms and concepts will be
known to all readers, so you may need to use a/an when you first mention
them, and you may also need to define or explain them. On the other hand,
if your field is very narrow and you are certain that all readers will be familiar
with your key terms and concepts, it may be acceptable to use the.
Now look at some of the sentences in your target research articles and
using all the information above, work out why the writer has chosen in each
case to use the, a or Ø.
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2.6. Writing a Methods Section
This Unit presents a generic model of the Methods section and the language
that is conventionally used to generate a readable, effective text. In this task,
you will write a Methods section by bringing together everything in this Unit:
the model, the language and writing skills, and the vocabulary.
2.6.1 Write a Methods section

The aim of this task is for you to learn how to describe what you did and used
so that any reader can repeat exactly what you did, understand why, and
obtain similar results. This requires a clear understanding of the difference
between your own familiarity with the method and that of a potential reader.
This familiarity also makes it hard to see potential grammar-related ambiguity,
such as the use of agentless passives.
To complete the task, imagine that you are writing up a research project
which has carried out the first-ever attempt to cook chicken. Imagine that
until now, everyone ate it raw. The task is to write a recipe for cooking chicken
as if it were the Methods section of a research article. As an example, instead
of starting by writing something like Cut the chicken into four pieces, you could
perhaps start with an overview of the entire procedure, or by giving the source
of your chicken. Did you obtain it from a supermarket? Was it supplied by a
laboratory facility? You will need to say what you used to cut the chicken up;
using an axe gives a very different result from using a 4 cm Sabatier steel
knife! Instead of writing Now put the chicken pieces in a hot oven for about
an hour and a half, you should write something like: Each sample was then
placed on a 300 x 600 mm stainless steel sheet and heated in a Panasonic
E458X 500 w standard fan-assisted oven for 94 minutes at 350°C.
The title of the research article in which you report the new process is
An approach to the preparation of chicken using heat and flavouring. Here
is the Introduction:
Introduction
Chicken preparation techniques are used in a range of applications

both in homes and in restaurants. Chicken is easily available and
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“9x6”
can be locally produced in most areas; in addition, it is easily

digested and low in calories 1.
Since Dundee’s pioneering work reporting the natural method of
chicken preparation (Dundee et al., 2008) in which the chicken was killed
and then eaten raw with salt, there have been significant innovations.
Much work has been carried out in France in relation to improving the
method of slaughtering chickens2, whereas in the USA researchers have
concentrated on improving the size of the bird3,4. The natural method
is widely used since the time required for the process is extremely short;
however, some problems remain unsolved. The flavour of chicken
prepared using the Dundee method is often considered unpleasant5 and
there is a well-documented risk of bacterial infection resulting from the
consumption of raw meat6,9,11.
The aim of this study was to develop a preparation method that
would address these two problems. In this report, we describe the new
method, which uses seasoning to improve the flavour while heating the
chicken in order to kill bacteria prior to eating.
Now write the Methods section. If you get stuck and don’t know what to
write next, use the model and the language list to help you move forward. Don’t
look at the sample answer in the Key below until you have finished writing.
2.6.2 Key

Note which part of the model is represented in each sentence.
An approach to the preparation of chicken using heat and flavouring
Method
Two chicken samples were tested to determine the impact of seasoning

and heating on flavour and bacterial levels. Flavour was assessed by a
testing group selected from those in a previous study6. Bacterial counts
were determined before and after the heating process using an
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immunoassay system (Saliva-Check MUTANS) based on monoclonal

antibody technology11.
Two 4.5 kg frozen organic chickens were purchased from Buyrite
Supermarket. Buyrite only sells grade A chickens approved by the
Organic Farmers Association, thus ensuring the homogeneity of the
samples. Two seasoning mixtures, Tri-8-00 and Tri-8-001, were obtained
from SeasonInc® and used as supplied.
The chickens were defrosted in a sealed container at room
temperature for 5 h. They were then cleaned according to the Hanks
method7, in which chickens are immersed in boiled water cooled to a
temperature of 20°C, and subsequently rinsed thoroughly in an
isotonic salt solution. In order to obtain two samples of equal size and
weight for testing, the chickens were first skinned using a standard
BS1709 Skin-o-matic. This made selecting suitable sample locations
visually simpler, and enabled precise measurement of the samples
prior to cutting. A 3 cm cube weighing 100 g was cut from the identical
location on each chicken, using a 4 cm steel Sabatier knife8 at a pressure
of 2 psi.
The two cubes thus obtained were placed in a Phillips R2D2
Dehydrator for 10 minutes to evaporate the remaining salt solution.
Immediately after removing the cubes from the dehydrator each cube
was completely spray-coated with 15 g of one of the seasoning mixtures,
using an application technique similar to that described in Duck et al.9.
The samples were left to stand on a glass plate for 30 minutes at room
temperature (16°C) to enhance absorption of the seasoning prior to
heating. It should be noted that the seasoning quantities were measured
using standard domestic kitchen scales, and are therefore only
approximate.
Each cube was then placed on an ovenproof dish and transferred
to a pre-heated Panasonic Model 33KY standard electric fan-assisted
oven at 150°C for 10 minutes. The samples were then removed from
the oven and allowed to come to equilibrium, after which they were
assessed using the Bacteriometer test developed by Vira9. Flavour was
assessed by the testing group using the scale described in Buds et al.6.
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“9x6”
EXERCISE 5 Summary exercise. In the extracts, underline or highlight the

following: model components; useful prepositions; interesting verb tenses
and sequence language. A Key follows.
Nanoparticle scaffolds for syngas-fed solid oxide fuel cellsn
Experimental
Fig. 1 summarises schematically the formulation and fabrication procedures

used in the paper. Inks were formulated from a mixture of commercial
gadolinia-doped ceria (Ce0.9Gd0.1O1.97, CGO, particle size = 0.5 µm) from Praxair,
nanoparticle CGO (Ce0.9Gd0.1O1.97, particle size = 5 nm from TEM) produced
by continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis (CHFS), polymer microbeads
(6 µm, Microbeads AS, Spheromers CA6), terpineol as a solvent, Hypermer
KD15 as a dispersant and an ethylcellulose binder (Hercules EC N-7). The CGO
nanopowders were produced by continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis
using a pilot plant at University College London as described elsewhere.17
CHFS is an emerging and scalable method of preparing nanoparticles and has
previously been used to make samaria-doped ceria,3 ceria-zirconia solid
solutions,18,19 an entire phase diagram of 66 ceria–zirconia–yttria samples20
and a range of other metal oxides21,22 and phosphates23 with typically sub 50
nm diameter. In CHFS, an aqueous mixture of cerium ammonium nitrate and
gadolinium nitrate solution was continuously mixed with a stream of
superheated water at 450 °C and 22.1 MPa in a patented confined jet mixer.24
Particles were then cooled (via a pipe cooler) and then collected as an aqueous
slurry at the exit of the back-pressure regulator. The particles were recovered
by centrifugation and washing (three times) in an equal volume of water until
the final solid sludge was obtained. The nanopowder was recovered by freeze
drying.
For preparation of scaffolds, the solvent (0.653 g), dispersant (0.265 g) and
binder (0.040 g) were mixed together until the binder had fully dissolved. Next,
with stirring in an ultrasonic bath, each solid component was added sequentially
in two or three aliquots, starting with the dried CGO nanoparticles (0.751 g),
followed by the commercial CGO (1.047 g), and finally the polymer microbeads
(0.153 g). The ultrasonication and stirring is effective in suspending the
nanoparticles. This gave an ink with ca. 26 vol% solids content, which was an
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acceptable level for a screen printing ink. 11 In formulating the ink, two
conditions were sought: high total solid content and high nanoparticle content.
The order of addition was important to ensure that the nanoparticles were
fully incorporated and homogenised, and the large differences in particle size
between the different components helped to maintain an appropriate viscosity
at high solid loadings.
The inks were screen printed onto 200 µm thick yttria-stabilised zirconia
(YSZ) electrolytes. In the case of fuel cells, the procedure differed slightly between
cells with different sintering temperatures for the anode, as shown schematically
in Fig. 1. In the cells with scaffolds sintered at 1300 °C, one side was printed
with the scaffold ink, while the other was printed with a thin layer of a CGO ink
(this is to prevent reactions between the cathode material and the YSZ
electrolyte). The printed pellets were then heat-treated at 1300 °C for one hour,
with a 1 °C min−1 ramp rate during heating and cooling. The LSCF-CGO cathode
(ink purchased from Fuel Cell Materials, Columbus, OH, USA) was then screen-
printed, and the cell heat-treated at 1100 °C for three hours with a 5 °C min−1

ramp rate during heating and cooling. The process for the cells with scaffolds
heat-treated at 1000 °C was identical except the order of printing and sintering
was a protective CGO layer first, followed by cathode and finally by the CGO
scaffold. Cells with one, two or three layers of CGO scaffold were produced. The
scaffold was dried in an oven at ~80 °C in between each printing cycle.
Next, the CGO scaffolds were impregnated with a nickel salt, again shown
schematically in Fig. 1. The impregnation solution was prepared from 0.125 g
of nickel nitrate hexahydrate in 200 µL of absolute ethanol. The solution was
dropped onto the scaffold using a 1–20 µL pipette, with the volumes used
determined empirically by visually observing whether the drop spread beyond
the edge of the scaffold. If it did, then the volume of the following impregnation
was reduced. The first volume used was determined by dropping pure ethanol
onto the scaffold. In between each impregnation, the pellets were placed into
a furnace directly at 500 °C for 5 min. This cycle was then repeated ten times.
After the final impregnation, the pellets were placed into this furnace, and the
temperature was increased to 800 °C at 5 °C min−1 and held for eight hours
before cooling at 5 °C min−1. The NiO loading was determined by weighing.
Four symmetrical cells were produced: a single layer cell heat-treated at
1300 °C; a single layer cell heat-treated at 1000 °C; a double layer cell heat-treated

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“9x6”
at 1000 °C and a triple layer cell heat-treated at 1000 °C. In addition, four button
cells for fuel cell testing were produced from single and double layer CGO scaffolds
heat-treated at 1000 °C, and the same heat-treated at 1300 °C.
The scaffolds were studied by Ultra Small Angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS)
to obtain information about the pore structure, while the in situ measurements
allowed us to monitor the development of the microstructure with
temperature.25 For the USAXS measurements, single layered samples were
printed onto MgO substrates (used instead of YSZ as it is less absorbing of
X-rays) for analysis by USAXS, and heat-treated at either 1000 or 1300 °C. These
samples were compared to a scaffold made from a “control” ink in which the
nanoparticle component was replaced by extra commercial CGO. One sample
printed on MgO was heat-treated in situ. The USAXS data were taken at sector
15, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. Briefly, small angle
scattering intensities around the direct beam was measured using channel cut
Si crystal monochrometers in a Bonse–Hart configuration. The X-ray energy
was 16.8 keV and the beam size was 1.5 × 0.4 mm. The sample was mounted
in a LinkAm heater for the in situ USAXS measurements. The USAXS intensity
is plotted as a function of the scattering vector q = 4 sin(θ)/λ where λ is the
X-ray wavelength and θ is the scattering angle. The USAXS spectra can be viewed
as the autocorrelation of the electron density fluctuations inside the sample,
resulting from contrast between the pores and the powders. The USAXS is
normally plotted in a log–log plot, and at low q Guinier approximation is valid
so the USAXS intensity shows an inflection proportional to –exp(q2Rg2/3) where
Rg is the radius of gyration. At higher q values, the USAXS intensity follows a
power law slope with an exponent of −3, as expected from Porod’s law from
slit-smeared USAXS. Our USAXS could not resolve the Guinier inflection from
the large pores made by polymer microbeads, so we used a combination of a
powder law slope and a log-normal size distribution of spherical pores to model
the USAXS intensity for non-linear least squares fitting.
The scaffolds and impregnated anodes were imaged by FEG-SEM (LEO
Gemini 1525).
Electrochemical measurements were carried out with an Autolab PGSTAT.
Symmetrical cell tests were carried out under humidified hydrogen in nitrogen,
while fuel cell tests were carried out under humidified hydrogen in nitrogen
and humidified syngas in nitrogen (15% H2, 25% CO, 60% N2). The exact syngas
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composition with a high content of nitrogen was chosen so that some of the
nitrogen can be replaced with other components (e.g. CO2, larger quantities of
steam, tars or H2S) in later studies. For the syngas tests the cells were put under
load in 50% H 2 in N 2 before switching to syngas and carrying out the
measurements. This avoids the carbon deposition caused by direct exposure
to syngas at OCV. In all cases the same procedure for reducing the anode was
employed; the cells were heated under dry nitrogen to 765 °C at 5 °C min−1
before switching to humidified 10% hydrogen in nitrogen for one hour before
cooling to the operating temperature. In all cases in this report, the humidification
was carried out at 20 °C, giving a humidity of 2.3%, while the gas compositions
given refer to the gas compositions prior to humidification. […]
Key to EXERCISE 5
Nanoparticle scaffolds for syngas-fed solid oxide fuel cellsn
Experimental
Fig. 1 summarises schematically the formulation and fabrication procedures used

in the paper. Inks were formulated from a mixture of commercial gadolinia-doped
ceria (Ce0.9Gd0.1O1.97, CGO, particle size = 0.5 µm) from Praxair, nanoparticle CGO
(Ce0.9Gd0.1O1.97, particle size = 5 nm from TEM) produced by continuous
hydrothermal flow synthesis (CHFS), polymer microbeads (6 µm, Microbeads
AS, Spheromers CA6), terpineol as a solvent, Hypermer KD15 as a dispersant
and an ethylcellulose binder (Hercules EC N-7). The CGO nanopowders were
produced by continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis using a pilot plant at
University College London as described elsewhere.17 CHFS is an emerging and
scalable method of preparing nanoparticles and has previously been used to
make samaria-doped ceria,3 ceria-zirconia solid solutions,18,19 an entire phase
diagram of 66 ceria–zirconia–yttria samples20 and a range of other metal
oxides21,22 and phosphates23 with typically sub 50 nm diameter. In CHFS, an
aqueous mixture of cerium ammonium nitrate and gadolinium nitrate solution
was continuously mixed with a stream of superheated water at 450 °C and 22.1
MPa in a patented confined jet mixer.24 Particles were then cooled (via a pipe
cooler) and then collected as an aqueous slurry at the exit of the back-pressure
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“9x6”
regulator. The particles were recovered by centrifugation and washing (three

times) in an equal volume of water until the final solid sludge was obtained. The
nanopowder was recovered by freeze drying.
For preparation of scaffolds, the solvent (0.653 g), dispersant (0.265 g) and
binder (0.040 g) were mixed together until the binder had fully dissolved. Next,
with stirring in an ultrasonic bath, each solid component was added sequentially
in two or three aliquots, starting with the dried CGO nanoparticles (0.751 g),
followed by the commercial CGO (1.047 g), and finally the polymer microbeads
(0.153 g). The ultrasonication and stirring is effective in suspending the
nanoparticles. This gave an ink with ca. 26 vol% solids content, which was an
acceptable level for a screen printing ink. 11 In formulating the ink, two
conditions were sought: high total solid content and high nanoparticle content.
The order of addition was important to ensure that the nanoparticles were
fully incorporated and homogenised, and the large differences in particle size
between the different components helped to maintain an appropriate viscosity
at high solid loadings.
The inks were screen printed onto 200 µm thick yttria-stabilised zirconia
(YSZ) electrolytes. In the case of fuel cells, the procedure differed slightly
between cells with different sintering temperatures for the anode, as shown
schematically in Fig. 1. In the cells with scaffolds sintered at 1300 °C, one side
was printed with the scaffold ink, while the other was printed with a thin
layer of a CGO ink (this is to prevent reactions between the cathode material
and the YSZ electrolyte). The printed pellets were then heat-treated at 1300
°C for one hour, with a 1 °C min−1 ramp rate during heating and cooling. The
LSCF-CGO cathode (ink purchased from Fuel Cell Materials, Columbus, OH,
USA) was then screen-printed, and the cell heat-treated at 1100 °C for three
hours with a 5 °C min−1 ramp rate during heating and cooling. The process for
the cells with scaffolds heat-treated at 1000 °C was identical except the order
of printing and sintering was a protective CGO layer first, followed by cathode
and finally by the CGO scaffold. Cells with one, two or three layers of CGO
scaffold were produced. The scaffold was dried in an oven at ~80 °C in between
each printing cycle.
Next, the CGO scaffolds were impregnated with a nickel salt, again shown
schematically in Fig. 1. The impregnation solution was prepared from 0.125 g
of nickel nitrate hexahydrate in 200 µL of absolute ethanol. The solution was
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dropped onto the scaffold using a 1–20 µL pipette, with the volumes used
determined empirically by visually observing whether the drop spread beyond
the edge of the scaffold. If it did, then the volume of the following impregnation
was reduced. The first volume used was determined by dropping pure ethanol
onto the scaffold. In between each impregnation, the pellets were placed into
a furnace directly at 500 °C for 5 min. This cycle was then repeated ten times.
After the final impregnation, the pellets were placed into this furnace, and the
temperature was increased to 800 °C at 5 °C min−1 and held for eight hours
before cooling at 5 °C min–1. The NiO loading was determined by weighing.
Four symmetrical cells were produced: a single layer cell heat-treated at
1300 °C; a single layer cell heat-treated at 1000 °C; a double layer cell heat-
treated at 1000 °C and a triple layer cell heat-treated at 1000 °C. In addition,
four button cells for fuel cell testing were produced from single and double
layer CGO scaffolds heat-treated at 1000 °C, and the same heat-treated at
1300 °C.
The scaffolds were studied by Ultra Small Angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS)
to obtain information about the pore structure, while the in situ measurements
allowed us to monitor the development of the microstructure with
temperature.25 For the USAXS measurements, single layered samples were
printed onto MgO substrates (used instead of YSZ as it is less absorbing of X-rays)
for analysis by USAXS, and heat-treated at either 1000 or 1300 °C. These samples
were compared to a scaffold made from a “control” ink in which the nanoparticle
component was replaced by extra commercial CGO. One sample printed on
MgO was heat-treated in situ. The USAXS data were taken at sector 15, Advanced
Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. Briefly, small angle scattering
intensities around the direct beam was measured using channel cut Si crystal
monochrometers in a Bonse–Hart configuration. The X-ray energy was 16.8 keV
and the beam size was 1.5 × 0.4 mm. The sample was mounted in a LinkAm
heater for the in situ USAXS measurements. The USAXS intensity is plotted as
a function of the scattering vector q = 4 sin(θ)/λ where λ is the X-ray wavelength
and θ is the scattering angle. The USAXS spectra can be viewed as the
autocorrelation of the electron density fluctuations inside the sample, resulting
from contrast between the pores and the powders. The USAXS is normally
plotted in a log–log plot, and at low q Guinier approximation is valid so the
USAXS intensity shows an inflection proportional to –exp(q2Rg2/3) where Rg is
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“9x6”
the radius of gyration. At higher q values, the USAXS intensity follows a power
law slope with an exponent of −3, as expected from Porod’s law from slit-
smeared USAXS. Our USAXS could not resolve the Guinier inflection from the
large pores made by polymer microbeads, so we used a combination of a powder
law slope and a log-normal size distribution of spherical pores to model the
USAXS intensity for non-linear least squares fitting.
The scaffolds and impregnated anodes were imaged by FEG-SEM (LEO
Gemini 1525).
Electrochemical measurements were carried out with an Autolab PGSTAT.
Symmetrical cell tests were carried out under humidified hydrogen in nitrogen,
while fuel cell tests were carried out under humidified hydrogen in nitrogen
and humidified syngas in nitrogen (15% H2, 25% CO, 60% N2). The exact syngas
composition with a high content of nitrogen was chosen so that some of the
nitrogen can be replaced with other components (e.g. CO2, larger quantities of
steam, tars or H2S) in later studies. For the syngas tests the cells were put under
load in 50% H 2 in N 2 before switching to syngas and carrying out the
measurements. This avoids the carbon deposition caused by direct exposure to
syngas at OCV. In all cases the same procedure for reducing the anode was
employed; the cells were heated under dry nitrogen to 765 °C at 5 °C min−1
before switching to humidified 10% hydrogen in nitrogen for one hour before
cooling to the operating temperature. In all cases in this report, the humidification
was carried out at 20 °C, giving a humidity of 2.3%, while the gas compositions
given refer to the gas compositions prior to humidification. […]
TIPS FOR WRITING A SUCCESSFUL METHODS SECTION
· Check the average length of Methods sections in your target research

articles. This will help you determine the level of detail considered
appropriate to describe that type of experiment or simulation.
· Check where the Methods normally appear in your target journal. Is it in

supplementary offline material or in the print version?
· Plan the entire Methods section before you start creating sentences.

· Don’t confuse your lab notes with the Methods section. The first was

written for you; the second needs to be written for a reader.
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· Remember that your familiarity with the topic may mean that you are not

aware of the reader’s need for introductory or background information.
The amount of background factual information depends on the current
level of readers’ knowledge, so check this against recent papers dealing
with similar topics in similar journals. If a wider readership will access the
study via the internet, adjust the amount of introductory or background
information accordingly.
· Make sure the reader knows exactly WHY you did what you did at each

stage. This creates a narrative that reads coherently and supports your
integrity as a researcher.
· The extent of comparison with existing/current methods and the verb

tense that describes these methods depends on the current level of
readers’ knowledge, so check this against recent papers dealing with
similar topics in similar journals.
· Check every single sentence to ensure that the verb tense is

communicating the correct meaning.
· Make sure you have separated your own work from that of other

researchers and from established knowledge. Your contribution may be
obvious to you, but it’s not obvious to every reader. Use the Agentless
Passive table in Section 2.5.1 to check that you have avoided any
potential ambiguity.
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UNIT 3
How to Write about Results
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“9x6”
TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION*
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3.1. The Structure and Content of the Results
The table below shows four common options for the final sections of the
research article.
SUBTITLES SUBTITLES SUBTITLES SUBTITLES

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
Results Results Results
Results and Discussion
Discussion Discussion Ø
Conclusion Ø Conclusion Conclusion
Your target articles will help you decide between these options, but if
your target journal has a flexible structure, aspects of your study may also
guide your decision. If your preliminary results influence later ones, you may
prefer a combined Results and Discussion section in which you present and
discuss preliminary results before presenting and discussing the later ones.
Similarly, if your results respond to multiple hypotheses/predictions, it may
be easier for the reader to see the results and discussion for each hypothesis
together, with appropriate subtitles. If you intend to discuss the results as a
whole, you may decide to present all the results together in the Results section,
and then move onto a Discussion section. Ultimately, the aim is to make this
section as easy as possible for the reader to negotiate, to demonstrate the
relationship between the results and the aim/s of the study, and to lay a clear
path to the Conclusion.
In this book, the Results section will be treated separately from the
Discussion section, and the Discussion section will be treated separately from
the Conclusion. This is to ensure that you can train yourself to recognise —
and therefore create — the components that are characteristic of each
section, whether you keep them separate or combine them.
N.B. In some cases, depending on the journal, the topic, or the type of
study, the Results section may be called Data Analysis or Case Study. As
always, the golden rule is to use your target research articles as a guide.
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The advice given to writers about what should and should not be in the
Results section often conflicts with what is successfully published. For
example, you may be advised to avoid any interpretation of your data in the
Results section. You may be advised to use only the past tense, or to avoid
repetitive paragraph structures. You may be told that the Results section
should only deal with what the results are, and that the Discussion section
should only deal with what the results mean. However, when we examine
and describe successfully-published research articles, we see that authors
do not always — or even often — follow such advice.
A reverse-engineering, descriptive approach based on current published
research will generate a more reliable picture of the Results section than a
prescriptive approach that tells you what you should or shouldn’t do. One
reason for this is that the structure and content of the Results section is
changing to reflect the way that readers read, and particularly the way they
use the internet as a resource. The current trend towards placing the Methods
section in Supplementary Materials is also influencing the content of the
Results section, since this means that the Results section will need to include
information about the method to make the results intelligible. Prescriptive
advice may therefore quickly become out of date. By contrast, the descriptive
approach makes it easy to update and adapt your writing models as they
change over time — and they will.
Developing the reverse-engineering approach for yourself will mean that
you can use it for any type of text, now and in the future. In this Unit you are
therefore encouraged to take control of the analysis and modelling for yourself
and build your own model of the Results section, using your target research
articles as the primary source. The aim is to generate a model for the Results
section in current research articles in your own field, and to ensure that
you develop the competence to update and adapt it confidently.
3.2.1 EXERCISE 1: Using target articles to build a model

In most cases, the results of research work can be presented in graphs, tables,
equations, photographs or other images (all referred to here as graphics).
Why, then, do researchers bother to write a Results section at all? Why not
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simply provide good, clear graphics with good, clear titles and perhaps a note
underneath each one? Almost all STEMM research articles currently include
a written Results section, so clearly some functions of the Results section,
for example explaining the results, cannot be achieved without narrative text.
With this in mind, start by writing a brief description of the function of
each sentence in the Results section of at least TWO of your target articles to
generate a broad list of potential components. Then write a brief description
of the function of each sentence in the simplified Results section below, and
compare your list with this description. Some components in your list will be
similar to the sentence descriptions on page 154; others will be specific to the
research you are doing, the current conventions of your field, or the type of
article you are writing. Integrate the two lists to generate a robust set of model
components for the Results section in research articles in your own current
research area which you can adapt or update as your research develops.
On-bicycle exposure to particulate pollution: using a portable

device for accurate measurement
Results
1 Data obtained in previous cycling safety studies1,5,7 used fixed monitors
positioned at high-emission locations to measure weekday concentrations
of black carbon (BC) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). 2 Those studies found
no significant difference in BC and NO2 emissions between cycle lanes
shared with buses and cycle lanes separated from vehicle traffic. 3 In
our study, BC and NO2 concentrations were measured using a PEMS-43,
a portable emissions measurement system developed by Noxious et
al.7. 4 The PEMS-43 was fixed to a bicycle and recorded the emissions
hourly along each route type.
5 Figure 1 shows the BC and NO2 concentrations measured hourly
on each route type from 6.00 a.m. to 10.00 a.m. 6 In line with results
from previous studies, the BC and NO2 concentrations were broadly
similar for both route types over this 4-hour period. 7 However, the data
obtained by PEMS-43 for journeys later in the day were significantly
different. 8 We recorded a striking reduction in the NO2 concentrations
along bike paths separated from vehicle traffic, beginning shortly after
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10.00 a.m. (Figure 2). 9 As can be seen, by 2.00 p.m. the NO2 levels had
fallen by as much as 33%, and this low level was maintained even during
the 5.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. peak traffic density period. 10 These results
suggest that NO2 levels along bike paths separated from vehicle traffic
may not match those of BC at all times throughout the day.
11 The presence of vegetation is known to slightly alter BC and NO2
concentrations at different times of day11,18, and the effect of this along
the two routes was not investigated. 12 Nevertheless, the data obtained
here suggest that using a portable emissions measurement system to
measure BC and NO2 exposures hourly may provide more accurate
information for traffic management strategies than traditional on-site
measurement.
3.2.2 Key

In Sentences 1 and 2 Data obtained in previous cycling safety studies1,5,7
used fixed monitors positioned at high-emission locations to measure
weekday concentrations of black carbon (BC) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Those studies found no significant difference in BC and NO2 emissions
between cycle lanes shared with buses and cycle lanes separated from
vehicle traffic. the writer repeats/revisits the methods and findings
of studies mentioned earlier in the article.
In Sentences 3 and 4 In our study, BC and NO2 concentrations were

measured using a PEMS-43, a portable emissions measurement system
developed by Noxious et al.7. The PEMS-43 was fixed to a bicycle and
recorded the emissions hourly along each route type. the writer briefly
summarises the method used in this study.
Why begin by revisiting studies mentioned earlier in the article or by

summarising the methods I used?
It is reader-friendly to start a (sub)section with material that provides a
smooth transition from the previous section, or prepares the reader for the
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new section. Recalling or revisiting key parts of previous sections ensures

that all readers begin the Results section on a similar basis. For example,
some readers may not recall the research gap/problem or key research studies
in this area from the Introduction, both of which provide a critical background
for the results.
Revisiting earlier sections at the start of the Results also supports readers
who are information-surfing (i.e. going directly from the Title/Abstract to the
Results and bypassing the Introduction and/or Methods). If you look at the
Results sections in your target articles, you may be surprised by the amount
of information about the method that is included in this section. Recalling/
revisiting key elements of the method is common when the Methods section
is very long or in Supplementary Materials, and ensures that readers know
enough about the method to understand the results. You of course, know
the method well — after all, it’s your own research — but your readers don’t
share that familiarity. They may not have read the Methods section or
remembered the key aspects of it when they read the Results.
Why not just start by going through my results in order?

The aim of a paper is not to tell the story of your project in the order it occurred;
it is to make a valid contribution to your field and to communicate that
contribution efficiently and effectively. Readers look for trends and patterns
in the results while they read, and if you simply list the results in the order
they occurred, the reader will need to constantly adjust that trend or pattern
to detect the direction of travel. You know where you are going with these
results, but the reader does not; without narrative guidance, the direction of
the results may be unclear. In addition, different readers may see different
patterns in the data, some of which may direct them away from, rather than
towards, your own interpretations. It is your responsibility as the writer to
organise and present the results within a narrative that structures them
optimally and leads naturally towards the interpretations and conclusions you
want to draw.
So what’s a good way to begin?

As always, look at how successful writers in your target journals begin. Some
writers begin with a brief general statement about the overall pattern or
trend of the results (In most cases/In general/Overall), and may direct the
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reader to a summary figure or table. Starting with a general statement

stabilises the framework in which you present your results and ensures that
your reader sees the ‘wall’ before you — and they — look at the individual
‘bricks’. If you are subdividing your results into sets of results, you may want
to provide a linking statement to introduce each set.
Some writers begin by re-stating the aim of the study. In the Discussion
or Conclusion, you discuss the extent to which your study has fulfilled the
aim/s you set out in the Introduction. Re-booting this aim or problem early
in the Results section sets a context for the reader to evaluate your results.
It’s also helpful for you to have the aim of your study clearly in view when
you are deciding what to include in the Results, and in what order. Your results
should link clearly to your aim/s; in fact, when you look at your results, you
may decide to go back to the Introduction and redefine or re-word the aim
in light of the results.
Other writers begin by recalling key aspects of the method. As stated
above, this is particularly common where the Methods section is only
available via a link to Supplementary Materials. It also supports readers who
move directly from Title to Results, or from Title + Abstract to Results.
In Sentence 5 Figure 1 shows the BC and NO2 concentrations measured

hourly on each route type from 6.00 a.m. to 10.00 a.m. the writer invites
the reader to look at a Results graphic.
Why do I need to invite the reader to look at the graphics?

Readers will see them as they continue reading, and they may have already
looked at the graphics before they started reading the article.
What do you do when you are reading and you come to a sentence like
Sentence 5? In most cases, you stop reading and look at the graphic; you try
to understand it or interpret the data you see, and then you return to the
text with that interpretation in mind as you continue reading.
Placing the graphics at specific locations and framing them with a
narrative is clearly important; if not, they would come in a random order at
the start or at the end of the Results section, or randomly throughout. To
place your graphics optimally, look at the order and location of the graphics
in the Results sections of your target articles, and the narrative text that
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comes before and after the graphic. Think about why the writer put the
graphics in that order, and how you, the reader, responds to them at those
locations, in that order, and framed by that narrative text. You may be
impatient to present your most important and exciting results, but it may be
more effective to start with the graphics and narrative that underlie or lead
to the more important ones so that the reader can ‘discover’ the important
ones with you.
Sometimes a graphic that summarises the data or findings is presented
at the start of the Results section before any text, particularly if the data is
visually very clear and unambiguous. However, if the visual representation
of the data in your figures, tables and photographs can be interpreted in
more than one way, it may be better to comment on that data before inviting
the reader to take a look. If you don’t, the reader might interpret it differently
from you. This will affect their response to the next graphic or set of results,
and ultimately to your conclusions.
In Sentences 6 and 7 In line with results from previous studies, the BC

and NO2 concentrations were broadly similar for both route types over
this 4-hour period. However, the data obtained by PEMS-43 for journeys
later in the day were significantly different. the writer compares the
results with those in other studies, using subjective, evaluative
language (In line with, broadly similar, significantly different).
Do I need to compare my results with those of other researchers?

When you start to do original research, you cross an invisible line. Until this point
you were writing for people — tutors or course leaders — who knew more about
the subject than you did, and who knew what they expected to see in your
report. Your task was to describe your methods and results to readers who
already knew what methods you would use, what results you should obtain,
and how those results compare with those in other studies. By contrast, a defining
characteristic of research is that it must make a new contribution to the field,
and your communication must identify that contribution.
The relationship between your study and the literature is a theme that
runs through the entire research article from beginning to end. In the Results
section, comparing your results with those in the literature demonstrates
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how your results have advanced or modified knowledge in your field, and
enables the reader to position your study on the research map. This mapping
of your study is developed in the Discussion, but in order to do it effectively,
you need to first set your results against existing results.
Many types of comparisons can be found in the Results section. In
addition to comparing your results with those in the literature, you may
want to compare your own results with your predictions, or compare your
modelled/simulated results with your experimental results. The language
used to communicate the level of similarity or difference in these comparisons
can be central to the success of the article, and a wide range of options can
be found on pages 179–180.
Why do I have to use evaluative language — why not simply describe what
is in the graphic?
The most important reason for using language in the Results section rather
than relying only on graphics is that results do not speak for themselves. You
are not simply writing up your results, you are writing a guide to the results
that should lead logically and naturally towards the conclusions you will
draw.
The language that you use to describe your results and the comments
you make on your results influence the way readers perceive them. For
example, look at the two curves in the figure below:
If you write As can be seen in Fig. 3.1, the two curves are very similar,
the reader will focus on the similarity between the curves. However, if you
write As can be seen in Fig. 3.1, the two curves are significantly different, the
reader will notice the difference between them.
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Your description of the results supports the alignment between the aim
of the study, the results themselves, and your conclusions. If you do not
comment on your results so that the reader can share your understanding
of them, the reader may interpret them differently from you and the
conclusions you eventually draw will not seem either logical or natural to the
reader; in fact, they may seem surprising or inappropriate. For example, if
you just write: As can be seen in Fig. 1, the effect occurred in 23% of cases,
you may be basing your conclusions on a belief that 23% of cases is a high
proportion, but without any evaluative language to ‘fix’ the value of the
number, the reader may independently decide that 23% of cases is low. This
will have a damaging effect on the rest of your paper, and particularly on the
Conclusion.
Although results are sometimes described objectively (i.e. numerically
or using non-evaluative language), if you simply describe what is in the
graphic, you have not added anything to what the reader can already see,
so why bother? You are a legitimate member of your research community,
and you are entitled to — and should — present your understanding of the
results you have obtained. Your readers do not have to agree with you but
they need to know where you are going with the results, otherwise the gap
between your results and the conclusions you draw from them will be too
wide to negotiate. Results are therefore usually presented including some
evaluative language.
Evaluative language may occur together with the relevant number/
quantity (only 23 ml), or it may replace the number/quantity (in many cases).
The language you choose guides the reader towards your own interpretation
of the data, so if the effect you were looking for occurred in 23% of cases,
you can choose to communicate this as a strong result (in as many as 23%
of cases) or a weak result (in only 23% of cases). Interestingly, researchers
often deny that writers do this in their own field — until the evaluative
language in their target articles is pointed out to them. A list of evaluative
language commonly used to describe and comment on results can be found
on pages 171–179. After you look at the list, start underlining or highlighting
examples when you see them in your target articles. This will give you a clear
indication of what, when, how, and how much evaluative language to include
in your own papers.
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Notice that in Sentence 8, in addition to the evaluative language such as

broadly similar, the writer adds a clear functional signal at the start of the
sentence (However,) to ensure that the reader is ready to see the difference.
This is a short sentence, so it doesn’t really matter where the signal is placed.
In a long sentence it may be better to place the signal close to the start
because a long sentence that ends with a signal requires the reader to ‘loop
back’ through the sentence in order to understand it. Compare these two:
In such cases, the patient may require a higher dose of intravenous
antibiotics, an intravenous load of phenytoin, or even a brief procedure under
intravenous conscious sedation, unfortunately.
Unfortunately, in such cases, the patient may require a higher dose of
intravenous antibiotics, an intravenous load of phenytoin, or even a brief
procedure under intravenous conscious sedation.
In Sentence 8 We recorded a striking reduction in the NO2 concentrations

along bike paths separated from vehicle traffic, beginning shortly after
10.00 a.m. (Figure 2). the writer directs the reader’s attention to a
specific result, describing it with strongly evaluative language
(striking).
Isn’t language like ‘striking’ too informal?

Apparently not. Science writers do not normally use exclamation marks, even
when the results are very exciting. Instead, they use language such as striking
to achieve that ‘wow!’ feeling. A list of these ‘!-substitutes’ can be found in
the Language section for the Discussion (pages 225–226).
In Sentence 9 As can be seen, by 2.00 p.m. the NO2 levels had fallen by
as much as 33%, and this low level was maintained even during the
5.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. peak traffic density period. the writer selects a
specific result to present in more detail, and comments on it (as much
as, even).
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How do I decide which results to present in detail? Why not describe all of
them in detail?
Remember that your job is to provide a guide to the results, not simply a
description of the results. If you present all your results in detail they will all
seem to be equally important. This is unlikely to be the case: you know that
some of your results are key results, that others are less important, and that
even within the set of key results, some are more significant than others.
Your sentences are, in the end, just black lines on a white page — the reader
cannot hear your voice and so cannot hear you emphasising the importance
of a particular result. You cannot print it in red and, as we have seen, you
cannot even use an exclamation mark. It’s your responsibility to select the
important results and focus on them in more detail so that your reader can
share your perception of what is important. You can also make this clear
by beginning sentences with language like It is important to note that…/
Importantly,/It is significant that…
It is interesting that the best results are often described in such a way
as to give the impression that they are typical results — look out for that in
the papers you read. Writers may make a general statement about the results
followed by a phrase like for example and the ‘best’ result: The SFS results
are generally in very good agreement with their FE counterparts; for example,
at midspan the values are almost identical.
Should I explain the results as well as comment on them?

By now, it should be clear that this decision can only be made by careful
reverse-engineering analysis of similar current papers; however, you will see
that explanations are common in most Results sections. Explaining how a
particular result was obtained may consist of details about the method you
used. Explaining why it occurred may consist of information about the
properties of the material you are studying. It is helpful to think about the
difference between the explanation of a result and the implication of a result
(what the data suggest or imply). In the Results section, explanations tend
to be limited to direct explanations of the data; the implications are often
mentioned briefly in the Results (see Sentence 10), but a full discussion of
what the results suggest or imply is generally kept for the Discussion.
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In Sentence 10 These results suggest that NO2 levels along bike paths
separated from vehicle traffic may not match those of BC at all times
throughout the day. the writer mentions a possible implication of the
results.
In Sentence 11 The presence of vegetation is known to slightly alter

BC and NO2 concentrations at different times of day11,18, and the effect
of this along the two routes was not investigated. the writer mentions
a possible limitation, minimising its potential impact (slightly) on the
results.
Do I need to mention limitations or problems? Won’t it make the reader

doubt my results?
As discussed in the Methods (pages 85–86), the opposite is true. Don’t ignore
problems in your results unless you are certain that the problems are both
insignificant and invisible. If your results are incomplete or some of them
don’t ‘fit’, it is common to mention this, minimise its importance if possible,
and suggest reasons for the problem or offer a solution. If you fail to mention
problems or gaps in your results, it may look as though you are not aware of
them, and this suggests to the reader that you don’t fully understand your
own study. By contrast, mentioning a problem does exactly the opposite: it
shows you to be in control of your research and able to evaluate it clearly. An
additional advantage of mentioning problems or gaps in the results is that it
provides you with a key element of the Discussion/Conclusion: directions or
suggestions for future research — in this case, a suggestion that future studies
should investigate the possible effects of vegetation on emissions levels.
As stated earlier, if you delay submitting your research for publication
until it is perfect, you may never be ready to publish it. Lab-to-journal speed
is critical. Write it up as soon as your results are worth communicating, and
acknowledge problems or difficulties you encountered with the results within
the Results section — it isn’t appropriate to mention them for the first time
when you are discussing suggestions for future work in the Discussion/
Conclusion.
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So what do I say about problems in the Results?

Use language that minimises the problem, and/or suggests possible reasons
for it and/or offers a solution or a way forward. In the example above, the
writer acknowledges that there was a problem and minimises its impact
(slightly). You can find examples of language to refer to imperfect or
problematic results on pages 180–181.
In Sentence 12 Nevertheless, the data obtained here suggest that using

a portable emissions measurement system to measure BC and NO2
exposures hourly may provide more accurate information for traffic
management strategies than traditional on-site measurement. the
writer focuses the reader’s attention away from the problem and
towards the positive value of the study in terms of the implications
and applications of the results (Nevertheless…may provide more
accurate information).
Shouldn’t the implications and applications of the Results wait until the
Discussion?
The implications are a central topic in the Discussion, but almost all writers
give some indication of what their results imply within the Results section.
Once the results have been presented, the focus of the paper begins to open
out and face away from the central reporting section and towards the
Discussion/Conclusion, so it is common to see verbs like suggest or indicate
at this point. This helps the reader to see where the paper is going, and opens
the path into the Discussion section.
Mentioning the applications helps the reader to link the results of the
study to the aims or applications mentioned in the Introduction or Abstract.
The writer can create this link by using language that echoes those aims or
applications. For example, if the aim stated in the Introduction was to improve
the accuracy of something, using the phrase more accurate to describe the
results will help the reader to see the link clearly. These words and phrases
are often very positive; see the lists of ‘happy words’ J on pages 51, 107,
175, 225 and 294 for some examples.
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3.2.3 A Results model

Compare the sentence descriptions below with the list you made in Section
3.2.1, Exercise 1:
In Sentences 1 and 2, repeats/revisits the methods and findings of

the writer studies mentioned earlier in the article.
In Sentences 3 and 4, briefly summarises the method used in this
the writer study.
In Sentence 5, the invites the reader to look at a Results graphic.
writer
In Sentences 6 and 7, compares the results with those in other studies,
the writer using subjective, evaluative language.
In Sentence 8, the directs the reader’s attention to a specific result,
writer describing it with strongly evaluative language.
In Sentence 9, the selects a specific result to present in more detail,
writer and comments on it.
In Sentence 10, the mentions a possible implication of the results.
writer
In Sentence 11, the mentions a possible limitation, minimising its
writer potential impact on the results.
In Sentence 12, the focuses the reader’s attention away from the
writer problem and towards the positive value of the
study in terms of the implications and
applications of the results.
These can be streamlined to create a basic, generic Results model (see

next page). Integrate this model with the list of components you created
in Section 3.2.1 to generate a robust set of model components for the Results
section in your own current research area which you can adapt or update
as your research develops. For example, if the Methods section in your target
journal is only available via a link to Supplementary Materials, you may need
to present an extensive overview of the method at the start of the Results
section. Your target journal may request a Research in Context panel
specifically to present comparisons with results in other studies. Submitting
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your study according to the current structural model identifies you as a

researcher who is up to date with the literature.
GENERIC RESULTS MODEL

1 REVISITING THE LITERATURE/AIM/PREDICTION/HYPOTHESIS/GAP
REVISITING/SUMMARISING THE METHOD
GENERAL STATEMENT ABOUT THE RESULTS
INVITATION TO VIEW GRAPHIC + CONTENT OF GRAPHIC
2 SPECIFIC/KEY RESULTS ± EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE/COMMENTS
COMPARISON WITH RESULTS IN OTHER STUDIES/HAPPY WORDS J
COMPARISON WITH MODEL/SIMULATION/PREDICTED RESULTS
EXPLANATION OF RESULTS VIA KNOWN FACTS/METHOD DETAILS
3 PROBLEMS/ISSUES WITH RESULTS ± REASONS
4 POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS OF RESULTS/HAPPY WORDS J
Notes:
VERB TENSE IN THE RESULTS SECTION

· The description of what can be seen in a graphic is generally in the

Present Simple tense. This may alternate with sentences that describe
how the information in the graphic was obtained, which are generally in
the Past Simple tense.
· Some of the background facts that explain the results, such as the

properties of the material used, may be in the Present Simple tense
(This occurred because material X is able to…). Others, such as those
that refer to the method, may be in the Past Simple tense (This occurred
because we used a…).
· In Unit 1 (Section 1.5.1 Verb tense choices) it was noted that tense

choice can communicate the writer’s confidence in the permanent value
or permanent truth of the results. The Past Simple tense reports what
the authors found; by contrast, the Present Simple tense reflects a belief
that the findings are reliable enough to constitute a permanent truth.
· The Present Simple tense may be used throughout the Results

section, for example, to describe how a model ‘runs’. Check your
target articles.
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SUBSECTIONS/SUBTITLES IN THE RESULTS SECTION

Many Results sections are divided into subsections, and careful reverse
engineering of the subsections and their subtitles in your target articles will
support effective text planning. Start by observing some simple metrics: how
many subsections are in the Results sections of your target articles? How long
are the subsections? What are the paragraph functions in each subsection?
How long are the subtitles? Are the subtitles grammatical sentences?
When you have done that for a few target articles, consider the function
of the subsections and the subtitles. What seems to be controlling the division
into subsections? What is the overall function of each subsection? What is
the relationship between the subtitle and the content of the subsection? Do
the subtitles summarise the subsections? Answering these questions will
enable you to plan your text so that you write in ways that reflect the structure
of similar Results sections in your field.
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Using your integrated list, identify the model components in the Results
section below. Language that exemplifies the model components is in bold
type, and some cases, the verb is in bold type because the verb tense
demonstrates the component.
Amazonian functional diversity from forest canopy

chemical assemblyo
Results
Regional Chemical Diversity. Canopy chemical traits varied widely
among the thousands of trees surveyed along the Andes–Amazon
elevation gradient (Table 1 and Table S3). Foliar N, P, and lignin spanned
an order of magnitude in value, whereas Ca and phenols varied by two
orders of magnitude. Community-scale variation in many chemical traits
tracked changes in elevation (Fig. S1) and at times, was closely related
to climate (Table S4). Intercomparison of elevational trends in canopy
chemistry was made possible by applying a gradient normalization
procedure to the data, which shows the percentage increase or decrease
in a community’s average trait value relative to the gradient mean
(SI Methods). By doing this normalization, elevational trends among all
forests were found to differ from observed trends among high-fertility
sites alone, revealing the central role of soils in determining community
level canopy chemistry in the region (Fig. 1). Most notably, foliar P and
Ca concentrations on higher-fertility lowland sites were two times that
measured on lower-fertility lowland sites, and soluble C concentrations
were elevated in higher-fertility areas (Table 2). In contrast, total C,
phenols, and lignin were suppressed in the higher-fertility sites.
We also discovered elevation-dependent tradeoffs in canopy foliar
C allocation throughout the region. Up the elevation gradient, cellulose
and lignin decreased 100% relative to their region-wide mean. Soluble
C increased by almost 150% with elevation (Fig. 1), and this change
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occurred in parallel to a nearly 200% increase in LMA. Changes in C

allocation were tightly linked to mean annual temperature and
precipitation along the gradient (Table S4).
We found opposing patterns for P and Ca — two rock-derived
nutrients often thought to limit growth in tropical forests (16). With
increasing elevation, foliar P increased 100% above the gradient mean
value (Fig. 1A), but this elevational pattern disappeared after the removal
of the low-fertility sites from the analysis (Fig. 1B). In contrast, mean foliar
Ca concentration decreased by 100% from the Amazonian lowlands to tree
line in the Andes. Foliar N declined only slightly with elevation. Additional
analyses revealed decreasing P and Ca on a leaf area basis, despite the fact
that LMA increased with elevation (Fig. S2 and Table S5). Finally, foliar δ13C
increased by about 200% with elevation relative to its mean gradient value,
and this trend occurred independent of site fertility (Fig. 1).
[…].Site characteristics were a relatively small contributor — less
than 20% — to the explained variance in most canopy chemical traits
(Fig. 2), indicating that, within any given community along the elevation
gradient, phylogeny dominates over local differences in soils,
microclimate, and other factors. […].Foliar δ13C displayed the weakest
phylogenetic partitioning. Canopy P and Ca patterns were also
dominated by site conditions, especially soils; this soil fertility effect is
evidenced by the fact that phylogeny played a much stronger role in
determining foliar P and Ca when only considering high-fertility sites.
Regressing the model components against elevation, it is also clear
that the taxonomic partitioning of most canopy chemical traits is
invariant with elevation (Table S6).
Inter- vs. Intraspecific Variation. Interspecific (between-species)
variation in canopy chemical traits was consistently two to three times
greater than intraspecific (within-species) variation, and intraspecific
variation was often very low in canopy trees at all sites (Fig. 3 and Table S7).
Moreover, there were very few elevation-dependent trends in either
intra- and interspecific variation (Tables S8 and S9). Maximum
intraspecific variation was recorded for Ca (24–29%), phenols (21–22%),
and P (16–21%). δ13C, total C, and soluble C showed extremely low
intra and interspecific variations of less than 10%.
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3.3.2 EXERCISE 2: Identifying the model components

Here are three more Results sections from research articles in different
disciplines. They have been edited for length, and ellipses are marked as […].
Identify the model components using your integrated list.
1 Effect of muscle compensation on knee instability during ACL-deficient

gaitl
Results
In the absence of any muscular compensation, ATT increased throughout

the stance phase of ACLd gait relative to that calculated for normal gait
(Fig. 2). Peak ATT for the intact and ACLD knee occurred at contralateral
toe off, which coincided with the occurrence of peak knee extensor moment
(see Fig. 3B). Maximum allowable ATT was always greater than that
calculated for normal gait, and at times was even greater than that
estimated for ACLd gait (Fig. 2, compare lightly shaded region and solid
line around 50% of gait cycle).
The model simulation results showed that it was not entirely possible
to restore ATT in the ACLd knee to the amount calculated for normal gait
merely by reducing the magnitude of quadriceps force (Fig. 3A, gray solid
line). There were periods near heel strike and in midstance when the lower
limit of quadriceps force (zero force) was reached, and yet ATT in the ACLd
knee was greater than that obtained for the intact knee (Fig. 2, black dashed
line). The simulation results also showed that it was not entirely possible to
restore ATT in the ACLd knee to the maximum allowable level by reducing
quadriceps force alone (Fig. 3A, gray dashed line). In this case, there was a
brief period during midstance when the lower limit of quadriceps force was
reached, and yet ATT was greater than that incurred during maximum
isometric extension (Fig. 2, black dashed line exceeds the gray region during
midstance).
Complete elimination of the knee extensor moment (a quadriceps avoidance
pattern) was needed to restore ATT in the ACLd knee to the level calculated for
normal gait (Fig. 3B, gray solid line). In contrast, some (positive) net extensor
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moment was predicted when ATT in the ACLd knee was restricted to the maximum
allowable limit (Fig. 3B, gray dashed line).
The simulation results showed that it was possible to reduce ATT exactly
to the level calculated for the intact knee merely by increasing the magnitude
of hamstrings force (Fig. 4A). As expected, the increase in hamstrings force
needed to bring ATT in the ACLd knee to the maximum allowable level was
less than that needed to bring ATT to the intact level (Fig. 4A, compare gray
dashed and solid lines). An increase in hamstrings force led to a decrease in
the knee extensor moment, but this effect was noticeably less than that
obtained when quadriceps force was reduced (compare gray lines in Fig. 3B
and 4B). […]
2 Identification and characterisation of the early differentiating cells in

neural differentiation of human embryonic stem cellsc
Results
Identification of a transient Tra-1-81(-)/SSEA4(+) cell population at early

stage neural differentiation of hESCs
Similar to the cells in the ICM, undifferentiated hESCs express embryonic cell
specific surface antigens, including stage-specific embryonic antigens (SSEA) 3
and 4, Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81 [17], which were first identified in human
embryonic carcinomas. However, unlike mESCs, they do not express SSEA1.
Although the functional significance of these antigens is as yet unclear, they
are routinely used as markers for hESCs. Therefore, we anticipated that studying
the dynamic changes of these cell surface markers in neural differentiation
could potentially enable us to capture and isolate the early differentiating
populations which could be used for further analysis.
We focused our study on Tra-1-81, SSEA4 and SSEA1, given that SSEA3
expression is not necessarily required for a pluripotent state [18], and the high
similarity between Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81 [19]. Our results showed that, in
self-renewal culture conditions, H1 hESCs express high levels of SSEA4 and
TRA-1-81, but not SSEA1 (Figure 1A, top). After differentiation to neural
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progenitors, expression of Tra-1-81 and SSEA4 were lost while expression of

SSEA1 was increased (Figures 1A, bottom). However, it is noteworthy that the
loss of Tra-1-81 preceded that of SSEA4. After 9 days in neural differentiation
medium, Tra-1-81 expression was almost completely lost, whereas the majority
of cells still expressed SSEA4 (Figure 1A, middle). The expression of SSEA4
persisted for several days until 2 weeks into the differentiation at which point
the neuroepithelial cells started to emerge and SSEA1 expression was positive.
A similar pattern was also observed in H7 hESCs, although Tra-1-81 expression
was lost earlier than that in the H1 cells (7 days vs. 9 days) (Figure 1B). The
existence of this Tra-1-81(2)/SSEA4(+) population of cells was also confirmed
by immunostaining (Figure 1C). Further neural differentiation from this stage
lead to the efficient generation of NPCs, which retained the expression pattern
of Tra-1-81(2)/SSEA4(2)/SSEA1(+) and could be maintained for an extended
time in culture when supplemented with bFGF/EGF (Figure 1D). The neural
differentiation experiments were repeated several times in both H1 and H7
hESC lines and the sequential loss of the Tra-1-81 and SSEA4 antigens was
reproducible, although the timing of the disappearance of each antigen varied
slightly between experiments, depending on the initial seeding density.
To eliminate the possibility that the sequential loss of Tra-1-81 and SSEA4
is a culture-dependent phenomenon, hESCs were also differentiated using the
double SMADs inhibition protocol [20,21]. Differentiation with the dual SMAD
inhibitors exhibited the same sequential loss of Tra-1-81 and SSEA4 in both H1
and H7 cells (Figure S1A). Furthermore, a previous report using stromal-feeder
based neural differentiation protocol observed the same effect [19]. We
therefore propose that this initial Tra-1-81(2) and SSEA4(+) population
represent cells of early neural differentiation and consequently designated
them TR2/S4+ cells.
TR2/S4+ cells exhibit an intermediate gene expression pattern between hESCs

and neural progenitors
Different cell populations can be distinguished by morphological and

developmental criteria, as well as by the temporal and spatial expression of
marker genes. In order to characterize the transient TR2/S4+ cells, we isolated
them by FACS or by magnetic-activated cell purification (Figure 2A). The Tra-
1-81(2) and SSEA4(+) identity of the purified cells was then confirmed by
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flow cytometry analysis. Gene expression was analysed by quantitative RT-PCR

(qRT-PCR) and compared to that of undifferentiated TR+/S4+ hESCs and their
TR2/S42 NPCs (Figure 2B). We found that the expression of pluripotent marker
genes, Oct4, Nanog and Rex1, was clearly downregulated in the TR2/S4+
cells compared to hESCs but remained higher than that of NPCs. Conversely,
the expression of neural progenitor marker genes, Pax6, nestin and Sox1,
was upregulated in the TR2/S4+ cells but was considerably lower than in
NPCs. However, Sox2, another known pluripotent marker, was consistently
expressed in all three cell types, with its highest expression level in the NPCs,
implicating a critical role in both pluripotent and neural progenitor cells. In
addition, the TR2/S4+ cells also expressed the early differentiation marker,
FGF5, which was undetected in both hESCs and NPCs (Figure 2B). A similar
gene expression pattern was also found in TR2/S4+ cells from neural
differentiation with dual SMAD inhibitors. It was also found by RT-PCR that,
compared to the undifferentiated hESCs and their NPCS derivatives, both the
isolated TR2/S4+ cells and the unsorted day 9 differentiated H1 cells
expressed much lower levels of leukaemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR)
(Figure 2C).
Western blotting was performed to confirm the expression of Oct4 and
Nanog proteins (Figure 3A). While undifferentiated hESCs exhibited high levels
of Oct4 and Nanog proteins, they were undetectable in NPCs. However, in the
TR2/S4+ cells, Oct4 and Nanog protein levels were lower than in hESCs but
higher than in the NPCs. Since both RT-PCR and Western blotting methods
quantify average levels of gene expression in a whole population, one cannot
exclude the possibility that this TR2/S4+ population contains two groups of
cells: one similar to the undifferentiated hESCs (high Oct4 expression but low/
no expression of neural markers), and the other similar to the NPCs (high levels
of neural markers but no Oct4 expression). Therefore, to confirm that the
expression of Oct4 and Pax6 in the TR2/S4+ cells was not due to the co-existence
of these two different populations, immunostaining and flow cytometry analysis
were carried out. The results showed that Oct4 antibody staining was positive
in 97% of hESCs, with almost 80% cells strongly positive (mean value =156.5).
Similarly, 97% of TR2/S4+ cells were also stained positive for Oct4, but the
majority of cells exhibited a lower level of Oct4 (mean value = 54.49, Figure
3B, left). No clear Oct4 staining was visible in NPCs (mean value =2.9). In
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addition, TR2/S4+ cells showed a clear upregulation of Pax6 signals (mean

value = 12.4) compared to hESCs (mean value =3.14), which was not as strong
as in the NPCs (mean value =21.1, Figure 3B, right). Co-staining of Oct4 and
Pax6 in situ confirmed the flow cytometry analysis and clearly demonstrates
the co-existence of Oct4 and Pax6 proteins in the same cell during early neural
differentiation, which are notably expressed in a negatively correlated manner
(Figure 3C).
To explore whether the various levels of Oct4 expression are regulated
at the promoter, we examined the amount of DNA methylation in the Oct4
promoter region near the transcription start site. A gradual increase in DNA
methylation was observed throughout the neural differentiation and was
negatively correlated with Oct4 mRNA expression (Figure 3D). In hESCs, very
low levels of methylation were detected (0.05%), opposed to the heavy
methylation detected in NPCs (84.3%). Interestingly, an intermediate DNA
methylation level of 48.1% was observed in the TR2/S4+ cells. Taken together,
these results demonstrate that the TR2/S4+ cells exhibit a gene expression
profile which is distinct from both undifferentiated hESCs and their fully
committed neural progenitors, and co-express both neural progenitor and
undifferentiated pluripotent markers. In addition, Oct4 expression is
progressively downregulated during neural differentiation, which is
accompanied by the upregulation of neural markers.
TR2/S4+ cells generate both neural and non-neural lineage cell types
Under neural differentiation conditions [16], further culture of the TR2/S4+

cells lead to the efficient production of NPCs that express high levels of neural
progenitor markers: nestin (97%), Sox1 (82%) and Pax6 (88%) (Figure 3 and 4)
but lack expression of pluripotent genes (Oct4 and Nanog) or mesoderm and
endoderm markers: GATA6, brachyury and a-fetoprotein (Figure 2) [22]. These
neural progenitor cells were able to further differentiate into neurons and
astrocytes as revealed by the positive staining of MAP2, TUJ1 and GFAP,
respectively (Figure 4).
Since Oct4 expression persists in TR2/S4+ cells, albeit at a lower level,
we considered whether these cells were able to generate non-neural lineages
in alternative culture conditions. Purified TR2/S4+ cells were differentiated via
cell aggregate formation, a method that can initiate spontaneous differentiation
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and is widely used to examine the differentiation potential of cells in vitro [23].
The TR2/S4+ cell aggregates were able to expand in culture and displayed
structures similar to embryoid bodies (EBs) after 7 days of differentiation in
suspension (Figure 5A). These EBlike aggregates were then dissociated and
plated onto adherent culture dishes for further differentiation. After another
7 days, cells with various morphologies were visible (Figure 5B) and were
analysed for gene expression by qRT-PCR and immunocytochemistry. Real-time
RT-PCR showed upregulation of markers of the three germ layers: neuroectoderm
(Pax6, Sox1 and Sox2), mesoderm (goosecoid (GSC) and Meox1) and endoderm
(albumin (ALB) and GATA6) (Figure 5C), while pluripotent markers, Oct4 and
Nanog were downregulated. Immunocytochemistry further confirmed that
the differentiated cells contained progeny from the three germ layers: AFP,
HNF4a and GATA6 for endoderm, muscle actin for mesoderm, nestin and Pax6
for neuroectoderm (Figure 5D). These results demonstrate that TR2/S4+ cells
are also capable of differentiating into cells of non-neural lineages.
TR2/S4+ cells cannot be maintained or reverted back to hESCs in self-renewal

culture conditions
TR2/S4+ cells express a high level of FGF5, a marker of post-implantation

primitive ectoderm of mouse embryos [24]. Given that mESC-derived
primitive ectoderm-like cells are capable of reverting back to an ESC state
when re-cultured in mESC self-renewal media [25], we examined whether
theTR2/S4+ cells can be reverted back to their original hESC state. Purified
TR2/S4+ cells were re-plated into matrigel-coated plates and cultured in hESC
self-renewal conditions (Figure 6A). To verify that any resulting changes were
not a technical artifact, we purified and cultured TR+/S4+ hESCs as controls
(Figure 6B). Both cell populations showed similar attachment efficiencies
(Figure 6Aa&6Ba) and colonies were clearly visible 3 days after plating. By
day 7, TR2/S4+ colonies exhibited structures and morphologies similar to
that of hESCs but the expression of Tra-1-81 and SSEA4 could neither be
reactivated nor maintained (Figure 6Ab). In contrast, control hESCs (TR+/
S4+) expressed high levels of both these markers (Figure 6Bb). This difference
became even more apparent after 14 days of culture (Figure 6Ac & 6Bc).
Consistent with the changes in cell surface markers, evident differentiation
also started to emerge in the TR2/S4+ cells. RT-PCR analysis confirmed that
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expression of both Oct4 and Nanog was downregulated in TR2/S4+ cells as

the culture proceeded. Mesoderm and endoderm markers were up-regulated
while the expression of neural markers, Pax6 and Sox1, was reduced, although
the levels remained higher than in hESCs (Figure 6C). These results are
consistent with the data from EB cultures, which indicate that the cell fate
of TR2/S4+ cells are affected by their culture conditions. In CM cultures, there
is limited inhibition of BMP signaling in cells, at least not to the level induced
by the addition of noggin [16], which may account for the observed nonneural
lineage differentiation. These results further confirm that TR2/S4+ cells are
distinct from undifferentiated hESCs and cannot be reverted back to their
original hESC state by reintroduction into hESC self-renewal conditions.
Furthermore, these cells cannot be maintained as TR2/S4+ cells under these
conditions.
Comparison of TR2/S4+ cells with cells of early embryoid bodies and definitive
endoderm differentiation
Since TR2/S4+ cells are able to generate cells in addition to the neural lineage,
it raises the question of whether these cells are equivalent to those of early
EBs. To answer this question, we compared our global gene expression data of
early neural differentiation (N1), which resembled the TR2/S4+ cells (over 85%
cells are TR2/S4+) [22], with the published microarray data from 16-day EBs of
the same hESC line, H1 [26]. Interestingly, gene ontology analysis revealed that
the genes significantly upregulated during EB differentiation have considerable
functions during neural differentiation and development (Table 1) and, as a
result, shared >60% of the functions in biological processes with those genes
upregulated in TR2/S4+ cells. This becomes more evident when the top 15
functions in the biological process of the gene-ontology list are compared
between the two cell-populations as over 70% of them appeared in both lists
(Table 1). Similarly, the downregulated genes in both cell populations also shared
>60% of gene ontology functions. Therefore, global gene expression analysis
does provide certain support for the similar phenotype and differentiation
observed between TR2/S4+ cells and the early EBs (EBs in suspension).
Since cells in the early neural differentiation and early EB formation share
a similar gene expression pattern and phenotype, we asked whether early
mesendoderm differentiation would also generate this population. To address
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this question, we differentiated H1 hESCs into definitive endoderm using two

different methods (Activin A with sodium butyrate or LY294002, see Materials
and Methods for details). Both differentiation procedures exhibited a similar
phenotype and gene expression pattern, in which expression of Sox17 and
FoxA2 steadily increased over the 3-day differentiation period, whereas, after
an initial upregulation, expression of the mesendoderm markers, brachyury
and Mixl1, were downregulated by day 3 (Figure 7A). Furthermore, Sox2
expression was continuously downregulated (Figure 7A). This gene expression
pattern is consistent with our previous data and existing published data on
endoderm differentiation [6,7,27], indicating that the majority of these cells
have differentiated to mesendoderm by day 1–2 of the differentiation and are
committed to endoderm by day 3. However, during the differentiation, both
Tra-1-81 and SSEA4 were continuously expressed in a considerable proportion
of cells, approximately 90% and 70% after 2 and 3 days of differentiation,
respectively (Figure 7B). These results demonstrated that differentiated
mesendoderm and early endoderm cells can also express TRA-1-81 and SSEA4,
which is in line with a previous report that found Tra-1-60 and SSEA4 positive
cells in a proportion of Sox17+ cells that could only be differentiated into
endoderm and mesoderm [28]. As a whole, these results therefore indicate
that differentiation towards the neural lineage may share a similar initial process
to differentiation via EB formation that is distinct from that of high-dose Activin-
induced definitive endoderm differentiation.
3 Rapid alloy prototyping: compositional and thermo-mechanical high

throughput bulk combinatorial design of structural materials based on the
example of 30Mn–1.2C–xAl triplex steelsp
4. Results
4.1 Mechanical testing of the RAP samples

Following the high throughput procedure outlined above five alloy
compositions, each exposed to nine respective heat treatments, were
produced, processed and evaluated within 35 h. The mechanical properties
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of these 45 different material conditions (i.e. in total 135 tensile tests and
hardness measurements) are shown as an overview in Fig. 2 in terms of the
yield strength (YS) (Fig. 2a), ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (Fig. 2b), total
elongation (TE) (Fig. 2c) and hardness (Fig. 2d). The results are plotted according

to the systematically varied Al content (Table 1) and colour coded according
to the individual ageing conditions. Pronounced effects associated with the
changes in chemical composition and ageing parameters on the mechanical
behaviour of the materials can be clearly distinguished. For the reference
material (no Al addition, i.e. Fe–30Mn–1.2C) the best mechanical behaviour
was observed for the as-homogenised, non-aged state. This alloy was
characterised by a YS of 360 MPa, strong work hardening (UTS = 830MPa) and
high ductility (TE = 77%). Ageing of the Fe–30Mn–1.2C alloy showed that the
YS was virtually unchanged and the hardness slightly increased. However,
ageing greatly reduces both the UTS and TE. This embrittlement becomes most
apparent for long ageing times (24 h) and higher temperatures (>500°C). For
the alloy Fe–30Mn–1.2C–8Al, i.e. the material with the highest Al concentration,
the opposite trend applied. Without ageing the mechanical data are similar
to those of the Al-free alloy, with only a slight change in YS (increase), UTS and
TE (decrease). Ageing treatments for 1 h, however, led to a simultaneous
improvement in YS, UTS and hardness (increasing with temperature) and to
only a slight drop in TE. Ageing of alloy Fe–30Mn–1.2C–8Al for 24 h further
increased YS, UTS and hardness to values almost twice as high as in the as-
homogenized state, but also drastically reduced the ductility. The mechanical
data for the alloys with intermediate Al contents appear as the superimposition
of the two different behaviours described above: as a general rule, the values
obtained for the alloys with 2, 4 and 6 wt.% Al lie between the respective data
from alloys without and with 8 wt.% Al. The alloys with Al additions of 4 and
6 wt.% especially are only very weakly affected by the applied ageing
treatments in terms of their mechanical data compared with the alloys Fe–
30Mn–1.2C (weakening /embrittlement) and Fe–30Mn–1.2C–8Al
(strengthening). […]
4.2 Microstructure of the RAP samples

[…]. Microstructures in the as-homogenised state (unaged) are shown on the
left-hand side of Fig. 5, those after ageing at 550°C for 24 h on the right-hand
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side, respectively. In the as-homogenized state the three alloys exhibit almost
identical austenitic microstructures with an average grain size of about 80 lm,
few twins (increasing with higher Al content) and no apparent micro-
segregations. After ageing, however, pronounced differences between the three
alloys could be observed. Coarse particles with a diameter of ~10 µm appear
at the grain boundaries of the Al-free alloy (Fe–30Mn–1.2C), most probably
consisting of a pearlitic ferrite/(Fe,Mn)3C microstructure. The addition of Al to
the alloy Fe–30Mn–1.2C–4Al apparently constrained the formation of those
phases during ageing, as the number density and size of the particles was now
significantly lower than in the Al-free material and only thin films appeared on
the grain boundaries of the alloy with 4 wt.% Al. A further increase in Al content
(alloy Fe–30Mn–1.2C–8Al) resulted in the complete absence of grain boundary
particles during ageing, but a large number of unevenly distributed small
particles appeared within the grains, giving them a darker contrast.
4.3 Tensile testing of the conventionally produced samples

For reference and comparison Fig. 6 shows exemplar engineering stress–strain
curves for the alloys Fe–30Mn–1.2C–2Al (red) and Fe–30Mn–1.2C–8Al (blue)
after ageing at 450°C for 1 h, obtained by following the conventional synthesis
and processing (Fig. 6a) and RAP (Fig. 6b) approaches. For the alloy Fe–30Mn–
1.2C–8Al both the RAP and conventional data are in the same range, with an
only lightly increased YS (610 to 540 MPa), lower UTS (810 to 890 MPa) and
almost identical ductility (76 to 73%) of the RAP samples. While this trend (slightly
higher YS and lower UTS) is the same for the alloy Fe–30Mn–1.2–2Al, the RAP
samples now exhibited significantly less ductility than the conventional specimens
(49 compared with 84%) under this specific material condition. The unusually
large elastic strain that is apparent in Fig. 6b can be attributed to slight
deformation (bending) of the RAP samples, which could not be completely
avoided despite the clamping procedures applied during quenching of the thin
segments.
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3.4.1 Language task

EXERCISE 3 Look through the Results sections in this Unit and in your target
research articles. Underline or highlight words or phrases that you think could
be used in the four areas below and compare your suggestions with the lists
in Section 3.4.2.
1 SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RESULTS, e.g. extremely, often

2 LANGUAGE THAT COMPARES RESULTS WITH SIMULATIONS/PREDICTED

RESULTS/RESULTS IN OTHER STUDIES, e.g. in line with
3 LANGUAGE THAT DEALS WITH PROBLEMS IN RESULTS, e.g. unfortunately

4 LANGUAGE THAT PRESENTS THE IMPLICATIONS OF RESULTS, e.g.

suggesting that
3.4.2 Language for the Results section

This section lists words and phrases for the Results section taken from analysis
of over 2,500 published research articles in different disciplines. The list only
includes words and phrases which appear frequently and are therefore
considered normal and acceptable by writers and editors.
The list will also keep the flow of writing moving. Underneath each list
there are examples of how the words and phrases are used in sentences, so
look at the list and the sentence examples when you are feeling stuck and
can’t think of what to write or how to continue.
INVITATION TO VIEW RESULTS

according to the data in Fig. 1, Verbs
as can be seen from/in* Fig. 1,
based on (data in) Fig. 1, Fig. 1:
can be found in Fig. 1
can be identified from/in Fig. 1 contains
can be observed in Fig. 1 demonstrates
can be seen from/in Fig. 1 displays
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(close) inspection of Figure 1 indicates illustrates

data in Fig. 1 suggest that lists
(data not shown) plots
evidence for this is in Fig. 1 presents
(Fig. 1) represents
in/from Fig. 1 (it can be seen that) reveals
in Fig. 1 we (compare etc.) shows
is/are apparent from/in Fig. 1 summarises
is/are clearly visible in Fig. 1
is/are evident in the figure
is/are given in Fig. 1
is/are shown in Fig. 1
is/are visible in Fig. 1
results are given in Fig. 1
(see Fig. 1)
we observe from/in Fig. 1 that
*Note: from means that it can be understood/concluded/deduced from the data in
the graphic, whereas in means that it actually appears in/is visible in the graphic
itself.
· As is apparent from Fig. 1, the extractibility of the dehydroisoandrosterone

did not change significantly.
· The data in Fig. 18 reveal that H3K36 can repair damaged DNA.

· The coefficients given in Table 1 represent mean values from both

spectrophotometers.
· ZnO thin-film islands which cover the substrate surface can be observed

in Fig. 3a.
· Figure 1 illustrates the responses from the three regions of the right

ventricle.
· Results for individual groups are displayed in Supplementary Figure 5.

· As we can see from Figure 3, the spectrum changed significantly during

the phase scan.
· The lack of correlation between IR and PLFA patterns can be seen by

comparing Figs 1 and 5.
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· An analysis of the follow-up status of the subjects is presented in Table 2.

· The exchange current densities are summarised in Table 9.

SPECIFIC/KEY RESULTS
(i) OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RESULTS

is/was absent change/d match/ed
is/was constant decline/d occur/red
is/was different decrease/d peak/ed
is/was equal delay/ed precede/d
is/was higher, etc. drop/ped prevent/ed
is/was highest, etc. exceed/ed produce/d
is/was identical exhibit/ed reduce/d
is/was obtained exist/ed remain/ed
is/was present expand/ed resume/d
is/was seen fall/fell rise/rose
is/was unchanged find/found take/took place
is/was uniform increase/d vary/varied
Note: Numerical representations of percentages, levels, locations, amounts etc.
(e.g. a 2% increase) are also, of course, objective descriptions of results.
· Protein expression peaked at day 3 after infection.

· The frequencies of the jets were constant, and did not change linearly

with velocity.
· Concentration scales decreased with the fuel fraction.

· It was observed that the female rats exhibited higher levels of plasma

corticosterone than male rats.
· Leaf enlargement resumed toward the end of the desiccation period.

· The UV-visible spectra of the purified components were identical to

those of lutein.
· Mean SAOC values rose to 682 moI/L within the first hour.

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(ii) SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RESULTS: general comments

abrupt important reasonable Useful verbs:
acceptable in general remarkable emphasise
adequate in principle serious highlight
appropriate in the main severe reflect
brief inadequate sharp resemble
broadly likelihood similar
by and large mainly steep Comments:
clear major striking Importantly,
comparable measurable strong/ly In fact,
comparatively merely subtle Indeed,
consistent minor sudden Interestingly,
distinct more or less sufficient Intriguingly,
dramatic obvious suitable It is noteworthy
effectively perceptible unexpected that...
equivalent poor unlikely Notably,
essentially powerful unremarkable Overall,
excessive profound unusual Significantly,
extensive pronounced virtually Surprisingly,
generally predominant/ly weak/ly
gradual rapid
Note that whereas higher is objectively true or false, high is a subjective assessment
of a quantity/level/amount.
(iii) SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RESULTS: comments about

quantities
The subjective language used to comment on quantities in STEMM writing
can be divided into five groups:
Group 1 contains words/phrases which ‘increase’ the size/quantity:
A considerable amount of residue remained in the pipe.
Group 2 contains words/phrases which ‘reduce’ the size/quantity:
Barely 74% of the residue remained in the pipe.
Group 3 contains words/phrases which emphasise how big/small/high/low
the size/quantity is:
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The amount that remained in the pipe was even higher/even lower than
predicted.
Group 4 contains words/phrases which communicate that the size/quantity
is similar or close to another:
Almost half of the residue remained in the pipe.
Group 5 is useful when you do not want to interpret the size/quantity:
Some of the residue remained in the pipe.
Look at the list below, and place each word/phrase in the correct group.
(Those marked with an asterisk [*] appear in two groups.)
a great deal (of) easily (over/under) little numerous significant

a few even (higher/lower) low only significantly
a little exceptionally marginal over (half/25%) slight
a number (of) extremely marked particularly slightly (more/less)
abundant fairly markedly plenty of small
appreciable far (more/less) minimal* practically so (high/low)
appreciably few minor quite (high/low) some
approximately fewer (than) moderate quite a few somewhat
as many as greater (than) modest quite a lot substantial
as few as hardly more (than) rather (high/low) substantially
at least high most reasonably to some extent
barely imperceptible much* relatively under
below in some cases near/ly remarkably upwards of
close (to) just* negligible roughly very
considerable large noticeable scarcely virtually
considerably less noticeably several well (over/under)
KEY
Group 1: words/phrases which ‘increase’ the size/quantity
a great deal (of) high over (half/25%)

a number (of) large plenty of
abundant marked quite a few
appreciable more (than) quite a lot
as many as most several
at least much significant
considerable noticeable substantial
greater (than) numerous upwards of
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Group 2: words/phrases which ‘reduce’ the size/quantity
a few hardly minor

a little just modest
as few as less only
barely little scarcely
below low slight
few marginal small
fewer (than) minimal under
Group 3: words/phrases which emphasise how big/small the

size/quantity is
appreciably far (more/less) significantly

considerably markedly so (high/low)
easily (over/under) much (higher/lower) substantially
even (higher/lower) noticeably very
exceptionally particularly well (over/under)
extremely remarkably
Group 4: words/phrases which communicate that the size/quantity is similar

or close to another
approximately just (over/under) practically

close (to) little (i.e. close to none) roughly
few (i.e. close to none) minimal slightly (more/less)
imperceptible near/ly virtually
negligible
Group 5: words/phrases which you can use when you do not want to interpret
the size/quantity
fairly quite (high/low) some

in some cases rather (high/low) somewhat
moderate reasonably to some extent
relatively
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(iv) SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RESULTS: ‘happy’ words J
accurate efficient reliable useful

advantageous excellent satisfactory valuable
beneficial feasible simple viable
better improve successful worthwhile
effective precise superior
(v) SUBJECTIVE DESCRIPTIONS OF RESULTS: comments about frequency
Frequency modifiers help readers to evaluate the results. For example, if a

researcher states that a particular result occurred every time a particular test
was carried out, then it is clearly a very reliable result. If it generally occurred,
that is still reliable, but perhaps less so. If the writer simply states x occurred
without a frequency modifier, readers may not be able to evaluate the results
appropriately, or at all.
The evaluative language used to comment on frequency in STEMM
writing can be divided into ten levels. Imagine that you want to find a
colleague on a Monday morning, and you want to know whether you should
look for her in the Library.
1. If she always goes to the Library on Monday mornings you will find

her there today.
2. If she generally goes to the Library on Monday mornings you expect to

find her there today and you will be surprised if she is not there.
3. If she often goes to the Library on Monday mornings there is a good

chance that you may find her there today.
4. If she goes to the Library more often than not on Mondays, you should

start by looking for her there, but she may not be there today.
5. If she goes to the Library as often as not on Monday mornings you

may find her there today — or you may not. It’s impossible to predict
because the chances are equal; she goes there as often as she doesn’t
go there.
6. If she sometimes goes to the Library on Monday mornings perhaps

she will be there today, but you won’t be surprised if she isn’t there.
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7. If she occasionally goes to the Library on Monday mornings she might

be there today but it’s unlikely.
8. If she rarely goes to the Library on Monday mornings she probably

won’t be there today, so don’t bother to look for her there.
9. If she hardly ever goes to the library on Monday mornings she is not

expected to be there today, and you would be surprised to find her
there.
10. If she never goes to the Library on Monday mornings she won’t be

there today.
The list below shows the ten levels in decreasing order of frequency.
However, note that statements about frequency tend to be subjective: saying
that something occurred frequently may refer to how often it was expected
to occur. For example, if previous research indicated that a particular result
was unlikely to occur but in your study it occurred on 22% of occasions, you
may present that as a frequent occurrence. On the other hand, if previous
research indicated that something is very likely to occur but in your study it
occurred on only 22% of occasions, you may present that as a rare occurrence.
1 each/every time
without exception
on each/every occasion
always
invariably
2 habitually
as a rule
generally
normally
usually
3 regularly
repeatedly
frequently
often
commonly
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4 more often than not

5 as often as not (neutral frequency)
6 sometimes
on some occasions
at times
7 occasionally
now and then
from time to time
8 infrequently
rarely
seldom
9 hardly ever
barely ever
almost never
scarcely ever
10 on no occasion
not once
at no time
never
When you look at your target articles, you will notice that it is harder to
find examples of the language used to provide an objective description of
the results than it is to find examples of the language used to provide a
subjective description of the results. When objective language does occur,
a subjective ‘add-on’ is often provided. For example, slightly lower or much
lower is found more often than lower on its own. This is probably because,
as mentioned earlier, an objective description of the results does not tell
readers anything they don’t already know from looking at the graphic.
If you are having difficulty seeing the difference between objective
and subjective language, remember that saying that one level or quantity is
higher than another is an objective truth; saying that it is high is a subjective
evaluation.
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Here are some examples of subjective descriptions of results:
· Minor clinical abnormalities of nerve function were fairly common in

the rheumatoid group.
· Significantly, we found that the activation energy for oxidation in both

gases is much higher.
· The yeast samples were, however, found to be relatively poor sources

for dehydrogenases.
· Overall, there was a close similarity between the biological activity and

immunoreactivity of plasma ACTH in the three specimens.
· The impacts of other micronutrients were in general quite weak.

· Extracts prepared at 0.3 M NaCl were only slightly active while extracts

prepared at concentrations of 0.35 0.5 M NaCl were quite active.
· In several cases the chromaticity of exposed skin was noticeably

different from that of unexposed skin.
· Notably, the non-magmatic IAB and IIICD irons display overlapping Zn

contents, in accord with the previous conclusion that these two groups
are closely related.
· The solenoid valve frequently generated a more accurate pressure

response.
· Ageing of the alloy showed that the YS was virtually unchanged.

· Survival rates in the steroid treated patients were essentially identical

to those of the placebo treated patients.
· The magnitudes of the ionic displacements were found to be extremely

large.
· These abnormalities were invariably preceded by symptoms of

toxicity.
· The calculated Young’s modulus was almost constant in the area above

the nucleus.
· There was a striking difference in the image contrast between the

gradient echo image and the spin echo image.
· The colours of the two lights were found to be extremely similar, if not

identical.
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· The amount of dye adsorbed on gold was even higher than that on the

silver particles.
· Breaks in nanotubes were rarely observed following specimen cutting.

COMPARISON WITH RESULTS IN OTHER RESEARCH/MODELLED RESULTS/
PREDICTED RESULTS
as expected, Verbs
better than accord with
broadly similar to align with
comparable to compare well with
comparatively (low/high etc.) confirm
consistent with contradict
contrary to correlate with
(effectively) the same as corroborate
(essentially) identical deviate from
in accordance with differ
in (good) agreement with disprove
in contradiction to mirror
in contrast to prove
in line with refute
much the same as reinforce
not dissimilar resemble
not unlike substantiate
relative to support
similar validate
unlike verify
well known
Note: The verb tense may change as time passes and knowledge and information
develop. This means that a sentence like X has been found to occur4 in a paper from
five years ago may now be written as X occurs4 or even simply X occurs.
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Adding risk-reducing phrases such as appear to, seem to, tend to can be
used to communicate the level of certainty the writer wants to express (see
IMPLICATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF RESULTS on page 182, Section 3.5
THE CERTAINTY CONTINUUM, and Section 4.5 MODAL VERBS).
· These data appear to confirm the prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency in

the normal population.
· Thus, the new data from the Human Genome Project tend to corroborate

the result in Fig. 2.
· Our results differ from those in the literature, and agree better with

published CDF data.
· These new results are consistent with, and substantially more sensitive

than, previously published anisotropy measurements.
· The bubble growth predicted from numerical analysis compares well

with that obtained in this work.
· The location of the gas concentration in the simulation is in remarkably

good agreement with that of the observed dust lanes.
· The accumulation rates we observed are in line with those reported

from sulfate incorporation methods.
PROBLEM/S and ISSUES/S
minimise minimise maximise

problem (no big deal) responsibility good aspects
(not my fault) (I got good stuff anyway)
a preliminary attempt as far as possible despite this
acceptable difficult to (simulate) fairly well
did not align precisely hard to (control) nevertheless
immaterial impossible quite good
insignificant impractical reasonably robust
less than ideal inevitable/ly
….and focus on a
less than perfect (it was) difficult to
solution or a reason
marginal/ly (it was) hard to
future work should...
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minor deficit limited by future work will…

negligible effect necessarily further work is required
non-ideal/not ideal not examined (is) currently in progress
not complete not explored in this (is) currently underway
not identical study [this] was because…
not perfect not investigated
not significant not possible
of no consequence not within the scope
of no significance of this study
reasonable unavoidable
slightly (disappointing) unexpected
(some) imperfection/s unfortunately
somewhat unpredictable
(problematic) unreachable
technicality unworkable
unimportant

· Inevitably, considerable computation was involved.

· Unfortunately, it was not possible to quantify the extent of Zn loss from

the experimental charges.
· Only a brief observation was feasible, however, given the number in the

sample.
· Although centrifugation could not remove all the excess solid drug, the

amount remaining was negligible.
· Solutions using (q=1) differed slightly from the analytical solutions.

· A further study will examine dc-dc converters to determine whether

these efficiencies can be achieved in practice.
· While the anode layer was slightly thicker than 13 μm, this was a minor

deficit.
· Future work should therefore include numerical diffusion effects in the

calculation of permeability.
· This type of control saturation is fairly common and therefore of no

significance.
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IMPLICATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF RESULTS (see example sentences

below in Section 3.5: THE CERTAINTY CONTINUUM)
could* be explained by apparently,

could* be interpreted as evidently,
could* be seen as in part due to…
it appears that…
likely it could* be inferred that…
perhaps it is [fairly/abundantly] evident that…
possible it is [very/highly] probable/likely that…
presumably it is logical that…
probably it is thought/believed that…
unlikely it may (well) be that…
it may be concluded that…
Verbs it may/can be assumed that…
deduce it seems (very/highly) probable/likely that…
imply it seems that…
indicate it would seem/appear that…
infer the evidence suggests that…
mean there is evidence to indicate that…
signify this implies/seems to imply/may imply
suggest that…
this is (compelling) evidence for…
this is indicative of…
this seems to suggest that…
we have confidence that…
we propose that…
*Note: could can be replaced by may or might, or sometimes can. There is a section
on how to use these modal verbs in the next Unit.
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3.5. Language and Writing Skills: The Certainty Continuum

The Results section presents the relationship between what you did and what
you found/what happened. Sometimes there is enough evidence for you to
state that what you did definitely caused a particular result to occur; at other
times you may be certain that it did, but you do not have sufficient evidence.
How do you communicate that level of confidence to readers?
Another function of the Results section is to indicate the possible implications
of your findings. Sometimes you may be certain that your findings imply
something, but your results do not prove it. The certainty continuum runs from
speculation all the way to proof. Where do your beliefs about your results fit on
that continuum? How confident are you? How certain are you? How committed
are you to those beliefs, and how do you communicate that to readers?
3.5.1 Choose a verb that accurately reflects the causal

relationships you are describing
Some communicate a direct/strong causal connection (cause, produce, be

due to).
Some refer to a partial cause (contribute to, be a factor in).
Some imply a causal process (lead to).
Some refer to the initial cause in a causal chain (originate in).
Some refer to a product rather than an effect (produce/yield).
Some communicate an indirect/weak/implicit causal connection (be related
to, be linked to).
(be) a factor in accompany govern

(be) a/the cause of account for influence
(be) a/the consequence of affect initiate
(be) a/the result of arise from lead to
(be) ascribed to cause originate in
(be) associated with contribute to produce
(be) attributed to create result from
(be) connected to drive result in
(be) due to generate yield
(be) linked to give rise to
(be) related to
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In some cases, the position of the cause and the effect are fixed by the
verb. For example, in X produced Y, X is the cause and Y is the effect; in X
originated in Y, X is the effect and Y is the cause. In other cases, such as X is
linked to Y, the writer may simply want to indicate that X and Y are connected
in some way. These verbs (linked to, connected to, related to) do not specify
which is the cause and which is the effect — nor do they even mean that the
connection between the two is necessarily a cause-effect relationship.
Articles and prepositions also affect the meaning of cause/effect
statements. For example:
· if X is a cause of or a result of something, this implies that other

factors were also involved, whereas if X is the cause of or the result of
something, this implies that X is the only cause or result.
· X results from Y means that X is a/the consequence of Y. X results in Y

means Y is a/the consequence of X.
3.5.2 Choose the appropriate verb tense

In Unit 1 (Section 1.5.1 Verb tense choices) it was noted that tense choice
can communicate the writer’s confidence in the permanent value or
permanent truth of the results. For example, in these sentences:
We found that sunbathing was related to cancer.

We found that sunbathing is related to cancer.
the Past Simple was related to simply describes what the authors found in
their study; the findings are linked to that study and are not presented as
generally-accepted or established truths. By contrast, choosing the Present
Simple is related to reflects a belief that the findings are reliable enough to
constitute a permanent truth.
3.5.3 Adding risk-reducing language

Adding language such as it appears that…/there is evidence to indicate that…
can be used to reduce the risk level of a statement. Other risk-reducers
include:
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· frequency qualifiers such as often, commonly (see pages 175–177).

· quantity qualifiers such as in some cases, in virtually all cases (see

pages 172–174).
· modal verbs such as may, might (see the Discussion unit, Section 4.5).

In summary, Section 3.5 suggests language along the entire certainty
continuum. Once you are clear about where your beliefs about your
results fit on that continuum and how committed you are to those beliefs,
select the appropriate language. You can use the language in Section 3.5
to communicate all levels of confidence and certainty, from absolute
certainty to a very tentative suggestion about the possible implications
of your results:
· We find/found that sunbathing causes cancer.

· We find/found that sunbathing may cause cancer.

· We find/found evidence to suggest that sunbathing may be related to

cancer.
· It appears therefore that in some cases, sunbathing may have been

related to the onset of cancer.
· The evidence points to the possibility that in some cases, excessive

sunbathing may have contributed to the onset of certain types of
cancer.
Here are some examples from Results sections in recent published research
to show how language is used to communicate different levels of confidence
and certainty:
· The temperature of the Ti target appeared to be somewhat critical.

· It seems therefore that the plating solution probably affects the ceria.

· The identified pattern is potentially indicative of altered cellular

processes.
· It is therefore reasonable to suppose that the duplexity of pitch is a

reflection of duplexity in the auditory process.
· Therefore, from these results it could be inferred that the sealant did

not improve the coating protective performance.
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· The Zn correlations of the samples (Figs. 3, 4a–c) are hence most

plausibly explained by indigenous processes.
· This provides strong evidence for the importance of NADW in glacial-

interglacial climate change.
· We speculate that this reflects the increase in blood pressure that is

known to occur in some of these patients.
· It is therefore possible that the correlations reflect variable

contamination.
· This suggests that the polysulfide may undergo more complicated

electrochemical reactions with likely involvement of more polysulfide
species.
· These results indicate that EGFR mutations may predict sensitivity to

gefitinib.
· The differences in recurrence rates increased over time, suggesting that

there is a carryover effect.
· It seems, therefore, that spontaneous reactivation of viral replication

may be a rare event in HBsAg-positive patients.
· Therefore, it appears that the plating solution probably affects the ceria

within the anode composite.
TIPS FOR WRITING A SUCCESSFUL RESULTS SECTION
· Check the format of Results sections in your target articles in terms of

length, subsections and subtitles.
· Check where the Methods section normally appears in your target

journal, and how this impacts on the content of the Results section,
i.e. how much information about the method is included in the Results
section.
· Plan the structure of the entire Results section before you start creating

whole sentences: decide the order in which you will present your results,
the subsections and their headings, and the location of graphics.
· Review the Introduction after you have obtained your results to ensure

that the aim of the paper as stated in the Introduction matches the
outcome of the study.
· Remember that many readers will move directly from the title or

Abstract to the Results, so include enough information for the Results to
function as a standalone section.
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· Remember that data and results do not speak for themselves. Present

the results within a narrative that leads the reader logically and naturally
towards the interpretations and conclusions you want to draw and that
you want your reader to share.
· Check the amount of commenting/evaluative language in the Results

sections of your target articles.
· Decide where your results and the implications of your results fit on the

certainty continuum, and choose language that represents that location.
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UNIT 4
How to Write the Discussion
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“9x6”
TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION*
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4.1. How to Write the Discussion
As stated on page 141, the Results section will be treated separately from the
Discussion section, and the Discussion section will be treated separately from
the Conclusion. This is to ensure that you can train yourself to recognise — and
therefore create — the components that are characteristic of each section,
whether you keep them separate or combine them.
4.1.1 Wrapping the discussion in a narrative

The key to a successful Discussion section is a forward-moving, well-organised
narrative wrap (see page xiv) that leads the reader patiently, logically and
explicitly from the results to the conclusions.
Before planning the Discussion, it is helpful to begin by stepping back
from the study and considering its main value or contribution. For example:
· Has the study obtained identical or similar results to other studies but

uses a modified or new method that is better than existing methods? In
that case, the main contribution may be the method.
· Has the study obtained better (e.g. more accurate) results than

other studies? In that case, the main contribution may be the results
themselves.
· Is the study a game-changer, i.e. is it setting a new direction for research/

invalidating previous work? In that case, the main contribution of the
study may be its impact on the literature/research world.
· Has the study identified or created new or extended applications? In

that case, the main contribution may be its impact on industry/the real
world.
This sets a clear ‘destination’ that can be explicitly communicated to the

reader via the narrative, and also ensures that the take-home message of
the study will not get lost in irrelevant detail. Researchers typically spend
less than 30 minutes reading a research article, so it is essential to prioritise
and communicate the main value or contribution as unequivocally as possible.
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4.2. Building Your Own Model

Although the order of individual components in the Discussion is flexible, the
components themselves are relatively straightforward, and follow the symmetrical
‘shape’ of the research article. The Introduction starts out by being fairly general
and gradually narrows towards the Method/Results, whereas the Discussion
moves away from the Method/Results towards a wider focus. Reviewing the
generic Introduction model below is therefore a good starting point.
GENERIC INTRODUCTION MODEL (FROM Unit 1)

Block 1 ESTABLISH THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOPIC/FIELD
PROVIDE BACKGROUND FACTUAL INFORMATION
PRESENT THE GENERAL PROBLEM AREA/CURRENT
RESEARCH FOCUS
Block 2 PRESENT PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND
CONTRIBUTIONS: the research ‘map’
Block 3 LOCATE A GAP IN THE RESEARCH
DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM YOU WILL ADDRESS
PRESENT YOUR MOTIVATION AND/OR HYPOTHESIS
IDENTIFY RESEARCH OPPORTUNITY
Block 4 DESCRIBE THE PRESENT PAPER, sometimes mentioning
aims/results/methods/conclusions, and often including
‘happy’ J words
In Block 4 of the Introduction the writer describes the present paper or

study, providing a logically-flowing interface between the Introduction and
the central sections of the paper. In the Discussion, writers often begin by
revisiting some aspect of the study such as the research aim/gap or the key
results. This sets the Discussion in motion; it enables the writer to create that
interface in reverse and move away from the central report section in a logical
flow towards the Conclusion/s.
Block 3 presents a gap in the research or describes a problem that will be
addressed in the research article. In the Discussion, the writer is expected to
say to what extent the study has responded to that gap or solved that problem.
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Block 2 presents a research map that identifies key studies and contributions.
In the Discussion the current study is positioned in relation to that research
map.
Block 1 provides an interface between the outside world and the research
article that prepares the reader to ‘cross the border’ into the article by
establishing that the topic is significant, providing background information
and/or identifying the current focus of research. The end of the Discussion
creates a similar interface, preparing the reader to exit the article and carry
the key message to the outside world and/or the research world.
The diagram below shows how the Introduction and the Discussion mirror
each other:
THE FIELD/TOPIC
EXISTING
RESEARCH/KNOWLEDGE
GAP
YOUR PAPER/STUDY
REVISIT YOUR PAPER/STUDY

YOUR RESPONSE TO GAP
MAP YOUR STUDY TO EXISTING
RESEARCH/KNOWLEDGE
YOUR CONTRIBUTION TO THE
FIELD/TOPIC
4.2.1 EXERCISE 1: Using your own target articles to build a

Discussion model
In this Unit you are encouraged to use the reverse-engineering approach to

build a model that represents the Discussion section in current research
articles in your field that deal with your own research topic.
With the above symmetrical diagram in mind, generate a list of potential
components by reverse engineering the Discussion sections of your target
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articles. To create this list, write a brief description of the function of each
sentence in the Discussion section of at least TWO target articles. When you
have finished, read the analysis of the simplified Discussion section below, and
then compare your list with the generic model on page 208. Some components
in your list will be similar to those in the generic model; others will be specific
to the research topic you are dealing with, the current conventions of your
field, or the type of article you are writing. Integrate your list with the generic
list to produce a robust set of model components for the Discussion section in
your current research area, and adapt or update this as necessary.
An assessment of post V2D sequelae in disease survivors
Discussion
1 To our knowledge, the study reported here is the largest study of
patients who have survived the viral disease V2D, and provides a key
contribution to the understanding of post-V2D health issues following
infection. 2 Our study is the first to record a wide range of post-V2D
complications, and provides clear evidence that survivors who
experience a given symptom during V2D infection often present with a
closely-related symptom within 300 days following infection. 3 This was
particularly true in relation to some specific complications, such as
hearing loss (Fig. 1). 4 A key finding was that some post-V2D health
issues appear to be age-related: infants below the age of 2 experienced
post-V2D cardiac complications far less frequently than adults
irrespective of the severity of such complications during the acute stage
(Figs. 2a and 2b). 5 This has clear implications for post-V2D-related
public health management, and suggests that when resources are
limited, cardiac screening priority could be given to adults.
6 Some questions remain; for example, anecdotal evidence
collected from patients during the study period suggested that there
was a positive correlation between viral load at the acute stage and
the severity of post-V2D health issues. 7 However, this was not addressed
formally during the study. 8 Although many studies have quantified
viral load during acute V2D17,22,27,33, a direct comparison with the
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post-viral period would provide valuable data to support such a

correlation.
9 V2D RNA is known to persist in the bodies of survivors long after
disease onset30,42, and the results of our study provide compelling
evidence that follow-up of all convalescent patients is warranted for at
least 10 months after discharge from hospital. 10 In addition, the study
provides evidence-based guidance for pragmatic public health
recommendations that include age-related follow-up and treatment of
post-V2D complications.
4.2.2 Key

In Sentence 1 To our knowledge, the study reported here is the largest
study of patients who have survived the viral disease V2D, and provides
a key contribution to the understanding of post-V2D health issues
following infection. the writer explicitly identifies the contribution of
the study in relation to the existing literature and knowledge.
Doesn’t ‘to our knowledge’ sound a bit weak? Aren’t I supposed to know
whether it is the largest study or not?
In Sentence 1, the writer includes the phrase to our knowledge in case a study
has been overlooked accidentally. Even after every effort has been made to
search all relevant journals, it is difficult to be absolutely sure that no-one has
ever done a particular type of study until now. Immediately before submission
you should check current research as thoroughly as possible, using a wide
range of keywords. The information you get from the internet will only be as
good as your skill in looking for it, and it is unprofessional to make a mistake
in a sentence like this. Research develops and is published at a very fast rate,
and during the time it takes to submit to your target journal/receive peer
review/redraft and resubmit, it is possible that similar research may have been
published. If that is the case, don’t panic. It may only be necessary to review
and clarify the similarities and differences between your study and others in
order to separate and identify the contribution yours makes to the topic.
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Why begin the Discussion with this?

In the Methods and Results subsections, the writer can create a reader-
friendly entry by beginning with a general statement about the content of
that subsection. For example, in Unit 3 we saw that writers sometimes begin
the Results section with a general statement about the results. However,
although some Discussion sections do begin with a general statement about
what the Discussion will contain, this is not common. In most cases, the
Discussion begins in one of the following two ways, both of which create a
clear path to the destination or take-home message of the article:
1. Identifying the achievement, contribution or potential applications

of the study
The achievement, contribution, potential applications and impact of
the study are key factors in relation to research funding and professional
reputation, and this is driving a trend towards transparent and unambiguous
statements about impact in the Abstract and the Discussion/Conclusion.
Identifying the achievement, contribution or potential applications at the
start of the Discussion sets up a thematic framework that keeps the impact
firmly in your own mind as well as in the mind of the reader. The achievement
may be obvious to you and to your immediate colleagues, but it is by no
means certain that it will be obvious to all readers, particularly interdisciplinary
readers.
Another reason for identifying the impact or value of the study early in
the Discussion is that the reader may have a simple question that is governing
a fast and highly selective reading of the article, such as What exactly did this
study manage to achieve? or How does this study affect my own research?
The reader may be an interdisciplinary reader with minimal knowledge of
the technical aspects of the study, whose question is a more practical one:
What are the potential applications of these findings? Beginning the
Discussion by stating the achievement, contribution or potential applications
is a strong response to this type of information-surfing.
2. ‘Rebooting’ the reader by:

revisiting relevant background factual information.
•

revisiting the gap in the literature or the aim of the study.
•

revisiting key features of results or methods.
•

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As discussed in the Preface, most readers don’t read the entire research article
linearly from beginning to end. Many only read the Title, Abstract and
Discussion/Conclusion, and these need to be viable as standalone, independent
communications. In addition, even if the reader has read the entire article up
to this point, it should not be assumed that they have read it with the same
focus and concentration as the writer, or that they remember everything they
have read. For these reasons, writers often re-position or reboot the reader
at the start of the Discussion section by restating relevant aspects of the study.
If I decide to ‘reboot’ the reader, how do I choose which part/s of the article
to revisit?
The success of the Discussion relies on a controlling narrative that clearly
identifies the primary value of the study, and that takes the reader logically
and effectively to the Conclusion. That narrative begins with the first sentence
of the Discussion, so thinking about the main achievement or contribution of
your study (see Section 4.1.1) may help you decide what to focus on first. For
example, if the main contribution of your study is the change or modification
you have made to an existing method, you might begin by revisiting the
difficulties associated with that existing method, or by revisiting the key features
and comparative advantages of your new method. If the main achievement
of your study is that your results are more accurate than existing results, or
reveal new information, you may begin by revisiting your results. If the main
contribution of your study is that it provides a strong response to the gap or
problem identified in the Introduction, you may begin by revisiting that gap.
Using similar sentences to those in the section you have chosen to revisit
will provide an echo for the reader and will help them recall or find that
section. As always, reverse engineer by looking at how writers in your target
journals start the Discussion section.
In Sentence 2 Our study is the first to record a wide range of post-V2D

complications, and provides clear evidence that survivors who
experience a given symptom during V2D infection often present with a
closely-related symptom within 300 days following infection. the writer
identifies the specific novel feature of the study in relation to the
existing literature, and summarises the results.
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In what way might my study fit into the existing literature?

Mapping the study onto the existing literature and knowledge identifies where
your ‘product’ sits in the research ‘market’. Mapping is a central function of
the Discussion and demonstrates how the study moves the research topic
forward. For example, your method may generate results faster than previous
methods, which could affect the status of those methods and their application.
Your study may confirm results obtained in a previous study, which would
validate that study, and perhaps also its conclusions. Alternatively, your study
may contradict results obtained in a previous study, which would raise a
question about those results and potentially set a new direction for research.
How many citations should there be in the Discussion?

Citations are essential to position your study and separate your contribution
from previous knowledge. You can get a rough idea of what is normal for a
given topic in a particular journal by simply averaging the number of citations
in the Discussion sections of your target articles. Pay attention to the function
of each citation, its location, how often that particular citation is repeated, and
how each citation supports the Discussion. Every citation should be relevant,
and its relevance should be made explicit to the reader via the narrative.
In the example below, sentences that develop the relationship between the
current study and existing research/knowledge have been ‘lifted’ off a Discussion
to show how the narrative is constructed around the citations. It is particularly
useful to look at the way the sentences start, as these phrases develop the
relationship between the current study and the existing literature and knowledge.
We first demonstrated that ___________, consistent with the literature

(2, 4, 45).
In particular, ___________ was shown to___________ (40).
Regarding this concern, Söderholm et al. (45) reported that ___________.
In contrast, O’Malley et al. (34) reported___________.
To verify this assumption, ___________was used, as previously depicted for
___________ (7, 38).
Using ___________, Lai et al. (27) demonstrated that ___________.
As a result, ___________, as determined by Rahli et al. (36).
In line with this, a recent in vivo study by Wrzosek et al. (47) clearly showed
that___________.
Likewise, the role of ___________has been proposed by Gaudier et al. (18).
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Edited extract from: Stress disrupts intestinal mucus barrier in rats

via mucin O-glycosylation shift: prevention by a probiotic
treatmentq
Discussion
IBS is a multifactorial disease, frequently associated with psychological
distress and characterized by altered gastrointestinal motor function,
viscerosensitivity, and, more recently, low-grade inflammation and
impaired intestinal barrier function. Noteworthy, a positive correlation
between increased intestinal permeability and visceral pain has been
shown in IBS patients (2). Since stressful life events contribute to the
IBS symptom exacerbation, the most commonly animal models
reproducing “IBS-like” symptoms result from the use of central nervous
system-directed stressors (33). In this study, WAS was used as a reliable
model of chronic psychological stress. We first demonstrated that a
4-day WAS induced intestinal epithelial barrier impairment, consistent
with the literature (2, 4, 45). In particular, for WAS, colonic permeability
increase was shown to occur from the third day of a 5-day stress
application (40). […] information regarding the effects of chronic stress
on mucus barrier, a major actor ensuring intestinal barrier integrity,
remains scarce in IBS-like models. Regarding this concern, Söderholm
et al. (45) reported that a 10-day WAS decreased the number of
mucus-containing goblet cells in the ileum and colon and increased
bacterial adhesion. A reduction in the goblet cell number was also
depicted in the duodenum of maternally deprived rats (15). In contrast,
O’Malley et al. (34) reported an increased colonic mucus secretion
and number of goblet cells in maternally deprived rats.
[…] Larsson et al. (29) depicted in active phase UC patients an
altered Muc2 O-glycosylation profile, which was correlated with
inflammation severity. Such profile was characterized by changes in
the rate of glycanic structures and decreased overall sulfation (29).
More recently, the same group showed that mucus of patients with
active UC was penetrable ex vivo to 2-μm-sized fluorescent beads (24),
suggesting that biochemical changes in mucins impact mucus
“penetrability,” resulting in a loss of barrier integrity. In this framework,
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“9x6”
we hypothesized that structural O-glycan alterations induced by stress

may in turn change the physical properties of intestinal mucus. To verify
this assumption, AFM was used, as previously depicted for the
characterization of conformational and hydrodynamic properties of
individual mucin polymers (7, 38). […] At the nanoscale, mucus has
been described as a heterogeneous mesh network of mucin fibers (41,
44). Using engineered nonmucoadhesive nanoparticles, Lai et al. (27)
demonstrated that the mesh structure of human cervicovaginal mucus
was more open (average pore size 340 ± 70 nm, range ∼50–1800 nm)
than the 15- to 100-nm pore size expected. […] As a result, the mucus
network may exhibit higher pore size and increased permeability
since, for a given porosity (in the range 0–0.7), the permeability of a
fibrous network is directly proportional to the square of the fiber
diameter, as determined by Rahli et al. (36) for porous media made
up of randomly packed monodisperse fibers.
[…] Direct or indirect regulation of glycosylation enzymes may be
a possible candidate. In line with this, a recent in vivo study by Wrzosek
et al. (47) clearly showed that commensal bacteria, such as
Bacteroidetes thetaiotaomicron, could directly influence goblet cell
development and enhance expression of genes encoding host
enzymes involved in mucin glycosylation, like sialyltransferase st3gal4.
In an in vitro study, Freitas et al. (17) deciphered the ability of a heat
soluble factor from B. thetaiotaomicron to modulate specifically the
galactosylation pattern of HT29-MTX cells, through a mechanism
involving posttranslational induction of glycosyltransferase activities.
Likewise, the role of other bacterial metabolites, and particularly
butyrate, as factors directly acting on mucin glycosylation has been
proposed by Gaudier et al. (18). […]
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Can I cite a study in the Discussion that I have not mentioned

earlier?
This depends on how relevant the citation is to your Discussion. Citations
that mention the interpretations of data in another study or applications
discussed in another study are highly relevant to the Discussion, and as such
could be mentioned there for the first time.
How do I know which tense to use?

Reverse engineering a recent target text will generate useful data about verb
tense in the Discussion. For example, the number of sentences in the Present
Simple tense that provide background factual information will give you
a good idea of how common — and therefore how necessary — such
information is for the type of study you are doing and the readership you are
targeting.
Why is Sentence 2 in the Present Simple tense?

Verb tense is often a matter of choice, in which case it reflects what the
writer wants to communicate rather than referring to when an event
occurred. In Unit 1 (Section 1.5.1 Verb tense choices) it was noted that
tense choice can communicate the writer’s confidence in the permanent
value or permanent truth of a statement. For example, if we were to rewrite
Sentence 2 above in the Past Simple tense (…clear evidence that survivors
who experienced a given symptom during V2D infection often presented
with a closely-related symptom following infection.) the sentence would
just describe what the authors found in their study. Using the Past Simple
tense implies that the results are linked to that study rather than being
presented as permanent, independent truths. By contrast, choosing the
Present Simple tense (…clear evidence that survivors who experience a
given symptom during V2D infection often present with a closely-related
symptom following infection.) empowers the statement, and reflects the
writer’s belief that the findings are reliable enough to constitute a permanent,
independent truth.
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Unlike most decisions regarding the conventions of academic writing in

science, choosing which tense to use for communicating results and the
implications of results cannot really be resolved by looking at target articles
for guidance. In most cases, the writer needs to make his or her own decision
about whether the data is robust enough to support a statement in the
Present Simple tense. Notice that even when the Present Simple tense is
chosen, it is possible to include some disclaimers that mitigate the writer’s
confidence in or commitment to the statement: often present with a closely-
related symptom.
In Sentences 3 and 4 This was particularly true in relation to some

specific complications, such as hearing loss (Fig. 1). A key finding was
that some post-V2D health issues appear to be age-related: infants
below the age of 2 experienced post-V2D cardiac complications far less
frequently than adults irrespective of the severity of such complications
during the acute stage (Figs. 2a and 2b). the writer revisits the results
and comments on them (particularly true…a key finding was…appear
to be…far less).
I’ve been told that the Discussion section shouldn’t repeat the results. Should
I mention the results at all? And if so, how do I mention them without
repeating them?
There is considerable overlap between the Results and Discussion sections.
For example, as we saw in Unit 3, in the Results section most writers include
a comment about what the results suggest or imply although in theory, this
belongs in the Discussion. Equally, it is difficult, if not impossible, to develop
the implications in the Discussion without referring to or repeating key results,
since they provide the evidence that underpins and validates those
implications. However, repeating or even re-wording key results is not
sufficient; the Discussion should move on from the Results. The aim of
research is not simply to obtain and describe results; it is to make sense of
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those results in the context of existing knowledge, and to say something

sensible and useful about their implications, i.e. what the results mean in
that context, and how they relate to the original question, hypothesis or
objective stated in the Introduction. Saying what your results are is the
central function of the Results section; going on to talk about or explore
what they mean is the central function of the Discussion.
Reverse engineering successfully-published texts will help you avoid a
‘should I or shouldn’t I?’ dilemma, and will focus your attention instead on
what successful writers actually do. If you examine the Discussion sections
in your target journals, you will see that virtually all Discussion sections repeat
or summarise key results in order to anchor the interpretations and
implications.
What if I’m not confident about what my results mean?

Science research never reaches an endpoint where everything is known about
a particular topic. Most science writers are careful not to make over-confident
generalisations because the next piece of research will refine and develop
the preceding one, and so on. However, it is equally important not to
underplay the implications of your work just to be on the safe side, as this
undermines and diminishes it.
It is essential that the level of certainty you attribute to the meaning of
your results can be validated on the basis of those results and existing
knowledge. Choosing the appropriate language is critical here. If the language
you use to discuss the meaning of your results does not match or reflect the
power of the results this is likely to be a point of criticism at the peer-review
stage. You can choose language that shows you are confident about what
your results mean, or you can choose language that tells the reader you are
speculating about their meaning (see Section 3.5: The Certainty Continuum,
pages 183–186).
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Why are Sentences 3 and 4 in the Past Simple tense? Is that related to the
level of certainty?
As stated above, the writer chooses a verb tense that reflects the appropriate
level of confidence or certainty.
How do the verb tenses in these sentences affect the reader’s response?
A key finding was that some post-V2D health issues appeared to be age-
•

related…
A key finding was that some post-V2D health issues appear to be age-
•

related…
A key finding is that some post-V2D health issues appear to be age-
•

related…
It’s a good idea to highlight the verbs in the Discussion sections of your
target articles and consider how the tense affects your response as a reader.
Does the verb tense seem to ‘match’ the power of the results?
In Sentence 5 This has clear implications for post-V2D-related public

health management, and suggests that when resources are limited,
cardiac screening priority could be given to adults. the writer mentions
a potential application arising from the results.
Isn’t it better to mention potential applications at the end of the Discussion?

The end of the paper interfaces with the research world via suggestions for
future research, and with the real world via potential applications, so it is
certainly appropriate to mention applications at the end of the paper.
However, there seems to be a growing trend to state the main contribution
or applications at the start of the Discussion. In some cases, the potential
applications are themselves the main contribution of the study or a central
theme of the Discussion, which is a good reason for stating them at the start
of the Discussion. Check your target journal frequently to see how it is
responding to current trends and developments.
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Suppose my work doesn’t have any obvious or current applications?

Although many studies don’t have obvious applications, it’s a good idea to
check in two places before you give up on the idea. First, look at the
Introductions in your target articles as well as your own Introduction, because
the Introduction often mentions in what way this type of research can be
used. Another possible source is the Discussion or Conclusion section of your
target articles, as these may include speculations about potential future
applications.
Including potential applications shows the value of your study beyond
the aims of your specific research question. However, research has many
functions — it may clarify a theory, or it may simply add the next layer of
knowledge onto a developing field, so the type of research you do may not
have a clear application at this stage, or ever.
In Sentences 6, 7 and 8 Some questions remain; for example, anecdotal

evidence collected from patients during the study period suggested that
there was a positive correlation between viral load at the acute stage
and the severity of post-V2D health issues. However, this was not
addressed formally during the study. Although many studies have
quantified viral load during acute V2D17,22,27,33, a direct comparison with
the post-viral period would provide valuable data to support such a
correlation. the writer mentions a limitation of the study (this was not
addressed formally during the study) that leads to a suggestion for
future research.
How do I decide which limitations to focus on here? Can I mention the

limitations of the study for the first time in the Discussion?
Most limitations derive from problems or issues encountered during the
study, and these are normally mentioned for the first time in the relevant
subsection. However, in this case, the anecdotal evidence was not a formal
or intentional part of the data collection procedure, nor was it presented as
a result. It is linked to a suggestion for future research, and as such it is
acceptable to mention it for the first time in the Discussion.
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Another possible reason for mentioning a limitation for the first time in
the Discussion is if you are finding it difficult to commit to your conclusions
because of the need for further work. This is a limitation that can be
mentioned in the Discussion and linked to an invitation to the research
community to continue and make further progress.
Why should I try to fix the direction of future work — why not let researchers
decide for themselves?
Good studies are rarely an end in themselves; in most cases, they open up
forward directions for research. Inviting the research community to follow
your work in a specific way has many advantages. First, it provides researchers
with a rational, defined project, which is more attractive than a vague
suggestion and therefore more likely to be carried out. Second, it encourages
a line of direct continuity from your research. Studies that follow from your
own will cite your paper, which enhances the status of your study. In addition,
a study which responds to difficulties or limitations that you encountered
may provide you with useful data for your current and future work. The
obvious question at this point therefore is: where should the research go
next?
In Sentence 9 V2D RNA is known to persist in the bodies of survivors

long after disease onset 30,42, and the results of our study provide
compelling evidence that follow-up of all convalescent patients is
warranted for at least 10 months after discharge from hospital. the
writer mentions background factual information in the literature (is
known to persist) to support the conclusions of the study.
Do I really need to add more background information even at this late

stage?
As stated above, paying attention to the function of each citation in the
Discussion section of your target articles, its location, and how it supports the
Discussion will give you a benchmark for current writing in your field. The
number and location of sentences in the Present Simple that cite background
factual information will give you a good idea of how common — and how

necessary — such information is at each point in the Discussion section.
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In Sentence 10 In addition the study provides evidence-based guidance

for pragmatic public health recommendations that include age-related
follow-up and treatment of post-V2D complications. the writer closes
strongly with the applications of the study.
4.2.3 A Discussion model

Now compare the sentence descriptions below with the list you made in
Section 4.2.1, Exercise 1:
In Sentence 1, the explicitly identifies the contribution of the study in

writer relation to the existing literature and knowledge.
In Sentence 2, the identifies the specific novel feature of the study in
writer relation to the existing literature, and summarises the
results.
In Sentences 3 revisits the results and comments on them.
and 4, the writer
In Sentence 5, the mentions a potential application arising from the
writer results.
In Sentences 6, 7 mentions a limitation of the study that leads to a
and 8, the writer suggestion for future research.
In Sentence 9, the mentions background factual information in the
writer literature to support the conclusions of the study.
In Sentence 10, closes strongly with the applications of the study.
the writer
These can be streamlined to create a basic, generic Discussion model (see

next page). Integrate this model with the list of components you created in
Section 4.2.1 to generate a robust set of model components for the
Discussion section in your own current research area which you will adapt
or update as your research develops. The order of components is reasonably
fluid; however, those at the top of the list tend to occur early in the Discussion
while those at the bottom tend to occur later or towards the end.
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GENERIC DISCUSSION MODEL

ANNOUNCE THE STRUCTURE OR CONTENT OF THE DISCUSSION SECTION
STATE THE ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY*
REVISIT BACKGROUND INFORMATION/LITERATURE TO ‘REBOOT’ READER
REVISIT GAP/AIM/METHOD
REVISIT RESULTS AND EXPLORE THEIR IMPLICATIONS
MAP TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE FOR COMPARISON/SUPPORT
IDENTIFY POTENTIAL LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

RESTATE THE ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION/IMPACT OF THE STUDY
IDENTIFY POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

*Note: The ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION of the study is the most free-flowing
component — in some cases it occurs both at the start and at the end, as in this model;
in others it occurs throughout the Discussion.
Is there a difference between the ACHIEVEMENT and the CONTRIBUTION?

Sometimes they are the same thing. The achievement is internal to the study
and is linked to the success of resolving the specific research question stated
in the Introduction. For example, if the study aimed to identify something,
then identifying it is the achievement of the study. It’s easier for the reader
to track this if the writer uses the same verb, rather than switch to a so-called
synonym such as find or detect. The contribution is more outward-facing,
essentially how the study affects the real or research world in terms of
applications or knowledge.
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4.3. Testing and Adjusting the Basic Generic Model

Identify the model components in the Discussion section below. Language
that exemplifies the model components is in bold type. Notice how the model
creates a narrative framework for the Discussion.
Rapid alloy prototyping: compositional and thermo-mechanical

high throughput bulk combinatorial design of structural materials
based on the example of 30Mn–1.2C–xAl triplex steelsp
5. Discussion
5.1 Microstructure and mechanical properties of the 30Mn–1.2C–xAl
steels
The novel bulk RAP approach introduced in this work provides, for
the first time, a systematic evaluation of the compositional and thermo-
mechanical trends associated with a change in the Al content of a group
of Triplex steels with high Mn and C concentrations. We observed that
without the addition of Al to the 30Mn–1.2C steels the most favourable
mechanical properties were obtained for the as-homogenised state
(Figs. 2 and 3a). The observed properties are in reasonable agreement
with data reported for Mn–C alloyed TWIP steels of a similar chemical
composition [27, 28]. The observed embrittlement during ageing can
be related to the formation of the coarse, pearlitic particles on the
grain boundaries [27] (Fig. 5a).
High amounts of Al ( ~8 wt.%), on the other hand, result in
pronounced strengthening during ageing, depending on the time and
temperature (Figs. 2 and 3c), and no coarse particles could be observed
in this case (Fig. 5c). In the light of previous results this typical
precipitation hardening behaviour, which allows tuning of the strength
and ductility, can be explained by the formation and growth of j carbides
during ageing [17, 18, 21]. Due to their reportedly small size, which is
of the order of several nanometres, the j carbides could not be reliably
detected or identified in the high throughput RAP OM observations
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conducted in this study. The darker particles visible in Fig. 5c might be

linked to j carbides.
Alloys with intermediate Al concentrations (about 2–6 wt.%) do
not offer mechanical properties on the same level compared with the
aforementioned extreme cases under their respective optimal
conditions (i.e. after the respective most suitable ageing treatments).
On the other hand, a much smaller influence of the ageing parameters
on tensile behaviour can be observed in these cases (Figs. 2 and 3b).
Within the limitations of this study (confined range of applied
heat treatments, OM investigations, etc.) this improved stability of the
mechanical properties during thermal exposure can be attributed to a
concerted formation of j carbides and grain boundary pearlite, balancing
the strengthening and embrittlement effects of intermediate amounts
of Al.
In general it should be underlined that detailed investigations of
the role of j carbides and pearlite particles on the deformation
mechanisms, as well as the precipitation type and the structural nature
of the j carbides (i.e. spinodal vs. nucleation/growth), require higher
resolution techniques, such as TEM or APT. Nonetheless, the mechanical
data on both RAP (Figs. 2 and 3) and conventionally synthesised and
processed alloys (Fig. 6a) are in good agreement with previously
reported values for Fe–Mn–Al–C steels [17,18]. The RAP results suggest
that future efforts regarding more detailed nanostructural investigations
should focus on such high-C triplex steels with high Al concentrations
(>8 wt.%), as they offer the possibility of covering the widest range of
mechanical properties via ageing treatments (scalability, Fig. 2) and
exhibit the lowest possible specific weight of all such steels.
4.3.2 EXERCISE 2: Identifying the model components

Here are two more Discussion sections from research articles in different
disciplines. They have been edited for length, and ellipses are marked as […].
In the first one, identifiers of the model are in bold in the first half of the
Discussion. In some cases, the verb is in bold to draw attention to the function
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of the verb tense. Underline the identifiers of the model in the second half
of the Discussion, and then underline the identifiers of the model for the
whole of the second Discussion.
Notice how the way the sentences start reveals the narrative scaffold
containing the information.
1 Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to heterotopic

ossi cationr
fi
Discussion
Heterotopic ossi cation is a disorder involving rapid bone formation within

fi
muscle, tendon, and ligaments, adjacent to skeletal bone, and it has been
linked to an elevation in BMP2 signaling [Shore and Kaplan, 2010]. Further,
the incidence of HO appears to be dramatically increased in individuals who
have sustained traumatic injury to the nervous system [Forsberg et al., 2009].
Here we determined whether localized changes in BMP signaling, which lead
to heterotopic bone formation, can also alter peripheral nerve signaling through
induction of neuroin ammation. Our results suggest that in the presence of
fl
BMP2, sensory neurons express mediators of neuroin ammation, resulting in
fl
the recruitment of mast cells and remodeling of the nerve structure.
BMP2 has been shown previously to induce the expression of the
neuroin ammatory mediators, substance P and CGRP, in sensory neuron
fl
cultures [Bucelli et al., 2008]. Here we quanti ed changes in these mediators,
fi
in vivo, after delivery of cells expressing BMP2. We found a signi cant and
fi
immediate elevation of both proteins, in relation to the control, which received
the same cells transduced with an Adempty virus. Interestingly, we observed
a strong correlation in elevation of these mediators, immediately following
our delivery of BMP2. However, as the process continued over time, we
observed a cyclical pattern in the expression of these mediators, with a
signi cant decline in expression on day 2, followed by a signi cant rise in
fi
fi
expression on day 3, and a trend towards another increase in expression by
day 6. Although BMP2 would presumably be expressed for the rst 3–4 days,
fi
prior to the rapid clearance of the cells [Fouletier-Dilling et al., 2007], the
kinetics of BMP2 receptor signaling in this model is unclear. Intriguingly, one
of the rst steps is the rapid formation of brown adipocytes within the tissues
fi
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[Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007]. We have previously shown brown adipocytes

to be necessary for patterning of the new bone, by their unique capacity to
regulate the oxygen microenvironment, not only by stimulation of new vessels,
but also by uncoupling of aerobic respiration and ‘‘burning’’ of oxygen
[Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007]. The result of this uncoupling is a release of energy
as heat, which could potentially re-stimulate sensory neurons to respond and
release substance P and CGRP. This could potentially explain the observed
cyclical nature of the response, suggesting secondary or tertiary signaling
events.
Performing the assay in animals lacking TRPV1, we saw a signi cant
fi
decrease in the volume of heterotopic bone formed, compared to animals with
functional TRPV1. The suppression, rather than complete ablation, suggests
that other TRPV family members present on sensory neurons may also
contribute to the induction of HO. Although we do not rule out alterations in
other peripheral nerve signaling to the central nervous system in these animals,
both substance P and CGRP were found to be signi cantly decreased in the
fi
TRPV1 mice. We still observed a trend towards an increase in substance P and
CGRP upon addition of the AdBMP2 transduced cells. However, this was not
above the normal background levels observed in wild type mice, nor was it
statistically signi cant for CGRP, and the induction was over three folds lower
fi
for SP, so it is unclear whether this contributes to HO. The result that BMP2
does not induce SP or CGRP in TRPV1 mice is not surprising, as it has been
previously shown that TRPV1 induces SP in response to capsaicin [Theriault
et al., 1979] and that TRPV1 also controls heat- and acid-induced CGRP release
from sensory nerves [Kichko and Reeh, 2009]. In addition, previous studies
have revealed decreased injury-induced neuropeptide release in TRPV1 mice
[Wang and Wang, 2005]. While TRPV1 is unquestionably involved in pain and
neuroin ammation, TRPV has also been found to be involved in diabetes
fl
[Razavi et al., 2006] and obesity [Motter and Ahern, 2008]. Whether this is
by the same mechanism proposed here, or by alternative mechanisms, remains
undetermined. Consequently, deletion of TRPV1 could have additional
pleiotropic effects. TRPV1 mice receiving Adempty transduced cells did not
produce heterotopic bone, which is in line with our previous ndings that
fi
Adempty transduced cells have not produced HO in any animal model we have
tested [Olmsted-Davis et al., 2002].
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Mast cells are known to be recruited to nerves during times of

neuroin ammation. Upon degranulation, mast cells release a number of
fl
digestive factors, chymases, tryptases, and other enzymes, which can cleave
proproteins, leading to their activation. These factors appear to be essential
for tissue remodeling of not only the nerve, but also other surrounding tissues,
including the vasculature [Johnson et al., 1988; Richardson and Vasko, 2002;
Kleij and Bienenstock, 2005; Schaible et al., 2005; Kulka et al., 2008]. Nerve
remodeling is thought to be part of neurite outgrowth, or the ability to remodel
and extend neurons. Perhaps this process is utilized to innervate the newly
forming HO. Alternatively, Adameyko et al. [2009] recently demonstrated the
presence of a stem cell population residing within peripheral nerves that would
migrate from the nerve to undergo melanocyte differentiation. We quanti ed
fi
the number of mast cells after induction of HO and found a signi cant elevation
fi
in this population within 48 h, when compared to tissues receiving the control
cells. We observed an upward trend in the number of mast cells on all days.
However, perhaps due to the immune response evoked to clear the injected
cells, there was also an increase in mast cell numbers in the control tissues,
leading to a signi cant difference only on day 2. Further, we observed the mast
fi
cells, within the rst 48 h, associating with the nerves and within the nerves,
fi
as compared to control tissues where the mast cells were usually located
randomly throughout the tissues. It is intriguing that we observed the most
signi cant difference at these early stages, since this appears to parallel our
fi
ndings for the release of SP and CGRP within the tissues, suggesting mast
fi
cells may be recruited after release of these factors.
[…]
We next looked at whether the nerve remodeling was releasing cells that
were essential to bone formation. As noted above, it has been previously
demonstrated that precursors in peripheral nerves are the origin of skin
melanoctyes. Therefore, mast cell degranulation, and subsequent nerve
remodeling, was blocked using cromolyn, and we observed a signi cant
fi
decrease in HO. We next analyzed the nerves from these animals and found
an increase in cells expressing markers of early stem cells (nanog and Klf4).
These primitive markers were sporadic in the nerves of untreated animals, but
completely covered the nerve in the cromolyn treated animals. This not only
suggests that the early tissue changes lead to expansion of these cells, but also
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that the pool size of these cells within the nerve of untreated animals is
extremely low, due to concomitant and rapid migration and differentiation.
However, blockade of these latter steps with cromolyn leads to accumulation
of these cells expressing primitive markers within the nerve. We note here,
however, that the mechanisms of cromolyn action are incompletely understood.
Although cromolyn is widely characterized as a ‘‘mast cell-stabilizer’’ (i.e., an
agent that blocks the release of mast cell mediators following appropriate
activation of the cell) that can suppress mouse mast cell function in vivo, its
molecular targets are neither fully de ned nor restricted to mast cells [Galli
fi
et al., 2008]. Moreover, while the mechanism of action of cromolyn mainly
involves mast cell degranulation [Cox, 1967], other mechanisms, such as
inhibition of neutrophils and eosinophil induced chemotaxis [Bruijnzeel et al.,
1990], have also been described.
To our surprise, we observed osterix positive cells on the nerve as early
as day 2, in the presence of cromolyn. There were also cells that expressed
primitive stem cell factors, which appeared to simultaneously express osterix,
suggesting that these cells are osteoblast precursors. The majority of osterix
positive expression was associated with the nerve. We also observed Klf-4+ and
nanog+ cells that were not associated with osterix, suggesting that these cells
may have other potentials. Besides osteoblasts, another possible fate of these
cells may be brown adipocytes, which we have shown previously to be critical
for reduction of the oxygen tension in the microenvironment for cartilage
formation [Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007] and for secreting VEGF for vessel
formation [Dilling et al., 2010]. It has recently been noted that the Misty mouse
phenotype [Sviderskaya et al., 1998], which is de cient in brown fat, is caused
fi
by a mutation in dock 7 [Blasius et al., 2009], a neuronal factor that regulates
Schwann cell migration and neuronal polarity. It is intriguing to speculate that
brown fat progenitors may also reside in peripheral nerves, particularly since
TRPV1 responds to heat [Szallasi et al., 2007]. Additionally, it is interesting that
the mutation in a single neuronal protein, dock7, not only dramatically increases
HO in the Misty mouse [Olmsted-Davis et al., 2007], but also causes severe
osteoporosis in the skeletal bone (Rosen C., unpublished). Further, we previously
demonstrated the rapid formation of new vessels early after BMP2 induction
[Dilling et al., 2010], suggesting that several types of tissues are being assembled
simultaneously during this period. Osterix has previously been suggested to
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play a role in osteoblast lineage commitment of progenitors, suppressing the

adipose phenotype [Cheng et al., 2003]. Perhaps the early osterix expression,
4 days prior to the appearance of osteoid matrix, may be part of a regulatory
mechanism to preserve these cells for future osteogenic fate. Finally, although
not highlighted in this manuscript, we did observe osterix positive cells, at later

times, in vessel-like structures that co-aligned with early endothelial markers,
such as k 1, which we have previously identi ed as characteristic of this early
fl
fi
vasculogenesis [Dilling et al., 2010]. This notion supports the work of Lounev
et al. [2009], suggesting that osteoblast progenitors reside within the newly
forming vessels, have a Tie 2 marker, and are not derived from marrow [Kaplan
et al., 2007]. Other investigators have also provided evidence for this concept
of osteoblast progenitors being associated with the vasculature [Kolf et al.,
2007; Medici et al., 2010].
This study is the rst step in identifying a potential direct role for the
fi
peripheral nervous system in the induction of heterotopic ossi cation. The data
fi
suggest that early neuroin ammation, elicited in the presence of BMP2, may
fl
be capable of expanding a population of cells within the nerve, which can
migrate and potentially contribute to a number of structures, rapidly assembling
to produce HO. Suppression of these steps signi cantly decreases HO formation.
fi
Although it is unclear what effects this may have on the adjacent skeletal bone,
the data suggest that there is direct communication with the hypothalamus,
which could, in part, signal to impact bone remodeling. Understanding these
earliest steps of HO will, for the rst time, provide us novel targets for
fi
therapeutic intervention, which may ultimately lead to effective treatments.
Finally, it is conceivable that such a mechanism could play a role in many other
disease states, including neuro bromatosis and vascular calci cation.
fi
fi
2 Supervised learning in spiking neural networks with FORCE trainings
Discussion
We have shown that FORCE training can take initially chaotic networks of spiking
neurons and use them to mimic the natural tasks and functions demonstrated
by populations of neurons. For example, these networks were trained to learn
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low-dimensional dynamical systems, such as oscillators which are at the heart

of generating both rhythmic and non rhythmic motion45. We found FORCE
training to be robust to the spiking model employed, initial network states,
and synaptic connection types.
Additionally, we showed that we could train spiking networks to display
behaviors beyond low-dimensional dynamics by altering the supervisor used
to train the network. For example, we trained a statistical classi er with a
fi
network of Izhikevich neurons that could discriminate its inputs. Extending the
notion of an oscillator even further allowed us to store a complicated sequence
in the form of the notes of a song, reproduce the singing behavior of songbirds,
and encode and replay a movie scene. These tasks are aided by the inclusion
of a high-dimensional temporal signal (HDTS) that discretizes time by
segregating the neurons into assemblies.
FORCE training is reminiscent of how songbirds learn their stereotypical
learned songs35,46. Juvenile songbirds are typically presented with a species
speci c song or repertoire of songs from their parents or other members of
fi
their species. These birds internalize the original template song and
subsequently use it as an error signal for their own vocalization35–37,39,46–49.
Our model reproduced the singing behavior of songbirds with FORCE training
as the error correction mechanism. Both the spiking statistics of area RA and
the song spectrogram were accurately reproduced after FORCE training.
Furthermore, we demonstrated that altering the balance between excitation
and inhibition post training degrades the singing behavior post-training. A
shift to excess excitation alters the spectrogram in a highly non-linear way
while a shift to excess inhibition reduces the amplitude of all frequencies.
Inspired by the clock-like input pattern that songbirds use for learning and
replay35,36 we used a similar HDTS to encode a longer and more complex
sequence of notes in addition to a scene from a movie. We found that these
signals made FORCE training faster and the subsequent replay more accurate.
Furthermore, by manipulating the HDTS frequency we found that we could
speed up or reverse movie replay in a robust fashion. We found that compressing
replay resulted in higher frequency oscillations in the mean population activity.
Attenuating the HDTS decreased replay performance while transitioning the
mean activity from a 4–8Hz oscillation to a slower (≈2Hz) oscillation. Finally,
replay of the movie was robust to lesioning neurons in the replay network.
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While our episodic memory network was not associated with any
particular hippocampal region, it is tempting to conjecture on how our results
might be interpreted within the context of the hippocampal literature. In
particular, we found that the HDTS conferred a slow oscillation in the mean
population activity reminiscent of the slow theta oscillations observed in the
hippocampus. The theta oscillation is strongly associated to memory; however,
its computational role is not fully understood, with many theories proposed50–53.
For example, the theta oscillation has been proposed to serve as a clock for
memory formation50,54.
Here, we show a concrete example that natural stimuli that serve as proxies
for memories can be bound to an underlying oscillation in a population of
neurons. The oscillation forces the neurons to re in discrete temporal
fi
assemblies. The oscillation (via the HDTS) can be sped up, or even reversed
resulting in an identical manipulation of the memory. Additionally, we found
that reducing the HDTS input severely disrupted replay and the underlying
mean population oscillation. This mirrors experimental results that showed
that theta power was predictive of correct replay55. Furthermore, blocking the
HDTS prevents learning and prevents accurate replay with networks trained
with an HDTS present. Blocking the hippocampal theta oscillation
pharmacologically56 or optogenetically57 has also been found to disrupt learning.
The role of the HDTS is reminiscent of the recent discovery of time cells,
which also serve to partition themselves across a time interval in episodic
memory tasks58–60. How time cells are formed is ongoing research however they
are dependent on the medial septum, and thus the hippocampal theta
oscillation61. Time cells have been found in CA158, CA362 and temporally selective
cells occur in the entorhinal cortex63.
In a broader context, FORCE trained networks could be used in the future
to elucidate hippocampal functions. For example, future FORCE trained
networks can make use of biological constraints such as Dale’s law in an effort
to reproduce veri ed spike distributions for different neuron types with regards
fi
to the phase of the theta oscillation64. These networks can also be explicitly
constructed to represent the different components of the well studied
hippocampal circuit.
FORCE training is a powerful tool that allows one to use any suf ciently
fi
complicated dynamical system as a basis for universal computation. The primary
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difficulty in implementing the technique in spiking networks appears to be

controlling the orders of magnitude between the chaos inducing weight matrix
and the feedback weight matrix. If the chaotic weight matrix is too large in
magnitude (via the G parameter), the chaos can no longer be controlled by the
feedback weight matrix1. However, if the chaos inducing matrix is too weak,
the chaotic system no longer functions as a suitable reservoir. To resolve this,
we derived a scaling argument for how Q should scale with G for successful
training based on network behaviors observed in ref. 1. Interestingly, the balance
between these fluctuations could be related to the fading memory property,
a necessary criterion for the convergence of FORCE trained rate networks65.
Furthermore, while we succeeded in implementing the technique in other
neuron types, the Izhikevich model was the most accurate in terms of learning
arbitrary tasks or dynamics. This is due to the presence of spike frequency
adaptation variables that operate on a much slower time scale than the
neuronal equations. There may be other biologically relevant forces that can
increase the capacity of the network to act as a reservoir through longer time
scale dynamics, such as synaptic depression and NMDA mediated currents for
example66–68.
Furthermore, we found that the inclusion of a high-dimensional temporal
signal increased the accuracy and capability of a spiking network to reproduce
long signals. In ref. 2, another type of high-dimensional supervisor is used to
train initially chaotic spiking networks. Here, the authors use a supervisor
consisting of O(N2) components (see ref. 2 for more details). This is different
from our approach involving the construction of an HDTS, which serves to
partition the neurons into assemblies and is of lower dimensionality than O(N2).
However, from ref. 2 and our work here, increasing the dimensionality of the
supervisor does aid FORCE training accuracy and capability. Finally, it is possible
that an HDTS would facilitate faster and more accurate learning in networks
of rate equations and more general reservoir methods as well.
Although FORCE trained networks have dynamics that are starting to
resemble those of populations of neurons, at present all top-down procedures
used to construct any functional spiking neural network need further work to
become biologically plausible learning rules1,5,8. For example, FORCE trained
networks require non-local information in the form of the correlation matrix
P(t). However, we should not dismiss the final weight matrices generated by
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these techniques as biologically implausible simply because the techniques

are themselves biologically implausible.
Aside from the original rate formulation in ref. 1, FORCE trained rate
equations have been recently applied to analyzing and reproducing experimental
data. For example, in ref. 69, the authors used a variant of FORCE training
(referred to as Partial In-Network Training, PINning) to train a rate network to
reproduce a temporal sequence of activity from mouse calcium imaging data.
PINning uses minimal changes from a balanced weight matrix architecture to
form neuronal sequences. In ref. 70, the authors combine experimental
manipulations with FORCE trained networks to demonstrate that preparatory
activity prior to motor behavior is resistant to unilateral perturbations both
experimentally, and in their FORCE trained rate models. In ref. 71, the authors
demonstrate the dynamics of reservoirs can explain the emergence of mixed
selectivity in primate dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex (dACC). The authors use
a modi ed version of FORCE training to implement an exploration/exploitation
fi
task that was also experimentally performed on primates. The authors found
that the FORCE trained neurons had a similar dynamic form of mixed selective
as experimentally recorded neurons in the dACC. Finally, in ref. 72, the authors
train a network of rate neurons to encode time on the scale of seconds. This
network is subsequently used to learn different spatio-temporal tasks, such as
a cursive writing task. These FORCE trained networks were able to account for
psychophysical results such as Weber’s law, where the variance of a response
scales like the square of the time since the start of the response. In all cases,
FORCE trained rate networks were able to account for and predict experimental
ndings. Thus, FORCE trained spiking networks can prove to be invaluable for
fi
generating novel predictions using voltage traces, spike times, and neuronal
parameters.
Top-down network training techniques have different strengths and uses.
For example, the Neural Engineering Framework (NEF) and spike-based coding
approaches solve for the underlying weight matrices immediately without
training5,6,8,9,11. The solutions can be analytical as in the spike based coding
approach, or numerical, as in the NEF approach. Furthermore, the weight matrix
solutions are valid over entire regions of the phase space, where as FORCE
training uses individual trajectories as supervisors. Multiple trajectories have
to be FORCE trained into a single network to yield a comparable level of global
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performance over a region. Both sets of solutions yield different insights into
the structure, dynamics, and functions of spiking neural networks. For example,
brain scale functional models can be constructed with NEF networks8. Spike-
based coding networks demonstrate how higher order error scaling is possible
by utilizing spiking sparsely and ef ciently through balanced network solutions.
fi
While the NEF and spike based coding approaches provide immediate weight
matrix solutions, both techniques are dif cult to generalize to other types of
fi
networks or other types of tasks. Both the NEF and spike based coding
approaches require a system of closed form differential equations to determine
the static weight matrix that yields the target dynamics.
In summary, we showed that FORCE can be used to train spiking neural
networks to reproduce complex spatio-temporal dynamics. This method could
be used in the future to mechanically link neural activity to the complex
behaviors of animals.
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This section lists words and phrases for the Discussion section from analysis of
over 2,500 published research articles in different disciplines. The list only includes
words and phrases which appear frequently and are therefore considered normal
and acceptable by writers and editors. The list will also keep the flow of writing
moving. Underneath each list there are examples of how the words and phrases
are used in sentences, so look at the list and the sentence examples when you
are feeling stuck and can’t think of what to write or how to continue.
Language suggestions for many of the components of the Discussion
have appeared in previous Units. For example:
• ANNOUNCE STRUCTURE OR CONTENT OF see Unit 1

DISCUSSION SECTION
• [REVISIT] LITERATURE see Unit 1
• [REVISIT] GAP/AIM OF STUDY see Unit 1

• [SUMMARISE/REVISIT] KEY FEATURES OF RESULTS/ see Units 2 and 3

METHOD
• RESULTS + EXPLANATION see Unit 3
• RESULTS + INTERPRETATION/IMPLICATION see Unit 3
• LIMITATIONS see Units 2 and 3
When you revisit previous sections, don’t change the language or the
sentence for the sake of style. Your aim is to create an echo that will remind
the reader of what was said before, so repeating the same words and phrases
is advantageous. By contrast, changing the language can be a disadvantage,
since it places a burden on the reader to work out whether it refers to the
same thing. For example, if the aim of the study as stated in the Introduction
was to identify something, it is helpful to the reader if the same verb is used
in the Discussion to describe the achievement of the study.
4.4.1 Language task

EXERCISE 3 The following five model components occur for the first time in
the Discussion:
1 MAP TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE
2 REFINE/EXPLORE IMPLICATIONS
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3 ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE
4 CURRENT AND FUTURE WORK
5 APPLICATIONS/USE/APPLICABILITY/IMPLEMENTATION
Look through the Discussion sections in this unit and in your target research
articles. Underline or highlight words or phrases that you think could be used
in these five areas, and compare your suggestions with the lists in Section 4.4.2.
4.4.2 Language for the Discussion section

1 MAP TO LITERATURE/KNOWLEDGE
an alternative scheme/strategy Verbs:

analogous to This study/These results
comparable to
consistent with challenge
contrary to compare well (with)
distinct from complement
entirely different confirm
equivalent to conflict (with)
except for contradict
fundamentally the same as correspond to
identical to corroborate
in accordance with differ from
in agreement with disprove
in conflict with expand
in contrast to extend
in good agreement (with) improve
in line with mirror
new/novel modify
previously described/reported/suggested pave the way for
rather than prove
recently provide insight into
significantly different (to/from) provide support for
similar refute
the first time/first of its kind resemble
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to the best of our knowledge, shed new light on

unlike substantiate
support
verify
Note: A simple comparative (e.g. stronger/more accurate/quicker) is also effective here,
and the GAP/PROBLEM language from Unit 1 is useful to recall previous/current knowledge
or show how the gap in the literature has been filled.
· Rather than being excluded as is often suggested, the sulfate reducers

seemed to be thriving.
· The frequency domain algorithm proposed here resembles the so–called

Frisch Scheme approach.
· Unlike existing control schemes, in this scheme the parameters can be

freely changed during operation.
· This is in agreement with results from recent studies which suggest that

iron reducers can modify their rate of respiration.
· Our data therefore provide support for the theory proposed by Stephen

Robbins [Robbins et al., 2013].
· The presented structure-based approach complements existing

experimental methods.
· This study extends previous research by analysing corporate brand and

industry image simultaneously.
· These results are consistent with the theory that fungal infection leads

to plant death.
· The current study therefore both confirmed and expanded prior

research into these mechanisms.
· On the basis of these results, we challenge the assumptions made by

existing physical-layer security systems.
2 REFINE/EXPLORE IMPLICATIONS
A full list of language to communicate implications can be found on page 182
IMPLICATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF RESULTS. The list reflects the fact
that in the Discussion the implications are sometimes expressed in a more
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abstract, general or theoretical way, or by using language that permits

evidence-based speculation.
plausible modal verbs (esp. may/might/could) Clearly,

potential Indeed,
tentative it is conceivable that… Perhaps
it is reasonable to assume that…
to hypothesise this is reinforced by…
to postulate this is substantiated by…
to speculate this points to…
to theorise we cannot rule out…
· It is conceivable that such a mechanism could play a role in many other

disease states.
· We postulate that Brownian motion of nanoparticles in nanofluids

produces convectionlike effects at the nanoscale.
· A tentative explanation is that the colloidal system may be agglomerated

at that treatment level.
· We hypothesize that our work could serve as a catalyst for new forms of

real-time interventions.
· It is intriguing to speculate that brown fat progenitors may also reside in

peripheral nerves.
· However, we do not rule out the possibility of a reaction with

hemicellulose and lignin.
3 ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION
It is essential to communicate the value of your study explicitly, and a
range of options is given in (i) Positive language (‘happy’ words). In some
cases, the achievement or contribution is extremely exciting or highly
significant. Science writing does not generally permit the use of the
exclamation mark (!), but there are many acceptable ways of communicating
that ‘wow!’ feeling, and these are listed in (ii) !-substitutes (‘very happy’
words).
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(i) Positive language (‘happy’ words)

accurate efficient reliable Verbs/verb prove
advantage encouraging robust phrases: provide a first
appealing entirely significant step
appropriate exact simple allow provide a
attractive fast smooth avoid framework
beneficial favourable stable compare well provide
clear feasible straightforward with evidence of
comprehensive flexible strong confirm provide insight
convenient important successful enable into
convincing intuitive superior enhance remove the
correct low-cost systematic ensure need for
cost-effective new unambiguous explain resolve
direct novel useful facilitate reveal
easy practical valid help to solve
economical precise valuable improve streamline
effective productive versatile is able to succeed in
realistic viable offer support
relevant outperform validate
yield
(ii) !-substitutes (‘very happy’ words)

compelling exciting powerful undeniable
crucial extraordinary remarkable unique
dramatic ideal superb unusual
excellent invaluable surprising unprecedented
exceptional outstanding striking unquestionably
perfect vital

· This results in a cost-effective approach which significantly improves

scalability.
· We were able to demonstrate a striking difference between neonates at

high and at low risk of atopy.
· This work demonstrates that multimodel predictions can provide a

more reliable estimate of uncertainty.
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· We describe not only neutral but also ionized systems with unprecedented

accuracy.
· The system described here enables fast and easy analysis of LRRC8

proteins.
· The study provides a first step towards a better representation of

southern African dust sources in dust emission models.
· We achieved outstanding performance compared to similar catalysts

reported in the literature.
· The rapid, easy-to-perform mRNA-based method presented here is a

robust approach to detect rare coding.
· The system described here provides novel means to systematically

study this in diseased tissues.
· A straightforward analysis procedure is presented which enables accurate

prediction.
· The model is thus both realistic and flexible, taking advantage of both

types of computational phantoms.
· The analytical method described here removes the need for difficult

and time consuming pre treatment.
‐
‐
4 CURRENT AND FUTURE WORK
a/the need for holds promise should be explored

at present possible direction should be investigated
currently research opportunities should be replicated
encouraging include… should be validated
fruitful starting point
promising the next stage further work is planned*
urgent we recommend future work/studies will*
we suggest is being investigated*
further work is worthwhile work is (currently)
needed would be beneficial/ underway*
future work/ useful work is in progress*
studies should would be of interest
*Note: These indicate that the writer is currently working on this; they are NOT suggestions
for research by others, or invitations to other researchers.
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· Future studies should investigate whether reducing household air

pollution may lead to improvement in cardiac morbidity.
· Developing a model able to answer all these questions is an exciting

challenge for future studies.
· Future work should focus on a qualitative analysis of patient-reported

benefits of group therapy.
· Further work is in progress to determine whether a different drought

response could help these trees to survive.
· In the future, it would be of interest to develop a more efficient

numerical method for simulating these system dynamics.
· To support these findings, variations in cfDNA test performance should

be investigated further.
· Recommendations for future studies include an investigation of

polysaccharide redundancy during cell wall assembly.
· Work is currently underway to determine the extent of this genetic

control.
· Future research opportunities include improving the measurement of

sustainability indicators.
5 APPLICATIONS/USE/APPLICABILITY/IMPLEMENTATION
eventually to apply applicable

in due course to enable appropriate
in future to facilitate feasible
soon to generalise operable
to generate practicable
to implement practical
to lead to realistic
to operate/put into operation suitable
to produce viable
to realise
to serve as
to use
to utilise
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· The study provides evidence-based guidance for realistic public health

recommendations.
· The dissection protocol outlined here is appropriate for all long bone

analyses including ex vivo imaging.
· The approach presented here is also suitable for problems where

structural information is incomplete.
· The experimental paradigm outlined here could be used to evaluate

future robotic social agents.
· The proposed technique could be implemented widely within the

bioprocess industry, including in the production of antibiotics.
· Although it focuses on the specific case of supernovae, the concepts

presented here are applicable to other astrophysical cases.
· Our protocol will enable the transport and storage of samples, thereby

facilitating mitochondrial function analysis of liver biopsies.
· We see miR-CLIP as a broadly applicable approach that can be used in

conjunction with others.
· This work shows that low-cost air quality sensor networks are feasible

for widespread use.
· The data reported in this study could eventually lead to recommendations

to guide optimal Clozapine use.
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4.5. Language and Writing Skills: Modal Verbs
Section 4.5 deals only with modal verb usage that is relevant for STEMM research
writing or formal academic writing. Modal verb usage in informal or spoken
communication, such as the use of may for permission, is not included.
To find out how reliable your current use of modal verbs is, match the
modal verbs in Column A to their meanings in Column B. Most modal verbs
can be used to communicate more than one meaning, so fill in the blank
spaces with as many options as you can.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
The model is able to predict a wide range of experimental
data.
= The model ___________ predict a wide range of
experimental data.
It is possible that these interactions are the same for each
1 should species.
= These interactions ___________ be the same for each
2 must species.
The ratio is expected to remain constant if the expansion is
3 can
uniform.
= The ratio ___________ remain constant if the expansion
4 may
is uniform.
5 could It is obvious that this is the result of direct collision

between the electron and the nucleus.
6 need to = This _________ be the result of direct collision between
the electron and the nucleus.
7 might It is advisable to centrifuge the tubes before the
experiment.
8 have to = The tubes __________ be centrifuged before the
experiment.
It is necessary to centrifuge the tubes before the
experiment.
= The tubes _________ be centrifuged before the
experiment.
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Now check your answers with this Key:
The model is able to predict a wide range of experimental data.

The model can/could predict a wide range of experimental data.
It is possible that these interactions are the same for each species.
These interactions may/might/could be the same for each species.
The ratio is expected to remain constant if the expansion is uniform.
The ratio should remain constant if the expansion is uniform.
It is obvious that this is the result of direct collision between the electron
and the nucleus.
This must be the result of direct collision between the electron and the
nucleus.
It is advisable to centrifuge the tubes before the experiment.
The tubes should be centrifuged before the experiment.
It is necessary to centrifuge the tubes before the experiment.
The tubes must/need to/have to be centrifuged before the experiment.
4.5.1 Using modal verbs in research writing

Science research is rarely conclusive; studies generally aim at achieving a
high level of certainty rather than irrefutable proof. Modal verbs such as may,
might, could, can, should, need to and must are used throughout the research
article to express levels of certainty and commitment. They are used in the
Introduction to offer hypotheses (could be due to…) and identify gaps (may
provide valuable insight into…); in the Methods section to validate choices
(this meant that we could measure …); and in the Results section to explain
results (this might have been affected by…).
In the Discussion section, modal verbs are used to perform a range of
functions, for example to communicate the writer’s belief that something is
a possible explanation, a potential application, an obvious interpretation, a
recommended direction for future work, or a probable implication. Here are
two short extracts from Discussion sections which show the prevalence of
modal verbs:
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… In the light of previous results this typical precipitation hardening

behaviour, which allows tuning of the strength and ductility, can be explained
by the formation and growth of κ carbides during ageing [17, 18, 21]. Due to
their reportedly small size, which is of the order of several nanometres, the
κ carbides could not be reliably detected or identified in the high throughput
RAP OM observations conducted in this study. The darker particles visible in
Fig. 5c might be linked to κ carbides.
Extract from Rapid alloy prototyping: compositional and thermo-
mechanical high throughput bulk combinatorial design of structural materials
based on the example of 30Mn–1.2C–xAl triplex steelsp
… Although it is unclear what effects this may have on the adjacent

skeletal bone, the data suggest that there is direct communication with the
hypothalamus, which could, in part, signal to impact bone remodeling.
Understanding these earliest steps of HO will, for the first time, provide us
novel targets for therapeutic intervention, which may ultimately lead to
effective treatments. Finally, it is conceivable that such a mechanism could
play a role in many other disease states, including neurofibromatosis and
vascular calcification.
Extract from Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to
heterotopic ossificationr
Using the appropriate modal verb in the appropriate tense is essential.

Incorrect, inconsistent, indiscriminate or careless choices make the take-home
message of the study unclear or ambiguous at this crucial point.
If you write:
The drop in pressure may have been caused by a crack in the pipe.
you are offering a possible cause for the drop in pressure; perhaps it was
caused by a crack in the pipe — and perhaps not.
If you write:
The drop in pressure must have been caused by a crack in the pipe.
you are saying that you are certain that the drop in pressure was caused by
a crack in the pipe, but you do not have evidence to prove it, perhaps because
evidence is impossible to obtain, or because it is so obvious that you don’t
need to provide evidence.
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Being certain that something is true and knowing that it is true are not the
same. For example, we do not look at a clock and say I’m certain it is ten o’clock
or It must be ten o’clock; we simply say it is ten o’clock. Interestingly, we only
say It must be ten o’clock if we cannot see a clock — in other words, when we
lack empirical evidence. Although must seems to give the verb more power, it
also communicates an absence of proof because when we say we are ‘sure’
that something is true, we are also involuntarily communicating that we don’t
actually know that it is true.
The grammar and usage of modal verbs is complex and does not follow
regular grammar rules. For example, most modal verbs have more than one
meaning: should can mean either ‘advisable’ or ‘likely’. In addition some
modal verbs change their meaning in the negative: He must go home and He
has to go home both mean that it is essential or necessary that he goes home.
However, He must not go home means that it is essential that he does not
go home, whereas He does not have to go home means that it is not essential
that he does go home.
An analysis of current research writing suggests that using alternative
structures, e.g. it is possible rather than it may, is becoming increasingly
common, perhaps because of these complexities and the risk of communicating
the wrong message. Therefore, in the examples below alternative structures
with the same or similar meaning are given where possible.
1 ABLE
Present CAN The model can predict a wide range of

Simple experimental data.
= The model is able to predict a wide range of
experimental data.
Present CANNOT This system cannot identify other pathogenic
Simple bacteria.
negative = This system is not able to identify other
pathogenic bacteria.
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Past COULD The algorithm could convert unstructured data

Simple into spreadsheet format.
= The algorithm was able to convert
unstructured data into spreadsheet format.
COULD With a larger sample size, the method could
HAVE have identified more infections.
= With a larger sample size, the method would
have been able to identify more infections.
Past COULD NOT The robot could not react dynamically to
Simple (was not changes in the environment.
negative able to) = The robot was not able to react dynamically to
changes in the environment.
COULD NOT Without this data, we could not have detected
HAVE the contamination.
(would not = Without this data, we would not have been
have been able to detect the contamination.
able to)
· If you’re not sure whether to use can or be able to, use be able to — it’s

safer and less likely to be misinterpreted.
· If you need the future tense, use will be able to: The model will

eventually be able to predict a wide range of experimental data.
· could means possible as well as able, so consider whether using could

makes the meaning ambiguous.
· could also refers to conditional/hypothetical ability: If there was a 100%

uptake of the vaccine, this could (would be able to) prevent infection.
· be capable of is an alternative to can/could in some contexts.

2 POSSIBLE/OPTIONAL
Present MAY These interactions may/could/might be

Simple MIGHT the same for each species.
COULD = It is possible that these interactions
are the same for each species.
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This intervention may/could/might lead

to effective treatments.
= It is possible that this intervention will
lead to effective treatments.
CAN The method presented here can/could/
may be extended to other systems.
= It is possible to extend the method
presented here to other systems.
Present MAY NOT These interactions may not/might not
Simple MIGHT NOT be the same for each species.
negative (but not COULD = It is possible that these interactions
NOT or are not the same for each species.
CANNOT; see
This intervention may not/might not
page 236)
lead to effective treatments.
= It is possible that this intervention will
not lead to effective treatments.
Past MAY HAVE This response may have/might have/
Simple MIGHT HAVE could have caused the reduction in the
COULD HAVE noise level.
(but not CAN = It is possible that this response caused
HAVE) the reduction in the noise level.
Past MAY NOT HAVE This response may not have/might not
Simple MIGHT NOT have caused the reduction in the noise
negative HAVE level.
(but not COULD = It is possible that this response did not
NOT HAVE or cause the reduction in the noise level.
CANNOT HAVE;
see page 236)
· The examples above show that in the Present Simple, may/might/could

refer to future possibilities (It is possible that this intervention will lead
to effective treatments) as well as current/permanent possibilities (It is
possible that these interactions are the same for each species).
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· might is slightly weaker than may, and it is less common in research

writing.
· Don’t use may/might/could just to stay safe or cover your back — if

you’re pretty sure about something and your results support your
interpretation, upgrade to phrases such as highly likely/probable/
almost certain.
· can is ambiguous and therefore risky. A sentence such as Particle

formation can occur in the boundary layer could mean any of the
following:
 Particle formation may [possibly] occur in the boundary layer.

 Particle formation is able to occur in the boundary layer.

 Particle formation sometimes occurs in the boundary layer.

Where there is a potential ambiguity, replace can with one of these.
· can is good for communicating options or choices: An X or a Y can be

used = It is possible to use either an X or a Y.
· can not does not mean the same as cannot! can not means possibly not

in the same way as may not or might not. It is used in structures such as
This can not only damage the sample, it may even destroy it completely.
By contrast, cannot means impossible (see page 236).
· could not, cannot have and could not have also mean impossible:

 This cannot be due to a change in pressure. (impossible)

 This could not be due to a change in pressure. (impossible)

 This cannot have been due to a change in pressure. (impossible)

 This could not have been due to a change in pressure. (impossible)

3 EXPECTED/LIKELY/PROBABLE
Present SHOULD The ratio should remain constant if the expansion is

Simple uniform.
= The ratio is expected to/is likely to/will probably
remain constant if the expansion is uniform.
Present SHOULD The ratio should not change unless the expansion
Simple NOT changes.
negative = The ratio is not expected to/is not likely to/will
probably not change unless the expansion changes.
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Past SHOULD Our data suggest that the decrease should have
Simple HAVE occurred during the first year.
= Our data suggest that the decrease was expected
to occur during the first year.
Past SHOULD Our data suggest that corrosion should not have
Simple NOT occurred for at least two years.
negative HAVE = Our data suggest that corrosion was not expected
to occur for at least two years.
· should have often refers to something that didn’t happen, whereas

should not have often refers to something that did happen.
· was likely/probable and was not likely/probable do not refer to

whether something did or did not happen; they refer to the level of
certainty about a past event.
· ought to is the same as should, but it is becoming less common in

science writing, so examples are not given.
4 OBVIOUS/IMPOSSIBLE
Present MUST This must be the result of direct collision

Simple HAVE TO between the electron and the nucleus.
= It is obvious that this is the result of direct
collision between the electron and the nucleus.
Present CANNOT This cannot be a result of direct collision
Simple between the electron and the nucleus.
negative = It is impossible that this is the result of direct
collision between the electron and the nucleus.
Past MUST HAVE This effect must have been due to the
Simple increased rate of synthesis.
= It is obvious that this effect was due to the
increased rate of synthesis.
Past CANNOT This effect cannot have been/could not have
Simple HAVE been due to the increased rate of synthesis.
negative COULD NOT = It is impossible that this effect was due to the
HAVE increased rate of synthesis.
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· OBVIOUS/IMPOSSIBLE modals are used when you mean that no other

explanation is possible.
· must not means not allowed, it doesn’t mean impossible.

· have to is only used in spoken communication.

To understand the difference between POSSIBLY, PROBABLY and OBVIOUS/
IMPOSSIBLE, imagine that it normally takes a colleague about 20 minutes to
walk home from the lab. Has she arrived home yet? Well, without checking,
if she left the lab 18 minutes ago, she may/might/could be home

by now (possibly),
if she left 30 minutes ago, she should be home by now (probably),
if she left 50 minutes ago, she must be home by now (obviously),
…but if she left only 5 minutes ago she cannot be home yet
(impossible).
5 ADVISABLE/RECOMMENDED
Present SHOULD The tubes should be centrifuged before the

Simple experiment.
= It is advisable to centrifuge the tubes before the
experiment.
Present SHOULD The tubes should not be centrifuged before the
Simple NOT experiment.
negative = It is not advisable to centrifuge the tubes before
the experiment.
Past SHOULD We later realised that the samples should have
Simple HAVE been diluted with water.
= We later realised that it would have been
advisable/a good idea to dilute the samples with
water.
Past SHOULD The samples should not have been diluted with
Simple NOT water.
negative HAVE = We later realised that it was not advisable/not a
good idea to dilute the samples with water.
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· should have often refers to something that didn’t happen, and should

not have often refers to something that did happen.
· ought to is the same as should, but it is becoming less common in

science writing, so examples have not been given.
We see from the above that should has two completely different meanings.
It can be used to communicate that something is EXPECTED/LIKELY/PROBABLE
and it can also be used to communicate that something is ADVISABLE/
RECOMMENDED. Here are some examples of each — can you separate them
into EXPECTED/LIKELY/PROBABLE and ADVISABLE/RECOMMENDED?
1. Each phial of cells should only be used once.

2. Vegetation productivity in tundra should increase if shrubs become

more abundant.
3. To avoid errors, the calibrated hygrometers should be kept at a

particular humidity.
4. Theorem 1 should not be used unless it is apparent that the

conventional assumptions are invalid.
5. This data should improve the accuracy of geophysical parameter

estimation techniques.
6. If extraction of the plasma cannot be performed immediately, the

sample should be stored in a deep-freeze.
7. An oil with added antioxidant should be used to prevent rancidity.

8. The introduction of carbon nanotubes as a structure element in

nanocomposites should improve the material properties.
9. Very alkaline soils should be washed thoroughly before using them for

analysis.
10. This data suggests that the birth rate should remain close to 50/1000

for the rest of the 20th century.
11. The bias is the same for all groups, and therefore should not change

the statistical results.
12. Graphical passwords should only be used with handheld devices.

13. All final solutions should be filtered through a fine-grain paper.

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6 NECESSARY/ESSENTIAL
Present MUST The tubes must/need to/have to be

Simple NEED TO centrifuged before the experiment.
HAVE TO = It is necessary to centrifuge the tubes
before the experiment.
Present DO NOT NEED TO The tubes do not need to/do not have
Simple DO NOT HAVE TO to/need not be centrifuged before the
negative NEED NOT experiment.
= It is not necessary to centrifuge the
tubes before the experiment.
Past NEEDED TO We found that the samples needed to/
Simple HAD TO had to be diluted with water.
= We found that it was necessary to
dilute the samples with water.
Past DID NOT NEED TO We found that the samples did not
Simple NEED NOT HAVE need to be/did not have to be/need
negative DID NOT HAVE TO not have been diluted with water.
= We found that it was not necessary to
dilute the samples with water.
· must not means not allowed, it doesn’t mean not necessary.

· did not need to usually means it wasn’t necessary, and we didn’t do it,

whereas need not have usually means it wasn’t necessary but we did do it.
· did not have to is less common in formal science research writing.

4.5.2 Modal sentences exercise

Rewrite these sentences using could, must, may, have to, should, can, might
or need to in the appropriate tense.
1. This software is capable of distinguishing between different viruses.

This software _____________________________________________
2. It is possible that the fall in pressure was due to a gas leak.

The fall in pressure _________________________________________
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3. It is essential to disconnect the equipment during repairs.

The equipment _____________________________________________
4. This material will probably remain stable if it is kept below 30°C.

This material ______________________________________________
5. It is impossible that the contamination was caused by the presence of salt.

The contamination _________________________________________
6. Children are not able to use symbols to represent objects until the age

of 18 months.
Children __________________________________________________
7. It is possible that using a rubber seal will not prevent contamination.

Using a rubber seal _________________________________________
8. The use of antioxidant compounds is not advised.

Antioxidant compounds _____________________________________
9. This material is not likely to decompose if it is kept below 30°C.

This material ______________________________________________
10. It was obvious that the bicarbonate was produced by the mineralisation

of carbon.
The bicarbonate ___________________________________________
11. We realised later that it was not necessary to expose the composite to heat.

We realised later that the composite ___________________________
12. If we had extended the time period, it would have been possible to

produce more crystals.
If we had extended the time period, we _________________________
4.5.3 Key

1. This software can distinguish between different viruses.

2. The fall in pressure may have been/might have been/could have been

due to a gas leak.
3. The equipment must be disconnected during repairs.

4. This material should remain stable if it is kept below 30°C.

5. The contamination cannot have been/could not have been caused by

the presence of salt.
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6. Children cannot use symbols to represent objects until the age of

18 months.
7. Using a rubber seal may not/might not prevent contamination.

8. Antioxidant compounds should not be used.

9. This material should not decompose if it is kept below 30°C.

10. The bicarbonate must have been produced by the mineralization of

carbon.
11. We realised later that the composite need not have been/did not

have to be/did not need to be exposed to heat.
12. If we had extended the time period, we could have produced more

crystals.
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4.6. Summary Discussion Exercise

Analyse the Discussion sections of your target research articles to determine
all of the following:
· The function of the first sentence.

· The extent to which the structure corresponds to or deviates from the

generic Discussion model on page 208.
· The amount and location of background factual information in the

Present Simple tense.
· The proportion of the Discussion that repeats/revisits the results.

· Whether the method is revisited in detail.

· Whether there is a clear link between the aim/gap stated in the

Introduction and the achievement of the study.
· The use of ‘happy’ language to explicitly identify the value/achievement

of the study.
· Whether there is a clear link between the literature/knowledge

presented in the Introduction and the contribution of the study to that
literature/knowledge.
· The number of citation references that map the study onto the existing

literature/knowledge.
· The use of risk-reducing language, including modals such as may.

· The extent to which limitations, weaknesses and discrepancies are

mentioned, the location of these, and the language used.
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UNIT 5
How to Write the Conclusion
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“9x6”
TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION*
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In some journals, the Conclusion section occurs as the last one or two
paragraphs of the Discussion; in most it is a separate section. At the beginning
of Unit 3, four structural options were set out for the way research articles
are subdivided. The following table provides details of typical Conclusion
sections for each of these four scenarios:
SUBTITLES SUBTITLES SUBTITLES SUBTITLES

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4
Results Results Results and Results
Discussion Discussion Discussion Ø
Conclusion/s Ø Conclusion/s Conclusion/s
There is a The last 1-2 There is a There may be a long
separate paragraphs of separate Conclusion section that is
Conclusion the Discussion Conclusion initially similar in form and
section of section are section of content to a Discussion
1-2 short similar in form 1-2 short section and which ends
paragraphs and content to paragraphs with 1-2 paragraphs that
a Conclusion are similar in form and
section content to a Conclusion
section
With the exception of Option 4, the Conclusion section averages 100–200

words in total and is usually comprised of one or two fairly short paragraphs,
even occasionally including bullet points. However, the length of the
Conclusion varies across different disciplines and in different journals within
each discipline, so it is worth averaging the number of words in the Conclusion
in your target articles as a guide.
The Conclusion section may contain content that overlaps with previous
sections, particularly the Abstract, Introduction and Discussion. There is also
some overlap with new features that are emerging in some journals, such as
Synopsis and Highlights. However, the function of the Conclusion is different
from all of these, and goes beyond either repetition or summary. Reviewers,
editors and readers view the Conclusion as a key section that will deliver a
clear take-home message focused on the outcome and impact of the study,
and this expectation should be met in full by the writer.
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List the sentence functions in the six Conclusion sections below using the
reverse-engineering approach in Units 1-4, and then compare your list with the
GENERIC CONCLUSIONS MODEL in Section 5.2. In the first two examples, clues
to the sentence functions in the Conclusion have been highlighted in bold. In
some cases, the verb is highlighted simply to draw attention to the verb tense.
Each Conclusion section is preceded by the Abstract of that paper and,
where relevant, the Synopsis or Highlights, to help you see how these differ
from the Conclusion section, and to emphasise that the Abstract should not
be used as the primary source material for the Conclusion.
1 Global analysis of protein tyrosine phosphatase activity with ultra-

sensitive fluorescent probest
Synopsis
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) consist of a large family of enzymes

regulating virtually all aspects of cellular processes. This paper describes the
development of activity-based chemical probes for global profiling the entire
PTP family on the basis of phosphatase activity, which should yield new
functional insights into pathways regulated by PTPs and contribute to the
discovery of PTPs as novel therapeutic targets.
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Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) consist of a large family of enzymes known

to play important roles in controlling virtually all aspects of cellular processes.
However, assigning functional significance of PTPs in normal physiology and in
diseases remains a major challenge in cell signaling. Since the function of a PTP
is directly associated with its intrinsic activity, which is subject to post-
translational regulation, new tools are needed to monitor the dynamic activities
of PTPs, rather than mere abundance, on a global scale within the physiologically
relevant environment of cells. To meet this objective, we report the synthesis
and characterization of two rhodamine-conjugated probes that covalently label
the active site of the PTPs in an activity-dependent manner, thus providing a
direct readout of PTP activity and superior sensitivity, robustness, and
quantifiability to previously reported biotinylated probes. We present evidence
that the fluorescent probes can be used to identify new PTP markers and targets
for potential diagnosis and treatment of human diseases. We also show that
the fluorescent probes are capable of monitoring H 2O 2-mediated PTP
inactivation, which should facilitate the study of regulated H2O2 production as
a new tier of control over tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent signal
transduction. The ability to profile the entire PTP family on the basis of changes
in their activity is expected to yield new functional insights into pathways
regulated by PTPs and contribute to the discovery of PTPs as novel therapeutic
targets Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) consist of a large family of enzymes
known to play important roles in controlling virtually all aspects of cellular
processes. However, assigning functional significance of PTPs in normal
physiology and in diseases remains a major challenge in cell signaling. Since
the function of a PTP is directly associated with its intrinsic activity, which is
subject to post-translational regulation, new tools are needed to monitor the
dynamic activities of PTPs, rather than mere abundance, on a global scale within
the physiologically relevant environment of cells. To meet this objective, we
report the synthesis and characterization of two rhodamine-conjugated probes
that covalently label the active site of the PTPs in an activity-dependent manner,
thus providing a direct readout of PTP activity and superior sensitivity,
robustness, and quantifiability to previously reported biotinylated probes. We
present evidence that the fluorescent probes can be used to identify new PTP
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markers and targets for potential diagnosis and treatment of human diseases.
We also show that the fluorescent probes are capable of monitoring H2O2-
mediated PTP inactivation, which should facilitate the study of regulated H2O2
production as a new tier of control over tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent
signal transduction. The ability to profile the entire PTP family on the basis of
changes in their activity is expected to yield new functional insights into
pathways regulated by PTPs and contribute to the discovery of PTPs as novel
therapeutic targets.
Conclusions
We have synthesized and characterized two fluorescent rhodamine-containing

PTP probes that are highly sensitive for direct in-gel visualization of PTP activity.
Kinetic analyses suggest that these probes are active site directed and
inactivate a broad range of PTPs in a time- and concentration-dependent
fashion. Direct in-gel fluorescence scanning indicates that the fluorescent
probes form a covalent adduct with the PTPs and the amount of labeling
correlates with PTP activity. As expected, the fluorescent probes can detect on
the order of 100 attomole of rhodamine-labeled PTP, a detection limit nearly
3 orders of magnitude more sensitive than that of the biotin-conjugated
probes. Moreover, the fluorescent probes also exhibit extremely high
selectivity toward PTPs while remaining inert to other proteins. Thus, the
rhodamine-containing probes provide superior sensitivity, quantifiability, and
throughput for activity-based PTP profiling. Initial proof-of-concept
experiments show that the fluorescent probes are capable of monitoring
simultaneously the activity levels of PTPs at the whole proteome level and
that the activity profiles of PTPs are significantly different among a panel of
human cancer cell lines. This highlights the potential to use the fluorescent
probes to identify new PTP markers and targets for the diagnosis and treatment
of human diseases. Finally, it is shown that the fluorescent probes are capable
of monitoring H2O2-mediated PTP inactivation, which should facilitate the
study of regulated H2O2 production as a new tier of control over tyrosine
phosphorylation-dependent signal transduction. Further application of the
activity-based fluorescent probes will accelerate global characterization of
PTPs, thereby increasing our understanding of PTPs in cell signaling and in
diseases.
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2 Rate law analysis of water oxidation on a hematite surfaceu
Abstract
Water oxidation is a key chemical reaction, central to both biological

photosynthesis and artificial solar fuel synthesis strategies. Despite recent
progress on the structure of the natural catalytic site, and on inorganic catalyst
function, determining the mechanistic details of this multiredox reaction
remains a significant challenge. We report herein a rate law analysis of the
order of water oxidation as a function of surface hole density on a hematite
photoanode employing photoinduced absorption spectroscopy. Our study
reveals a transition from a slow, first order reaction at low accumulated hole
density to a faster, third order mechanism once the surface hole density is
sufficient to enable the oxidation of nearest neighbor metal atoms. This study
thus provides direct evidence for the multihole catalysis of water oxidation by
hematite, and demonstrates the hole accumulation level required to achieve
this, leading to key insights both for reaction mechanism and strategies to
enhance function.
Conclusion
The rate order of the water oxidation reaction has been investigated on
hematite photoanodes by photoinduced absorption of accumulated holes
and photocurrent densities recorded simultaneously. A transition from first
order to third order in photogenerated holes has been identified when a
sufficient density of holes is accumulated at the semiconductor-electrolyte
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interface to oxidize two nearest neighbor surface metal atoms. This transition
was con rmed by agreement between three di erent analyses. The third
fi
ff
order reaction is rationalized by considering the rate-limiting formation of an
intermediate, which requires the incorporation of three holes. It is argued
that* this rate law is consistent with reaction mechanisms based on recent
observations of intermediates involving oxygen−oxygen bond formation during
the oxygen evolution reaction on other metal oxide surfaces.
This study clearly demonstrates the ability of a metal oxide semiconductor
surface, such as hematite, to drive a multihole reaction, but also highlights the
modest catalytic properties of this surface. Our ndings will help to tailor the
fi
design of metal oxide anodes and photoanodes for water oxidation with regards
to achieving high localized hole concentration, and the need for cocatalysts to
enhance function. Further work is currently in progress with di erent materials
ff
and overlayers to determine their function and abilities to catalyze this complex
but fascinating reaction.
*It’s likely that the authors are referring to themselves, i.e. We argue that, but the
sentence could mean It is argued by others that…
3 Performance of structural concrete with recycled plastic waste as a partial

replacement for sandv
Abstract
Environmental concerns arising from the over-dredging of sand have led to

restrictions on its extraction across India, with direct economic impacts on
concrete construction. A suitable environmentally friendly alternative to sand
must be found to match the huge demand from the concrete construction
industry. At the same time, waste plastic is rarely recycled in India, with as
much as 40% left in landfill. The dumping of such materials which degrade at
extremely low rates meaning they persist in the environment is a long-term
environmental concern.
To tackle both issues, it is proposed to process waste plastic to create a
partial replacement for fine sand in a novel mix for structural concrete. In this
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paper eleven new concrete mixes are evaluated to study five plastic material
compositions, three groups of particle sizes, three different aspect ratios, and
two chemical treatments and establish an appropriate choice of material to
act as partial replacement for sand.
The results show that replacing 10% sand by volume with recycled plastic
is a viable proposition that has the potential to save 820 million tonnes of sand
every year. Through suitable mix design the structural performance of concrete
with plastic waste can be maintained. This preliminary work was supported
through funding from the British Council under the UKIERI (United Kingdom
India Educational Research Initiative) programme for the project ‘Development
of structural concrete with the help of plastic waste as partial replacement for
sand’.
Conclusions
This paper has demonstrated the potential for using recycled waste plastic in
structural concrete mixes. At a replacement ratio of 10% by volume, this has
the potential to save 820 millions tonnes of sand every year from being used
in concrete mixes [1]. This is equivalent to approximately 5% of total global
annual sand consumption. A further benefit is to add value to waste plastic,
helping to reduce the volumes sent to landfill in some countries. A reduction
in sand demand from the construction industry would further support efforts
to limit the effects of sand dredging in countries such as India and China, where
significant sand volumes are extracted every year.
It is generally seen that substituting plastic into a concrete mix causes a
decrease in compressive and tensile strength due to the poor bond between
the plastic and surrounding matrix. Since failure in concrete propagates in
tension, the poor bond around plastic particles leads to a reduced compressive
and tensile strength. The use of a graded PET plastic matched to the size of the
sand particles it replaces, and at a replacement of 10% by volume, gave the
most promising overall performance. This material is furthermore cost effective
to produce and comes widely available as a waste material in many markets.
This paper has shown that simply shredding a PET material is sufficient
processing to provide a viable alternative to sand.
Testing different forms of plastic has demonstrated that the most efficient
plastic aggregate used in a concrete mix should have a rough surface, be
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irregular in shape, and be sufficiently small so as to not create a significant

failure surface, but also be graded similar to the sand it replaces. The results
indicate that through appropriate mix design reductions in strength can be
minimised to acceptable levels.

Abstract
The reaction between uranium and water vapour has been well investigated,
however discrepancies exist between the described kinetic laws, pressure
dependence of the reaction rate constant and activation energies. Here this
problem is looked at by examining the influence of impurities in the form of
carbide inclusions on the reaction. Samples of uranium containing 600 ppm
pressure, in an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) system.
After water exposure, samples were analysed using secondary ion mass
spectrometry (SIMS), focused ion beam (FIB) imaging and sectioning and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with X-ray diffraction (micro-XRD).
The results of the current study indicate that carbide particles on the surface
of uranium readily react with water vapour to form voluminous UO3·xH2O
growths at rates significantly faster than that of the metal. The observation
may also have implications for previous experimental studies of uranium–water
interactions, where the presence of differing levels of undetected carbide may
partly account for the discrepancies observed between datasets.
Highlights
High resolution imagery (FIB, SEM and SIMS) of carbide inclusions in uranium
metal. ► Real time images following the reaction of the carbide inclusions
with water vapour. ► Shown preferential consumption of carbide over that
of the bulk metal. ► Quantity of impurities in the metal therefore seriously
influence reaction rate. ► Metal purity must be considered when storing
uranium in air or moist conditions.
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Conclusions
Examination of cast α-uranium surfaces after exposure to water vapour in an

ESEM instrument at 19 mbar and 20 °C indicated surface corrosion had occurred,
with secondary growths determined to be UO3·H2O (metaschoepite) forming
at carbide inclusions across the surface. Over the period of a week the growths
were observed to increase in size, consuming only the carbide particles and
not the surrounding metal. In some cases complete decomposition of the
surface carbides was observed.
From the results of the current study it is apparent that the carbide
particles reacted more readily with the water vapour than the metal. Resultantly
it is suggested that disparities between previous studies of the uranium–water
reaction may be attributable to differential purities of uranium metal used by
different research groups, with resultantly different populations of carbide
particles.
5 Measurement and modeling of the phase behavior of the (carbon dioxide +

water) mixture at temperatures from 298.15 K to 448.15 Kw
Abstract
An analytical apparatus has been designed to study the phase behavior of

fluid mixtures of relevance to CO2-enhanced oil recovery and carbon dioxide
storage in deep aquifers or depleted oil fields. The fluid phases are circulated
by means of a dual-channel magnetically-coupled pump and aliquots may be
withdrawn from the re-circulation loops, by means of high-pressure sampling
valves, for analysis by gas chromatography. The high-pressure cell is fitted with
a special probe that may be rotated in order to draw liquid into the re-
circulation loop from different heights within the cell, thereby permitting the
study of three-phase vapor–liquid–liquid equilibria. The working temperature
range of the apparatus is from (298 to 448) K and the maximum working
pressure is 50 MPa.
In this work, measurements have been made on the binary system
(CO2 + H2O) at temperatures from (298.15 to 448.15) K and pressure from
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(1.5 to 18.0) MPa, and the results are compared with the available literature
data. Vapor–liquid–liquid and liquid–liquid equilibrium points were also measured
at T = 298.15 K. Standard uncertainties were 0.04 K for temperature, 0.04% of
reading for pressure, and typically 3 × 10−4 and 8 × 10−4 for the mole fractions in
liquid and vapor phases respectively. The results have been correlated by means
of an asymmetric approach based on the Peng–Robinson equation of state, for
the vapor phase, and an extended form of Henry’s law incorporating the NRTL
solution model, for the aqueous liquid-phase. The ability of the Krichevsky–
Kasarnovsky (KK) approach to correlate the data has also been evaluated.
Graphical abstract
Highlights
► An analytical apparatus has been designed and commissioned for high T

and p phase behavior measurements. ► Measurements have been made on
CO2 + H2O at temperatures from (298.15 to 448.15) K and pressures from (1.5
to 18.0) MPa. ► The measured data have been correlated by means of an
asymmetric approach. ► The Krichevsky–Kasarnovsky approach and Duan’s
correlation model are also evaluated.
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Conclusions
The phase behavior of (CO2 + H2O) was measured at temperature from 298.15
K to 448.15 K, and at pressures up to 18 MPa. The experimental results are
compared comprehensively with literature data and found to agree with those
literature sources identified in earlier reviews as being of the highest reliability.
Our results fill key gaps in terms of accurate and high-quality data at high
temperature and pressure, and pave the way for measurements on (CO2 +
brine) systems. The results are modeled accurately with a γ−ϕ approach
incorporating the Peng–Robinson EoS with the classical mixing rules for the
vapor phase, and an extended form of Henry’s law with the NRTL solution
model and a Poynting correction for the liquid phase. The Krichevsky–
Kasarnovsky (KK) (simplified γ−ϕ approach) was also studied as well as the
empirical correlation of Duan et al. Both were found to have significant
deficiencies for this system.
6 Computer-controlled stimulation for functional magnetic resonance

imaging studies of the neonatal olfactory systemx
Abstract
Aim: Olfactory sensation is highly functional early in human neonatal life, with
studies suggesting that odours can influence behaviour and infant–mother
bonding. Due to its good spatial properties, blood oxygen level–dependent
(BOLD) contrast functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has the potential
to rapidly advance our understanding of the neural activity which underlies
the development of olfactory perception in this key period. We aimed to design
an ‘olfactometer’ specifically for use with neonatal subjects for fMRI studies
of odour perception.
Methods: We describe a fully automated and programmable, fMRI compatible
system capable of presenting odorant liquids. To prevent contamination of the
system and minimize between-subject infective risk, the majority of the
olfactometer is constructed from single-use, readily available clinical
equipment. The system was used to present the odour of infant formula milk
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in a validation group of seven neonatal subjects at term equivalent

postmenstrual age (median age 40 weeks).
Results: A safe, reliable and reproducible pattern of stimulation was delivered
leading to well-localized positive BOLD functional responses in the piriform
cortex, amygdala, thalamus, insular cortex and cerebellum.
Conclusions: The described system is therefore suitable for detailed studies of
the ontology of olfactory sensation and perception during early human brain
development.
Key notes
· Ofaction is important in early life, but the anatomical substrates of the

underlying neural activity are poorly understood.
· We describe a fully automated and safe system for fMRI studies of olfaction

in neonatal subjects.
· Functional activation can be identified with fMRI in the primary olfactory

areas in the neonatal brain.
Conclusions
We have designed, constructed and implemented a fully automated and

programmable olfactometer specifically for fMRI studies of neonatal subjects.
The described system is safe, has been designed to minimize infective risks and
produces a reproducible but flexible pattern of olfactory stimulation. The system
was found to induce a well-localized pattern of positive BOLD functional activity
in the primary olfactory areas of seven neonatal subjects at term equivalent
PMA. These data suggest that fMRI now offers the opportunity to investigate
the ontogeny of olfaction in the human newborn with millimetre-scale precision,
and to address specific hypotheses concerning the development of mature
olfactory responses.
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In the Conclusion sections in this Unit, how many examples did you find of
sentences, parts of sentences, or language that communicate or recall the
components in the Conclusions model below?
GENERIC CONCLUSIONS MODEL

1 WHAT IS IN THE PAPER
2 WHAT THE PAPER/STUDY HAS ACHIEVED
3 RELEVANT BACKGROUND INFORMATION
4 THE GAP/AIM/NEED FOR THE STUDY
5 THE METHOD/APPROACH
6 KEY RESULTS WITH EVALUATIVE COMMENTS
7 IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESULTS
8 POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL LIMITATIONS
9 POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL APPLICATIONS
10 HOW THE STUDY ADVANCES KNOWLEDGE
11 POTENTIAL FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH
Map components 1–11 onto the Conclusion sections of your target articles
to see where they are similar to or different from the six Conclusion sections
in this Unit. Your analysis should consider the order in which the components
typically occur, and what proportion of the Conclusion section deals with
each component.
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Language suggestions for all the components of the Conclusions have

appeared in previous Units. For example:
1. what is in the paper see Units 1 and 2

2. what the paper/study has achieved see Unit 4

3. relevant background information all Units

4. the gap/aim/need for the study see Unit 1

5. the method or approach see Units 2 and 3

6. key results with evaluative comments see Units 2 and 3

7. implications of the results see Unit 3

8. potential or actual limitations see Units 2 and 3

9. potential or actual applications see Unit 4

10. how the study advances knowledge see Unit 4

11. potential future directions for research see Unit 4

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5.4.1 Verb tense in the Conclusion

In the Conclusion section, the Present Simple and Present Perfect tenses are
commonly used to state what is in the paper, what is implied by the results,
and what has been achieved in the study:
· We have synthesized and characterized two fluorescent rhodamine-

containing PTP probes…
· It is argued that this rate law is consistent with reaction mechanisms

based on recent observations…
· This long-standing problem is solved by combining micron-sized and

nano-sized tougheners in a synergistic manner.
· The rate order of the water oxidation reaction has been investigated on

hematite photoanodes by…
· In the present paper, some shortcomings of the concept of cross-section

classification have been highlighted, and, as an alternative treatment,
the continuous strength method has been introduced.
· The level of enhancement in resistance offered by the continuous

strength method over conventional design methods for steel structures
has been found to be approximately…
· Finally, it is shown that the fluorescent probes are capable of monitoring…

· Our results fill key gaps in terms of accurate and high-quality data at

high temperature and pressure, and pave the way for measurements on
(CO2 + brine) systems.
· We have designed, constructed and implemented a fully automated

and programmable olfactometer speci cally for fMRI studies of neonatal
fi
subjects.
· The described system is safe, has been designed to minimize infective

risks and produces a reproducible but flexible pattern of olfactory
stimulation.
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The Past Simple tense is less common, but is sometimes used to repeat key
aspects of the method or key results:
· The phase behavior of (CO2 + H2O) was measured at temperature from

298.15 K to 448.15 K,…
· Damage accumulation evolved slowly at lower strains, but continued

at a rapid rate immediately prior to fracture, which is a typical ductile
fracture characterized by dimples.
· In some cases complete decomposition of the surface carbides was

observed.
· The system was found to induce a well-localized pattern of…

5.4.2 Owning your contribution

Identifying your own contribution in the Conclusion is not straightforward
and requires you to be explicit and unambiguous. Writers sometimes
incorrectly assume that it is obvious which sentences present their own
contribution. This assumption has two sources: (1) a belief that the reader
has read the rest of the paper before reading the Conclusion; and (2) the
writer’s own familiarity with the project and its conclusions.
Most readers do not read the entire paper before reading the Conclusion.
In the same way that the readers of a murder mystery may jump to the last
page in order to discover who committed the murder, readers of research
articles may jump to the Conclusion section at some point to discover where
the text is going. Moving directly to the Conclusion before reading the rest
of the article may help the reader process the intervening information more
effectively, or it may be an end in itself, i.e. the reader does not intend to
read the intervening sections. Some readers jump to the Conclusion directly
from the Abstract, or even from the title. Note, however, that even if the
reader has read the entire paper up to the Conclusion, it is not safe to
assume that they retain all the information in earlier sections with perfect
accuracy.
The writer’s own familiarity with the content is also a risk factor. This
familiarity has been shared with colleagues on a day-to-day basis for the
duration of the research project and extends into the writing period,
blinding the writers to potential ambiguity and the need to be more explicit.
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If you and your colleagues understand what you have written, it may not
seem necessary to make things clearer — you may even feel that it appears
condescending or patronising. However, sentences with a non-human
grammatical subject and a verb in the Present Simple tense, such as:
Kinetic analyses suggest that these probes are active site directed

and inactivate a broad range of PTPs in a time- and concentration-
dependent fashion. Direct in-gel fluorescence scanning indicates
that the fluorescent probes form a covalent adduct with the PTPs.
contain nothing to tell the reader that these are in fact conclusions from this
study. The sentences could easily be presenting relevant background
information or the gap/aim/need for the study, both of which sometimes
occur in the Conclusion (see Section 5.2). Readers do not read forensically;
they read fast, and a fast reading of such sentences risks loss of ownership
at this critical point.
In the Conclusion sections above, writers can avoid ambiguity by using
one or more of the following:
· the Past Simple or Present Perfect

· the active rather than the passive

· a human grammatical subject

· explicit sentence start-up or language that explicitly refers to the paper

or study
Here are some examples of the above four points:

· We have synthesized and characterized two fluorescent rhodamine-

containing PTP probes that are highly sensitive for direct in-gel
visualization of PTP activity.
· Examination of cast α-uranium surfaces after exposure to water vapour

in an ESEM instrument at 19 mbar and 20 °C indicated that surface
corrosion had occurred,…
· This transition was con rmed by agreement between three di erent

fi
ff
analyses.
· Finally, it is shown here that the fluorescent probes are capable of

monitoring H2O2-mediated PTP inactivation,…
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· This study clearly demonstrates the ability of a metal oxide semiconductor

surface, such as hematite, to drive a multihole reaction,…
· In the present paper, some shortcomings of the concept of cross-section

classi cation have been highlighted, and, as an alternative treatment,
fi
the continuous strength method has been introduced.
· From the results of the current study it is apparent that the carbide

particles reacted more readily with the water vapour than the metal.
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UNIT 6
Writing the Abstract
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“9x6”
TITLE
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHOD
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION*
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The Abstract is a high-stakes document: many more people will read the
Abstract — or briefly look at it — than the whole paper. A good Abstract
enhances the visibility of the study, whereas a poor Abstract may result in
the study being overlooked.
Abstract writing has changed significantly in recent years and is continuing
to evolve alongside developments and changes in research communication.
Internet reading means that the Abstract is no longer designed to be read
as a prelude or an adjunct to the research article; it is typically read in isolation
and has to function as a standalone, independent text that will be accessed
by readers who are reading it for a wide range of reasons. Some readers
simply want to know what is currently going on in a given research area and
may not be interested in technical details; others may be experts in the field
who want to know details but are only interested in studies which are directly
relevant to their own project. Readers may have just one specific reason for
reading an Abstract, for example, they may only want to check that their own
current or planned project has not already been covered by another research
group. Another possibility is that the reader may only want to know the
applications of the study; for example, in medicine, treatment decisions are
sometimes made on the basis of the Abstract alone.
Over 3 million research articles are published annually, creating an
environment in which studies compete for attention online as readers scroll
through titles and Abstracts. However, writing guidelines are sometimes
inconsistent or confusing, for example, the suggestion that the Abstract
should ‘include all relevant information while being concise’. In other cases,
the advice is too vague; a recommendation to write ‘clearly’ or ‘coherently’
needs to be backed up with practical details of how to do so. Writers always
understand what they have written and therefore believe it to be clear, but
a very high level of clarity and coherence are required by the reader who is
looking at several Abstracts in quick succession.
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6.1. Guidelines for the Abstract
6.1.1 Clarity and coherence

Clarity and coherence can be improved by:
· explicitly identifying your own contribution. Your familiarity with the

study makes it harder to see potential ambiguity in the Abstract, and this
is particularly significant in terms of identifying your own contribution.
When the verb is in the Present Simple tense there is a risk that the
information will seem to be well known, whereas it may in fact be a
description of your results. A phrase like theoretical modelling suggests
that… may refer to established knowledge or it may refer to the content
and contribution of the research article. To avoid ambiguity, consider:
1. using the Past Simple or Present Perfect tense: Analysis shows

concordance for 74% of mutation calls (unclear who carried out the
analysis) vs. Analysis showed concordance for 74% of mutation calls
(it was the authors who carried out the analysis).
2. using the active (we) rather than the passive.
3. beginning the sentence with phrases such as It is known that/It has

been previously demonstrated that or In this study/Here.
The strict word limit in the Abstract means that you may be tempted

to omit such phrases, but your aim is not to make it possible for the
reader to understand the Abstract; it is to make it impossible for the
reader not to understand the Abstract AND identify your contribution.
· avoiding referencing ambiguity. The referent of words like it, which

or this may be obvious to you but unclear to your reader. If there is a
potential for ambiguity, follow a word like this with the appropriate noun
or repeat the noun/phrase. As you will see in Abstract 4 (Section 6.2.1),

to avoid ambiguity the phrase the hybrid method is repeated no less
than four times within a 140-word Abstract.
· using consistent language. If something is described as an approach, it

should not suddenly become a scheme; similarly, a scheme should not
suddenly become a framework, a model should not suddenly become a
method, and a tool should not suddenly become a device. This blurs the
identity of what you are offering, and also makes the Abstract difficult to
follow.
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· using the sentence start-up techniques described in Unit 1 to create a

strong, reader-friendly narrative.
· keeping sentence length short. Sentences with fewer than 20 words

are understood by 90% of readers at first reading; those with more than
40 words are understood by 10% of readers at first reading. The average
sentence length in the 18 Abstracts (Section 6.2) is 22.
How long should the Abstract be?

Averaging the number of words in the Abstracts of your target journals will
give you a rough idea. Most are between 80–250 words and are written as
a single paragraph.
The word limit is not a target. Because the Abstract is such a high-stakes
text there is a temptation to overload it with information, but filling up the
space to the maximum permitted number of words irrespective of relevance
or narrative coherence makes the take-home message of the study unclear.
The Abstract does not have to summarise the whole paper. As tempting as
it is to include all the various achievements of the study in the Abstract, this
scatters the impact, and readers may actually fail to spot the central value
or contribution. Prioritise the central achievement or contribution and signal
it explicitly to the reader.
When should I write the Abstract?

The Abstract is normally created after the rest of the writing is finished. There
are a number of reasons for this:
1. If the Abstract is written too early there is a risk that it will not be

consistent with the content of the paper or contain information that is not
in the final version of the paper. Papers are often changed or updated just
before submission, so if the Abstract has already been written it should
be reviewed, and if necessary, modified or refocused before submission.
2. The content, style and length of the Abstract depend on where you plan

to submit it, and that decision may be taken late in the writing process.
Last-minute cutting and pasting to rejig an Abstract so that it conforms
to a fresh set of submission guidelines risks loss of coherence.
3. The Abstract derives from the paper, not the other away around,

therefore it does not require ‘creation’ as such; it requires careful
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selection of what is relevant and appropriate, and a strong guiding

narrative that makes for easy reading.
What kind of language should I use?

The language should respect the needs of the global reader, the interdisciplinary
reader, and the fast reader — in other words, it should be simple and
straightforward. The non-technical vocabulary used in the Abstract is similar
across all disciplines, reflecting the need for clarity and accessibility. See Section
6.4 for examples.
Some readers may not be familiar with a particular technical term or
acronym that you want to use in the Abstract. This will restrict their access
to the content of the Abstract, and perhaps affect their willingness to continue
reading it. Editors do not appreciate acronym-laden Abstracts, so if an
acronym is really necessary in the Abstract because constant repeats of the
full version would impact on the word limit, it is probably a good idea to
specify (once) what the acronym stands for.
Here are some examples from the Abstracts below:
· We have developed and implemented a robust and practical scheme for

anisotropic 3D acoustic full-waveform inversion (FWI)…
· This study aims to quantify and compare the accuracy of traditional

radiostereometric analysis (RSA)…
· While brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) can provide communication

to people who are locked-in, they suffer from a very low information
transfer rate. Further, using a BCI requires a concentration effort and
using it continuously can be tiring. The brain controlled wheelchair
(BCW) described in this paper aims at providing mobility to BCI users…
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6.2. Types of Abstract
There are four main types of Abstract:
1. Simple/Standard Abstracts

2. Structured Abstracts, which have headings such as Background/Aims/

Method/Results etc.
3. Abstracts that exist alongside a Significance Statement or a list of

Highlights
4. Graphical Abstracts

6.2.1 Simple/Standard Abstracts

Using the reverse-engineering technique demonstrated in the previous Units,
create a model based on the sentence functions in the ten SIMPLE/STANDARD
ABSTRACTS below. In these Abstracts, identifiers of the model are in bold.
When you have finished, underline or highlight the model identifiers in the
STRUCTURED ABSTRACTS in Section 6.2.2 to support your model, and then
check and adjust it against the generic model in Section 6.3.
1 A sub-mW fully-integrated pulse oximeter front-endy
Abstract
This paper presents the implementation of the first fully integrated pulse
oximeter front-end with a power consumption lower than 1 mW. This is enabled
by system- and block-level noise optimisation, also detailed in the manuscript.
The proposed design features an analogue feedback loop that enables fast
and accurate regulation of the detected photocurrent level and a serial-to-
parallel interface allowing for extensive programmability of several operation
parameters. The front-end was fabricated in the AMS 0.35 μm technology and
occupies an occupies an area of 1.35 mm2. Extensive measured results, both
electrical and physiological from human subjects are reported, demonstrating
an estimated SNR of 39 dB and ability to detect 2% changes in SpO2, similar
to commercial pulse oximeters. This is despite the constrained power
consumption which amounts to 0.31 mW for the LEDs and 0.53 mW for the
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rest of the front-end from a 3.3 V supply. Statistical results from 20 chips verify
good matching across the Red and Infrared channels of the front-end and the
accurate operation of the proposed analogue feedback loop.
2 Anisotropic 3D full-waveform inversionz
Abstract
We have developed and implemented a robust and practical scheme for

anisotropic 3D acoustic full-waveform inversion (FWI). We demonstrate this
scheme on a field data set, applying it to a 4C ocean-bottom survey over the
Tommeliten Alpha field in the North Sea. This shallow-water data set provides
good azimuthal coverage to offsets of 7 km, with reduced coverage to a
maximum offset of about 11km. The reservoir lies at the crest of a high-velocity
antiformal chalk section, overlain by about 3000 m of clastics within which a
low-velocity gas cloud produces a seismic obscured area. We inverted only
the hydrophone data, and we retained free-surface multiples and ghosts within
the field data. We invert in six narrow frequency bands, in the range 3 to 6.5
Hz. At each iteration, we selected only a subset of sources, using a different
subset at each iteration; this strategy is more efficient than inverting all the
data every iteration. Our starting velocity model was obtained using standard
PSDM model building including anisotropic reflection tomography, and
contained epsilon values as high as 20%. The final FWI velocity model shows
a network of shallow high-velocity channels that match similar features in the
reflection data. Deeper in the section, the FWI velocity model reveals a sharper
and more intense low-velocity region associated with the gas cloud in which
low-velocity fingers match the location of gas-filled faults visible in the reflection
data. The resulting velocity model provides a better match to well logs, and
better flattens common image gathers, than does the starting model. Reverse-
time migration, using the FWI velocity model, provides significant uplift to
the migrated image, simplifying the planform of the reservoir section at depth.
The workflows, inversion strategy, and algorithms that we have used have
broad application to invert a wide range of analogous data sets.
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3 Mobilizing salt: magma-salt interactionsaa
Abstract
Salt sequences form an integral part of many sedimentary basins worldwide.

Many of these basins have experienced igneous activity either syn- or post-
deposition of the salt sequences. Despite this, little work has so far been
undertaken to understand magma-salt interactions within the subsurface, and
how aspects such as salt halokinesis may be influenced by igneous activity. Within
this paper, we detail the first direct description of relationships and textures
that are developed during intrusive igneous-salt interaction. We show that salt
composition appears to play a dominant role in controlling where igneous
intrusions invade laterally through salt sequences in a sedimentary basin. In
particular, we illustrate that hydrous salts, such as carnallite, act as preferential
horizons for lateral magma intrusion. This lithological control appears primarily
related to the heating and subsequent dehydration reaction of carnallite, which
causes the carnallite to behave as viscous fluidal horizons, resulting in the non-
brittle emplacement of magma, and spectacular peperitic salt-magma mingling
textures. We suggest that heating and transformation of carnallite and other
hydrous salts into viscous fluidal horizons during igneous intrusion within a
regional salt sequence may act as a possible trigger for contemporaneous
halokinesis, by creating fluid-like viscous detachment layers. Over longer time
scales, however, a solidified rigid boxwork of dikes and sills may create zones of
increased mechanical strength that will locally inhibit further salt flow.
4 A hybrid displacement estimation method for ultrasonic elasticity

imagingbb
Abstract
Axial displacement estimation is fundamental to many freehand quasistatic

ultrasonic strain imaging systems. In this paper, we present a novel estimation
method that combines the strengths of quality-guided tracking, multi-level
correlation, and phase-zero search to achieve high levels of accuracy and
robustness. The paper includes a full description of the hybrid method, in
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vivo examples to illustrate the method’s clinical relevance, and finite element
simulations to assess its accuracy. Quantitative and qualitative comparisons
are made with leading single- and multi-level alternatives. In the in vivo
examples, the hybrid method produces fewer obvious peak-hopping errors,
and in simulation, the hybrid method is found to reduce displacement
estimation errors by 5 to 50%. With typical clinical data, the hybrid method
can generate more than 25 strain images per second on commercial hardware;
this is comparable with the alternative approaches considered in this paper.
5 A ratchet mechanism for amplification in low-frequency mammalian

hearingcc
Abstract
The sensitivity and frequency selectivity of hearing result from tuned

amplification by an active process in the mechanoreceptive hair cells. In most
vertebrates, the active process stems from the active motility of hair bundles.
The mammalian cochlea exhibits an additional form of mechanical activity
termed electromotility: its outer hair cells (OHCs) change length upon electrical
stimulation. The relative contributions of these two mechanisms to the active
process in the mammalian inner ear is the subject of intense current debate.
Here, we show that active hair-bundle motility and electromotility can together
implement an efficient mechanism for amplification that functions like a
ratchet: Sound-evoked forces, acting on the basilar membrane, are transmitted
to the hair bundles, whereas electromotility decouples active hair-bundle
forces from the basilar membrane. This unidirectional coupling can extend the
hearing range well below the resonant frequency of the basilar membrane. It
thereby provides a concept for low-frequency hearing that accounts for a
variety of unexplained experimental observations from the cochlear apex,
including the shape and phase behavior of apical tuning curves, their lack of
significant nonlinearities, and the shape changes of threshold tuning curves
of auditory-nerve fibers along the cochlea. The ratchet mechanism constitutes
a general design principle for implementing mechanical amplification in
engineering applications.
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6 The osteogenic response of mesenchymal stromal cells to strontium
‐
substituted bioactive glassesdd
Abstract
Bioactive glasses are known to stimulate bone healing, and the incorporation
of strontium has the potential to increase their potency. In this study, calcium
oxide in the 45S5 bioactive glass composition was partially (50%, Sr50) or fully
(100%, Sr100) substituted with strontium oxide on a molar basis. The effects
of the substitution on bioactive glass properties were studied, including density,
solubility, and in vitro cytotoxicity. Stimulation of osteogenic differentiation
was investigated using mesenchymal stromal cells obtained from rat bone
marrow. Strontium substitution resulted in altered physical properties including
increased solubility. Statistically significant reductions in cell viability were
observed with the addition of bioactive glass powders to culture medium.
Specifically, addition of ≥ 13.3 mg/ml of 45S5 bioactive glass or Sr50,
or ≥ 6.7 mg/ml of Sr100, resulted in significant inhibition. Real‐time PCR
analyses detected the upregulation of genes associated with osteoblastic
differentiation in the presence of all bioactive glass compositions. Some genes,
including Alpl and Bglap, were further stimulated in the presence of Sr50 and
Sr100. It was concluded that strontium‐substituted bioactive glasses promoted
osteogenesis in a differentiating bone cell culture model and, therefore, have
considerable potential for use as improved bioactive glasses for bone tissue
regeneration.
7 An investigation into reinforced and functionally graded lattice structuresee
Abstract
Lattice structures are regarded as excellent candidates for use in lightweight

energy-absorbing applications, such as crash protection. In this paper we
investigate the crushing behaviour, mechanical properties and energy
absorption of lattices made by an additive manufacturing process. Two types
of lattice were examined: body-centred-cubic (BCC) and a reinforced variant
called BCCz. The lattices were subject to compressive loads in two orthogonal
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directions, allowing an assessment of their mechanical anisotropy to be made.

We also examined functionally graded versions of these lattices, which featured
a density gradient along one direction. The graded structures exhibited distinct
crushing behaviour, with a sequential collapse of cellular layers preceding full
densification. For the BCCz lattice, the graded structures were able to absorb
around 114% more energy per unit volume than their non-graded counterparts
before full densification, 1371 ± 9 kJ/m3 versus 640 ± 10 kJ/m3. This highlights
the strong potential for functionally graded lattices to be used in energy-
absorbing applications. Finally, we determined several of the Gibson–Ashby
coefficients relating the mechanical properties of lattice structures to their
density; these are crucial in establishing the constitutive models required for
effective lattice design. These results improve the current understanding of
additively manufactured lattices and will enable the design of sophisticated,
functional, lightweight components in the future.
8 A transient vanadium flow battery model incorporating vanadium

crossover and water transport through the membraneff
Abstract
This paper presents a 2-D transient, isothermal model of a vanadium redox

flow battery that can predict the species crossover and related capacity loss
during operation. The model incorporates the species transport across the
membrane due to convection, diffusion, and migration, and accounts for the
transfer of water between the half-cells to capture the change in electrolyte
volume. The model also accounts for the side reactions and associated changes
in species concentration in each half-cell due to vanadium crossover. A set of
boundary conditions based on the conservations of flux and current are
incorporated at the electrolyte|membrane interfaces to account for the steep
gradients in concentration and potential at these interfaces. In addition, the
present model further improves upon the accuracy of existing models by
incorporating a more complete version of the Nernst equation, which enables
accurate prediction of the cell potential without the use of a fitting voltage.
A direct comparison of the model predictions with experimental data shows
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that the model accurately predicts the measured voltage of a single charge/
discharge cycle with an average error of 1.83%, and estimates the capacity loss
of a 45 cycle experiment with an average error of 4.2%.
9 Sensory nerve induced inflammation contributes to heterotopic

ossificationr
Abstract
Heterotopic ossification (HO), or bone formation in soft tissues, is often the

result of traumatic injury. Much evidence has linked the release of BMPs (bone
morphogenetic proteins) upon injury to this process. HO was once thought to
be a rare occurrence, but recent statistics from the military suggest that as
many as 60% of traumatic injuries, resulting from bomb blasts, have associated
HO. In this study, we attempt to define the role of peripheral nerves in this
process. Since BMP2 has been shown previously to induce release of the
neuroinflammatory molecules, substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene related
peptide (CGRP), from peripheral, sensory neurons, we examined this process
in vivo. SP and CGRP are rapidly expressed upon delivery of BMP2 and remain
elevated throughout bone formation. In animals lacking functional sensory
neurons (TRPV1−/−), BMP2‐mediated increases in SP and CGRP were suppressed
as compared to the normal animals, and HO was dramatically inhibited in
these deficient mice, suggesting that neuroinflammation plays a functional
role. Mast cells, known to be recruited by SP and CGRP, were elevated after
BMP2 induction. These mast cells were localized to the nerve structures and
underwent degranulation. When degranulation was inhibited using cromolyn,
HO was again reduced significantly. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed
nerves expressing the stem cell markers nanog and Klf4, as well as the
osteoblast marker osterix, after BMP2 induction, in mice treated with cromolyn.
The data collectively suggest that BMP2 can act directly on sensory neurons
to induce neurogenic inflammation, resulting in nerve remodeling and the
migration/release of osteogenic and other stem cells from the nerve. Further,
blocking this process significantly reduces HO, suggesting that the stem cell
population contributes to bone formation.
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10 Global anisotropic 3D FWIgg
Abstract
Seismic anisotropy influences both the kinematics and dynamics of seismic

waveforms. If anisotropy is not adequately taken into account during full-
waveform seismic inversion (FWI), then inadequacies in the anisotropy model
are likely to manifest as significant error in the recovered P-wave velocity
model. Conventionally, anisotropic FWI uses either a fixed anisotropy model
derived from tomography or such, or it uses a local inversion scheme to recover
the anisotropy as part of the FWI; both of these methods can be problematic.
In this paper, we show that global rather than local FWI can be used to recover
the long-wavelength anisotropy model, and that this can then be followed by
more-conventional local FWI to recover the detailed model. We demonstrate
this approach on a full 3D field dataset, and show that it avoids problems
associated to cross-talk that can bedevil local inversion schemes. Although our
method provides a global inversion of anisotropy, it is nonetheless affordable
and practical for 3D field data.
6.2.2 Structured Abstracts

11 A finite rate of innovation algorithm for fast and accurate spike detection
from two-photon calcium imaginghh
Abstract
Objective
Inferring the times of sequences of action potentials (APs) (spike trains) from
neurophysiological data is a key problem in computational neuroscience. The
detection of APs from two-photon imaging of calcium signals offers certain
advantages over traditional electrophysiological approaches, as up to thousands
of spatially and immunohistochemically defined neurons can be recorded
simultaneously. However, due to noise, dye buffering and the limited sampling
rates in common microscopy configurations, accurate detection of APs from
calcium time series has proved to be a difficult problem.
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Approach
Here we introduce a novel approach to the problem making use of finite rate
of innovation (FRI) theory (Vetterli et al 2002 IEEE Trans. Signal Process: 50
1417–28). For calcium transients well fit by a single exponential, the problem
is reduced to reconstructing a stream of decaying exponentials. Signals made
of a combination of exponentially decaying functions with different onset times
are a subclass of FRI signals, for which much theory has recently been developed
by the signal processing community.
Main results
We demonstrate for the first time the use of FRI theory to retrieve the timing of APs
from calcium transient time series. The final algorithm is fast, non-iterative and
parallelizable. Spike inference can be performed in real-time for a population of
neurons and does not require any training phase or learning to initialize parameters.
Significance
The algorithm has been tested with both real data (obtained by simultaneous
electrophysiology and multiphoton imaging of calcium signals in cerebellar
Purkinje cell dendrites), and surrogate data, and outperforms several recently
proposed methods for spike train inference from calcium imaging data.
12 The Plasmodium falciparum cytoplasmic translation apparatus: a

promising therapeutic target not yet exploited by clinically approved
anti-malarialsii
Abstract
Background
The continued spectre of resistance to existing anti-malarials necessitates the
pursuit of novel targets and mechanisms of action for drug development. One
class of promising targets consists of the 80S ribosome and its associated
components comprising the parasite translational apparatus. Development of
translation-targeting therapeutics requires a greater understanding of protein
synthesis and its regulation in the malaria parasite. Research in this area has
been limited by the lack of appropriate experimental methods, particularly a
direct measure of parasite translation.
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Methods
An in vitro method directly measuring translation in whole-cell extracts from
the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the PfIVT assay, and a historically-
utilized indirect measure of translation, S35-radiolabel incorporation, were
compared utilizing a large panel of known translation inhibitors as well as
anti-malarial drugs.
Results
Here, an extensive pharmacologic assessment of the PfIVT assay is presented,
using a wide range of known inhibitors demonstrating its utility for studying
activity of both ribosomal and non-ribosomal elements directly involved in
translation. Further, the superiority of this assay over a historically utilized
indirect measure of translation, S35-radiolabel incorporation, is demonstrated.
Additionally, the PfIVT assay is utilized to investigate a panel of clinically
approved anti-malarial drugs, many with unknown or unclear mechanisms of
action, and show that none inhibit translation, reaffirming Plasmodium
translation to be a viable alternative drug target. Within this set, mefloquine
is unambiguously found to lack translation inhibition activity, despite having
been recently mischaracterized as a ribosomal inhibitor.
Conclusions
This work exploits a direct and reproducible assay for measuring P. falciparum
translation, demonstrating its value in the continued study of protein synthesis
in malaria and its inhibition as a drug target.
6.2.3 Abstracts that include a Significance Statement and/or

Highlights
Note that the Significance Statement and the Highlights do not always appear
in the PDF of the paper, so they should be considered as adjuncts to the
Abstract rather than as supplements. Using your reverse-engineering
technique, describe the sentence functions in the Significance Statements
and Highlights. Model identifiers are in bold.
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Abstract
The reaction between uranium and water vapour has been well investigated,
however discrepancies exist between the described kinetic laws, pressure
dependence of the reaction rate constant and activation energies. Here this
problem is looked at by examining the influence of impurities in the form of
carbide inclusions on the reaction. Samples of uranium containing 600 ppm
pressure, in an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) system.
After water exposure, samples were analysed using secondary ion mass
spectrometry (SIMS), focused ion beam (FIB) imaging and sectioning and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with X-ray diffraction (micro-XRD).
The results of the current study indicate that carbide particles on the surface
of uranium readily react with water vapour to form voluminous UO3·xH2O
growths at rates significantly faster than that of the metal. The observation
may also have implications for previous experimental studies of uranium-
water interactions, where the presence of differing levels of undetected carbide
may partly account for the discrepancies observed between datasets.
Highlights
► High resolution imagery (FIB, SEM and SIMS) of carbide inclusions in uranium
metal. ► Real time images following the reaction of the carbide inclusions
with water vapour. ► Shown preferential consumption of carbide over that
of the bulk metal. ► Quantity of impurities in the metal therefore seriously
influence reaction rate. ► Metal purity must be considered when storing
uranium in air or moist conditions.
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14 Amazonian functional diversity from forest canopy chemical assemblyo
Significance
Canopy trees are keystone organisms that create habitat for an enormous
array of flora and fauna and dominate carbon storage in tropical forests.
Determining the functional diversity of tree canopies is, therefore, critical to
understanding how tropical forests are assembled and predicting ecosystem
responses to environmental change. Across the megadiverse Andes-to-Amazon
corridor of Peru, we discovered a large-scale nested pattern of canopy chemical
assembly among thousands of trees. This nested geographic and phylogenetic
pattern within and among forest communities provides a different perspective
on current and future alterations to the functioning of western Amazonian
forests resulting from land use and climate change.
Abstract
Patterns of tropical forest functional diversity express processes of ecological

assembly at multiple geographic scales and aid in predicting ecological responses
to environmental change. Tree canopy chemistry underpins forest functional
diversity, but the interactive role of phylogeny and environment in determining
the chemical traits of tropical trees is poorly known. Collecting and analyzing
foliage in 2,420 canopy tree species across 19 forests in the western Amazon,
we discovered (i) systematic, community-scale shifts in average canopy chemical
traits along gradients of elevation and soil fertility; (ii) strong phylogenetic
partitioning of structural and defense chemicals within communities independent
of variation in environmental conditions; and (iii) strong environmental control
on foliar phosphorus and calcium, the two rock-derived elements limiting CO2
uptake in tropical forests. These findings indicate that the chemical diversity of
western Amazonian forests occurs in a regionally nested mosaic driven by long-
term chemical trait adjustment of communities to large-scale environmental
filters, particularly soils and climate, and is supported by phylogenetic divergence
of traits essential to foliar survival under varying environmental conditions.
Geographically nested patterns of forest canopy chemical traits will play a role
in determining the response and functional rearrangement of western
Amazonian ecosystems to changing land use and climate.
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15 Ultrafast desorption of colloidal particles from fluid interfacesjj
Significance
Solid particles can replace surfactants to stabilize emulsions and foams. The
attachment of particles onto drops and bubbles is typically considered to be
irreversible because of a large energy barrier for particle detachment — millions
of times the thermal energy for microparticles. Here we demonstrate a method
to promote the detachment of microparticles from bubbles using ultrasound.
We identified conditions for complete particle removal and recovery in under
a millisecond. Our method is programmable in time, and does not require any
physicochemical modification of the fluids or the interface. This work addresses
the emerging need for methods to recover interfacial particles from emulsions
and foams in applications ranging from controlled release to interfacial catalysis
and gas storage.
Abstract
The self-assembly of solid particles at fluid–fluid interfaces is widely exploited

to stabilize emulsions and foams, and in materials synthesis. The self-assembly
mechanism is very robust owing to the large capillary energy associated with
particle adsorption, of the order of millions of times the thermal energy for
micrometer-sized colloids. The microstructure of the interfacial colloid
monolayer can also favor stability, for instance in the case of particle-stabilized
bubbles, which can be indefinitely stable against dissolution due to jamming
of the colloid monolayer. As a result, significant challenges arise when
destabilization and particle removal are a requirement. Here we demonstrate
ultrafast desorption of colloid monolayers from the interface of particle-
stabilized bubbles. We drive the bubbles into periodic compression–expansion
using ultrasound waves, causing significant deformation and microstructural
changes in the particle monolayer. Using high-speed microscopy we uncover
different particle expulsion scenarios depending on the mode of bubble
deformation, including highly directional patterns of particle release during
shape oscillations. Complete removal of colloid monolayers from bubbles is
achieved in under a millisecond. Our method should find a broad range of
applications, from nanoparticle recycling in sustainable processes to
programmable particle delivery in lab-on-a-chip applications.
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6.2.4 Graphical Abstracts

The Graphical Abstract (GA) is usually one single panel image designed to
‐
give readers an immediate understanding of the take home message of the
‐
paper. The GA should use colour judiciously, and grab attention visually by
minimising clutter and unnecessary elements. In some cases the image is
reproduced from the paper; in others it is specifically designed as a GA.
The GA communicates the main point right at the start. This improves
the reader’s understanding and acceptance of the message; furthermore,
providing a clear and memorable image enhances retention of that message
even after the reader moves on to another article. Note that some GAs also
include a short text.
Using your reverse-engineering technique, build a model for the GAs
below and compare it with the generic model in Section 6.3. Model identifiers
are in bold.
16 Tunable organic photocatalysts for visible-light-driven hydrogen

evolutionkk
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Abstract
Photocatalytic hydrogen production from water offers an abundant, clean fuel

source, but it is challenging to produce photocatalysts that use the solar spectrum
effectively. Many hydrogen-evolving photocatalysts are active in the ultraviolet
range, but ultraviolet light accounts for only 3% of the energy available in the solar
spectrum at ground level. Solid-state crystalline photocatalysts have light
absorption profiles that are a discrete function of their crystalline phase and that
are not always tunable. Here, we prepare a series of amorphous, microporous
organic polymers with exquisite synthetic control over the optical gap in the range
1.94–2.95 eV. Specific monomer compositions give polymers that are robust and
effective photocatalysts for the evolution of hydrogen from water in the presence
of a sacrificial electron donor, without the apparent need for an added metal
cocatalyst. Remarkably, unlike other organic systems, the best performing polymer
is only photoactive under visible rather than ultraviolet irradiation.
17 Rate law analysis of water oxidation on a hematite surfaceu
Abstract
Water oxidation is a key chemical reaction, central to both biological

photosynthesis and artificial solar fuel synthesis strategies. Despite recent
progress on the structure of the natural catalytic site, and on inorganic catalyst
function, determining the mechanistic details of this multiredox reaction
remains a significant challenge. We report herein a rate law analysis of the
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order of water oxidation as a function of surface hole density on a hematite

photoanode employing photoinduced absorption spectroscopy. Our study
reveals a transition from a slow, first order reaction at low accumulated hole
density to a faster, third order mechanism once the surface hole density is
sufficient to enable the oxidation of nearest neighbor metal atoms. This study
thus provides direct evidence for the multihole catalysis of water oxidation
by hematite, and demonstrates the hole accumulation level required to achieve
this, leading to key insights both for reaction mechanism and strategies to
enhance function.
…and some journals accept or encourage Highlights or a Significance

Statement together with a GA:
18 Influence of reaction conditions on the composition of liquid products

from two-stage catalytic hydrothermal processing of ligninll
Highlights
• Liquid products’ yields reached up to 40 wt% based on lignin feed.

• Liquid products’ compositions differed with different reaction conditions.
• Formic acid acted as both depolymerization agent and source of hydrogen.
• Formic acid influenced liquid products’ selectivity under the different
conditions.
• Pt/Al2O3 was less selective towards liquid products than formic acid.
Abstract
The influence of reaction conditions on the composition of liquid products

during two-stage hydrothermal conversion of alkali lignin has been investigated
in a batch reactor. Reactions were carried out in the presence of formic acid
(FA) and Pt/Al2O3 catalyst. The two different sets of reaction conditions involved
alternative reaction times of 1 h and 5 h at 265°C and 350°C, respectively. These
provided different contributions to reaction severity, which affected the
compositions of liquid products. Yields of liquid products reached up to 40
wt% (on lignin feed basis) in the presence of FA under the less severe reaction
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condition. With 5 h reaction time at 350°C, alkylphenols, alkylguaiacols and

hydrocarbons were the dominant liquid products. However, with 5 h reaction
time at 265°C, phenol and methanol became dominant. The two-stage
hydrothermal process led to improved lignin conversion, with the potential
to manipulate the liquid product range.
Graphical abstract
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6.3. A Generic Abstract Model
Now compare and adjust your model according to the generic model below.
Note the number of potential locations for ‘happy words’ J that communicate
the value of the study quickly and unmistakably.
GENERIC ABSTRACT MODEL

1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOPIC/ESSENTIAL FACTUAL BACKGROUND
THE CHALLENGE/PROBLEM
WHAT THE PAPER/STUDY DOES (may include ACHIEVEMENT/VALUE + J)
2 METHOD/MATERIALS + J
RESULTS + J/COMPARISONS WITH EXISTING RESULTS + J
IMPLICATIONS
3 MAPPING TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE + J
ACHIEVEMENT/VALUE/CONTRIBUTION + J
APPLICATIONS + J
6.3.1 The model components

Which verb tense should I use for each component?
As always, your target articles provide the best guidance, but in general terms:
· When referring to WHAT THE PAPER/STUDY DOES or what is in the

paper, most writers use the Present Simple tense.
· When referring to what was done or used, i.e. the Method, most writers

use the Past Simple tense.
· RESULTS and IMPLICATIONS can be expressed in either the Past Simple

tense or the Present Simple tense. The Abstract presents the contents
of the paper in a way that will immediately engage the attention of
the reader. As a result, the Present Simple tense is sometimes used for
results and implications in the Abstract even if those are expressed in
the Past Simple tense in the body of the paper.
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· ACHIEVEMENT/VALUE/CONTRIBUTION can be expressed in the Present

Perfect tense (have +ed) or the Present Simple tense.
How do I know whether I need to state the significance of the topic or

provide background information?
This will depend to some extent on the journal readership and the specificity
of the study. However, even within a relatively technical field you should consider
the needs of potential interdisciplinary readers outside the scope of your
research area. If background information is necessary to understand the Abstract
itself, combine and summarise the relevant points in as few words as possible.
Can I include citations in the Abstract, for example to support the background?
Research background may be appropriate to identify the problem or challenge,
but it is rare to include actual citations in the Abstract. However, if your article
follows directly from an existing published paper or is a major advance or
contradiction relating to a specific work or theory, cite the relevant paper.
How much detail should I provide of the method and results?

Regarding the method, if the reader cannot decide whether to read the paper
without knowing whether you used simulations, models, or field data, include
that information. If the value of your study is that you carried out a range of
experiments rather than a single case study, include that information.
Key aspects of the method and key results are sometimes provided
together with numerical detail:
· The front-end was fabricated in the AMS 0.35 μm technology and

occupies an area of 1.35 mm2.
· Extensive measured results, both electrical and physiological from

human subjects are reported, demonstrating an estimated SNR of 39 dB
and ability to detect 2% changes in SpO2,…
· Specifically, addition of ≥ 13.3 mg/ml of 45S5 bioactive glass or Sr50,

or ≥ 6.7 mg/ml of Sr100, resulted in significant inhibition.
· …the graded structures were able to absorb around 114% more

energy per unit volume than their non-graded counterparts before full
densification, 1371 ± 9 kJ/m3 versus 640 ± 10 kJ/m3.
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Note: Adding language to numbers (e.g. only 38% or as high as 38%) ensures that the
numbers will not be misinterpreted at this crucial stage.
In other Abstracts the method and/or results are presented using

language alone:
· Stimulation of osteogenic differentiation was investigated using

mesenchymal stromal cells obtained from rat bone marrow.
· Here we demonstrate a method to promote the detachment of

microparticles from bubbles using ultrasound…
· …BMP2 mediated increases in SP and CGRP were suppressed as

‐
compared to the normal animals, and HO was dramatically inhibited in
these deficient mice.
· …the FWI velocity model reveals a sharper and more intense low-velocity

region associated with the gas cloud in which low-velocity fingers match
the location of gas-filled faults…
Having spent so much time on the study itself, not to mention the time
spent on writing the paper, writers are often tempted to consider the Abstract
as a summary of all that work, and include many less relevant details of the
method or results. This results in a shapeless, uneven Abstract in which the
reader has the task of identifying which are the key aspects of the method
or the key results — and is unlikely to succeed.
How strongly should I state the implications of my results?

What you say in the Abstract should be consistent with what you report in
the paper. The need for Abstracts to impress and attract is coupled with the
writer’s need to publish quickly, and this may result in an Abstract that
contains statements or conclusions that are over-ambitious, or which are
not fully supported by the data obtained in the study. This will be exposed
during peer review, and may prolong the review process. If your work
represents an early stage in a breakthrough, or its value is in the possible
or potential implications of your data, communicate this by including modal
verbs (could/might/may) or words such as possible/potential. In some cases
the implications are stated quite strongly in the Abstract and the article
includes a discussion of the possible restrictions and constraints of these
implications. However, the implications as stated in the Abstract must not
be so strong as to be misleading or inconsistent with the data itself.
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How can I make the Abstract flow, given the word limit?
The Abstract has to operate within a fixed number of words, and this sometimes
means including valuable data or information at the expense of narrative
flow. However, the more the narrative ‘wrap’ is reduced, the less coherent
that data or information becomes.
To make the Abstract flow given the word limit while retaining as much
information as possible:
1. Review Section 1.5.2 Linking sentences and information together and

look at how the sentences are linked together in the Abstracts in this Unit
and in your target articles. Is it easy for the reader to negotiate the gap
between sentences? How does the writer help the reader move from
one sentence to the next? Are there places where the lack of an explicit
sentence link creates real ambiguity? How could you resolve this?
2. Get the maximum value from the word limit by combining sentence

functions, for example:
· WHAT THE PAPER DOES + ACHIEVEMENT: In this paper, we

present a novel estimation method that combines the strengths
of quality-guided tracking, multi-level correlation, and phase-
zero search to achieve high levels of accuracy and robustness.
· ACHIEVEMENT + GAP: It thereby provides a concept for low-

frequency hearing that accounts for a variety of unexplained
experimental observations from the cochlear apex, including…
· METHOD + RESULT: Specifically, addition of ≥ 13.3 mg/ml of 45S5

bioactive glass or Sr50, or ≥ 6.7 mg/ml of Sr100, resulted in significant
inhibition.
· ACHIEVEMENT + GAP: In addition, the present model further

improves upon the accuracy of existing models by incorporating
a more complete version of the Nernst equation, which enables
accurate prediction of the cell potential without the use of a fitting
voltage.
· RESULT + IMPLICATION: In animals lacking functional sensory

neurons (TRPV1−/−), BMP2 mediated increases in SP and CGRP
‐
were suppressed as compared to the normal animals, and HO
was dramatically inhibited in these deficient mice, suggesting that
neuroinflammation plays a functional role.
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6.4. Language
All the language you need for the Abstract can be found in the previous Units.
However, because the Abstract needs to be understood very quickly by a
wide range of readers, it tends to contain simple, conventional language, and
the selection below reflects this. Add to the list from your target article
Abstracts.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOPIC/ESSENTIAL FACTUAL BACKGROUND

is assumed to a number of studies
is based on central
is determined by common
is fundamental to currently
is influenced by dominant
is known to emerging
is related to frequently
is regarded as generally
it has recently been shown that increasing
it is known that key
it is widely accepted that many
often
Note: Verbs in the Present Simple tense also popular
communicate the factual background. recent
typically
widely
worldwide
Examples from the Abstracts in this Unit:
· The reservoir lies at the crest of a high-velocity antiformal chalk section,

overlain by about 3000 m of clastics within which a low-velocity gas
cloud produces a seismic obscured area.
· The sensitivity and frequency selectivity of hearing result from tuned

amplification by an active process in the mechanoreceptive hair cells.
· Salt sequences form an integral part of many sedimentary basins worldwide.

· Axial displacement estimation is fundamental to many freehand

quasistatic ultrasonic strain imaging systems.
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· Canopy trees are keystone organisms that create habitat for an

enormous array of flora and fauna and dominate carbon storage in
tropical forests.
· The self-assembly of solid particles at fluid–fluid interfaces is widely

exploited to stabilize emulsions and foams, and in materials synthesis.
THE CHALLENGE/PROBLEM
(an) alternative approach inaccurate
(a) key problem inadequate
a need for inconvenient
challenge limited
complicated little (work)
critical not able to
debate previously
desirable problem
difficulty require
disadvantage risk
drawback time-consuming
essential unsuccessful
expensive until now
impractical
· Despite this, little work has so far been undertaken to understand

magma-salt interactions within the subsurface,…
· The relative contributions of these two mechanisms to the active

process in the mammalian inner ear is the subject of intense current
debate.
· If anisotropy is not adequately taken into account during full-waveform

seismic inversion (FWI), then inadequacies in the anisotropy model are
likely to manifest as signi cant error…
fi
· …accurate detection of APs from calcium time series has proved to be a

difficult problem.
· Inferring the times of sequences of action potentials (APs) (spike trains) from

neurophysiological data is a key problem in computational neuroscience.
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WHAT THE PAPER/STUDY DOES (sometimes in the passive)
address define extend propose

analyse describe identify provide
attempt to discuss include report
compare emphasise introduce review
consider enable investigate show
examine present
· This paper presents the implementation of the first fully integrated

pulse oximeter front-end with a power consumption lower than 1 mW.
· The paper includes a full description of the hybrid method, in vivo

examples to illustrate the method’s clinical relevance, and finite element
simulations to assess its accuracy.
· In this paper we investigate the crushing behaviour, mechanical

properties and energy absorption of lattices made by an additive
manufacturing process.
· In this study, we attempt to define the role of peripheral nerves.

· We report herein a rate law analysis of the order of water oxidation as

a function of surface hole density on a hematite photoanode employing
photoinduced absorption spectroscopy.
METHOD/MATERIALS
Instead of are/were examined

Rather than are/were formulated
Unlike are/were measured
are/were modelled
are/were analysed are/were performed
are/were applied are/were recorded
are/were assembled are/were selected
are/were calculated are/were studied
are/were constructed are/were treated
are/were evaluated are/were used
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· At each iteration, we selected only a subset of sources, using a different

subset at each iteration…
· In this study, calcium oxide in the 45S5 bioactive glass composition was

partially (50%, Sr50) or fully (100%, Sr100) substituted with strontium
oxide on a molar basis.
· Two types of lattice were examined: body-centred-cubic (BCC) and a

reinforced variant called BCCz.
· Samples of uranium containing 600 ppm carbon were analysed

during and after exposure to water vapour at 19 mbar pressure, in an
environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) system.
· The two different sets of reaction conditions involved alternative

reaction times of 1 h and 5 h at 265°C and 350°C, respectively.
RESULTS
cause are/was achieved

decrease are/was found
demonstrate are/was identical
exhibit are/was identified
increase are/was observed
occur are/was obtained
produce are/was present
reach are/was unaffected (by)
result in
reveal
yield
· Extensive measured results, both electrical and physiological from human

subjects are reported, demonstrating an estimated SNR of 39 dB…
· Deeper in the section, the FWI velocity model reveals a sharper and

more intense low-velocity region.
· Statistically significant reductions in cell viability were observed with

the addition of bioactive glass powders to culture medium.
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· The graded structures exhibited distinct crushing behaviour, with a

sequential collapse of cellular layers preceding full densification.
· Yields of liquid products reached up to 40 wt% (on lignin feed basis) in

the presence of FA under the less severe reaction condition…
ACHIEVEMENT/VALUE/CONTRIBUTION
accurate improved able to

affordable new achieve
better novel allow
comparable powerful confirm
consistent practical enable
cost-effective reliable enhance
dramatic robust ensure
effective significant guarantee
efficient similar outperform
exact simple simplify
fast suitable solve
(the) first superior validate
good verify
Most Abstracts contain at least one sentence that makes the achievement/
value/contribution of the study clear. Here are some examples from the first
five of the Abstracts; continue by identifying sentences with similar functions
in the rest of the Abstracts and those in your target articles.
· This paper presents the implementation of the first fully integrated

pulse oximeter front-end with a power consumption lower than 1 mW.
· We have developed and implemented a robust and practical scheme

for anisotropic 3D acoustic full-waveform inversion (FWI).
· Within this paper, we detail the rst direct description of relationships and

fi
textures that are developed during intrusive igneous-salt interaction…
· In this paper, we present a novel estimation method that combines the

strengths of quality-guided tracking, multi-level correlation, and phase-
zero search to achieve high levels of accuracy and robustness.
· Here, we show that active hair-bundle motility and electromotility can

together implement an efficient mechanism for amplification that
functions like a ratchet:…
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IMPLICATIONS
appear to potentially
indicate that seem to
may/might/could suggest that
possible we conclude that
· We suggest that heating and transformation of carnallite and other

hydrous salts into viscous uidal horizons during igneous intrusion
fl
within a regional salt sequence may act as a possible trigger for
contemporaneous halokinesis.
· It was concluded that strontium substituted bioactive glasses promoted

‐
osteogenesis in a differentiating bone cell culture model.
· The data collectively suggest that BMP2 can act directly on sensory

neurons to induce neurogenic inflammation, resulting in nerve
remodeling and the migration/release of osteogenic and other stem cells
from the nerve. Further, blocking this process significantly reduces HO,
suggesting that the stem cell population contributes to bone formation.
· SND2 seems to occupy a subordinate but central tier in the secondary

cell wall transcriptional network.
· These findings indicate that the chemical diversity of western Amazonian

forests occurs in a regionally nested mosaic driven by long-term chemical
trait adjustment of communities to large-scale environmental filters…
APPLICATIONS
apply potential
employ relevant for/in
enable suitable for/in
implement use
wide range of
· The ratchet mechanism constitutes a general design principle for

implementing mechanical amplification in engineering applications.
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· The workflows, inversion strategy, and algorithms that we have used

have broad application to invert a wide range of analogous data sets.
· These results improve the current understanding of additively

manufactured lattices and will enable the design of sophisticated,
functional, lightweight components in the future.
· It was concluded that strontium substituted bioactive glasses promoted

‐
osteogenesis in a differentiating bone cell culture model and, therefore,
have considerable potential for use as improved bioactive glasses for
bone tissue regeneration.
· Geographically nested patterns of forest canopy chemical traits will play

a role in determining the response and functional rearrangement of
western Amazonian ecosystems to changing land use and climate.
· Our method should find a broad range of applications, from nanoparticle

recycling in sustainable processes to programmable particle delivery in
lab-on-a-chip applications.
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6.5. Summary Abstract Exercise
Analyse the Abstracts of your target articles to determine all of the following:
· The extent to which the structure corresponds to or deviates from the

generic Abstract model on page 286.
· The proportion of the Abstract that repeats/revisits the method and the

results.
· The function of the first sentence.

· The amount of ‘happy’ language that identifies the value/achievement

of the study.
· Whether there is risk-reducing language, including modals such as may.

· How the main achievement of the study has been prioritised.

· Which verb tense is used in each sentence, and why.

· Whether there is any ‘ownership’ ambiguity as a result of verb tense or

use of the passive.
· Whether there is any ambiguity as a result of reference words such as

this/it.
· Average sentence length.

· Which acronyms are acceptable.

· Whether the key take-home message of the study is clear.

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UNIT 7
Writing the Title
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TITLE*
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION†
*For simplicity, all titles have been standardised with respect to capitalisation.
†
Some journals call this section CONCLUSION and others call it CONCLUSIONS but this does not seem
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Writing the Title
Research article titles have undergone a fundamental change and are

continuing to develop to meet the needs of the reader. In previous years,
researchers accessed developments in their field via hard copies of a carefully-
curated — and therefore limited — set of journals. This is no longer the case.
The main driver of this transformation has been the changeover to online
reading of research, which has had a profound effect on the aim, content
and construction of titles. Internet reading means that many more people
will read the title than will ever read any other part of the paper, and search
engine optimisation means that many do not scroll beyond a few further
pages of titles once they have found relevant research. Title scanning is now
a constant activity for most scientists, and titles have gained in importance
as a result.
Other factors have also played a part in changing the way titles are
written, and for whom they are written. For example, there are now many
highly specialised research microcommunities within which a great deal of
knowledge can be taken for granted, and research articles aimed at these
microcommunities often have highly specialised content in the title. In
contrast, others are working in fields where there is a need to make their
research accessible to an interdisciplinary reader, and this has motivated
those researchers to prioritise wide-ranging impact and inclusivity over
content when they create titles.
The title will be with the paper forever and will always serve as the entry
point for prospective readers. A good title will attract readers and, importantly,
will attract all the right readers. The reverse is also true: if the title is poor
the research article may not reach the target audience. Before you submit
your article, type your title and keyword list into a search engine and check
which research articles appear. Are they aimed at the same readership as
yours? Is that your target audience?
Despite the importance of the title, advice about what constitutes a
‘good’ title is sometimes too general to be useful and in some cases
may contradict actual practice. You may be told that your title should be
‘informative’, but exactly what that information should be is not easy to
determine. You may be advised to make the title ‘as short as possible’, but
when you look at comparable recent titles in your target journal, they may
not be short at all — and in any case, exactly how short is ‘as short as possible’?
In addition, given the accelerating speed of change in research publication,
even useful advice may quickly become out of date. This lack of effective
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advice means that writers sometimes simply submit the article with the
original working title and hope for the best, but in the competitive global
research context this is not a good strategy.
What’s wrong with using the working title?

The working title is the research topic in the researcher’s head before and
during the research activity, and crucially, before the results are obtained. It
does not tell readers what they can expect to gain from reading the article;
instead, it simply tends to reflect the research field, or at best, the research
activity. That research activity may be an investigation into something, but
not only is investigating a very vague activity, the product — and therefore
the value — of the study is unlikely to be the investigation itself but rather
the outcome of that investigation.
In addition, a working title sometimes just names the thing you are
studying, for example, Unsteady flow in pipe networks, whereas the product
or outcome of the study — and therefore the title — might be A hydraulic
analysis of unsteady flow in pipe networks. Even when the working title is
quite specific, such as Mapping single-cell gene expression in the lung, this
is still the research activity; it is not the best or most informative title. Is the
article describing a new process for mapping single-cell gene expression,
identifying the challenges of mapping single-cell gene expression or simply
reviewing the existing literature? If the outcome of the study is expressed in
a title such as ‘LungGENS: a web-based tool for mapping single-cell gene
expression in the developing lung’ this will attract readers because they
know exactly what they will get as a result of using their very precious time
to read it.
Writers can only be really certain of their contribution and decide on the
appropriate title when the study is complete and the results have been
documented and analysed in relation to current literature and knowledge.
This decision is sometimes made very close to the time of submission, and
the eventual title often bears little resemblance to the original working title.
Can’t I just summarise my findings in a sentence to produce the title?

Sentence titles are acceptable in some research areas, and there is also an
increasing tendency to use them as summarising titles for subsections.
Sentence titles have a grammatical subject, a verb, and usually an object:
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Gamma-range synchronization of fast-spiking interneurons enhances

detection of tactile stimuli. Sentence titles that summarise the most important
finding/s are acceptable in some journals but they are not common — as
always, check your target journal. They are used when the findings are strong,
and the sentence simply states the key finding itself, usually in the Present
Simple tense. Given the need for speed in research publishing, in some cases
journal editors will accept sentence titles even when the implications of the
findings are not yet fully established: Mechanically modulated cartilage
growth may regulate joint surface morphogenesis.
So what strategy should I use to produce a title?

As stated above, titles are changing to meet the way readers access research,
so the best strategy is to begin by reverse engineering current examples of
titles in the journal you wish to publish in and/or titles of research articles
that deal with similar subject matter. Use the following 7 points to analyse
recent comparable titles in your target journals.
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7.1. Check Average Length
This is a reasonable starting point, as the average number of words provides

some rough-and-ready guidance on the level of complexity in your target
journal titles. In many journals, for example, the average number of words
is around 12, but as always, averages hide acceptable variation. The actual
number is likely to be highly dependent on the specific topic and type of
study. In addition, although knowing the average number of words is a good
place to start, that number may well change alongside future changes in the
online front page of the research article. Some online front pages now include
components such as a Significance Statement, or a Research in Context
panel. The number and range of such components is by no means stable or
consistent across journals and may eventually impact on the function of the
title, which will in turn influence its median length.
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7.2. Using Acronyms
It is tempting to use acronyms to reduce the size of the title, but the decision
to use an acronym should not be taken lightly. While you are doing your
research, you spend most of your time with colleagues who share your
knowledge of the concepts and terminology associated with the study, to
the point where much of your communication relies on this implicit shared
understanding. By the time you write the title of your paper, you have used
a shared set of acronyms with colleagues so frequently that the full form
seems redundant. This tends to blind you to the reality that those reading
your work may not know exactly what your acronym refers to — they may
simply find the use of the acronym in the title off-putting and scroll down to
the next article.
In addition, although including acronyms in the title is acceptable in highly
specific research microcommunities, these acronyms will be completely
impenetrable to outsiders, and the outsiders of today may well be the
interdisciplinary readers of tomorrow. For example, the potential future readers
of a research article on using machine learning to identify malaria vaccine
candidates may eventually include a wide range of stakeholders and audiences
such as cancer researchers, public health policy makers, clinicians and investors
in pharmaceuticals, so the decision of whether to use an acronym in the title
depends on correctly gauging the level of knowledge shared by both current
and future readers.
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7.3. Compare the Title Keywords to the Keyword List
Keywords are marketing tools, and journals often request a short keyword
list that will be displayed on the front page of the article. The list generally
contains words or short phrases that enhance the indexing — and therefore
the discoverability — of your article. The keyword list is a valuable complement
to the title, so creating one which simply repeats the keywords in the title is
not a productive strategy.
Comparing the keyword list with the keywords in the title is highly
informative. In some cases, the keyword list is more general than the keywords
in the title, signalling that the readership could extend more broadly than
the title suggests. For example, an article with the title: A framework for
reviewing the trade-offs between renewable energy, food, feed and wood
production at a local level has a keyword list that includes Ecosystem and
Landscape to attract the widest possible audience. In other cases, the title
itself may focus on the wider impact and contribution of the study, and
keywords that are highly technical are used to attract specialist researchers
in the field. For example, an article with the title: Large igneous provinces
and organic carbon burial: controls on global temperature and continental
weathering during the Early Cretaceous has a keyword list that includes
Belemnites; Oceanic Anoxic Events; Late Aptian cold snap.
Another useful function of the keyword list is that diverting items to the
keyword list can thin out an overcrowded title. Including all potential
keywords in the title for the sake of search engine optimisation may overload
the title with nouns. This tends to scatter the key message, as readers cannot
decide where the central focus lies. For example, a title such as Simultaneous
voltage and calcium mapping of genetically purified human induced
pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiac myocyte monolayers does not make it
easy for readers to quickly identify the central focus of the study while title-
scrolling.
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7.4. Check the Grammar of the Title
It may sound obvious, but the title must make sense to the reader. The more
nouns and compound nouns there are in the title, the harder it is to convey
a clear message. Compound nouns are particularly problematic. They are
attractive because they compress meaning and can give the impression of
‘ownership’ of a new or modified concept, but as they become longer, the
overall grammar of the title and the relationships between each of the
nouns becomes harder to control. The noun on the right-hand side of a
compound noun is the only ‘real’ noun grammatically; nouns to the left of
it have the same function as adjectives in that they modify that noun. As
the compound noun becomes longer, the relationship between those nouns
becomes harder to unravel:
· an oil can = a can whose purpose is to contain oil

· an oil can opener = an opener for cans whose purpose is to contain oil

· an oil can opener repair technician = a technician who is able to repair

cans whose purpose is to contain oil
· an oil can opener repair technician training programme = a programme

to train technicians to repair openers for cans whose purpose is to
contain oil
· an oil can opener repair technician training programme funding

problem = a problem with the funding for the training programme
used to train technicians to repair openers for cans whose purpose is to
contain oil
Another grammar issue in titles is the number of prepositions.

Overloading the title with prepositions can make it grammatically unwieldy.
For example, a title such as A filter with a model for the contrast sensitivity
of the visual system for modeling human performance in detection tasks with
different viewing angles is hard for the reader to deconstruct. Including some
items in the keyword list instead of the title may resolve the problem.
Prepositions also carry a high risk of ambiguity. Despite their lack of
identifiable content, prepositions are not simply a type of glue to hold concepts
together; they have a profound effect on meaning (see Section 2.5.2) and

ambiguity resulting from careless preposition use is particularly damaging in
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the title. To minimise ambiguity, consider replacing prepositions with words

that have an unmistakable meaning: Low-complexity domain interactions that
control gene transcription is less ambiguous than Low-complexity domain
interactions in gene transcription.
How many prepositions are in the titles of articles in your target journals?
Which prepositions are most common? Can you identify any ambiguities?
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7.5. Map and Model the Structural Content of the Titles

in Target Articles
· How many titles begin with A/An to communicate a new offer?

· How many use a colon (:) to split the title?

 If there is a colon, what is its function? It may be used to separate the

general topic area from the focus or contribution of the paper: Life
cycle inherent toxicity: a novel LCA-based algorithm for evaluating
chemical synthesis pathways
 Alternatively, it may separate a new term from its description or

definition: GridSpice: a distributed simulation platform for the smart
grid
· How many include the method? 3D reconstruction of SOFC anodes using

a focused ion beam lift-out technique
· How many include purpose or applications? A random phased array

device for delivery of high intensity focused ultrasound
· How many include ‘happy words’ that show the value of the contribution?

Cost-effective multimode polymer waveguides for high-speed on-board
optical interconnects
· How many include acronyms? Would every potential reader know what

these acronyms refer to?
· How many are aimed at a highly restricted microcommunity?

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7.6. Check that Expectations that the Title Suggests Are

Fulfilled in the Paper
The title should attract readers and encourage them to read your article, but
it should not overstate or exaggerate the achievement of the study. The
expectations set up by the title must be met in the paper itself. Given the
need to publish research reasonably fast, it’s acceptable to use modal verbs
(may/might/could) in some cases to suggest the direction of research or the
eventual potential contribution: Diminished circadian rhythms in hippocampal
microglia may contribute to age-related neuroinflammatory sensitization.
Look at the titles of your target research articles and predict what you expect
to understand or gain from the article. Then check the Conclusion. How
correct was your prediction?
Now evaluate the titles below using the following criteria:
· Does the title predict the focus and content of the article?

· How many nouns are there in each title?

· Is the title easy for all targeted readers to understand?

· Is the title grammatically ambiguous?

· Is the contribution or potential application of the study clear from the

title?
1. 3D reconstruction of SOFC anodes using a focused ion beam lift-out

technique
2. A biomimetic, 4.5μW, 120+ db, log-domain cochlear channel with

AGC
3. A brain controlled wheelchair to navigate in familiar environments

4. A computer algorithm for computing the tensile strength of float glass

5. A voltage-based STDP rule combined with fast BCM-like metaplasticity

accounts for LTP and concurrent “heterosynaptic” LTD in the dentate
gyrus in vivo
6. A multicommodity Eulerian-Lagrangian cell transmission model for en

route traffic
7. A new procedure for analyzing the nucleation kinetics of freezing in

computer simulation
8. Naïve pluripotency and global DNA hypomethylation

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Writing the Title
9. Nanostructured anodes for solid oxide fuel cells

10. Pairwise decomposition of image sequences for active multi-view

recognition
11. Patterns of primary care and mortality among patients with schizophrenia

or diabetes: a cluster analysis approach to the retrospective study of
healthcare utilization
12. A new system for crack closure in cementitious materials using shrinkable

polymers
13. A novel technique for efficient live migration of multiple virtual

machines
14. A random phased array device for delivery of high intensity focused

ultrasound
15. Rapid and reliable assessment of the contrast sensitivity function on an

iPad
16. Robocasting of structural ceramic parts with hydrogel inks

17. A ratchet mechanism for amplification in low-frequency mammalian

hearing
18. A robust, data-driven methodology for real-world driving cycle

development
19. A strategy for material supply chain sustainability: enabling a circular

economy in the electronics industry through Green Engineering
20. Composition-dependent structural properties in ScGaN alloy films: a

combined experimental and theoretical study
21. Connectivity reflects coding: a model of voltage-based STDP with

homeostasis
22. Delamination control in composite beams using piezoelectric actuators

23. Development of inlaid electrodes for whole column electrochemical

detection in HPLC
24. A finite rate of innovation algorithm for fast and accurate spike

detection from two-photon calcium imaging
25. A molecular dynamics study of the Gibbs free energy of solvation of

fullerene particles in octanol and water
26. Dissociating variability and effort as determinants of coordination

27. Electronic structure and local distortions in epitaxial ScGaN films

28. Impact and cost-effectiveness of new tuberculosis vaccines in low- and

middle-income countries
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29. Investigating electronic structure and local distortions in epitaxial

ScGaN films
30. Mathematical modeling of the circulation in the liver lobule

31. Penetration resistance of armor ceramics: dimensional analysis and

property correlations
32. Polarized multispectral imaging in a rigid endoscope based on elastic

light scattering spectroscopy
33. Population-level impact of active tuberculosis case finding in an Asian

megacity
34. Sensory components in bacterial nitrogen assimilation

35. Treatment of pediatric melanoma patients with lasers

36. Unsteady flows in pipes with finite curvature

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UNIT 8
Checklist and Tips
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Almost all of the items in this checklist are discussed in detail elsewhere in
the book and can be found by using the Writing Skills Index on page 345.
The checklist deals with common writing issues and errors, and aligns
with the following principles:
· The aim of writing is not to make it possible for the reader to understand

what you have written. The aim is to make it impossible for the reader
not to understand.
· Data and information alone have no intrinsic or obvious function for

the reader without a narrative.
· Knowing WHAT to write is not the same as knowing HOW to write it.

· The fact that you and your colleagues understand what you have

written makes it harder for you to see potential ambiguities.
· Good organisation and good writing can compensate for language

errors, but error-free language does not compensate for poor
organisation or poor writing.
· Everything in the text, whether it is a research article, conference

abstract, thesis or other text type, should be consistent with and lead
towards the destination point — the ‘magnetic south’.
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Checklist and Tips
8.1. Organising the Information
Planning
· As a starting point, list the achievements of the study in order of

importance, and identify the specific contributions of the study to or its
impact on (i) knowledge, (ii) research and (iii) the real world. These will
anchor the planning of each part of the research article, including the
title.
· Don’t let the keyboard force you to start typing before you are ready —

getting lost in the middle of a paragraph or subsection wastes time and
may result in a muddled, incoherent text. Step away from the keyboard
and invest in time to plan the order of each section before you start
typing whole sentences, otherwise you’ll commit to sentences that may
not fit anywhere and waste valuable time trying to find a place for them.
Effective, patient planning will increase both the speed and the quality
of your writing.
The value of the study: Identifying achievement, contribution,

and impact
Results and data do not speak for themselves and the achievement,
contribution and impact of the study are not always obvious to the
reader.
· Explicitly and consistently identify the achievement/s of the study

using ‘happy’ words (e.g. a cost-effective method). Where possible, be
specific about the contribution to research or society (e.g. opening a
new direction in research, extending the range of potential applications,
modeling epidemics more accurately), and explicitly state the potential
impact of the study on research or society (e.g. a reduction in the spread
of epidemics).
· The achievement and contribution may overlap or be identical, and some

studies have no easily identifiable impact or applications; nevertheless,
there should be an explicit and consistent take-home message about
the value of the study.
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Creating subsections and their subtitles
Check that the way you have divided the text into subsections is helpful to
the reader and that the subtitles accurately represent the content of the
subsection. Use the keywords in the subtitle as early as possible in the
subsection, and lead from those keywords.
Ordering information
Don’t jump directly from very general information to very specific/technical

information, particularly at the start of a subsection. The space between a
full stop and the next capital letter is a dangerous space for you and for your
reader. There’s thinking time in there, and a desire to move on to the next
piece of information without really considering how it relates to the previous
sentence. Link information logically and coherently using the Sentence start-
up suggestions on page 318.
Wrapping the information in a narrative
Make sure that all potential readers know what the information is doing, not
just what it is saying. Is its function to introduce a description of a problem/
solution? Is it an example of something positive — or something negative?
Consider the magnetic south, i.e. where your text is going, and show the
reader the direction of travel by commenting on data and information rather
than just stating it. For example, don’t just provide data in ‘naked numbers’;
add evaluative comments such as only 43% or as high as 43% to show what
the data means in the context of the study.
Relevance: Make sure the reader knows why you are writing
each sentence
The fact that you know why the sentence is relevant does not ensure that
the reader knows. Consider a potential ‘so what?’ question in the reader’s
mind at the end of a sentence. These questions can be resolved by adding
phrases such as ‘suggesting that.../which means that...’.
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Checklist and Tips
Assumptions
As research becomes more interdisciplinary, non-specialist readers may want

or need to access your research. Consider the range of potential readers now
and in the future and what assumptions you can make about their knowledge
of the topic, as well as their recall of earlier parts of your research article
(which they may not have even read). If not, your document may remain
locked inside your research microcommunity.
Paragraphing
Plan the function of each paragraph and order the paragraphs logically before
you start writing.
· Avoid whole-page paragraphs and clusters of short or single-sentence

paragraphs. Average paragraph length in research journals is 150–170
words.
· A paragraph which has a single function is more successful and easier

to write and read than one with multiple functions. Too many ideas
floating about in a paragraph make it hard for the writer to complete
the paragraph coherently, and make it hard for the reader to understand
what the paragraph is doing.
· Where possible, start the paragraph with a narrative entry statement

that communicates the function of the paragraph.
 Examples: We now consider the connection between… To address

this question, we used… Taken together, these studies suggest that…
There are two potential alternatives to such an approach…
· Avoid making statements early in the paragraph that won’t make sense

until the reader sees the rest of the paragraph. Consider reversing the
order.
· Don’t add loose sentences, i.e. sentences that are irrelevant to the

function of the paragraph but that you include because they were in
your notes or were suggested by a colleague. If a sentence doesn’t fit
with the function of the paragraph, delete it or create a narrative around
it that respects the function of the paragraph.
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8.2. Creating Sentences
Ordering the information in the sentence
Known information generally comes first and is used as a platform for

launching new/unknown information later in the sentence. This facilitates
sentence-to-sentence linkage, as the new information towards the end of
the sentence then becomes the known/old information on which to build
the next sentence.
Sentence start-up
The way sentences start is crucial to the readability of the text.
· Connect sentences by starting the sentence with an overlapping repeat,

a pro-form such as This/These + noun, or a signalling connector such as
However.
· Identify important information by beginning sentences with language

such as Interestingly,/Remarkably,/It is noteworthy that/It should be
emphasised that/It is important to note that.
· The way you start a sentence provides a ‘frame’ that helps the reader

to process the content. Avoid beginning sentences with -ing forms (see
pages 324–325) or prepositions (especially for and with).
Sentence length and density
The reading speed of the eye should correlate reasonably well with the
processing speed of the brain. If the reader frequently needs to re-read over-
long and over-dense sentences, this will slow them down. Consecutive long
sentences are particularly problematic.
· Average sentence length in most journals is between 20–26 words.

· The longer the sentence, the harder it is for the writer to control the

grammar and avoid ambiguity.
· Over-long sentences become ‘flat’; the important part becomes

submerged in the crowd and the reader cannot see where the principal
focus lies.
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Checklist and Tips
· Over-long sentences contain so many components that the relationship

between each component becomes hard for the writer to manage and
hard for the reader to understand.
· Over-dense sentences pack so many nouns and prepositional phrases in

that the main verb becomes obscured.
· Risk factors in over-long sentences include more than one and, more

than one which, too many prepositions, and too many nouns.
Error example: Exploration risk in most inverted rift basins is related

to uncertainties which stem from a poor understanding of the
structural style and distribution of inversion structures, which are
controlled by the presence and orientation of pre-existing structures
and the magnitude and orientation of shortening stress.
 Error example: This paper presents the fundamental framework

to facilitate transition from traditional deterministic to innovative
probabilistic electricity grid operating and design standards, through
the paradigm shift in the provision of security from redundancy in
assets to exploiting emerging Smart Grid technologies and advanced
control systems.
· and and or can drag things with it that you don’t want, or fail to drag

things that you do want, creating ambiguity.
 Error example: We found an increase in demand and deployment

of non-renewable energy sources. Did the writer find that demand
and deployment of non-renewable energy sources both increased,
or is the writer simply saying that two different things were found:
(1) an increase in demand and (2) deployment of non-renewable
energy sources — but the latter did not increase?

Signalling connectors
Signals such as moreover and therefore are not just glue to join ideas or
sentences together; they are emphatic, and have specific and restricted
meanings. The wrong signalling connector means that the reader sets off
in the wrong direction and the text becomes unintelligible.
· When you begin a sentence or clause with therefore, ask yourself: is

it really a direct consequence or result of the previous sentence or
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clause? Sometimes the consequence is clear in your head but not on

the page.
 Error example: The most important phenomenon is the breakup

length, and therefore an electrical conductivity probe technique was
used to calculate breakup length.
· When you begin a sentence or clause with for example, does it really

illustrate or stand as an example of the general statement in the previous
sentence?
· When you begin a sentence or clause with in other words, is it really the

same thing in other words?
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Checklist and Tips
8.3. Grammar and Vocabulary
Verb tense
· Verb tense is a choice made by the writer to communicate the function

of the information in the sentence. We found that x occurred is simply a
report of your findings, whereas We found that x occurs means that your
findings can be considered as facts; the Present Simple tense is higher
risk, but has more power.
· If you switch to a different tense, make sure that you and the reader

both know why.
Owning your contribution: Passive use and impersonal/

non-human grammatical subjects
· Agentless passives (was done, was studied without ‘by X’) do not make

it clear who actually ‘did’ the verb. Identify the agent by using words or
phrases like here/in that study/in our model/in their approach.
· Placing a passive verb at the end of a long sentence requires the reader

to wait until the end of the sentence to discover what happened.
Error example: Images and patient data from seventeen patients


who were suspected of having PH and who had also undergone
cardiac MRI and right-sided heart catheterization between 2002 and
2008 were retrospectively reviewed.
· The impersonal use of we/us/our can refer to ‘everyone in my field’ or

even ‘everyone in the world’. This can cause ambiguity if you also use
we/us/our in other sentences to refer to yourselves as authors. Instead
of We can now design proteins with many functions to refer to ‘everyone
in my field’, consider It is now possible to design proteins with new
functions.
· Own your own work and contribution. Sentences with non-human

grammatical subjects may risk your work being interpreted as common
knowledge or other researchers’ contributions. In the sentence
Theoretical modelling suggests formation of these bonds can be strongly
reduced by coating the receptors on the nanoparticles it is not clear
whether or not it was the writers who carried out the modelling.
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Similarly, in a sentence beginning It is argued that this rate law is

consistent with reaction mechanisms… it is likely that the authors are
referring to themselves, i.e. We argue that…, but the sentence could
also mean It is argued by others that… Note that sentences like this are
particularly dangerous in the Abstract.
Indefinite and definite articles
· Watch out for errors that are invisible, i.e. when both a and the are

grammatically correct but the choice will affect the meaning.
Example: The cords should be connected to φ /the two outlets.


· Use the to communicate shared knowledge.

· Check for uncountable nouns that you are using countably, e.g. steel,

environment, technology and therefore which potentially need an article.
Prepositions
Prepositions can change the meaning: evidence of vs. evidence for; improved
up to 3 times vs. improved by up to 3 times.
· Don’t use a preposition to do the work of content words; consider

replacing it with real words, particularly at the start of the sentence.
Instead of From this estimation we changed the temperature of the
sample, try Using this estimation we changed the temperature of the
sample.
· Mine recent research in your field to find subject-specific verb + preposition

clusters such as:
normalised FOR exon length

performed AT quasi-static rates

 performed ON tissue samples

 placed UNDER vacuum

· with has a wide range of meanings and often causes ambiguity. Consider

replacing it with one of the following: using, having, in combination
with, together with, as a result of, at the same time as.
· Strings of prepositional adverb phrases create serious ambiguity.

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Checklist and Tips
 Error example: We apply [in A] the concept [of B] [to C] [through

D] [with E] to constrain the timing [of F] [for G]. ‘We apply in this
approach the concept of host rock to intrusive relationships through
seismic-stratigraphic analysis with conventional biostratigraphic
dating to constrain the timing of the events for the first time.’
· The location of the prepositional phrase ‘for the first time’ may make it

difficult to identify the real novelty of a study.
 Error example: X-ray imaging was used to measure contact angles

within oil-bearing rocks at reservoir conditions for the first time. Is
this the first time x-ray imaging has been used to measure contact
angles? The first time it has been used to measure contact angles
within oil-bearing rocks? The first time it has been used to measure
contact angles within oil-bearing rocks at reservoir conditions?
Subject-verb agreement
· Check singular/plural agreement if the subject is not next to the verb.

· Check whether the subject can actually perform the action of the verb,

i.e. that the subject-verb agreement is logically possible.
 Error example: The nature of the problem decided how to resolve it.

Reference
· Add a noun to this/these/that/those (e.g. this system/model/theory) so

that the reader knows what you are referring to, especially at the start
of a sentence or paragraph.
· Replace it/which/this etc. with the noun or phrase it refers to if there is

more than one possibility.
· Check for ambiguity. Where does the referent of your it/which/this etc.

begin and end? Is that clear to the reader?
Adverb location
Some adverbs such as just, only, simply change the meaning or focus of the
information depending on their location. In the table below, match sentences
1–6 with their meanings to see how this works.
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1 Only we analysed models A The models we analysed were not

that can simulate the able to do anything else apart from
patient’s molecular simulating the patient’s molecular
response. response.
2 We only analysed models B The models we analysed were able to
that can simulate the simulate just one parameter (the
patient’s molecular patient’s molecular response), but not
response. others.
3 We analysed only models C No other researchers analysed models
that can simulate the that can simulate the patient’s
patient’s molecular molecular response.
response.
4 We analysed models that D The patient had just one molecular
can only simulate the response, and we analysed models
patient’s molecular that can simulate it.
response.
5 We analysed models that E We didn’t analyse any other models
can simulate only the apart from those that can simulate
patient’s molecular the patient’s molecular response.
response.
6 We analysed models that F We didn’t do anything else apart from
can simulate the patient’s analysing models that can simulate
only molecular response. the patient’s molecular response.
(Answer: 1 = C, 2 = F, 3 = E, 4 = A, 5 = B, 6 = D)
-ing ambiguity
· -ing forms are inherently ambiguous in that they exhibit no verb tense or

singular/plural marker. In the following sentence it is not clear whether
the deposits or the processes are doing the producing. It is also not clear
what exactly is doing the encapsulating.
 Error example: MTCs are deposits resulting from creep, slide,

slump and flow processes producing a variety of rheological units
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Checklist and Tips
and strain sequences encapsulating extensional, translational and

compressional domains.
Similarly, in the following sentence it is not clear whether the small

Stokes shift, high fluorescent quantum yields and sharp excitation and
emission peaks are doing the contributing, or just the sharp excitation
and emission peaks… or perhaps just the emission peaks.
 Error example: These dyes are notable for their small Stokes shift,

high fluorescent quantum yields and sharp excitation and emission
peaks contributing to overall brightness.
· -ing forms also have a range of possible meanings, adding to their

inherent ambiguity.
 Error example: Membranes remain flat storing elastic curvature

stress. (by storing? when storing? thereby storing?)
In sentences 1–3 below, consider how many of the meaning options A–J could
exist for each -ing:
A by [verb]ing
B as a result of [verb]ing
C on the basis of [verb]ing
D when [verb]ing
E thereby [verb]ing
F therefore verbing
G which is/are capable of [verb]ing
H which/that [verb]
I if we/it/they [verb]
J because it/they [verb]
1. The ions are coordinated by the C2 domain and by the phospholipids

forming a ternary complex.
2. These dyes are notable for their small Stokes shift, high fluorescent

quantum yields and sharp excitation and emission peaks contributing to
overall brightness.
3. The lipids can influence protein functions indirectly altering the

biophysical properties of the membrane.
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Avoid over-simple/weak verbs — they have too many possible

meanings
have = possess, contain, include

get = obtain, achieve, become
bring = provide, yield, cause
keep = retain, maintain, conserve
spread = distribute, diffuse, scatter, extend
Vocabulary accuracy

Terminology should be used consistently. A tool should not become a strategy
and then a device and then an approach and then a methodology and then
a framework and then a technique.
· The thesaurus is not your friend, and it is the global writer and reader’s

enemy. No two words have exactly the same meaning in every context
so there is no such thing as a perfect synonym. This means that the word
you choose as an alternate may have a broader scope than the original
word or it may be more negative/positive/neutral than the original word.
A non-native writer risks choosing a thesaurus option whose meaning is
so distant from the original word that the reader does not recognise it as
an alternate. noticeable is not the same as conspicuous. famous is not the
same as well-known. Don’t be afraid to repeat the same word or phrase
if that makes reading easier.
Example: Most studies have focused on a deep steady state of

general anesthesia and have not used a systematic behavioral
measure to track the transition into unconsciousness. This steady-
state approach cannot distinguish between patterns that are
characteristic of a deeply anesthetized brain and patterns that arise
at the onset of unconsciousness. Unconsciousness can occur in
tens of seconds, but many neurophysiological features continue to
fluctuate for minutes after induction.
· Use Google Scholar to check whether your use of technical terms or

phrases is accurate and current. First put the term into Google Scholar
in quotation marks (“) to check where, when and how many times that
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exact phrase appears in the literature; then enter the same term again
without quotation marks and compare the two sets of data.
· New terminology is created very quickly in science, and the term you

have been using may have been superseded or steamrollered by an
influential research group who are naming it differently. Keep checking.
· comprise/consist of/be made up of/be composed of are followed by a list

or description of all the components, whereas include is followed by a
list or description of a selection of the components.
· respectively means in the same order as just mentioned: T helper and T

suppressor cells are restricted by the A and E molecules respectively.
· Joining two or more words with a hyphen makes them act as a single

concept to describe the noun that follows them. Thus, We used five
centimetre-wide layers means that we used five layers, each of which
was one centimetre wide, whereas We used five-centimetre wide layers
means that each layer we used was five centimetres wide.
· Make sure you know the difference between the following pairs:

alternately and alternately = one after the other or in sequence
alternatively alternatively = on the other hand, instead or as an
alternative
beside and besides beside = next/close to
besides = apart from/in addition to
criterion and criteria criterion is the singular form
criteria is the plural form
different and various different = not the same
various = a range of
e.g. and i.e. e.g. = for example
i.e. = in other words
effective and effective = it works
efficient efficient = it works well
phenomenon and phenomenon is the singular form
phenomena phenomena is the plural form
to adapt and to to adapt = to modify/adjust
adopt to adopt = to choose to use/follow
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to affect and to to affect = to influence/to have an effect on

effect to effect = to cause/bring about
to imply and to infer to imply = to suggest, to indicate
to infer = to conclude, to deduce
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8.4. General
Ownership: Make sure the reader knows who is

‘speaking’
Is this statement your own hypothesis/explanation? Is it a known truth? Will

the reader know which of those it is? Is a citation needed?
The certainty continuum and modal verbs
Use language that accurately communicates how committed you are to your
interpretation of your results and their implications. You can choose language
that tells the reader that you are certain or you can choose language that
tells the reader you are merely speculating; what is essential is that the
language you choose follows logically from the results or achievements of
the study.
Citations
Locate citations at the appropriate place in the sentence. Placing a citation

reference at the end of the sentence (or stacking all the citations there) can
cause ambiguity about who did what.
Self-edit lexical writing tics such as indeed/in fact/basically/

clearly
Self-edit punctuation-related writing tics such as

parentheses, dash pairs, multiple commas
Many writers have a punctuation-related writing tic. Some overuse

parentheses, others overuse commas, semicolons or pairs of dashes.
· If your tic is overusing pairs of dashes, note that the meaning of a pair

of dashes is not obvious, particularly to international readers. Consider
translating what you mean by the dash pairs into language.
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· If your tic is overusing parentheses, remember that if something is important

enough to include, perhaps it should not be in parentheses…and if it is not
important enough to include, perhaps it should not be there at all.
· If your tic is overusing commas, note that using commas to include
more information in the sentence may result in an over-long or rambling
sentence. Consider breaking the information into separate, well-linked
sentences.
Finally, the most important advice of all:

Whatever type of document you are planning to write, use the strategy in
this book to reverse engineer some recently-published examples in order
to generate a robust, reliable model.
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Sources and Credits
The author wishes to acknowledge and thank the following. Note that because
extracts from published papers are presented as examples of good writing,
graphics are not generally included. For simplicity, all titles have been
standardised with respect to capitalisation.
1. Hyland, K. (2016). Academic publishing and the myth of linguistic injustice.

Journal of Second Language Writing Vol. 31: 58–69.
2. Rennie, D. (1998). The present state of medical journals. The Lancet Vol. 352,

Supplement 2: S18–S22.
3. Skelton, J.R. and Edwards, S.J.L. (2000). The function of the discussion section in

academic medical writing. BMJ 320: 1269.
4. Renear, A.H. and Palmer, C.L. (2009). Strategic reading, ontologies, and the

future of scientific publishing. Science Vol. 325, Issue 5942: 828–832.
5. Pop, M. and Salzburg, S.L. (2015). Use and mis-use of supplementary material in

science publications. BMC Bioinformatics Vol. 16, Article Number 237.
6. http://www.nature.com/nature/authors/submissions/final/suppinfo.html.

7. Nickerson, R.S. (1999). How we know — and sometimes misjudge — what

others know: imputing one’s own knowledge to others. Psychological Bulletin
Vol. 125, Issue 6: 737–759.
8. Rennie, D. and Flanagin, A. (1992). Publication bias: the triumph of hope over

experience. JAMA Vol. 267, Issue 3: 411–412.
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Index of Extracts
a. Lewis, L.D. et al. (2012). Rapid fragmentation of neuronal networks at the

onset of propofol-induced unconsciousness. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Vol. 109, No. 49: E3377–
E3386.
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335 v
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b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Appendix A: Prefixes Used in

Science Writing
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

a- not asymmetrical, atypical
an- not anaerobic, anhydrous
ante- before antechamber, antenatal
anti- against antimicrobial, antioxidant
auto- self autonomous, autocorrect
bi- two binary, bicarbonate
cent- hundred/hundredth centigrade, centimeter
chrom- colour chromatic, chromosome
chron- time chronological, chronometer
circ- around circulate, circumnavigate
co- with/together coauthor, coordinate
contra- against contraflow, contraindicate
counter- against counteract, counterpoint
crypt- hidden cryptocurrency, cryptography
de- apart/away decompose, dehydrate
di- two dichloride, dioxide
dis- apart/away dislocate, disintegrate
dis- not dissimilar, disadvantage
equi- equal equivalent, equilateral
fore- before foreknowledge, forecast
hetero- different heterogeneous, heterosexual
homo- same homogeneous, homosexual
337 v
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“9x6”
hyper- above/more hyper-heuristic, hypertension

hypo- under/below hypoallergenic, hypothermia
il- not illogical, illegal
ill- bad/badly ill-defined, ill-judged
im- not impure, immaterial
in- not inaccurate, inconsistent
infra- under/below infrared, infrastructure
inter- between interdisciplinary, interface
intr- into/inside intravenous, introduction
ir- not irreversible, irrelevant
iso- equal isometric, isotherm
kilo- thousand kilogram, kilowatt
mal- bad/badly malformed, malfunction
mega- large/million megabyte, megadose
meta- change metadata, metastasis
milli- thousandth millisecond, millimeter
mis- wrong miscalculate, misjudge
mono- one/single monomer, monotone
multi- many multilayer, multicellular
nano- billionth/very small nanotube, nanomaterials
neo- new neonatal, neoblast
non- not nonexistent, non-standard
over- too/excessively overheat, oversimplify
para- similar paramedic, parapsychology
poly- many polysaccharide, polycystic
post- after post-processing, postgraduate

pre- before preexisting, pretest
prim- first primitive, primordial
proto- first prototype, protoplasm
re- again review, revise
retro- backwards retrofit, retrovirus
semi- half semiconductor, semicircle
sub- under/below subset, subtitle
super- above/more superconductor, supersonic
w 338
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Prefixes Used in Science Writing
tele- far/distant telemetry, telescope

un- not unusual, unsuitable
uni- one/single unicellular, uniform
339 v
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b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Appendix B: Research Verbs
able to attach conclude demonstrate

accompany attempt conclude that derive
accord with attribute conduct describe
account for avoid confirm design
achieve be confined to conflict with detect
acquire bisect connect determine
adapt calculate consider develop
address calibrate construct deviate from
adjust carry out contains devise
administer categorise contradict differ
adopt cause contribute to discard
affect challenge control discover
align change converge discuss
allow characterise convert display
alter choose correlate with disprove
analyse claim correspond to distribute
appear to clarify corroborate divide
apply collect couple document
argue combine create drive
arise from compare deal with drop
arrange compare well with decline eliminate
ascribe compensate for decrease embed
assemble complement deduce emphasise
assess compute define employ
assume concentrate on delay enable
341 v
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“9x6”
encase highlight maximise point out

enclose hypothesise mean position
enhance identify measure postulate
ensure ignore mention precede
establish illustrate minimise predict
estimate immerse mirror prepare
evaluate implement miscalculate present
examine imply misjudge prevent
exceed improve misunderstand process
exclude include model produce
exhibit incorporate modify propose
exist increase monitor prove
expand indicate mount provide
explain infer neglect provide a first step
explore influence normalise provide a
expose initiate note framework
extend input observe provide evidence of
extract insert obtain provide insight into
fabricate install occur provide support for
facilitate interpret offer purchase
fall intersect operate put forward
fall short of introduce optimise quantify
fasten invert organise reach
filter investigate orient recognise
find isolate originate in recommend
fit join outline record
fix know outperform recover
focus on lag behind overcome reduce
formulate lead overlook re-examine
generalise lead to pave the way for refine
generate limit peak reflect
give rise to list perform refute
govern locate permit regulate
guarantee maintain place reinforce
help to match plot remain
w 342
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Research Verbs
remove review situate support

repeat revise solve surround
replicate rise space synthesise
report rule out speculate take place
represent sample stabilise test
require seem to state theorise
resemble select streamline track
resolve separate study transfer
restrict serve as substantiate treat
result from set out substitute use
result in shed new light on succeed utilise
resume show suffer from validate
retain signify suggest vary
retrieve simplify summarise verify
reveal simulate supply yield
343 v
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b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Writing Skills Index
Citations 9–11, 83, 84, 198–201, 287

Modal verbs 230–241
Owning your contribution 321, 322
Paragraphing 65–68, 317
Passive/active choices 64, 65, 113–115, 321
Prepositions 115–120, 307, 308, 322, 323
Sentence length and density 58, 266, 318, 319
Sentence start-up, sentence-to-sentence linkage, linking sentences
together 56–61, 88, 318
Signalling connectors 59–61
The certainty continuum 179, 182–186, 328
The narrative wrap 13, 14, 191, 316
The reverse-engineering approach xvii, xviii, Section 1.2
Using a and the 121–126
Verb tense choices 6, 15, 52–55, 113, 155, 164, 201, 204, 259, 260, 286, 287
345 v
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b2530_FM.indd 6 01-Sep-16 11:03:06 AM

Language Index
a factor in 183 alternative 49, 68, 222, 291, 327

a few 173, 174 although 49, 61, 110
a great deal 173 always 108, 176
a little 173, 174 analogous to 222
a need for 226, 291 apparent 170
a number (of) 46, 290 apparently 182
a version of 109 appealing 225
able to 51, 225, 229–233, 291, applicable 227
294 appreciable 173
abrupt 172 appreciably 173, 174
absent 49 appropriate 172, 225, 227
abundant 173 appropriately 108
acceptable 111, 172, 180 approximately 173, 174
according to 109, 169 as a result 60
accurate 51, 107, 108, 175, as a rule 176
225 as can be seen from/in 169
adequate 172 as described by/in 109
advantage 46, 51, 107, 225 as detailed by/in 109
affordable 294 as expected, 179
after 105, 106 as explained by/in 109
afterwards 105, 106 as far as possible 111, 180
aim 51, 107 as few as 173, 174
almost never 177 as for 61
almost the same 109 as in 109, 114
347 v
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“9x6”
as often as not 175, 177 challenging 46

as proposed by/in 109 clearly 170
as reported by/in 109 close 101, 170, 173, 174
as soon as 105, 106 commercially available 100
as suggested by/in 109 common 46, 290
as to 61 commonly 46, 176
associated with 183 comparable 172, 179, 222, 294
at first 105 comparatively 172, 179
at least 108, 173 compelling 182, 225
at no time 177 completely 108
at once 105, 106 complicated 49, 291
at present 226 confidence 182
at that point 105, 106 consequence 181, 183, 184
at the beginning 105 consequently 60
at the end 105, 106 considerable 46, 173
at the same time 105, 106 considerably 173, 174
at the start 105 consistent 107, 172, 179, 222, 294
at times 177 constant 171
attractive 46, 225 constantly 108
barely 172–174 contrary to 179, 222
barely ever 177 controversial 49, 50
based on 290 convenient 225
because 59 convincing 225
beforehand 103–105 correct 225
below 101, 102 correctly 108
beneficial 46, 175, 225, 226 cost-effective 46, 225, 294
benefit 46 costly 49
both/all 108 critical 291
brief 172 crucial 46, 225
broadly 172, 179 current 46
by and large 172 currently 181, 226, 290
by contrast 60 debate 291
carefully 108 defect 49
cause 46, 125, 183, 184, 293 deficient 49
central 46, 290 desirable 291
challenge 46, 48, 49, 222, 291 despite 49, 61, 180
w 348
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Language Index
did not align precisely 111 exactly 108

difficult to 111, 180 excellent 107, 225
difficulty 49, 291 except for 109, 110, 222
direct 107, 225 exceptional 225
directly 105, 106, 108 exceptionally 173, 174
disadvantage 49, 291 excessive 172
disappointing 49, 181 exciting 225
distinct 172, 222 expensive 49
dominant 290 extensive 172
doubtful 49 extensively 46
dramatic 46, 172, 225, 294 extraordinary 225
drawback 49, 291 extremely 169, 173, 174
due to 59, 182, 183 fairly 111, 173, 174, 180, 182
each/every time 176 fairly well 180
earlier 105, 1056 false 49
easily (over/under) 173, 174 far (more/less) 173, 174
easy 107, 225 far from (ideal) 49
economical 225 favourable 225
effective 51, 175, 225, 294, 327 feasible 225, 227
effectively 172, 179 few 50, 173, 174
efficient 51, 175, 225, 294, 327 fewer (than) 173, 174
emerging 46, 250 finally 105, 106
encouraging 225, 226 firmly 108
entirely 108, 225 first time/first of its kind 222
equal 171 firstly 105
equivalent 172 flaw 49
essential 46, 291 flexible 225
essentially 109, 172, 179 focus on 46, 47
even (higher/lower) 173, 174 followed by 105, 106
even so 61 following 105, 106, 107, 109, 110
even though 61 for (the sake of) simplicity 107
eventually 105, 106, 227 for brevity 107
every/each 108 for convenience 107
evident 170, 182 for many years 46
evidently 182 for maximum effect 107
exact 225, 294 formerly 105, 106
349 v
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“9x6”
fragile 49 imperfection/s 181
frequent/ly 46, 108, 176, 290 importance 46
freshly 108 important 46, 68, 107, 172, 225
from time to time 177 impossible 111, 180, 235–237
fruitful 226 impractical 111, 80, 291
fully 51, 108 improved 294
fundamental 46, 290 in accordance with 109, 179, 222
fundamentally 222 in addition 61, 327
furthermore 61 in advance 105
gap 49 in agreement with 222
generally 172, 176, 290 in an attempt to 107
gently 108 in conflict with 222
global 46 in contradiction to 179
goal 51, 68 in contrast 60, 179, 222
gradual 172 in due course 106, 227
great potential 46 in essence 110
greater (than) 173 in fact 329
growth in popularity 46 in future 227
in general 172
habitually 176
in good agreement (with) 222
hard to 49, 111, 180
in line with 110, 179, 222
hardly 173, 174
in order to 68, 107
hardly ever 176, 177
in part 182
hence 60
in principle 110, 172
higher 171–174
in progress 181, 226
highest 171
in some cases 173, 174
holds promise 226
in spite of 61
however 49, 60, 61, 110
in the beginning 105
ideal 50, 111, 181 in the end 105, 106
identical 108, 109, 171, 179, in the main 172
222, 293 in the meantime 105, 106
immaterial 111, 180 in the second place (etc.) 61
immediately 102, 105, 106, 108 in view of (the fact that) 59
imperceptible 173, 174 in/from fig. 1 (it can be seen that) 170
w 350
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Language Index
inaccurate 49, 291 it could be inferred that… 182

inadequate 49, 172, 291 it has recently been shown
incapable (of) 49 that 290
incompatible 49 it is [fairly/abundantly] evident
incomplete 50 that… 182
inconsistent 49 it is [very/highly] probable/likely
inconvenient 49, 291 that… 182
incorrect 49 it is conceivable that… 224
increase 46, 171, 293 it is known that 290
increasing 290 it is logical that… 182
indeed 329 it is noteworthy that… 172, 318
independently 108 it is reasonable to assume
individually 108 that… 224
ineffective 49 it is recognised that 111
inefficient 49 it is thought/believed that… 182
inevitable 180 it is widely accepted that 290
inevitably 111, 180 it is/seems possible that… 50
inferior 49 it may (well) be that… 182
inflexible 49 it may be concluded that… 182
infrequently 177 it may/can be assumed that… 182
initially 105 it seems (very/highly)
innovation 51 probable/likely that… 182
insignificant 180 it seems that… 182
inspection of figure 1 it would seem/appear that… 182
indicates 170 just 102, 106, 173, 174, 323
instantly 105, 106
key 46, 68, 290, 291
instead of 110
kind gift from 100
insufficient 49
intention 51 lack 49
interesting 46 large 173
interestingly, 172, 318 largely 109
intriguingly, 172 lastly 105, 106
intuitive 225 later 105, 106
invaluable 225 later on 105, 106
invariably 176 leading 46
it appears that… 182, 184 less 173, 174
351 v
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“9x6”
less than 111, 180 never 108, 176, 177

likelihood 172 nevertheless 49, 61, 180
limitation 49 new/novel 222
limited 111, 181, 281 next 102, 105, 106, 226, 327
linked to 183, 184 nonetheless 61
little 49, 50, 173, 174, 291 non-ideal/not ideal 181
low 173, 174, 179 normally 176
low-cost 225 not able to 49, 232, 233, 291
mainly 172 not addressed 49
major 46, 172 not complete 181
many 46, 173, 290 not dealt with 49
many/most 46 not dissimilar 179
marginal/ly 173, 174, 180 not examined 181
marked 173 not explored in this study 181
markedly 173, 174 not ideal 49, 181
meanwhile 106 not identical 111, 181
measurable 106 not investigated 181
merely 172 not once 177
minimal 111, 173, 174 not perfect 111, 181
minor 172–174, 181 not possible 111, 181
misleading 49 not significant 111, 181
moderate 173, 174 not studied 49
modest 173, 174 not sufficiently… 49
more (than) 173 not unlike 179
more often than not 175, 177 not well understood 50
more or less 109, 172 not within the scope of this study 181
more work is needed 49 not/no longer useful 49
moreover 61, 319 notably 172
much 46, 173, 174 noticeable 173
much the same as 179 noticeably 173, 174
multidisciplinary 46 notwithstanding 61
novel 51, 110, 222, 294
near/ly 173, 174 now 46, 291
necessarily 111, 181 now and then 177
negligible 111, 173, 174, 181 numerous 46, 173
w 352
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Language Index
objective 51, 171, 177 possible direction 226

obstacle 49 potential 46, 51, 22, 295
obvious 172 potentially 295
occasionally 176, 177 powerful 46, 51, 172, 225, 294
of growing/great interest 46 practicable 227
of little value 49 practical 51, 225, 227, 294
of no consequence 181 practically 109, 173, 174
of no significance 181 precise 107, 175, 225
offer a means of 107 precisely 99, 108
often 46, 175, 176, 290 predominant/ly 172
on account of (the fact that) 59 preliminary 180
on each/every occasion 176 present 48, 51, 68, 171, 226, 292,
on no occasion 177 293
on some occasions 177 previously 105, 106, 109
on the other hand 60 primary cause 46
once 105, 106 principle 46, 110, 172
only 108, 149, 173, 174, 324 prior to 105, 106
only approximate 111 problem 49, 180, 291
operable 227 problematic 49, 111, 181
opportunities 49, 226 productive 225
originally 105 profound 172
outstanding 225 project 51
over 101, 173, 174 promising 51, 226
over-simplistic 49 pronounced 172
provide a way of /to 107
particularly 173, 174 purpose 51
partly based on 109, 110
perceptible 172 quite 173, 174
perfect 225 quite a few 173
perhaps 182 quite a lot 173
plausible 224 quite good 111, 180
play a key/major role (in) 46 randomly 108
plenty of 173 range (of) 46, 101, 295, 327
poor 49, 172 rapid 46, 172
popular 46, 290 rapidly 108
possible 50, 182, 229–240, 295 rarely 177
353 v
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“9x6”
rather (high/low) 173, 174 severe 49, 172

rather than 222, 292 sharp 172
rather time-consuming 111 shortcoming 49
realistic 225, 227 shortly after 105, 106
reasonable 172, 181, 224 significant 46, 225, 294
reasonably 111, 173, 174, 180 significantly 122, 173, 174, 222
recent/ly 6, 46, 222, 290 similar 109, 110, 172, 173, 174,
regarded as 290 179, 222, 294
regarding 61 simple 51, 107, 175, 225, 294
regardless of 61 simultaneously 105, 106
regularly 176 since 59
related to 183–185, 290 slight 173, 174
relative to 179 slightly 102, 109, 111, 173, 174, 181
relatively 173, 174 small 111, 173, 174
relevant 46, 51, 107, 225, 295 smooth 225
reliable 175, 225, 294 smoothly 108
reliably 108 so 60, 173, 174
remarkable 46, 172, 225 so as to 107
remarkably 173, 174 so/such that 107
repeatedly 108, 176 sometimes 177
report 47, 51, 292 somewhat 173, 174, 181
restricted 49, 103 soon 104–106, 227
result 60, 183, 293 stable 225
rigorously 108 starting point 226
risk 49, 122, 123, 184, 291 steep 172
robust 51, 107, 111, 180, 225, straight away 105, 106
294 straightforward 51, 225
roughly 173, 174 strictly 108
satisfactory 107, 175 striking 46, 172, 225
scarcely 173, 174 strong/ly 172, 225
scarcely ever 177 study 46, 48, 51, 181
secondly 61, 105, 106 subsequently 105, 106
seldom 177 substantial 173
separately 108 substantially 173, 174
serious 172 subtle 172
several 46, 173 successful 51, 175, 225
w 354
b3779_EM.indd 354 03-11-2020 12.20.59 PM

Language Index
successfully 108 to this end 107

sudden 172 today 46
sufficient 172 towards the end 105, 106
suitable 107, 172, 227, 294, traditional technique 46
295 turning now to 61
suitably 108 typical 46
superb 225 typically 290
superior 51, 175, 225, 294 unable to 49
surprising 225 unaffected 293
surprisingly 172 unambiguous 225
systematic 225 unavoidable 111, 181
technicality 181 unchanged 171
tentative 224 unclear 50
then 104–106 undeniable 225
thereby 107, 325 under 101, 173, 174, 322
this implies/seems to imply/may underway 181, 226
imply that… 182 undesirable 49
this is (compelling) evidence unexamined 50
for… 182 unexpected 172, 181
this is indicative of… 182 unfortunately 181, 150
this is reinforced by… 224 uniform 171
this is substantiated by… 224 uniformly 108
this points to… 224 unimportant 111, 181
this seems to suggest unique 51, 225
that… 182 unlike 179, 223, 292
thoroughly 108 unlikely 172, 182
though 61 unnecessary 49
thus 60, 107 unprecedented 225
tightly 108 unpredictable 181
time-consuming 49, 291 unproven 50
to begin with 105 unquestionably 225
to some extent 173, 174 unreachable 181
to start with 105 unrealistic 49
to take advantage of 107 unremarkable 172
to the best of our unsatisfactory 49
knowledge 50, 223 unsolved 50
355 v
b3779_EM.indd 355 03-11-2020 12.21.00 PM

“9x6”
unstudied 50 weak/ly 172
unsuccessful 49, 291 weakness 49
unsuitable 49 well (over/under) 173, 174
unsupported 49 well-documented 46
until 105, 106, 291 well-known 46
unusual 172, 225 what is more, 61
unworkable 111, 181 when 59, 105, 106, 325
upwards of 173 whereas 60, 110
urgent 50, 226 while 60, 106
useful 46, 49, 107, 175, 225, wide range of 46, 295
226 wide/ly 46
usually 176 widespread 46
valid 225 with regard to 61, 68
valuable 225 with respect to 61
variety of 46 with some adjustments 110
versatile 225 with some alterations 110
very 173, 174 with some changes 110
viable 175, 225, 227 with the aim of 107
vigorously 108 without exception 176
virtually 109, 172, 173, 174 worldwide 46, 290
visible 170 worthwhile 46, 226
vital 46, 225 yet 61
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Science Research Writing For Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition)

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Science Research Writing For Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition)

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Science Research Writing For Native and Non-Native Speakers of English (Second Edition)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Copyright © 2021 by World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.

For any available supplementary material, please visit

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I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to all my brilliant colleagues in

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Preface to the Second Edition

Science research writing is changing and developing, influenced by factors

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