Chichewa Novel Module

Chichewa Novel
Written by
Albert Mtungamera Harawa
For
Mzuzu University
Centre for Open and Distance Learning
Private Bag 201
Luwinga 2
Mzuzu
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am deeply indebted to a number of people for their contribution to the development of
this module. First and foremost my thanks go to Mzuzu University students who have
taken the Chichewa Novel course over the past few years. Some of the examples I have
used in this module come from their answers to class assignments, tests and examinations.
Secondly, I acknowledge the valuable contributions different colleagues in the Department
of Language, Cultural and Creative Studies offered in the course of the development of
this module, more especially Mr Wellman Kondowe and Mr Emmanuel Lawyer. I am also
indebted to headteachers of Luwinga and Lupaso Secondary Schools for lending me the
Chichewa literature books that have been used to develop some of the notes in the
module.
Furthermore, let me express my gratitude to my wife, Mrs Steria Magawa Harawa and my
daughter, Faith M. Harawa, for their moral support and also their assistance in typing the
module. I would also like to acknowledge the Centre for Open and Distance Learning at
Mzuzu University for the financial support and editorial work on this module.
Lastly, though certainly not least, I must express my grateful thanks to all those who,
however informally, may have answered some questions or indeed volunteered some
observation or other pertaining to the development of this module.

CHICHEWA NOVEL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 Development of Chichewa fiction 8
UNIT 2 The Language Debate in African Literature 14
UNIT 3 Cultural and religious collision 28
UNIT 4 Dreams as a road to Christian conversion. The applicability 43
Of Psychoanalysis theory
UNIT 5 African communalism and social inclusion: Marxism in
Chichewa novels 53
UNIT 6 Feminism in Chichewa novels 58
Suggested answers 71
Sample question paper 83

Introduction
Chichewa Novel is the seventh module in the ALLE programme. In each
year, students cover four modules, two in each semester. In Year 1 Semester
1, you were given a general introduction to Malawian literature in vernacular
languages, a field of study that deals with imaginative works such as fiction,
poetry and drama and an Introduction to Malawian languages, a field that
deals with the study of the nature of Malawian languages in general. Then in
Semester 2, you covered Introduction to Oral Literature in which you had a
discussion still basically about literary expressions in which artists express
their experiences and interpret social reality. The only difference is in the way
the literary expressions are generated. While in Module l the discussion was
based on both written and oral forms, in this Module Semester 2, you focused
mainly on works that are produced without the aid of writing, performed
orally (through the spoken word) and consumed aurally (through the ear).
In the subsequent semesters, we covered the following nodules: The
Phonetics and Phonology of Bantu, Morphology and Syntax of Bantu,
Chichewa Poetry, Acquistion of Bantu Languages, The Semantics of
Chichewa, The Semantics of Chichewa, Description of Chichewa, Chichewa
Syntax, and Stylistics. Apart from Chichewa Poetry, the rest of the modules
examined the nature of Chichewa language in terms of its phonology,
phonetics, semantics, syntax and use. These modules laid a foundation for
studies in Chichewa language. Consequently, these Modules were followed
by Chichewa Novel, a module that examines trends in creative energies of
Chichewa novelists. This module covers different stages of prose writing in
Malawi.
Aims of the module
Chichewa Novel discusses the different stages Chichewa prose fiction writers
have passed through. It also aims at helping the student to see Chichewa
Novel in its historical, social, cultural and linguistic contexts. It aims at
examining novels using various literary theories from deconstruction,
through Psychoanalysis, Feminism, Marxism, and Post-Colonialism.
Objectives of the module
By the end of this module, the student should be able to:
 Trace the development of Chichewa fiction

 Explain the Language Debate in African Literature
 Illustrate cultural and religious collision in the Chichewa novel
 Examine dreams as a road to Christian conversion.
 Assess the applicability of Psychoanalysis theory in the study of
Chichewa novel
 Discuss the prevalence of African communalism or Marxism and social
inclusion in Chichewa novels
 Examine Feminism in Chichewa novels
 Discuss the theme of moral decadence and generational indecency as
presented in the Chichewa novel.
 Discuss the theme of Social alienation and the educated been-to’s.
 Examine emerging issues in Chichewa novels
How to use this module
In order to derive maximum benefit from this module, you are strongly
urged to make use of the following suggestions:
i) Study each unit very carefully.
ii) Write all the activities/exercises that are found within and at the end of
each unit. Where the answers are provided, please do not look at the answers
before you write the exercise.
iii) All the answers to activities and exercises should be systematically filed in
a folder. You will need them for future reference, e.g. when the time comes to
review for your written examinations.
iv) Always make an effort to find the materials we recommend in the
“Resources needed” and “Further Reading” sections of the units. In your
research for such reading materials do not hesitate to visit any library within
reach–including secondary school libraries.
Visual icons
The following is a list of icons you may find in this module and an
explanation of the kind of information they represent.
Key Words
This is a list of important new terms and phrases used in the unit.
Ensure that you understand their meaning in the context that they
are used.
Learning outcomes
These are unit objectives. They identify what you are expected to
know and understand by the end of the unit. Use them to test
your understanding at the end of each unit.
Activity
This is a practice activity at the end of each reading text. You
have to work out this activity either on the space(s) provided or in
a separate notebook. After that, check your response(s) with the
answers suggested at the end of each unit.
Self assessment test
This is a test at the end of each unit. Work out the answers and
compare them with the suggested answers at the end of each unit.
Do not turn it in for marking.
Unit summary
This is a brief account of the main ideas you have read and learnt
in the unit. Make sure you understand the unit very well before
you move to the next.
References
This is a list of books pertaining to information in the unit. This is
a useful guide on choosing appropriate reading materials. Make
all possible efforts to supplement information in the unit by
additional reading from this list. This will enrich your content of
the course.
Module test
This is a sample of the end of module examination. Make sure
you are familiar with the format of the examination.

UNIT 1: Development of Chichewa fiction
Introduction
Our aim in this unit is to introduce students to Chichewa Novel. In this
unit, we shall trace the development of prose fiction in Chichewa language.
The earliest literary works were mere translations of oral traditions. The
history of written literature in Malawi is connected to activities of Christian
missionaries. In this unit, we shall examine the relationship between oral
traditions and prose fiction.
Key words
Oral traditions, 3Rs, bilinguals, heathens, evangelization, ancillary
literature
Time Allowed to this unit: 1 hour
Prerequisite knowledge
All of us were born, brought up and are presently living in an atmosphere
of oral literature. Most of us can still recall many riddles and folktales from
our childhood days. We certainly know numerous proverbs we hear being
used in everyday conversation or we encounter them from our reading of
books or listening to the radio and TV. Songs come our way not only
through the last-mentioned media, but also from various live cultural
functions that take place in our community from time to time. All these
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forms of oral literature formed the basis of written literature, including
Chichewa novel and short stories.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define oral traditions
 Explain the meaning of 3Rs
 Examine the relationship between oral traditions and written
literature.
 Explain the role of Christian Missionaries in the promotion of
literature in vernacular languages.
1.1 Chichewa Fiction
For a long time Malawian literature has been preserved through oral
traditions. Such works have been collected and documented by different
experts. For example, Tito Banda’s Old Nyaviyuyi in Performance, Boston
Soko and Brian Shawa’s Tumbuka Folktales: Moral and didactic lessons from
Malawi, Chris Kamlongera and Wales Mwanza’s An Anthology of Malawian
Literature for Junior Secondary and Jack Mapaje and Landeg White’s Oral
10
Poetry from Africa constitutes part of the earliest literary works that were
mere translations of oral traditions.
The history of written literature in Malawi is connected to activities of
Christian missionaries who set up schools, hospitals and churches
throughout the country. There was a neat relationship between mission
schools and the church. These missionaries wanted Africans to know
reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs) so that they help in spreading
Christian messages. The education offered to the Africans was therefore
aimed at evangelization of the heathens (Africans).
Missionaries came to Malawi with their religion (Christianity) which they
believed was proper to ‘impart’ on the locals. However, there was language
barrier between the missionaries and Malawians. Therefore, missionaries
needed bilingual Africans who could understand English and local
languages.
Activity 1
What was the importance of having bilingual Africans in the education
system that was brought by Christian missionaries?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
Soon after Africans had been enrolled in the mission schools, some of the
earliest Africans who had mastered the art of writing started writing in
vernacular languages such as Chitumbuka, Chinyanja, Chitonga, Chiyao,
just to mention a few. The missionaries eventually started learning
indigenous languages so as to succeed in their evangelization programme.
After learning the language, the missionaries ventured into the production
of grammars, dictionaries and ancillary (supplementary) literature that was
used by missionaries and traders that came after them.
Some earliest converts to Christianity became instrumental in the
supplementation of the descriptions of Chinyanja and the development of a
literary tradition by contributing translations of parts of the Bible, hymns
and other religious literature into Chinyanja. A good number of folktales
were written in different vernacular languages. Some writers developed
these folktales into novellas. Later, these sustained short stories in
Chichewa gave birth to Chichewa novels. As already alluded to, almost all
novels written during pre-independence period had Christian undertones.
The aim of the writing Chichewa novels was to offer complementary
services to the evangelization mission.
Activity 2
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What is the connection between oral traditions and prose fiction in
Chichewa language?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Unit Assessment Test
1. Define oral traditions.
________________________________________________________________
__________
2. Explain the meaning of 3Rs.
________________________________________________________________
__________
3. Examine the relationship between oral traditions and written literature.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
______________________
4. Explain the role of Christian Missionaries in the promotion of literature
in vernacular languages.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
_________________________________
Unit Summary
In this unit, we have discussed oral traditions as the basis of prose fiction.
W e also discussed the importance of mission education which aimed at
3Rs (Reading, writing and Arithmetic) for the sake of evangelization. Oral
literature provided the basis of written literature in vernacular language,
especially Chichewa. In this case, the Christian Missionaries promoted
literature in vernacular languages.
Resources needed
You will find the following books useful in studying this unit:
An Anthology of Malaŵian Literature for Junior Secondary by C. Kamlongera
andW. Mwanza.
Oral Literature: a Senior Course by A.S. Bukenya, M. Gachanja and J.
Nandwa
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UNIT 2 The Language Debate in African Literature
Introduction
Our aim in this unit is to define African literature. The unit shall also
examine the advantages of writing in foreign languages. Using different
examples from vernacular texts, the unit shall expose the importance of
writing African literature in vernacular languages.
Key words
Diasporic exportation, writing back to the centre, mother tongue, Sapir-
Whorf hypothesis, adaptability, linguistic colonization, cultural identity
Time Allowed to this unit: 2 hours
You ought to know the dynamics of language. When one is born, the first
language the child is exposed to is called mother tongue. For you to follow
the arguments in this unit, you need to know that Africa has different
languages and that different European countries colonized Africa. So, apart
from native languages, different European languages were being spoken in
different parts of Africa.
Learning outcomes
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 Define African literature.
 Explain the advantages of writing in foreign languages.
 Discuss the importance of writing African literature in vernacular
languages.
2.1 Definition of African Literature
Bodomo (2016) defines African literature as any form of artistic creation
produced in African languages or any other natural language by an artist
with substantial enough experiences of the landscape of the continental
land masses of Africa and its associated islands along with diasporic
exportation of the cultures of Africa. Although the definition implies that
African literature can be in African languages as well as foreign languages,
Bodomo clearly states that African literature should be presented in
African languages, by an experienced African writer and about African
cultures.
2.2 Advantages of writing African Literature in Foreign languages
Whilst some critics argue that African literature should be written in
African languages, others are of the view that it should be written in
European languages that include English, French and Portuguese as long
as such literatures carry the aspirations, beliefs and philosophies of the
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African people. Such critics claim that writing in foreign languages has
many advantages. One of them is that, as a post-colonial discourse, writing
African literature in a foreign language acts as a rewriting process of the
African histories through which writers seek to correct misconceptions and
poor portrayal of Africans by European authors. This type of writing tends
to be described as the ‘writing back to the centre.’
Activity 1
What does writing back to the centre involve?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Linguistically, Africa is not well connected because the continent has too
many native languages. If one writes in any of the African languages, s/he
will have very few readers. After all, a good number of African writers
such as Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka have distinguished themselves
as prolific writers not in their mother tongue but in foreign languages.
However, the values associated with the presentation of African literature
in African languages outweigh the values and the status African literature
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may hold when it is presented in European languages. Literature produced
in vernacular or native language has a function of preserving the culture.
Furthermore, it elevates the status of the language, and it fulfills the social
function of a particular society, and the writer’s own people also enjoy the
literature if it is presented in their mother tongue or other African
languages.
2.3 Advantages of writing African Literature in African languages
Although it is true that some African authors writing in English excel in
using the foreign language (Achebe, 1988), one cannot deny the fact that
some writers find it difficult to use foreign languages such as English. For
example, Amos Tutuola utterly failed to express himself in his Palm Wine
Drinkard. Just like many average African authors, Tutuola failed to
articulately express African philosophy, attitude and beliefs in the foreign
language. Consequently, ingredients of literature such as proverbs and
other figures of speech are almost dead in most literatures written in
English. On the other hand, authors of literature written in native
languages, such as Chichewa, artistically employ literary devices that
revive readers’ perspective thereby enhancing critical thinking. For
example, in keeping with the Chichewa proverbial saying which states
that: ‘The bird that flies away from home always returns,’ Nthondo stays
away for some time but eventually comes back home. This proverb is well
understood when expressed in Chichewa, like, ‘Chouluka chidzatera.’
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Activity 2
Why was Amos Tutula’s Palm Wine Drinkard not accepted as an African
novel written in foreign language?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
According to Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the way people think is strongly
affected by their native languages because each language shapes the way
its users think; as a result, speakers of different languages may think
differently, in predictable ways. The hypothesis claims that no two
languages are sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same
cultural reality (Leavitt, 2011). This may be one of the reasons why it is
difficult to translate some of the language aspects. That is to say, languages
which are culturally remote from each other are difficult to translate (Sapir,
1958). For instance, it would be hard to translate Bantu languages into
English and vice versa because they are culturally and linguistically
different. To illustrate this point, it is argued that, whether we translate
Gule wamkulu into English as ‘big dance’ or ‘masked spirit’, both
translations distort the whole meaning of the cultural element of Gule
wankulu dance.
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Another argument is that the foreign languages cannot carry the reality of
African experiences as it exist today, and as such, destroy the very critical
values they are supposed to express leading to a devaluation of those
literatures that are original to the people of the African descent. Though
any language may be used as a medium of African literary production,
those languages that are more able to express African cultures and African
experiences of the continental landscape of Africa should be more
prominent in expressing African literature. These languages should be
none other than the mother tongues of the authors. According to Ferdinand
de Saussure, a speaker who lacks the language system that governs its
meaning cannot produce any literary utterance, let alone any meaningful
work of literature, that makes sense of this literary system into which the
utterance fits (Scholes 1974). For this reason, literatures written in
Chichewa clearly express the Malawian experience. For example, in Kalenga
ndi Mnzake, there is a portrayal of financial crisis in Malawi where young
men are forced to go abroad to look for employment. During those days,
amount of wealth one had guaranteed him to marry a woman of his dream.
In the novel, Kalenga’s proposal is previously turned down by Naomi
because he has no money. However, later on, Kalenga marries Naomi after
he has accumulated wealth. This notion can be explained well in native
language without any distortion.
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Most literary texts in both European and African languages are mere
translations from vernacular literature. Such literary works uphold and
express the versatility and diversity of African oral traditions (Wali, 1963).
Oral tradition, according to Thiongó (1987), is the backbone of African arts
and letters. It is a living tradition that spans ancient and contemporary
periods. All aspects of African life contain verbal and nonverbal forms such
as poetry, oral narratives, riddles, proverbs, songs, festival drama, music
and dance, sculpture, and different kinds of artwork made from various
materials. This means that literature written in vernacular languages of
Africa provides an imaginative and essential link with unwritten
indigenous literature as it indicates the adaptability of oral tradition.
Dathome (1974) observes that writing African literature in African
languages is the only veritable way of preserving the African oral tradition.
This is why Nwadike (2008) stipulates that African oral tradition cannot be
preserved if foreign languages are adopted for African literature. This
means that as African oral traditions die, African languages and culture
would die too. In Kukula ndi Mwambo, for example, Gwengwe portrays
preservation of African oral tradition as he presents riddles and poems that
children say and recite, such as: ‘Waphanji?’/ Galu wapha Bakha/ Bakha wapha
Galu/ Galu wapha Bakha’ (Gwengwe, 1968: 53). Gwengwe also presents
songs that women sing in various functions, such as: “Yere..yereya..yereya/
Yere..yereya..yereya/ Amuna amwanga yereya/ Nkati ntere waluma
21
mzaza!”(Gwengwe, 1968: 73). It is observed that the song’s meaning is
derived from the rhythm and tone in Chichewa language and if we are to
maintain the meaning the song should not be translated into a foreign
language.
African literature in African languages helps the writers to reach the
targeted audience of the less educated people (Ngugi, 1990). On one hand,
Ngugi explains that African literature in African languages helps to pass
messages well to common people which are the targeted audience. On the
other hand, he argues that writing in foreign languages is only for the
educated elite class. This is why Wali (1963) claims that literature written in
any language other than African languages does not qualify to be
considered as African literature.
Thirdly, Wali (1963) explains that writing African literature in vernacular
languages serves as a locus for the development of African languages and
the promotion of their use. This means that writing in vernacular raises its
triumph over foreign languages in a way that indicates and celebrates the
immense diversity of post-colonial theory. Ashcroft, Grriffth and Tiffin
(1995) state that literature in vernacular language is quite a specific ways of
bringing into being and modifying the controlling discourses of linguistic
colonisation. For example, in the novel “Kukula ndi Mwambo”, Gwengwe
tries to heighten Chichewa language at the expense of other foreign
22
languages including English when he portrays the traditional ways of
counting and metric measurements that are used in the people’s daily life.
Gwengwe presents Kalikokha teaching his children as well as his mother in
law the distinct counting and metric measurements, such as “kuyesa
funkha”(metric mass measurement), mtunda (distance), nthawi (time) and
kukulakwamalo (area), when he says “Ana inu pofuna kuyesa funkha la chinthu
mukhonza kuyesa ndi dzanja, chitete, lichero, thungwa, chibo, mtsuko, nkhali,
mkhate, chipanda ndi zina.” (Gwengwe,1968: 90). Gwengwe also portrays the
triumph of Chichewa over foreign languages when he presents Dambudzo
teaching her children “Teki-teka” and “Kamba” as the traditional ways of
counting. For “Kamba”, the numbers 1 to 10 were respectively presented as
“Kamba wadwala/ wadwalanji?/ wadwala mutu/ mutu umene/ udadza ndiyani/
udadza ndi nsira/ Nsira amene/ Kamuitaneni/ Tidzamuombeze/ Gumba
wagumbala” (Gwengwe, 1968 :43).
Furthermore, Ngugi (1986) stipulates that African literature in indigenous
languages defines the complete cultural identity of African people and
upholds and preserve it. According to Wali (1963), language is the carrier
of culture, thus, African words which connote culture cannot be translated
into English as English is not an African language. Seconding the same,
Ngugi (1972:290) says that “language carries culture, and culture carries,
particularly through literature, the entire body of values by which we come
to perceive ourselves and our place in the world”. Thus, he further states
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that if the march of both economic and cultural imperialism has to be
arrested, African writers should endeavour to write in their indigenous
languages. This means that he believes that a writer needs to define and
uphold African culture through African language so that thenon-Africans
do not steal the treasures of their mind. For example, in the novel
“KukulandiMwambo”, J.W. Gwengwe portrays the distinct types of
initiations that both boys and girls undergo before marriage to be groomed
into responsible and reliable citizens in the society, which includes
chimbwinda and mkangali. Gwengwe also portrays Kalikokha teaching his
children some charms that will prevent them from witchcraft attacks as he
says “mankhwala awa athandiza kutsirika nyumba kuti mfiti isalodze anthu
m’nyumbamo: Muzu wa nthungwi, chingáningáni, galangánde” (p. 46). It can
be observed therefore that if English were used, it would be difficult to find
equivalents to the names of trees as well as the initiations to depict true
African culture since the two languages are culturally remote from each
other.
Finally, African literature must be presented in African languages in order
to maintain the intended meaning of the author. Stern (1983) states that no
full equivalence can be achieved between code units with different
grammatical categories. This is why Munday (2001) states that “cross-
linguistic differences centre on obligatory grammatical and lexical forms:
Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not what they
24
may convey” (p. 38). In different speech communities, different language
categorizations are related to differences in grammatical forms, as some
languages recognize gender nouns and far more tenses than others. Hatim
and Mason (1990) state that there would be no full equivalence when
turning a textual material of a language which are culturally remote from
one another. For example, in the novel ‘Nthondo’, there is use of the words
‘nkhate’ (p. 24) and ‘chilombo’(p. 63) which can be translated differently in
other exotic languages like English. In Chichewa, nkhate refers to a small
pot which is used for bathing, but English does not have a precise
equivalent for it and just call it a pot. Again, ‘chilombo’ which means nyau
dancer (masquerade) may refer to an insect or beast in English. This
therefore means that it is of paramount importance to present African
literature in indigenous languages.
Unit assessment test
1. Mention two Africans who supported writing African literature in
foreign languages.
_____________________________________________________________
__________
2. Mention the article that Obi Wali wrote in defence of writing African
literature in African languages.
_____________________________________________________________
__________
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3. Mention any three arguments for writing African literature in African
languages.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Unit summary
In this unit, we have defined the term African literature. Using different
African writers, we have explored advantages of writing African literature
in foreign languages. We have also discussed the importance of writing
African literature in African languages.
Resources needed
You will find the following books useful in studying this unit:
Achebe, C., (1988). Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays 1965–1987,
London: Heinemann.
26
Ashcroft, B., Gareth G., & Tiffin, T., (2000). Postcolonial Studies: The Key
Concepts. London: Routledge.
Edward, J.,(2009). Language and Identity. New York: Cambridge UP, 2009.
Kunene, D.P., (1992)“African Language Literature: Tragedy and Hope”
Research in African Literature. 23.1 7-15.
Leavitt, J., (2011). Linguistic Relativities: LanguageDiversity and Modern
Thought. UK: Cambridge UP.
Litete, P., (1985). Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa, Dzuka Publishing Company:
Blantyre.
Moto, F., (2001). Trends I Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College
Publication.
Ruhumbika, G.,(1992).The African-Language Policy of Development: African
National
Languages. Research in African Literature. 23.1:73-83.
Sapir, E., (2014). Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. (1921).
International. New York: Ishi Press.
Thiong’o, N., (2007). Decolonizing the Mind: A Politics of Language in
AfricanLiterature. New Delhi: Worldview Publication.
Wali, O., (1963). “The Dead End of African Literature?” Transition 10:13-15.
27
Whorf, B., (2012). “Science and Linguistics.” Language, Thought and Reality:
Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf.2NDEd. Edited by John B. Carroll.
Cambridge: The MIT Press.
28
UNIT 3 Cultural and religious collision
Introduction
Our aim of this unit is to define cultural and religious collision. In this
regard, the unit shall examine parameters of cultural and religious collision
and moral decadence and generational indecency in the Chichewa novel.
Using different examples from vernacular texts, the unit shall expose the
social alienation of the educated been-to’s. Since cultures are never static,
the unit shall also examine emerging issues in Chichewa novels.
Key words
Cultural collision, religious collision, moral decadence, generational
indecency, social alienation, educated been to’s, emerging issues
You ought to know the tyranny of culture. Once two dissimilar languages
meet, there is kissing and quarrelling of transcultural identities. One
language emerges superior. The other language(s) is (are) submerged but
not completely annihilated. These languages carry different philosophies,
ideologies, and cultural practices. Such trends follow and mirror change in
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the society. For you to follow the arguments in this unit, you need to know
that Africa has different languages and that different European countries
colonized Africa. So, apart from native languages, different European
languages were being spoken in different parts of Africa.
Learning outcomes
 Define cultural and religious collision

 Examine moral decadence and generational indecency.
 Illustrate social alienation and the educated been-to’s.
 Discuss emerging issues in Chichewa novels
3.1 Cultural and religious collision
Literature mirrors society. Societal norms, traditions, aspirations, beliefs,
values and philosophies constitute the very fabric on which a storyline is
formulated. However, most of the stories in the Chichewa novels written
during pre-independence period and even after independence lean
towards supporting the Christian agenda. Consequently, most novels
written between 1940s and 1970s contain statements and situations that
attack and demean traditional values and practices. During this period,
authors viewed the world as a polarized entity. The common themes that
were depicted included the triumph of Christianity over heathenism,
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White versus Black, Light versus Darkness, and the evils of sin, just to
mention a few.
Activity 1
Using Josiah Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake, illustrate the theme of cultural and
religious collision in the Chichewa novel.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3.2 Moral decadence and generational indecency
For a long time, Africa has remained united in upholding the continental
ideals of umunthu (humanity) without hiding behind the veil of
Christianity. Achebe’s Things Fall Apart is an enigmatic text that celebrates
the fabric that holds Umuofia together. Achebe therefore decries the dearth
and/or death of societal fabric that joins the citizen together. According to
Achebe, the whole blame should be heaped on the Europeans who came to
Umuofia and divided the once united people. Following the introduction
of Western education and culture, Africa has never been the same. There
31
has been a record moral decadence and generational indecency because of
the strange teachings of the West.
Africans have been in a hurry to get modernized. In the process, they have
been cheated that African culture is not as good. Consequently, European
cultures killed and dominated native cultures. Africans were put under
extreme pressure of inferiority complex. In Black Skins, White Masks, Frantz
Fanon examines Blacks blind copying of Western culture because they
believe that the Whites are superior.
Frantz Fanon argues that “Colonialism is not satisfied merely with holding
a people in its grip and emptying the native’s brain of all form and content.
By a kind of the perverted logic, it turns to the past of the oppressed
people, and distorts, disfigures and destroys it” (The Wretched of the Earth,
p. 169). Psychologically, the colonized people were invaded (Cheikh Atta
Diop, Great African Thinkers, p. 162). In the same vein, Chichewa novels,
written after colonial intrusion, falls within the broader term of Post
Colonial Literature which generally responds to the process of colonization
and examines its effects
Africans start copying virtually everything without reflecting on the
implications of their actions. Africans would now like to live like
Europeans. Africans are in a hurry to catch up with the world in terms of
language, dressing, food and life in general.
32
Activity 2
Examine moral decadence and generational indecency in the Chichewa
novel.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3.3 Social alienation and the educated been-to’s.
Chichewa novelists tend to create a picture of social alienation due to
advancement characters attain as a result of education. The education
attained by different characters makes them change their life style.
The educated Africans become alienated from all other Africans. The
identity of such educated Africans change. Such Africans boast of ever
being to a certain place. They are therefore referred to as “the educated
been to’s”. They look down upon their home country and over praise
foreign places and their objects.
33
The question of identity is attached to psychic dislocation that pervades the
post-colonial writing. Educated Africans, and Malawians inclusive, fail to
decide where to belong. By implication, Africans’ sense of destiny is
disrupted. Frantz Fanon argues that colonialism distorts Africans’ psyche.
As a result, crisis of identity develops. In post-colonial literatures, identity
crisis is one of the dominant themes in post-colonial Africa as well as
elsewhere post-colonialism was prevalent.
Educated Africans fill a complex position in our societies. Such Africans are
personified through different characters found in post colonial texts,
including Chichewa novels. Written by educated Africans for African
audience, Chichewa novels fall under counter-hegemonic discourse with
an intention to correct Eurocentric misconceptions. According to Homi
Bhabha’s Location of Culture, counter-hegemonic literatures belong to the
discourses with transcultural identities of ‘the third space’ through the
dialogic process of “kissing and quarrelling.” The problem with this type of
discourse is that it leads to the production of “a reformed recognized other,
as a subject of a difference that is almost the same but not quite (p. 162).
The process of “kissing and quarrelling” produces ambivalent subjects.
Ambivalence is a condition or theory that is associated with transcultural
identities of ‘the third space’ through the dialogic process of “kissing and
quarrelling.” Educated Malawians found in Chichewa novels occupy the
third space. They are ambivalent.
34
Ambivalence refers to a simultaneous attraction towards and repulsion
from an object, person or action.” An ambivalent aspect displays both the
negative and positive traits. Ambivalence is an element of hybridity.
Hybridity is a sign of the productivity of colonial power, a revaluation of
the assumptions of colonial identity, a silent repression of native traditions
- but it sometimes undermines the centre. A pure form of the original
culture cannot be recreated, as the influence of the power that has
dominated it cannot be entirely erased.
One of the powerful strategies of imperial dominance is that of
surveillance, or observation, because it implies that a viewer with an
elevated vantage point, and it suggests the power to process and
understand that which is seen. Surveillance objectifies and interpellates the
colonized subject in a way that fixes its identity in relation to the surveyor.
Ideology is perpetuated through ideological state apparatuses such as
education, church and police.
In Zingani’s Ndaziona Ine, Kondwani leaves his poverty-stricken family for
Blantyre. After working for some time, the company offers him a
scholarship to go and study in England. Kondwani comes back with more
knowledge and skills. He is promoted and starts getting more money.
Eventually, he degenerates into excessive drinking and womanizing. He
completely forgets his roots.
35
Due to insatiable desire for more wealth, Yusufu Nyondo in Zingani’s Njala
Bwana becomes mad after failing to kill her mother as per witch-doctors
instruction. The insatiable desire for wealth leads to social alienation and
ultimate death of Yusufu Nyondo. Mose Msungwi’s family is socially
detached from mad and poor people because Mose is employed and would
like to leave an isolated life. Mose is not happy to see Yusufu playing with
his child Chifundo so he (Mose) mercilessly chases Yusufu away. Mose
stones the mad man on the forehead and Yusufu runs away with a
bleeding forehead on the spot where the stone landed.
Activity 3
Illustrate the folly of western education through Mayamiko Tinenso’s
lifestyle in Zingani’s Madzi Akatayika.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3.4 Emerging issues in Chichewa novels
Societies are never static. They change with time. Each generation has its
own likes and dislikes which we shall call contemporary or emerging
issues. There are some socio-cultural practices that ought to be maintained
36
because they are in harmony with the modern trends of life. However,
there are some socio-cultural practices that are detrimental to the
advancement of life of a people. Such practices ought to be changed,
altered or removed altogether. The role of a writer is to uphold beneficial
socio-cultural practices and discourage harmful ones. Some of the common
emerging issues include the following: gender equality, corruption,
bribery, minority rights such as homosexuality, tribal conflicts, democratic
ideals, and good governance. Such emerging issues are common in daily
newspapers, radios, Television stations, online newsletters, and various
social media outlets. Slowly, Malawians have started writing about
contemporary issues though the society in not ready to embrace such
ideologies. In line with the current constitution, Malawi Writers Union has
published a collection of short stories entitled Kusinta maganizo ndi nthano
zina, and this book was one of the prescribed texts for Malawian secondary
schools. However, this book has been banned or put on hold because it is
alleged that it examines sensitive issues of corruption, immorality and
other vices.
Most of the Chichewa Novels were written during colonial period and one
party era. It was therefore not possible to include some of the emerging
issues. For example, prior to independence, authors were guided by the
evangelization propaganda. Therefore some of the themes were not
thoroughly examined because they were not in line with the teachings of
37
the church. After Malawi had attained its independence status, Malawi
Congress Party became the only political party in parliament as such
themes about democratic ideals and good governance were not explored
because the country had adopted censorship rules that banned any
publication that was deemed political or that attacked the leadership.
Because of the tough leadership of Dr Hastings Banda, corruption and
bribery were not common so writers did not waste their time writing about
issues that were not bothering them then.
34.1 Gender equality
Each generation has its own dose of gender related issues. Women have
been fighting for equal opportunities and rights since Seneca Falls meeting
in 1848. Each generation has its own agenda to be achieved. Aware of such
efforts, Chichewa novelists try to include some efforts being made to
achieve such strides. Common in the Chichewa novels are efforts by
different characters who try to assert themselves in spite of ever present
male dominance.
In Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake, Kalenga sits idle while his sister Alesi is
roasting sweet potatoes. Being male, Kalenga believes that he has a birth
and cultural right to a share of the sweet potatoes. To his surprise, Alesi
tells him off in his face that she can share with Kalenga only if he has no
hands and legs to take his own. Alesi’s statement is a clear challenge not
only to Kalenga but also to the whole male dominated society.

38
Kalenga is aware of his privileged position. However, he contends that, as
a sister, she should share food with her brother because he is the one who
will pay for the damages once she is married and is in some sort of trouble.
In response to Kalenga’s advice, Alesi argues that she has the capacity to
look after her own affairs. This is in itself a further challenge to male
dominance and calls for the intervention of Andrea Mumba, Kalenga’s
father. Mumba has realized that the privileged position of men is under
siege. Mumba wishes to see that males continue to dominate females. He
lectures Alesi that Kalenga is talking a lot of sense because Alesi and all
other sisters should not only respect Kalenga but should also fear him
because he will be their nkhoswe (male guardian).
The importance of maintaining male dominance over females draws
Dorika, Kalenga’s mother, who agree with what Mr Mumba and Kalenga
say. Dorika intends to provide guidance to her children for sake of
conservative and oppressive Andrea Mumba. Dorika represents a
generation of older Malawian women.
3.4.2 Modernity and materialism
Generally, Chichewa novelists attack characters’ insatiable desire for
wealth and modern materialism. Most novels depict this insatiable desire
39
to accumulate wealth and material objects as the main cause of lawlessness,
death and various forms of oppression.
In Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake, Kalenga and Naomi leaves for Kabwe in
Zambia where they work for a White man called Jones and save enough
earnings. The two returns home rich and live happily thereafter. The
interpretation of this situation is that happiness comes from wealth and
modern utensils the family posses. Consequently, the very person who
used to scorn Kalenga as a poor person ends as praising him now that he is
rich. Naomi says: “Poyamba paja ndimafuna chuma… Lero ndili ndi
chuma choposa… Mwamuna uja ndinafuna poyamba paja sakanandipatsa
zonsezi” (p. 79). (At first I rushed for material wealth … Now I have more
than material wealth… The man I initially loved would not have given me
all this.)
Naomi does not want to get married to Kalenga because the latter is poor.
Naomi chooses Zuze, son to Mr Mataya, a rich businessman. Later, she
changes her taste after Kalenga has defeated Zuze in a physical fight. She
falls in love with Kalenga, a poor but virtuous young man and they
eventually leave for Zambia. After working hard in Zambia, Kalenga
changes his fortunes. He also becomes rich. Naomi starts praising Kalenga.
She praises herself for the right choice of a husband. If Kalenga had
remained poor, it is doubtful if such praises would have been heaped on
40
him. This means that Naomi has not changed her taste. She still loves
wealth, modernity and materialism.
Similarly, in P.P. Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa, Flora Chagwa and
Harriet Josolo present modern ladies taking exotic drinks like tonic and gin
to conceal their hopelessness and loneliness. Modern men and women
frequent bars and entertainment centres where they take modern drinks
and enjoy modern life. Such characters belong to the same family of
educated and/or rich people.
Activity 4
According to Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa, what is wrong with
marriage proposition between Mandimba and Flora Chagwa?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
In Jolly Max Ntaba’s Ikakuona Litsiro, Bonondo and Edita go to Grand
Beach Hotel to enjoy themselves in the modern facilities with excellent and
beaches. Modern life demands that once in a while people should visit
lakeshore resorts and experience Western idea of ecstasy, bliss, passion,
enjoyment and pleasure while taking some exotic drinks in a completely
strange and exhilarating environment. Such places harbor all sort of people
41
from all walks of life like Africans, Americans, Europeans, Indians and
Coloureds. Bonondo and Edita would like to consummate their illicit love
in such a splendid place and doing so would mark the climax of their love.
Defend the fact that Characters in Josiah Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake started
displaying the fight for equality before males and females before Malawi
started getting serious with gender equality issues.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Unit summary
In this unit, we have defined cultural and religious collision as an

inevitable aspect when two dissimilar cultures meet. We have also
examined moral decadence and generational indecency that develop as a
result of the clash of cultures. Consequently, we have also discovered that
the clash of cultures leads to social alienation of the educated been-to’s.
Since society is never static, the unit has also highlighted some of the
common emerging issues as a result of the class of cultures.
42
References.
Litete, P. P. (1982). Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa: Blantyre: Dzuka
Publishing Company
Moto, F. (2001) Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College
Publications.
Nthala, S. J. (1957). Nthondo. Blantyre: CLAIM
Phiri, K. M. (1977). Kalenga ndi Mnzake. Lusaka: ZEPH
Zingani, W. T. (1981). Ndaziona ine. Limbe: Popular Publicaton.
43
UNIT 4 Dreams as a road to Christian conversion. The applicability of
Psychoanalysis theory
Introduction
Our aim of this unit is show how literature was used in converting Africans
to Christianity. In order to effectively analyse the texts, in this unit,
students shall employ Freud’s Psychoanalytic criticism. In this unit, we
shall demonstrate the use of dreams in converting Africans to Christianity.
Key words
Christian conversion, Psychoanalysis theory, Psychoanalytic criticism,
Christian conversion
Dreams constitute the very existence of a human mind. You ought to know
various forms of dreams. Make sure you use this information in
understanding the discussion in this unit
Learning outcomes
44
 Explain the relationship between Chichewa novels and Christian
conversion
 Define Psychoanalysis theory
 Analyse the Chichewa novels using Psychoanalytic criticism
 Discuss the use of dreams in Christian conversion
4.1 Chichewa novels and Christian conversion
As already alluded to in the previous chapters, Chichewa novels were
written with an aim of aiding conversion of African to Christianity.
Different authors used dreams as a road towards conversion.
4.2 Psychoanalysis theory
Psychoanalysis theory was propounded by an Austrian Psychiatrist called
Sigmund Freud who acknowledges that the id, the ego and the superego
have a powerful effect on the concept formation of the character for both
writers and critics. Among other things, Freud’s theory shows the
relationship between dream formation and the art of writing and/or
reading. Freud argues that the pleasure principle or the sexual drive is a
fundamental drive which determines many human actions including those
of writing and reading.
It should however be noted that Freud’s ideas changed considerably and
writers and critics have used his works selectively. There are therefore
45
several Freudian theories, and just like Marxism, Feminism and other
theories, Freudian theory is still a developing body of knowledge.
Freud’s theories have been especially influential in literary criticism, and
instrumental in the development of literary theories for a number of
reasons. For example, Freudian theories attempt to provide universal
models and explanations for the drives which underpin the ways people
behave. The concept of desire and pleasure has been theorized in terms of
writing and reading extensively in recent years. This is closely linked to
Freudian theory of development of the individual and the various phases
of arousal and awareness which s/he passes through.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory offers ways of interpreting the manner in
which desire and pleasure and other aspects of the human psyche manifest
in texts, particularly the interpretation of dreams in emphasizing and
stressing symbolism and related phenomena such as condensation and
displacement.
For example, the publication of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness in 1889
coincided with the circulation of Freud’s theories which were published as
The Interpretation of Dreams in 1890. Therefore, Joseph Conrad’s Heart of
Darkness could be a manifestation of the author’s dreams.
The complex symbolism, ambiguity and dislocated patterning of the Heart
of Darkness bear a close resemblance to dreams, the nature and functioning
46
which are discussed by Freud’s theory and the text readily lends itself to
Psychoanalytic interpretation.
Activity 1
What is the relationship between dreams and writing of a text?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4.3 Psychoanalytic criticism
Psychoanalytic criticism is concerned with the quest for and the discovery
of connections between the artist (creators) themselves and their works
such as poems, novels, short stories and drama scripts. As far as literature
is concerned, Psychoanalysis analyses characters ‘invented’ by authors, the
language they use and Freudian imagery. Freudian literary theory
considers a literary character a living human being but some critics such as
Lacan considers him (a literary character) a symptom of the writer.
Whatever position one takes, the bottom line is that literature mirrors the
disposition of the writer’s mind.
Psychoanalysis, therefore, among other engagements, seeks to look for and
discover ‘a writer’s intensions and motives. For instance, Psychoanalysis is
a quest to track down causes, stimuli, reasons or the background of the

47
inspiration. The theory therefore shows, for example, the relationship
between a poet’s mind or personality and the poetry he writes.
In a neurotic individual, desires frustrated by the disapproval of the ego or
the superego are driven back into the unconscious where they continue to
live and push on. These frustrated desires are located in the subconscious.
They make stuff of people’s dreams. If genuinely not sublimated, they
culminate into obsessive fears, withdrawal from ordinary responsibilities,
and worrying and fretting (not looking happy or not relaxed). As a result, a
neurotic individual does not really know what s/he wants.
The unconscious can be described as a region in which we hide or repress
our deepest desires; it harbours the fear that can only manifest itself
through symbolic ways in dreaming or in paradoxes also known as
Freudian slip. For example, if you continue to look at a woman or a man
you cannot have, you fail to see the man or the woman you can have.
Freud believed that at a conscious level life is a kind of disguise (surface
form of existence) which is controlled by forces in the concept of the
unconscious Freudianism.
The ego can be compared to an individual’s conscience while the superego
is like the social or collective conscience working on and in the individual.
The ego mediates between the id and the internal world of ideas.
48
In a healthy individual, the id, the ego, and the superego cooperate to keep
him/her aware of the realities of his/her environment and to enable him/her
to adjust his/her conduct in accordance with these realities so that he/she is
on the whole a happy person and a good citizen.
Activity 2
What are the similarities between an artist and a neurotic individual?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4.4 Dreams as a road to Christian conversion
In Nthara’s Nthondo, a young man called Nthondo causes trouble for a long
time. Several people have subjected him to different levels of physical
punishments but the young man does not change. While at Domwe, he
listens to songs and a sermon that captures his attention. His psche is so
affected that he cannot help but dream when he goes to sleep. One of the
dreams was like this:
Analota atamuka ku dziko lachilendo kumene anapezako anthu ena amene
anali kuzunzidwa ndi moto wophulitsa maso awo. Ndipo anaonanso anthu
enanso amene anali kuyimba nyimbo zambiri zonga zimene anali kuzimva
49
masana mujazo. Tsono gulu lililonse linali ndi mwini wake. Ku gulu la
motolo kunali munthu woopsa wa nyanga ziwiri ndi mchira wa moto ku
nsonga kwa mchilawo; koma gulu linali kunali munthu wamtali ovala
zoyera m’thupi lake. Pamene anafikanso Nthondoyo atsogoleriwo
anayambanso kulimbirana. Munthu woopsayo anamukumbatira pa mimba
ponsepo kum’kokera ku chimotoko, koma munthu wabwinoyo
anangomugwira dzanja. Pamene munthu woopsa ananena kuti,”Tayileni
munthuyo ndimuke naye chifukwa ndi woipa” koma winayo anti “ndi
wanga ndinam’gula.”(p. 111-112)
(His dream took him to a strange country. In that strange land, he
found people who were suffering and whose eyes were being
burning and popping out. And he also saw some other persons who
were singing hymns like the ones sung earlier in the afternoon of the
same day. Both groups had a person who was in charge. The person
who was in charge of the burning group was fierce, had two horns
and the end of his tail emitted fire. The leader of the other group was
tall and wore white clothes. As soon as Nthondo approached the
groups, the leaders of the two groups began to fight for him. The
fierce leader held him by the stomach and dragged him towards his
side whereas the good person just held him by the hand, when the
fierce person said: “Let him go with this bad man because he is
mine.” The other person said, “He is mine I bought him.”)
50
The dream symbolizes a wrestling match between the forces of Christianity
and those of evil. What had been buried in the unconscious of Nthondo
comes out through the dream. The greatest fear comes out in form of a
dream. And this is what has just occurred here.
Likewise in Msyamboza, Nthara uses the dreams to mark a significant shift
in perception and action of the Chewa chief called Msyamboza. In the
biography titled Msyamboza, Msyamboza is visited by dreams. He dreams
of a deep river and a read thread across it. Following that dream,
Msyamboza announces that henceforth he has decided to follow Jesus
Christ.
Activity 3
How do dreams in Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa help in the
development of the plot?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
51
1. Apart from art and creative writing, where else can psychoanalysis
be used?
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Why is important to understand the author’s biography when
analyzing a text?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. What exactly makes a neurotic individual different from an artist?
_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Unit Summary
In this unit, we have explained the relationship between Chichewa novels
and Christian conversion. In order to understand the Chichewa novels, we
have employed Psychoanalysis theory to appraise the connection between
dreams and Christian conversion.
Resources need for this unit
Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. (2000). Postcolonial Studies:
The Key Concepts. London: Routledge.
52
Ashcroft, Bill et al. The Empire Writes Back. (2000). New York: Routledge.
Eagleton, Terry (1983). Introduction to Literary Theory, Basil Blackwell,
Oxford, England.
Publishing Company
Publications.
Newton, K.M. (1988). Twentienth Century Literary Theory, The Macmillan
Press Ltd
UNIT 5 African communalism and social inclusion: Marxism in
Chichewa novels
53
Introduction
In this unit, we are going to explain Karl Marx’s Philosophy and the
emergence of Marxism. We shall also examine African Communalism and
social inclusion in the Chichewa novels.
Key words
Karl Marx, Marxism, African Communalism, social inclusion
Before you start reading this section, you need to understand the African
philosophy. What had been the Africans’ outlook to life? That is the
philosophy the Africans had before the intrusion of Europeans. For
example, Africans used to share things. They used to live together in
communities. Make sure that you use this information in order to
understand this unit
Learning outcomes

54
 Explain Karl Marx’s Philosophy
 Define Marxism
 Examine African Communalism and social inclusion
 Illustrate Communalism in Chichewa novels
5.1Karl Marx’s Philosophy and Marxism
Karl Marx believed that the root of human misery lay in the exploitation of
the proletariat (propertyless working class) by the bourgeoisie or capitalist
class who were owners of means of production. Social change in the form
of the overthrow of the capitalist by the proletariat was inevitable.
The key to human history is class conflict. Therefore, he thought that
people should take active steps to change society. The bitter struggle
between proletariats and bourgeoisie can end only when members of the
working class unite in a revolution and throw off their chains of bondage
which results into classless society which is free from exploitation with all
individuals working according to their abilities and receiving according to
their needs. To be free, the means of production should be publicly owned
by the community as a whole.
Activity 1
Having read section 5.1, what do you think should be the main reason
many governments do not encourage Marxism?
55
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5.2 African Communalism and social inclusion
Africans are known for love, sharing and caring spirit because before
Europeans invaded and disrupted the peace and unity that existed in the
continent. Africans have enjoyed communal dishes and ceremonies in
village squares. This spirit is captured in the Chichewa novels. In most
cases Africans love doing things together. Just like in Achebe’s Things Fall
Apart where Umuofians are united due to different cultural practices and
spiritual figures that fortify and unite the people, the Chichewa novels also
present a cross section of cultural and traditional practices that help unite
people of different ages.
5.3 Communalism in Chichewa novels
In Nthara’s Nthondo, a good number of episodes depict communal life. For
example, Nthondo leaves for the neighboring country in company od
several other young men. When Nthondo becomes a village chief a colorful
ceremony is held where there is a lot feasting.
In Makumbi’s Maliro ndi Miyambi ya Achewa, there is nothing else but a
catalogue gathering for different types of funeral. In this book, each funeral
56
has its own tradition. People come together to witness the burial ceremony.
During such times, gulewankulu and other traditional dances are performed
that attracts a lot of people.
Activity 2
What is the connection between Marxism and communalism?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Unit summary
In this unit, we have explained Karl Marx’s Philosophy which is based on
conflict. We have covered Marxism as a desire to free oneself from
bondage. We have also covered African communalism and social inclusion
as a common practice amongst Africans who live in groups and share
provisions. We have also illustrated Communalism in different Chichewa
novels.
Resources needed in this unit
57
Oxford, England.
Publishing Company
Publications.
Press Ltd
UNIT 6 Feminism in Chichewa novels
58
Introduction
In this unit we shall discuss background to Feminism. We shall also isolate
issues that led to the birth of black Feminism and general Feminist literary
theory and criticism. We shall also cover the Effect Gender Inequality in
Chichewa novels.
Key words
Feminism, Feminist literary theory and criticism, Gender Inequality, male
chauvinism, phallocentric ideologies
For you to enjoy reading this unit, you need to know different expectations
of male and female writers and female and male characters. We shall also
need to isolate issues that led to the birth of black Feminism and general
Feminist literary theory and criticism. Gender Inequality in Chichewa
novels could also help in unlocking major uses.
Learning outcomes
59
 Explain background to Feminism
 Examine Feminist literary theory and criticism
 Illustrate the Effect Gender Inequality in Chichewa novels
6.1 Background to Feminism
Feminism was a movement against patriarchal ideas. The fight for
women’s equality in all walks of life led to different views or types of
women movement (Feminisms). Some of the major types of feminisms
include: liberal, radical, Marxist, psychoanalytic, and Black feminisms
There have always been women who have been inconvenienced in their
societies in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Women met at Seneca Falls in
1848 in USA and formed an organization to look into the affairs of women.
The 1848 meeting came as a forum to address the problem of inequality.
Legality, fraternity, and equality preached during the French Revolution
gave women an insight. The women transferred the idea of abolitionists
saying, “We are in chains as slaves are”.
This movement had several arguments and goals: Educational equality
between men and women, creation of social institutions for widows and
children, property rights, divorce rights, marriage laws, work force laws
such as nurturing abilities should be utilized; women should be protected
60
in the labour force; women should not work at night [women of the lower
class had to work hard and yet they were considered weak], health and
productive issues ie biological issues not usually talked about anyhow had
to be tabled openly. These issues had previously been controlled by men
and now women wanted to control such issues. Eventually, in the 19 th
century, many scholars concentrated on gaenacological education and the
use of contraceptives.
The main concern of the First Wave of Feminism was ‘ ‘the right to vote”
and this led to divisions among females as the bill passed was
discriminatory – other females, especially Blacks and the poor, were not
given the right to vote. This first wave concentrated on the following: the
dress code (culture), education, and political unrest.
Black Feminism was a reaction to White Feminism. Black Feminism fights
against marriage conventions such as bride price, widowhood practice and
motherhood, circumcision, early marriages, initiation ceremonies, racism,
sexism, gender discrimination, violence against women and sexual
harassment. White women took an active part in racist discrimination
against Black men and women, taking whiteness and privileges associated
it is a normality, without reflecting on it.
The values of Feminism in our lives cannot be quantified; it is invaluable.
Just in brief, Feminism helps us do the following: realize that men and
women are equal and that stereotypes of men and women prevalent in
61
society are sanctioned; they are not natural. Through feminism, societies
recognize women’s worth leading to renewed human worth. Feminism
helps people recognize womanhood as a strong asset of the African
women. Feminism is a quest for harmony and peace between men and
women. Politically, feminism seeks to help women take high positions in
societies.
In African setting, colonialism compounded the position of women in
society; it destroyed most of the spheres which women commanded in
traditional African societies, in contemporary Africa, in public life as well
as in the family, except for a few unofficial opportunities of influence that
are available for women. Consequently, women tend to act more in the
backyard. As a rule, official power is reserved for men. All spheres of
public and familial life were and are governed by a gender hierarchy which
clearly disadvantages women and even discriminates against them. For
example, in rural areas women perform more than 90% of the daily tasks.
They get up long before their husbands and go to bed long after them.
Outside their homes, women perform most arduous tasks such as fetching
water and firewood for their families. They do the hardest work in the
fields. In urban life, women are under more pressure than men since the
raising of the children and all household chores are clearly defined as
women’s work
62
Women are subject to the double burden of the family and profession while
being acutely underrepresented in all socially significant positions of
power in the economy, politics and education sector. Despite their obvious
accomplishments, women are too often reduced to their role as wife or
mother and seen as subordinate to men. Women are considered the
property of a man, father or husband. This is why in other countries
women cannot get bank loans or a visa without their husband’s
authorization. This arrangement creates financial dependency on men.
Feminism teachings show that women are sidelined and/or segregated in
mainline religious gatherings such as Islam, Roman Catholic Church and
Seventh Day Adventist Church. Women and girls are subjected to other
oppressive tendencies that include genital circumcision, the payment of
bride price (dowry) and polygamy. Women are considered the property of
a man, father or husband. This is why in other countries women cannot get
bank loans or a visa without their husband’s authorization. This
arrangement creates financial dependency on men.
Women have many duties but few rights. For example, if a man dies, in
many places, it is one of his brothers who will inherit everything. Even
though a woman has put an equal share of work into the couple’s property,
she has no right of disposal over it. She loses all her possessions, thus
becoming materially and socially dependent on her in-laws. In some
63
societies the widow is expected to get married to a brother in-law (who is
expected to take care of her) in her former husband’s home.
6.2 Feminist literary theory and criticism
Being a man/woman is a serious study in feminist theory because theorists
undertake to rescue female humanity from the meanings, domination,
demeaning identities and historical perpetuation of patriarchal order that
have sanctioned the oppression of the human being basing on her sex or
her femaleness.
Feminist literary critics might propose an alternative canon so that feminist
scientists or theorists do not waste their time constructing their theories of
relativity or the new periodic tables of elements. A “canon” is a body of
writing recognized by the authority. They include those books of scripture
which religious leaders have thought to be genuine and therefore
‘canonical’ and they include those literary works which scholars regard as
authentic.
Just like Derrida’s assertions, feminist reading is ultimately a political
practice. It is an attempt to dismantle the logic by which particular system
of thought (behind which lie the whole system of political structures and
instructions) maintain their force/power. Feminist writing/reading is
essentially an act of re-writing. Feminism seeks to stop the historical
64
continuity of phallocentric orders. These orders ‘castrate’ the woman to
make her powerless so that she is kept in her place – so that she remains
silent. These orders ultimately lead to domination.
Feminist criticism also examines agitation for power as a political
engagement. In short, Feminism involves the battle for space, equality,
equity, and power. Different authors paint feminine pictures differently.
Written during colonial times, most authors never paid any interest to the
unbiased presentation of women.
6.3. The Effect Gender Inequality in Chichewa novels.
Different Chichewa novelists treat gender inequality differently. This
theme shall be examined with close reference to P.P. Litete’s Mkwatibwi
Wokhumudwa. Where appropriate, examples from other Chichewa novels
shall be cited. The title of the novel translated literally would be
Disappointed Bride. It shows that it is the woman, the spinster, that is
disappointed and not the man, the bachelor. This position is based on
societal expectation and belief that a man is never late for marriage.
According Simone de Beauvoir’s Second Sex (1949), humanity is considered
male, and woman is considered a departure from normality. Man is the
essential, the self, and the centre, while woman is a departure from the
centre. She is the inessential; she is the other (de Beauvior, 1949).
65
In Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa, such sentiments guide the reasoning of
male and female characters. As such characters understand their roles,
responsibilities in society. Both male and female characters behave
according to the expected norms and traditions of the society. Since the
novel is set in one of the townships in Zomba, Malawi, with some short
episodes in Lilongwe, it is expected that the storyline depicts some aspects
of Malawian culture.
According to the novel, in Malawi, marriage is not by choice; it is not an
individual’s choice. When a man or a woman has reached ‘marriageable
age, s/he should get married. In Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa, Flora is
portrayed as a woman who has had the fate of not being married.
To be unmarried is a sign of bad luck. The pressure is unfairly applied on
women. Females suffer from the patriarchal attitudes of the African
societies. Consequently, a few women are forced to accept ‘almost any
man’ who comes their way just to avoid perpetual embarrassment of
having never been married.
Flora Chagwa finds herself in this unfortunate position. Flora considers
herself as having passed marriageable age. At this stage, loneliness, a sense
of abandonment, and a feeling of worthlessness sends her to pass time at a
bar where she meets Joe Gibson Mandimba. She accepts Joe’s marriage
proposal despite obvious menacing signs from Joe’s past personal history.
Before meeting Flora, Joe has ditched several women due to minor issues.
66
Flora is desperate for marriage. She says she has lost hope of ever getting
married. She makes indirect remarks of being ‘free’. Flora tells Joe who
joins the table where Flora and Harriet are sitting, “Takulandirani chonse”,
which means ‘we have received you wholeheartedly.” A woman is not
expected to make such obvious overtures to a man. If she does the society
considers such a woman loose and immoral. After all, a woman does not
accept marriage proposal the first day so Flora tries to follow that
expectation. She does not accept Joe the first day the proposal is made.
Nevertheless, Flora does not hide her helplessness. She says ‘If she ever
finds a man to marry her, she would wash him up and drink the water
with which she washed him. She is not alone in this fate. There are other
unmarried women who are still fighting the battle of getting married. To
illustrate the discussion above, Flora says:
Musamangokhalatu ngati amphawife. Tidzangodzifera wosalirawa
banja. Chaka chodzampata mwamuna tidzachita kumutsuka
n’kudzamwa madzi ake (p 22).
This Chichewa excerpt can be explained as follows: “Don’t be like we the
unfortunate ones. We shall die without even getting married once. The year
we shall find a man will seriously propose marriage we shall bathe him
and drink the water afterwards.” From the excerpt, we can draw the
following conclusions. Firstly, the use of ‘we’ confirms that Flora is not
67
alone in this unfortunate situation. Secondly, marriage makes a woman’s
life complete. Also, marriage presents financial freedom and stability.
Furthermore, marriage is possible when one has attained a certain age. For
women, marriage is not possible when the marriageable age has passed.
Lastly, if a woman’s marriageable time slowly disappears, she becomes
desperate. Desperation leads to her illusion of drinking the dirt which she
will have washed off from the body of her husband to be. The dirt is
symbolic. Firstly, it symbolizes that dirty men and their weird activities
ought to be washed. Secondly, it shows that Flora is ready to take ‘dirt’ so
that she best out of her situation. Flora is a teacher but she feels a void.
Without a husband, she is not complete. As a woman she would like to
double as a mother and a teacher because women are subject to the double
burden of the family and profession while being acutely underrepresented
in all socially significant positions of power in the economy, politics and
education sector. Despite their obvious accomplishments, women are too
often reduced to their role as wife or mother and seen as subordinate to
men.
Women are considered the property of a man, father or husband. This is
why in other countries women cannot get bank loans or a visa without
their husband’s authorization. This arrangement creates financial
dependency on men. Women have many duties but few rights. For
example, if a man dies, in many places, it is one of his brothers who will
68
inherit everything. Even though a woman has put an equal share of work
into the couple’s property, she has no right of disposal over it. She loses all
her possessions, thus becoming materially and socially dependent on her
in-laws. In some societies the widow is expected to get married to a brother
in-law (who is expected to take care of her) in her former husband’s home.
In most literary works a woman is presented as someone without power.
For example, in most discourses, the positions of power are explicitly
acknowledged to be male eg chairman, policeman etc. Where we are
talking about people, generally, as with the reader in literary criticism,
these positions are explicitly assumed to be male in character. As with the
class system, gender differences are socially constructed although they are
usually presented as neutral or normal ie the process of the acquisition of
language is socially constructed (not naturally). Since gender is socially
constructed, such gender differences lead to the oppression and
exploitation between males and females, thus basing on biological features.
If these differences between a man and a woman are constructed socially, it
follows that both femininity and masculinity are socially constructed and
invested with various qualities, values, images and narratives which
constantly circulate in societies and which shapes and determines people’
attitude and life.
Most of Chichewa novels included in the module were written when the
studies on gender and feminism were not common. Consequently, most
69
early Chichewa novels mirrored the society of that time. The society did
not see anything strange in presenting females as less able, not intelligent,
physically weak and economically dependent. That is how the society
viewed women.
Unit summary
In this unit we have discussed background to Feminism. We have aloso
isolated issues that led to the birth of black Feminism and general Feminist
literary theory and criticism. We have also covered the Effect Gender
Inequality in Chichewa novels.
Resources needed in this unit
Oxford, England.
Publishing Company
70
Publications.
Press Ltd
Suggested answers to the exercises
Unit 1: Development of Chichewa Fiction
Activity 1
71
Bilingual Africans understood both English and local languages. It was
therefore possible to transcribe local languages and also to articulate the
stories to the missionaries who do not understand the local languages.
Bilingual Africans helped in translating sections of the Bible in to
vernacular language so that the local people could understand the Bible.
Activity 2
Novelists use oral traditions to form the basis of their creative works. Most
of the stories stem from folktales, myths and proverbs. Myths or folktales
may constitute the spine of the story while the moral lesson may be
derived from the proverbial saying.
Unit Assessment Test
5. Oral tradition refers to practices that are passed on from one generation
to the other that includes songs, dances, folktales, proverbs, riddles and
myths.
6. 3Rs stands for reading, writing and arithmetic.
7. Oral traditions constitute the basis of written literature. For example,
folktales and myths that have been orally passed from one generation to
another are transcribed to form written texts.
8. Christian Missionaries encouraged the production of written Chichewa
texts that formed part of ancillary literature which was used in teaching
Christians good behavior..
72
Unit2: The Language Debate in African Literature
Activity 1
Africans seek to use the borrowed language to hit back at Europeans.
Africans learnt the privileged language, the colonizer’s language. The other
point is that writing in European languages creates a huge readership.
Unlike literature created in native languages, literatures in foreign
languages are read by many people. Writing back therefore accords more
people to be aware of the issues raised in the text.
Activity 2
Amos Tutuola utterly failed to express himself in his Palm Wine Drinkard.
Just like many average African authors, Tutuola failed to articulately
express African philosophy, attitude and beliefs in the foreign language.
Consequently, ingredients of literature such as proverbs and other figures
of speech are almost dead in most literatures written in English.
1. Chinua Achebe and Ezekiel Mphahlele
2. Towards the dead end of African literature
3. Here are some of the answers:
a) African literature in African languages helps the writers to reach
the targeted audience of the less educated people (Ngugi, 1990).

73
On one hand, Ngugi explains that African literature in African
languages helps to pass messages well to common people which
are the targeted audience. On the other hand, he argues that
writing in foreign languages is only for the educated elite class.
This is why Wali (1963) claims that literature written in any
language other than African languages does not qualify to be
considered as African literature.
b) Wali (1963) explains that writing African literature in vernacular
languages serves as a locus for the development of African
languages and the promotion of their use. This means that writing
in vernacular raises its triumph over foreign languages in a way
that indicates and celebrates the immense diversity of post-
colonial theory. Ashcroft, Grriffth and Tiffin (1995) state that
literature in vernacular language is quite a specific ways of
bringing into being and modifying the controlling discourses of
linguistic colonisation.
c) Furthermore, Ngugi (1986) stipulates that African literature in
indigenous languages defines the complete cultural identity of
African people and upholds and preserve it. According to Wali
(1963), language is the carrier of culture, thus, African words
which connote culture cannot be translated into English as English
is not an African language. Seconding the same, Ngugi (1972:290)
74
says that “language carries culture, and culture carries,
particularly through literature, the entire body of values by which
we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the world”. Thus,
he further states that if the march of both economic and cultural
imperialism has to be arrested, African writers should endeavour
to write in their indigenous languages. This means that he
believes that a writer needs to define and uphold African culture
through African language so that thenon-Africans do not steal the
treasures of their mind. For example, in the novel
Unit 3: Cultural and religious collision
Activity 1
In Kalenga ndi Mnzake, Josiah Phiri presents the clash of cultures between
Christianity and traditionalism which European missionaries label
heathenism.The Chichewa novel exposes the triumph of Christianity over
heathenism across the Malawian fraternity so as to achieve the
missionaries’ Christian propaganda. As a missionary sponsored
mouthpiece that aimed at denigrating Malawian traditional institutions,
Andrea Mumba is portrayed forcefully reacting to “Nyau”, a Mangánja
and Chewa secret society, which is a traditional religion and dance.
According to Moto (2001), Phiri strongly condemns nyau songs as barbaric
and outdated and yet natives consider songs as the societal tools through
75
which the community restored order and moderated activities of the
wayward individuals or groups of individuals. Andrea condemns the nyau
dance and its songs and advises his daughters that: “…gule wa nyau ndi
choipa chenicheni ngati zoipa zina, nyimbo zake ndi zotukwana, ndipo ovinawo
ndiwo odzetsa manyazi...” (p. 4). (…the nyau dance is very evil and sinful just
like the other sins. Its songs are obscene and the dancers are a source of
utter shame…). The very concept of Nyau that Andrea Mumba condemns
is the very core ingredient that defines the Chewa culture, an aspect highly
respected by the natives. The problem was that Christian doctrines were
interred with European culture and Nyau culture was also fused with
traditional religion. Therefore the process of writing Chichewa novel
triggered cultural and religious collision. Authors had to attack their
traditional religion in order fulfill the Christian propaganda.
Activity 2
Education and materialism seem to be at the centre of disruption of
morality. For example, in Kalenga ndi Mnzake, Zuze boasts of wealth and
fights Kalenga because he (Zuze) comes from a well to do family. Likewise,
Kondwani in Zingani’s Ndaziona Ine begins to disrespect his parents and
then starts wallowing in pubs, drinking excessively and changing women
at will because he is getting a decent salary. Mose Msungwi in Zingani’s
Njala Bwana stones the mad man because he considers himself a well to do
person. In the same novel titled Njala Bwana, Yusufu Nyondo almost kills
76
his mother because he is cheated by the witchdoctor that if he kills her he
could become rich. Yusufu agrees to kill his mother despite the fact that she
is the one who has been paying school fees for her. This shows
ungratefulness to the parents and he is immediately punished for that.
Yusufu becomes mad after failing to kill his own mother.
Likewise, in Ntaba’s Ikakuona Litsiro, the wicked deeds do not go
unpunished. For example, Boni Mtawuni, the driver who has been party to
these people’s world of fantasy and temporary madness takes his own life.
Chamthengo Bonondo and Edita go to the lake to consummate their love
though illegally because society has not sanctioned their marriage. The
society demands that there should be no sexual relationships before the
elders give blessings. The two fail to consummate their love because an
accident has happened next to them at the Grand Beach Hotel where the
two had gone to enjoy themselves.
Activity 3
In Zingani’s Madzi Akatayika, Mayamiko Tinenso’s lifestyle depicts the folly
of western education. Tinenso ‘s life experiences a downward spiral as he
allows educational, economic and social achievements to take charge of his
decision making in disregard of what his community expects of him (Moto,
1999:91).
Activity 4
77
In P.P. Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa, the proposed marriage between
Joe Gibson Mandimba and Flora Chagwa fails to take place because too
much love for entertainment. One of the key issues Litete wants learners to
pick out from this part is that marriage is a serious issue and its proposition
ought not to be made in a bar. Secondly, there is a very big difference
between wealth or materialism and marriage. The quest for materialism
and modernity drives Joe away from reality. Joe leaves his house for a
modern life. They use a car, one of the modern means of transport, to go to
the bar. Unfortunately, he jumps into somebody’s car, thinking it is his
friend’s car. Too much love for Western life leads to the cancellation of the
marriage.
As early as 1977, Chichewa novelists had already started portraying
characters that sought to fight against patriarchy and male chauvinism. For
example, in Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake, Kalenga sits idle while his sister
Alesi is roasting sweet potatoes. Being male, Kalenga believes that he has a
birth and cultural right to a share of the sweet potatoes. To his surprise,
Alesi tells him off in his face that she can share with Kalenga only if he has
no hands and legs to take his own. Alesi’s statement is a clear challenge not
only to Kalenga but also to the whole male dominated society.
Kalenga is aware of his privileged position. However, he contends that, as
a sister, she should share food with her brother because he is the one who
78
will pay for the damages once she is married and is in some sort of trouble.
In response to Kalenga’s advice, Alesi argues that she has the capacity to
look after her own affairs. This is in itself a further challenge to male
dominance and calls for the intervention of Andrea Mumba, Kalenga’s
father. Mumba has realized that the privileged position of men is under
siege. Mumba wishes to see that males continue to dominate females. He
lectures Alesi that Kalenga is talking a lot of sense because Alesi and all
other sisters should not only respect Kalenga but should also fear him
because he will be their nkhoswe (male guardian).
UNIT 4 Dreams as a road to Christian conversion. The applicability of
Psychoanalysis theory
Activity 1
Dreams are based on a person’s desires, worries and past experiences. You
dream what you like or hate most. In writing a text, you retrieve
information from your memory. You present on a piece of paper what you
hate or like most.
Activity 2
Art, according to Freud, is a ‘substitute’ gratification and as such it is an
illusion in contrast to reality. Likewise, neurosis involves illusions and not
79
reality. Unlike most illusions, art is almost always harmless and beneficial
for the reasons that ‘it does not seek to be anything but an illusion.’ As for
the artist, s/he is virtually in the same category with the neurotic. Like any
other person with unsatisfied longing, the ‘artist turns away from reality
and transfers all his interests, and all his libido, too, onto the creation of his
wishes in life such as honour, power, riches, fame, and love of women in a
piece of art and derive satisfaction.
Activity 3
Most of the events in Litete’s novella titled Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa are
based on the dream. In the novella, Joe Gibson Mandimba is sitting in his
house. As he recollects what happened in the past, his mind races in the
remote past. Then he hears someone knocking at his door. At that point,
the author has connected what was really happening and the dream. In the
dream, which is so vivid, an unknown and unkempt person forces himself
into Joe’s sitting room. The strange man introduces himself as
Mpandadzina. He reveals most of the things that Joe did in the past. In a
stunning revelation, Mpandazina narrates the events leading to the failure
of Joe’s marriage with Flora Chagwa. Mpandadzina explains that in the
evening of the eve to his planned marriage day with Flora, Joe follows his
colleagues to a drinking joint as matter of bidding farewell to his cronies.
Unfortunately, he becomes too drunk that he does not remember the
vehicle they came in, so he jumps into another vehicle that looks like his
80
friend’s vehicle; but the owner of this vehicle is on his way to Lilongwe. As
soon as he jumps into the strange vehicle, he falls asleep. When Joe wakes
up, he is in Lilongwe. It is now the wedding day. The wedding party and
Flora wait in vain. When it is discovered that Joe is in Lilongwe, the
marriage ceremony is called off. Through this dream, Joe becomes meek
and understanding. Through the dream the author wishes to correct some
of the major weaknesses of Joe as a character. Joe is touched that he has
indeed dumped several ladies because of lame excuses, and that his
marriage with Flora Chagwa has just failed because of his excessive beer
drinking. All these events take place in Joes’s mind through the dream that
he has while sitting in his house.
4. Apart from art and creative writing, psychoanalysis is used in
hospitals on mentally deranged patients. Doctors follow family
histories and happenings of the patients to determine the prescription
for the patients.
5. It is important to understand the author’s biography when analyzing
a text because whatever s/he writes is based on his/her personal
experiences. Writers don’t write from a vacuum.
6. A neurotic individual is different from an artist because an artist can
consciously go to the remote past and use the information to create a

81
text. An artist just imitates being in the past. A neurotic individual
has a mentally disturbed mind and may not go back to his/her usual
self that soon. Sometimes s/he may go completely mad without
coming back to his/her usual mental disposition.
Unit 5 African communalism and social inclusion: Marxism in
Chichewa novels
Activity 1
Marxism holds that social change in the form of the overthrow of the
capitalist by the proletariat was inevitable. Therefore, people should take
active steps to change society. The bitter struggle between proletariats and
bourgeoisie can end only when members of the working class unite in a
revolution and throw off their chains of bondage which results into
classless society which is free from exploitation with all individuals
working according to their abilities and receiving according to their needs.
To be free, the means of production should be publicly owned by the
community as a whole. This feeling can make citizens become not
contented with social provisions by duty bearers. It means that Marxism
encourages people to doubt and question the duty bearers. As such many
leaders do not encourage citizens to practice the tenets of Marxism.
Activity 2
82
Marxism involves unity of purpose as the oppressed get united to confront
a common enemy. Communalism also involves doing thing together, for
example, eating together from the same common dis to confront hunger ,
the people’s common enemy.
SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
Mzuzu University
Faculty of Humanities & Social Science
Department of Language, Cultural & Creative Studies
End of Semester Examinations
Date: Time: (2 hours)
Instruction: Answer any three questions
1. Using any two Chichewa novels, discuss the folly of social alienation among the
“educated been-to’s”. (20 marks)
83
2. Using any five examples, illustrate the moral decadence and generational
indecency in Jolly Max Ntaba’s Ikakuona Litsiro. (20 marks)
3. ‘Chichewa novelists use dreams as a means towards conversion of characters.’

Discuss. (20 marks)
4. Discuss the triumph of Christianity over heathenism in Josiah Phiri’s Kalenga ndi
Mnzake. (20 marks)
5. P.P. Litete’s Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa and Josiah Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake is an
exploration of various facets of male chauvinism. (20 marks)
End of the question paper
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bodunde, C. (2001) African Language Literatures in the Political Context
of the 1990s. Bayrenth: Bayrenth African Studies 56.
Chadza, E. J. (1986). Kokha Mcheperawakalulu. Limbe: Popular
Publicaton.
Chauma, A., Ng’oma, S., Nkhoma, W. (2002). Nkhani za Mchezo. Blantyre:
Macmillan.
Chimombo, S. (1989). “Dreams, Conversion and Ntara ‘Man of Africa’”. In

84
Journal of Religion in Africa. Vol. 19, pp 48-70
Englund, H. (2004). “Gender Relations in African-Language Literature:
Interpretive Politics and Possibilities”. In African Sociological
Review. Vol. 8, pp 154- 175
Gwengwe, J. (1965). Sikusinja ndi Gwenembe. Limbe: Malawi
Pubilcations and Literature Bureau.
Kishindo, P.J. (2001) “Chichewa literature in the political context of the
1990s.” In C. Bodunde (ed.) pp.153-170
Kishindo, P.J. (1982) “The influence of Christianity on selected Chichewa
writers: A thumbnail study.” Kalulu: Bulletin of Oral Literature, 3,
2-7.
Kishindo, P.J. (1982). ‘The Moral Question in Zingani’s Works’. Outlook: a
Journal of Language, Literature and Culture. Vol. 1. Pp. 86-91
Publishing Company
85
Publications.
Ntaba, J.M (1986) Ikakuona Litsiro Sikata. Blantyre: Dzuka Publications
Company
Ntaba, J.M (1985) Mtima Sukhuta. Blantyre: Popular Publications
Ntaba, J.M. (1982). Mwana wa Mnzako. Blantyre: Popular Publications
Uledi-Kamanga, B. J. (2008) Malawian English Literature in Culture and
Development: 11th Inaugural Lecture, University of Malaw
86

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Chichewa Novel

Albert Mtungamera Harawa

Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Private Bag 201

I am deeply indebted to a number of people for their contribution to the development of

Secondly, I acknowledge the valuable contributions different colleagues in the Department

observation or other pertaining to the development of this module.

UNIT 1 Development of Chichewa fiction 8

UNIT 2 The Language Debate in African Literature 14

UNIT 3 Cultural and religious collision 28

UNIT 4 Dreams as a road to Christian conversion. The applicability 43

UNIT 5 African communalism and social inclusion: Marxism in

UNIT 6 Feminism in Chichewa novels 58

Sample question paper 83

Chichewa Novel is the seventh module in the ALLE programme. In each

1, you were given a general introduction to Malawian literature in vernacular

poetry and drama and an Introduction to Malawian languages, a field that

Semester 2, you covered Introduction to Oral Literature in which you had a

discussion still basically about literary expressions in which artists express

In the subsequent semesters, we covered the following nodules: The

Phonetics and Phonology of Bantu, Morphology and Syntax of Bantu,

Chichewa Poetry, Acquistion of Bantu Languages, The Semantics of

Chichewa, The Semantics of Chichewa, Description of Chichewa, Chichewa

examined the nature of Chichewa language in terms of its phonology,

by Chichewa Novel, a module that examines trends in creative energies of

Chichewa novelists. This module covers different stages of prose writing in

Aims of the module

Novel in its historical, social, cultural and linguistic contexts. It aims at

examining novels using various literary theories from deconstruction,

through Psychoanalysis, Feminism, Marxism, and Post-Colonialism.

Objectives of the module

By the end of this module, the student should be able to:

 Trace the development of Chichewa fiction

urged to make use of the following suggestions:

i) Study each unit very carefully.

before you write the exercise.

review for your written examinations.

iv) Always make an effort to find the materials we recommend in the

“Resources needed” and “Further Reading” sections of the units. In your

reach–including secondary school libraries.

explanation of the kind of information they represent.

your understanding at the end of each unit.

This is a practice activity at the end of each reading text. You

have to work out this activity either on the space(s) provided or in

a separate notebook. After that, check your response(s) with the

answers suggested at the end of each unit.

Self assessment test

Do not turn it in for marking.

you move to the next.

This is a list of books pertaining to information in the unit. This is

a useful guide on choosing appropriate reading materials. Make

all possible efforts to supplement information in the unit by

This is a sample of the end of module examination. Make sure

you are familiar with the format of the examination.

Our aim in this unit is to introduce students to Chichewa Novel. In this

unit, we shall trace the development of prose fiction in Chichewa language.

history of written literature in Malawi is connected to activities of Christian

missionaries. In this unit, we shall examine the relationship between oral

traditions and prose fiction.