Ojsadmin, Research Article 3 The Authority of The Sunnah
Ojsadmin, Research Article 3 The Authority of The Sunnah
Ojsadmin, Research Article 3 The Authority of The Sunnah
Introduction
The Qur’an, the first source of the Islamic lifestyle,1 contains numerous rules
and broad guidelines related to religious, spiritual, moral, legal, social, and
economic matters, as well as to what is acceptable in war and peace.2 Such
verses are often constructed as a direct dialogue with Muhammad (Q. 2:80,
97, 135; 3:154; 8:38; 17:110). For example, Q. 2:80 proclaims:
Ahmad Eldridge Cleaver is an American Ph.D. candidate in Islamic studies at the Interna-
tional University of Africa in Khartoum, Sudan. He earned his M.A. in Islamic studies from
the Centre of Islamic Studies, School of Oriental & African Studies, University of London.
His first published book Soul on Islam (Seaburn: 2006) is a partly biographical work that
discusses misconceptions about Islam and his conversion. Cleaver lectures on Islam in uni-
versities, libraries, and bookstores, as well as in Makka to Hajj pilgrims. He is professionally
affiliated with the National Institute of Technology in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia as an English lan-
guage instructor.
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They say: “The Fire will only touch us for a few days.” Say to them: “Have
you received a promise from God – for God never breaks His promise – or
are you saying things about Him of which you have no real knowledge?”
(Q. 2:80)
They became more arrogant in the land and intensified their plotting of evil
– their plotting of evil only rebounds on those who plot. Do they expect any-
thing but what happened (sunnah) to earlier people? You will never find any
change in God’s practice (sunnah); you will never find any deviation there.
(Q. 35:43)
Methodology
I subject thirty-five significant Qur’anic verses to critical analysis to deduce
the presence or absence of indicators to the Sunnah so that its place in and
relevance to Islam can be examined and defined. The asbŒb al-nuz´l (the oc-
currences and reasons for the revelations), Arabic linguistics, hadith and ŒthŒr
(sayings of the Companions and the Followers) are employed to assess the
significance and meanings of the Qur’anic discourse about Muhammad. The
verses presented are listed in table 1.
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Contemporary Discussions
The majority of contemporary Sunni scholars see Muhammad’s sunnah as
a source of law next in authority to the Qur’an.7 Some contemporary schol-
ars posit that this view is mainly due to the efforts of Muhammad ibn Idris
al-Shafi‘i (d. 204/820), who actively taught that the Sunnah is a source of
authority for Islamic law and a revelation (waúy) second only to the
Qur’an.8 His Al-RisŒlah, one of the first written works on the fundamental
principles of Islamic jurisprudence (u§´l al-fiqh), was the first to present a
sophisticated argument supporting this view.9 Some scholars, however,
argue that important muúaddith´n (hadith scholars) preceded him and
taught these concepts.10 According to this understanding, al-Shafi‘i essen-
tially conveyed the teachings of many of his predecessors from the second
and third generations of Muslim scholarship.11
His argument that obeying the Sunnah is obligatory is very effective, due
to his interpretation of úikmah (wisdom), when it appears in a verse with the
word Qur’Œn, as a synonym for sunnah (Q. 33:34, 62:2).12 Al-Shafi‘i’s work
had a profound influence and, it can be said, provided the first sophisticated
written articulation that the Sunnah was a form of divine revelation. Although
his written treatises on its authority were very detailed and focused, the doc-
umentation on his predecessors’ discussions is limited and not easy to access.
But researching the hadith scholarship of Muhammad ibn Shihab al-Zuhri
(d. 124/742), al-A‘mash (d. 148/765), Ibn Jurayj (d. 150/767), Shu‘ba ibn al-
Hajjaj (d. 160/776) Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 161/778), Malik ibn Anas (d.
179/795), and Sufyan ibn ‘Uyayna (d. 196/811) does reveal that al-Shafi‘i’s
view was also expressed by his predecessors.13
On the other hand, many Hanafi, Rationalist, and Mu‘tazili scholars dis-
agree that Islamic law should be deduced strictly based on the Qur’an and the
Sunnah. They make a clear distinction between the authority attributed to a
úad¥th aúad (only one or two people cited at any stage of the isnŒd [chain of
narrators]) and a úad¥th mutawŒtir (one narrated by numerous people at each
level of the isnŒd). They accept a hadith as a proof for evidence in aúkŒm
(legal rulings) or ‘aq¥dah (tenets of faith, doctrine, and belief) only if it is mu-
tawŒtir.14 Much of al-Shafi‘i’s Al-RisŒlah is set in the form of lengthy debates
between him and unnamed opponents who disagree that adherence to the Sun-
nah is obligatory.
Scott C. Lucas and other scholars describe the other side of this con-
temporary Muslim discussion as “Classical Salafi Islam” or “Traditionalist
Salifis.”15 The Salafis comprise a minority of scholars who assert that every
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it does, for its chapters present how he, as a model practitioner of Islam, lived
his life.26 His words and deeds receive a very high status in the text. Out of
the thirty-five verses researched, twenty-one couple the imperative “obey”
with God and Muhammad. Although the wording varies, they consistently
convey a‹¥‘´ AllŒh wa a‹¥‘´ al-ras´l (“Obey God and obey the Messenger”).27
One may ask why the Qur’an ties obedience to Muhammad with obedi-
ence to God. In the Qur’anic methodology of reasoning, this would be like
one of the Sahabah, while engaged in jihad, disregarding Muhammad’s di-
rections when it comes to defending the early Muslims. The Qur’an adds that
this command is both an act of obedience to God as well as to Muhammad
(Q. 8:20).28 When the text states an injunction that is to be obeyed, it uses his
title al-Ras´l (the Messenger), not his name.
There have been many discourses among Muslim scholars about the dif-
ference in meaning between messenger and prophet. In summary, a messen-
ger receives divinely revealed scriptures with new sacred laws, whereas a
prophet, who receives only divine revelation, continues to call the people to
the sacred law revealed prior to his advent. Thus all messengers are prophets,
but not every prophet is a messenger. In the Qur’an, the messengers (viz.,
Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus, and Muhammad) are referred to as receiving
the sacred laws: the Scrolls (Suhuf; Q. 87:19), the Torah (Taurāt; Q. 5:44;
28:43), the Psalms (Zabūr; Q. 4:163), the Gospel (Inj¥l; Q. 5:46), and the
Qur’an (Q. 2:151, 252; 4:136), respectively.
Given this fact, does the Qur’an have anything to say about whether his
decisions and way of life hold any authority? According to Muslim belief, the
use of the plural imperative aܴԫ (obey) means that God is giving the Muslims
a direct order and directive to submit and adhere to His teachings (the Qur’an)
and to Muhammad’s teachings (the Sunnah). In sum, they interpret obeying
Muhammad as adhering to the Sunnah.29 The command is a duality, in that
there are two lawgivers. Yet Muhammad’s authority is not completely inde-
pendent, for it stems from his status as God’s Messenger. His only responsibility
is to convey the message from the source: God, the highest and most absolute
authority. Aisha Musa describes this as the duality of revelation.30
This explicit, direct command often comes in verses immediately fol-
lowing Qur’anic legal rulings. Such an arrangement both encourages and
confirms for Muslims that they are expected to adhere to these rulings. For
example, the legal rulings against alcohol and gambling are found in the
same verse31: “With intoxicants and gambling, Satan seeks only to incite
enmity and hatred among you, and to stop you remembering God and prayer.
Will you not give them up?” (Q. 5:91). The very next verse states: “Obey
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God and obey the Messenger, and always be on your guard: if you pay no
heed, bear in mind that the sole duty of Our Messenger is to deliver the mes-
sage clearly” (Q. 5:92).
Another quite explicit úukum (legal ruling) forbids usury and is followed
with “Beware of the Fire prepared for those who disbelieve. And obey God
and the Messenger so that you may be given mercy” (Q. 3:131-32). This
úukum exemplifies one aspect of the Qur’anic method of reasoning: the use
of contrasts to convince the reader of its rules’ wisdom and benefit. In addition,
the text intertwines eschatological warnings of punishment for non-adherence.
For instance Q. 3:132, which is located between the legal rulings and the com-
mand for obedience, warns Muslims that they could be punished in Hell with
the same torment prepared for those who have rejected belief if they ignore
the prohibition against usury.32
This technique juxtaposes images of punishment in the afterlife against a
command for obedience embellished with colorful images of eternal divine
mercy. This contrasting of opposites, which sheds light and focuses one’s at-
tention on the text’s argument, is an essential element of the Qur’anic method
of reasoning.
Say: “Obey God and obey the Messenger. If you turn away, know that he is
responsible for the duty placed on him and you are responsible for the duty
placed upon you. If you obey him, you will be rightly guided, but the Mes-
senger’s duty is only to deliver the message clearly.” (Q. 24:54)
So obey God, and obey the Messenger. If you turn away, remember that Our
Messenger’s duty is only to make plain his message.” (Q. 64:12)
Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger, and beware (of evil): if you turn back,
know that it is Our Messenger’s duty to proclaim (the message) in the clear-
est manner. (Q. 5:92)
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By design, those practices and legal rulings that the Qur’an does not ex-
plicitly explain are often explained by the Sunnah.36 Al-Shatibi (d. 790/1388)
elaborated upon this general principal of the Shari‘ah in great detail in his
Al-MuwŒfaqŒt, which deals with the objectives of Islamic jurisprudence.37
êalŒt and its portrayal in the hadith is a clear example of the Sunnah being
a source of rules for acts of worship. The Sunnah is also an authority source
for mu‘ŒmalŒt (trade, business transactions, or social life) that may not be di-
rectly considered as acts of worship.38 This is found in “The Messenger of
God is an excellent model (uswah) for those of you who put your hope in God
and the Last Day and remember God often” (Q. 33:21).39
The word uswah (an exemplar, a model)40 infers that Muhammad’s life
is an example to be followed and a source of law for many aspects of life.41
Two different approaches to jurisprudence have been deduced from this verse:
(1) it is wŒjib (obligatory) to follow the example set by Muhammad in worship
and in mu‘ŒmalŒt unless additional evidence in the sources designate a specific
sunnah as being only mustaúabb (praiseworthy or highly recommended)42
and (2) that the ruling of following the Sunnah is only mustaúabb regarding
mu‘āmalāt and thus to be heeded. But it is a compulsory obligation only if
additional evidence identifies it as wŒjib.43 This is deduced from the legal im-
plication of the expression lakum (for those of you), as found in Q. 33:21.
And stay in your houses, and do not display yourselves (tabarruj) like that
of the times of ignorance, and perform §alŒt and give zakat (the prescribed
charity) and obey God and His Messenger. (Q. 33:33)
Tabarruj literally means for a woman to adorn herself with clothing that
is enticing, alluring, and intended to arouse a man’s lust.50 This term is used
to communicate a very specific legal implication: no premarital romance and
open social intermingling between the sexes, specifically non-maḥrams (men
whom a woman could marry). This term also refers to a type of walk or strut
that some pre-Islamic Arab women employed to catch a man’s attention:
swaying her hips in an alluring fashion.51
The verse closes with three commands: perform §alŒt, give zakat, and
obey God and Muhammad. Each imperative-form verb is conjugated in the
feminine plural form to directly address Muslim women. This etiquette is,
first, a defensive technique designed to minimize flirtatious conversations and
social contact; second, to reduce the possible causes of extra-marital affairs;
and third, to promote the concept of female modesty by contrasting it to a
woman who flaunts her natural beauty to attract men. This woman-only legal
ruling, an internationally visible aspect of Islamic society, ends with another
repetition of “Obey God and obey the Messenger.”
We have sent down the scripture to you (Muhammad) with the truth so that
you can judge between people in accordance with what God has shown you.
Do not be an advocate for those who betray trust. (Q. 4:105)
When the true believers are summoned to God and His Messenger in order
for him to judge between them, they say, “We hear and we obey.” These are
the ones who will prosper: whoever obeys God and His Messenger stands
in awe of God and keeps his duty to Him will be triumphant. (Q. 24:51-53)
The first generation of Muslims could do this face to face with Muham-
mad. In fact, in certain cases he was asked to give legal rulings and judgments
between the disputing parties.53 For the following generations, this conveys
the concept of seeking solutions, guidelines, and legal rulings from both the
Qur’an and the Sunnah. To “return to Muhammad” means to refer to his Sun-
nah (Q. 4:59).53 The Qur’anic method of reasoning tries to convince Muslims
that adhering to both the Qur’an and the Sunnah is superior to rejecting their
legal rulings.54 Several verses (e.g., Q. 4:64-65; 5:42, 49; 33:36) contrast such
a refusal with belief. For example:
By your Lord, they will not be true believers until they let you decide be-
tween them in all matters of dispute and find no resistance in their souls to
your decisions, accepting them totally. (Q. 4:65)
Based on this verse, it can be said that a Muslim who does not accept
Muhammad’s legal rulings could be seen as engaging in nifŒq (hypocrisy).55
In general, Islam’s commands and prohibitions are seen as obligatory, espe-
cially when it comes to resolving disputes.56
O you who believe! Obey God and the Messenger and those in authority
among you. If you are in a dispute in any matter, refer it to God and the Mes-
senger, if you truly believe in God and in the Last Day. (Q. 4:59)
and apply Muhammad’s sunnah as a source of law.60 The phrase ul´ al-amr
minkum (those in authority among you) is given quite a few different (but re-
lated) interpretations: Islamic scholars, rulers, influential people, experts, the
Companions, and Abu Bakr and Umar.61 These interpretations can be seen as
referring to a third source of law, ijmŒ‘, defined as the consensus of legal opin-
ion of all Muslim scholars at any particular time (after Muhammad’s death,
of course) who are knowledgeable and academically competent enough to de-
duce legal rulings from the Islamic sources.62
The ḥukum deduced here is that a Muslim could not ignore Muhammad’s
directives and commands during his lifetime. This authority was then under-
stood to be transferred to his Sunnah after his death.72
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We sent to you (Muhammad) the Scripture with the truth, confirming the
Scriptures that came before it and with final authority over the past Scrip-
tures. So judge between them according to what God has sent down. Do not
follow their whims, which deviate from the truth that has come to you. We
have assigned a law (shir‘atan) and a path (minhŒjan) to each of you. If God
had so willed, He would have made you one community, but He wanted to
test you through that which He has given you, so race to do good: you will
all return to God and He will make clear to you the matters you differed
about. (Q. 5:48)
If they (Jews and Christians) come to you (Muhammad) for judgment, you
can either judge between them, or decline – if you decline, they will not
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harm you in any way, but if you do judge between them, judge justly: God
loves the just. (Q. 5:42)
This hadith confirms the Qur’anic principle that the prior prophets were
bearers of an authentic message from God, deliverers of a divine scripture.
The Qur’anic claim that Muhammad was authorized to judge between the
Ahl al-Kitab stems from his status as the final member of a long line of
prophets whose messages had the same source. Therefore, it is argued that
their acceptance of his legal rulings is the same as their acceptance of their
own prophets.
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Those who follow the Messenger – the unlettered Prophet they find de-
scribed in the Torah that is with them and in the Gospel – who commands
them to do right and forbids them to do wrong, who makes good things law-
ful to them (yuúillu lahumu al-‹ayyibŒti) and bad things unlawful (yuúarrimu
‘alayhimu al-khabŒ’ithah) and relieves them of their burdens and the iron
collars that were upon them. So it is those who believe in him, honor and
help him and who follow the light which has been sent down with him, who
will succeed. (Q. 7:157)
Whatever gains God has turned over to His Messenger from the inhabitants
of the villages belong to God, the Messenger, kinsfolk, orphans, the needy,
the traveller in need – this is so that they do not circulate among those of
you who are rich – so accept whatever the Messenger gives you (atŒkum)
and abstain from whatever he forbids you (nahŒkum). Be mindful of God:
God is severe in punishment. (Q. 59:7)
Here, the legal authority given to Muhammad is the exclusive use and/or
right to distribute the wealth acquired peacefully from non-Muslims.88 This
incident occurred when God revealed that Muhammad and his community
could benefit from the property of Bani Nadir, a Jewish tribe that had traded
all of its homes and property for safe passage out of their village after they
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were reported to have reneged on a treaty. This was agreed to near Madinah.
Moreover, the verse also imparts a more general meaning of avoiding the pro-
hibitions and adhering to the commands recorded in the Sunnah.89
îud´d AllŒh (prescribed boundaries, religious limits and decrees) is a
Arabic legal expression formed from the plural noun for úadd.90 This phrase,
which only appears twice in the Qur’an, immediately follows the verses that
detail some of the inheritance laws in order to emphasize their importance by
linking them to the command to obey God and Muhammad (Q. 4:7-12, 13-
14).91 Even though these verses follow these very specific laws, the term can
be understood as incorporating the more general meaning of calling upon
Muslims to adhere to Islamic legal rulings.92 The Qur’anic method of reason-
ing ends these verses with an eschatological warning of punishment for dis-
regarding the inheritance laws, in contrast to the promise of reward in the
gardens of the afterlife for implementing them.93
These are the bounds set by God (úud´d AllŒh): God will admit those who
obey Him and His Messenger to Gardens graced with flowing streams, and
there they will stay – and that is supreme triumph! But those who disobey
God and His Messenger, and overstep His limits will be consigned by God
to the Fire, and there they will stay – a humiliating torment awaits them!
(Q. 4:13-14)
We have sent down the Scripture to you (Muhammad) with the truth so that
you can judge between people in accordance with what God has shown you.
Do not be an advocate (kha§¥m )for those who betray trust. (Q. 4:105)
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This reported reason for its revelation was to correct Muhammad’s pre-
liminary inclination.99 Without this ‘ilm al-ghayb (knowledge of the Unseen),
Muhammad might have handed down an unjust verdict. Thus the Qur’anic
text is reported to have guided and adjusted his decision.100 Two important
legal principles can be deduced here: (1) The Shari‘ah does not consider cir-
cumstantial evidence to be conclusive proof, which can be arrived at only by
either a witness or a confession, and (2) a Muslim cannot provide legal defense
counsel for anyone whose innocence is doubted by the lawyer or the
advocate.101 Both of these points represent some of the key differences be-
tween the Shari‘ah’s basic principles and the common legal concepts in many
western legal systems.
Qur’an 4:65 contains three important terms that have direct legal impli-
cations. The verse proclaims that accepting Muhammad’s legal decisions is a
prerequisite to Muslim faith. In other words, one cannot be a faithful Muslim
if one rejects Muhammad as a prophet and a propagator of Islam and its law.
By your Lord, they will not be true believers until they let you decide (yuúak-
kim´ka) between them in all matters of dispute (shajara), and find no re-
sistance in their souls to your decisions (qaèayta), accepting them totally.
(Q. 4:65)
The first legal term, yuúakkim´ka (a group of people are enjoined to seek
Muhammad’s legal judgements), is mentioned in Q. 5:43 above. It conveys a
plural subject and comes from the root verb úakama (to give legal judgements
or to have authority).102 The second term, shajara (to dispute),103 refers to
Muhammad’s being called upon to judge the quarrels and disputes that arise
among people. Moreover, the verse comes in a conditional sentence, namely,
that true complete faith is only reached by accepting his legal authority and
rulings. The third term, qaèayta (the past tense form of to judge, issue a ver-
dict, or pass a sentence), is a transitive verb.104 These terms are employed to
convey the relationship among Muhammad, his legal authority, and faith in
Islam. The verse conveys that part of the Muslim faith is to embrace Muham-
mad’s legal authority, which accompanies the Qur’an and its revelation and,
after his death, his Sunnah.
The classical Arabic term bŒya‘a (to swear fealty, to pledge allegiance or
loyalty), two conjugations of which appear in Q. 48:10,105 functions as the ef-
fective cause of an eschatological promise of heavenly reward for approxi-
mately 1,500 Companions who swore their loyalty to Muhammad at
Hudaybiyah.106 Reports of the exact wording vary slightly, which may not be
too surprising. Many people were there at the same time, and each man placed
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his hand on top of Muhammad’s hand and stated their pledge, while Muslim
women made their pledge only verbally and not hand to hand with Muham-
mad.107 Their pledges were given in the midst of great excitement and enthu-
siasm, for Hudaybiyah was approximately only sixteen kilometres away from
Makkah’s entrance.108 At that time, they did not know if they would be allowed
to make a peaceful pilgrimage or would have to fight.109
Even though the Muslims came with the intention of engaging in a peace-
ful hajj, they assumed that Uthman, their emissary to the Makkans, had been
apprehended; many thought he had been killed.110 Thus some worded their
pledges as follows: “I will never flee the battle”; others reported that they
pledged “to fight to the death.”111 When some of the polytheists who witnessed
went home and told their fellow Makkans about the bay‘ah, a ten-year peace
treaty was then negotiated with Muhammad.112
The verse is inlaid with a metaphor that helps to complete a more accurate
image of why the Sunnah is accorded such religious and legal authority113:
Those who pledge loyalty to you (Muhammad) are actually pledging loyalty
to God Himself – God’s Hand is placed on theirs – and anyone who breaks
his pledge does so to his own detriment: God will give a great reward to the
one who fulfils his pledge to Him.” (Q. 48:10)
Conclusion
The early Muslim community held tightly to and passed down from generation
to generation the principles that Muhammad had taught and implanted within
them. Later on, these original Islamic beliefs and practices became the detailed
and diverse branches of the Islamic religion, society, and culture. It began with
the Qur’an and the Sunnah, the two roots that grew into the larger tree of Is-
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lamic civilization. In order to best understand how the Qur’an perceives the
Sunnah, the discussion first should be properly placed at the beginning of Is-
lamic society. To make a full study of how it engages the Sunnah, one is re-
quired to undertake a detailed investigation of Qur’anic Arabic and the context
of the verses that mention Muhammad.
Although the bay‘ah of Hudaybiyah was a solemn covenant of loyalty
with Muhammad, it also conveyed allegiance to the divine.118 In other words,
Muhammad’s authority inferred a direct connection between a prophet and
God. The fealty of both the men and the women to Muhammad was confirmed
by an oath and for the men by a symbolically obedient hand gesture, but God’s
hand was above them all, overseeing and confirming that their loyalty to His
Messenger pleased Him (Q. 48:10).
The Qur’an reflects the relevance of Muhammad’s Sunnah to the Islamic
way of life in many ways: as a model to be followed (Q. 33:21), one who is
enjoined to judge with justice (Q. 4:105), one explicitly commanded to trans-
mit the principals of Islam’s spiritual teachings (e.g., morality, character build-
ing, belief in the afterlife, the Day of Judgment, and legal rulings) (Q. 5:92,
24:54, 64:12), and commanded to be a just legislator (Q. 7:157). If all of these
Qur’anic indicators of the Sunnah’s authority were not sufficient, the text also
confers upon Muhammad the authority to consecrate marriages for the poorest
members of his society (Q. 33:36).
The Qur’an provides undeniable evidence of the Sunnah’s authority in
Islamic law. This proof is quite clear when examining these thirty-five verses
that mention Muhammad. Islam’s legal authority comes from both the Qur’an
and the Sunnah; in addition, it encompasses virtually all aspects of the Is-
lamic way of life. I close with an ŒthŒr (a saying of a Companion or an early
Muslim):
Alqama narrated: Abdullah ibn Mas‘ud said, “Allah curses those ladies who
practice tattooing and those who get themselves tattooed, and those ladies
who remove the hair from their faces and those who make artificial spaces
between their teeth in order to look more beautiful whereby they change
God’s creation.” His saying reached a lady from the Bani Asad called Umm
Ya‘qub, who came to Abdullah and said, “I have come to know that you
have cursed such-and-such ladies.” He replied, “Why should I not curse
those whom God’s Apostle has cursed and who are cursed in God’s Book?”
Umm Ya‘qub said, “I have read the whole Qur’an, but I did not find in it
what you say.” “He said, ‘Verily, if you have read it, you have found it.
Didn’t you read: So accept whatever the Messenger gives you, and abstain
from whatever he forbids you?’” (Q. 59:7)119
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Endnotes
19. Albani, Al-îad¥th Hujjah, 25; James Robson, Muslim Tradition: The Question
of Authenticity (Manchester: 1952), 1.
20. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn ‘an Ta‘w¥l aya al-Qur’Œn: Tafs¥r
al-ÿabar¥ (Cairo: 2007), 7:6078.
21. Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, Ṣaú¥ú al-BukhŒr¥ (Riyadh: 1999),1:211-79,
297-331, 393-459; Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, al-Qushayri, êaú¥ú Muslim, 206-83;
Monnot, G. “Ṣalāt,” Encyclopaedia of Islam.
22. Al-Shatibi, Ibrahim M. M. Al-Muwāfaqāt (Dammam: 2003), 325; Al-Juyni,
‘Abd al Malik ibn ‘Abd Allah, Matin al WaraqŒt (Riyadh: 2002),11-12.
23. Albani, Al-îadīth Hujjah, 25, 28; Ibahim, Saydi Abd Allah ibn al-Hajj, MurŒqib
al-Sa‘ūd (Cairo: 2003), 80, al-Maqdasi, ‘Abd Allah ibn Ahmad Ibn Qudama,
Rawèat al-NŒt`ir¥n wa Janat al-ManŒ`ir (Beirut: 2009),196-97; Kamali, Prin-
ciples, 69; Musa, “Al-Shafi‘i,” 189.
24. Al-Shatibi, Al-MuwŒfaqŒt, 4:320; Kamali, Principles, 83-84.
25. Al-Shatibi, Al-MuwŒfaqŒt, 4:323; Al-Shinqiti, Muhammad al-Amin ibn
Muhammad, Na`ru al-Warūd ‘alŒ Murāqib al-Sa‘ūd (Beirut: 2004), 202;
Lowry, Joseph E., “The Legal Hermeneutics of al-Shafiʿi and Ibn Qutayba: A
Reconsideration,” Islamic Law and Society 11, no. 1 (2004): 22.
26. Azami, Studies in Hadith Methodology, 6.
27. See Q. 3:32, 3:132, 4:14, 4:59, 4:64, 4:69, 4:80, 5:92, 8:1, 8:20, 8:46, 24:52,
24:54, 33:33, 33:36, 33:71, 47:33, 48:17, 49:14, 58:13, 64:12.
28. Al-Razi, al-Fakhr al-Din Muhammad ibn ‘Umar, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r wa MafŒt¥ú
al-Ghayb (Beirut: 1983), 5:530.
29. Ibn ‘Adil, ‘Umar ibn ‘Ali al-Dimashqi al-Hanbali, Al-Lubab f¥ ‘Ul´m al-KitŒb
(Beirut: 1998), 6:441-51; Mawardi, Al-Nukat wa al-‘Uy´n (Kuwait: 1982),1:400-
01; Musa, “Al-Shafi‘i,” 166; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 3:370; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn,
3:2393; Tha‘labi, ‘Abd al-Rahman, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn f¥ Tafs¥r al-Qur’Œn
(Beirut: 1996), 1:360-61; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 5:259-61.
30. Musa, “Al-Shafi‘i,” 166.
31. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 7:509; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 3:659; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn,
4:3005; Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Ansari al-Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qur-
tub¥: Al-JŒmi‘ li AúkŒm al-Qur’Œn (Cairo: 1977), 6:293.
32. Zamakhshari, Mahmud ibn ‘Umar, Al-KashshŒf ‘an îaqŒ’iq GhawŒmid al-
Tanz¥l wa ‘Uy´n al-AqŒw¥l f¥ Wuj´h al-Ta’w¥l (Egypt: 1953), 1:463. (Imam Han-
ifa said this verse was the most frightening one in the entire Qur’an.)
33. Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn 1:369; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 3:396.
34. Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 7:6078.
35. Musa, “Al-Shafi‘i,” 189.
36. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 3:2007; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 18:26; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r
al-Qurtub¥, 18:140.
37. Al-Shatibi, Al-MuwŒfaqŒt, 4:320.
38. Muhammed al-Busairi, A Dictionary of Islamic Juristic Terminologies (Khar-
toum: 2007), 126; Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (London:
1980), 646.
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72. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 15:550-51; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 3:2255; Mawardi, Al-Nukat,
3:326; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 6:784-85; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 8:6665-66; Qur-
tubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 14:186-88; Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 3:262.
73. Abdel Haleem, Arabic English Dictionary, 481; Al-Busairi, Dictionary, 51; Ibn
‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 7:373; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:916-17; Mawardi, Al-Nukat, 1:470;
Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 3:607-08; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 1:434, 4:2515; Tha‘labi,
Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 1:435; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 6:211; Za-
makhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 1:618.
74. Bukhari, KitŒb al-îud´d, hadith no. 6841, 1179; Ibn al-Furs, AúkŒm, 2:433-35;
Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:904; Jassas, AúkŒm, 2:439-40; Mawardi, Al-Nukat, 1:467;
Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 2:610; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 4:2878-80; Tha‘labi, Al-
JawŒhir al-îisŒn,1:430-31.
75. Ibn al-Furs, AúkŒm, 2:433-34; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:906-07; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-
BayŒn, 4:2878-80; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 4:2879-80; êaú¥ú al-BukhŒr¥,
1179, hadith no. 7841.
76. Ibn al-Furs, AúkŒm, 2:433-35; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 3:905-07; Jassas, AúkŒm,
2:434; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 3:600; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 4:2880; Qurtubi,
MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 6:187; Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 1:614.
77. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 7:364; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:915; Mawardi, Al-Nukat, 1:470;
Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 3:607; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 4:2909; Tha‘labi, Al-
JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 1:434; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 6:209.
78. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:915; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 4:2909; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir
al-îisŒn, 1:434; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 6:209.
79. Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 1:614.
80. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:917; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 6:210-11; Tabari,
JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 4:2915-16; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 1:434,
81. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:917; êaú¥ú al-BukhŒr¥, hadith no. 3442, 3443, 580.
82. Abdel Haleem, Arabic English Dictionary, 232, 202; Wehr, Dictionary, 199, 171.
83. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 9:342-44; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:1160-62; Mawardi, Al-
Nukat, 2:64-65; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 4:442-43; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn,
5:3663; Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 7:275-76; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-
îisŒn, 1:580-81; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 7:297; Zamakhshari,
Al-KashshŒf, 2:122-23.
84. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 9:343-44; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 2:1160-63; Mawardi, Al-
Nukat, 2:64-65; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 4:443; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 5:3663-
65; Ibn Taymiyyah, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 7:276-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn,
1:581; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 7:298-301; Zamakhshari, Al-
KashshŒf, 2:122-23.
85. Abdel Haleem, The Qur’an: A New Translation, 105, see footnote; Ibn ‘Adil, Al-
Lubab, 9:344; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 4:443; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 5:3663-64;
Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 7:301; Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 2:123.
86. Mawardi, Al-Nukat, 2:63-65; Razi, Tafs¥r al-Kab¥r, 4:443; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-
BayŒn, 5:3663-65; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 1:580-81; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr
Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 7:297-301; Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 2:122-23.
ajiss301-latest_ajiss 12/10/2012 6:55 PM Page 71
106. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487-88; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2614; Mawardi, Al-Nukat,
4:59-60, 14:87; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-
îisŒn, 3:199-200; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267-68; Zamakhshari,
Al-KashshŒf, 3:543.
107. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2614; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-76; Tha‘labi, Al-
JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 3:199.
108. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2612-16; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-77.
109. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487-88; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2614-16; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-
BayŒn 9:7476-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 3:199-200.
110. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2612-14; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-77.
111. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487-88; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2614; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-
BayŒn, 9:7476-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 3:199-200; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr
Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267-68.
112. Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2612-14; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-77.
113. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2611; Mawardi, Al-Nukat,
4:59, 14:87; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn,
3:199; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267; Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf,
3:543.
114. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487-88; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2614; Mawardi, Al-Nukat,
4:59-60, 14:87; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 7:476-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-
îisŒn, 3:199-200; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16267-68; Zamakhshari,
Al-KashshŒf, 3:543.
115. Mawardi, Al-Nukat, 4:59, 14:87; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 3:199; Qurtubi,
MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267; Zamakhshari, Al-KashshŒf, 3:543.
116. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2615; Mawardi, Al-Nukat,
4:59, 14:87; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn,
3:199-200; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267-68; Zamakhshari, Al-
KashshŒf, 3:543.
117. Abdel Haleem, Arabic English Dictionary, 232; Al-Busairi, Dictionary,16;
Mawardi, Al-Nukat, 4:59; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-îisŒn, 3:199; Qurtubi,
MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267.
118. Ibn ‘Adil, Al-Lubab, 17:487; Ibn Kathir, Tafs¥r, 4:2611; Mawardi, Al-Nukat,
4:59-60, 14:87; Tabari, JŒmi‘ al-BayŒn, 9:7476-77; Tha‘labi, Al-JawŒhir al-
îisŒn, 3:199-200; Qurtubi, MukhtŒr Tafs¥r al-Qurtub¥, 16:267-68; Zamakhshari,
Al-KashshŒf, 3:543.
119. Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, êaú¥ú al-BukhŒr¥, KitŒb al-Tafs¥r, hadith no.
4882. Hadiths narrated where Muhammad forbade Muslims to tattoo themselves
are also found in KitŒb al-LibŒs, hadith no. 5931, 5939, 5943, 5948; KitŒb al-
Ṭibb, hadith no. 5740; KitŒb al-ÿalŒq, hadith no. 5347; KitŒb al-Bay‘ah, hadith
no. 2238.