Module 4

Welcome to this module in title Types of Ecosystem. It is one of the topic in

Environmental science, people and Earth ecosystem, a course which comprises the
knowledge, skills and attitude.
In this module, you are required to go through a series of learning activities in
order to complete each learning outcome. In each area has information sheet, Self
Checks, Activity Sheets which is individual and group activity . Follow and perform the
activities on your own. If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask for assistance from
your Instructor.
Remember to:
 Read information Sheet and complete the self-check.
 Perform activity sheet
 Submit output of the Activity Sheet to your Instructor for evaluation and
recording.
 You must complete first this module before moving to the next module.
 MODULE CONTENT

MODULE TITLE: Types of ecosystem

MODULE DISCRIPTION: This module covers the basic knowledge, skills and attitude
In Types of ecosystem , it includes natural ecosystem and
Man-made ecosystem.

NOMINAL DURATION: 3 HOURS

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module you must be able to:
1. Learn what are the types of ecosystem.

Information Sheet
Natural Ecosystems
An ecosystem forms the basic building block of an environment. It consists of both biotic
and abiotic components and their continuous interactions with each other. Ecosystems can
broadly be classified into two types, namely:

 Natural ecosystem – naturally occurring

 Artificial ecosystem – These are man-made ecosystems
Natural Ecosystem
A natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-living entities and occurs freely in
nature. Every component interacts together as a combined unit through physical,
chemical and biological processes. The discriminating factor of natural ecosystems from
other ecosystems is that they are completely natural. Their interactions in no way are
influenced by human activity as seen in the case of artificial ecosystems. The
components of natural ecosystems that bring about these interactions are soil, sunlight,
air, water, plants, animals and microorganisms. Each of these factors of the ecosystem is
associated either directly or indirectly. For example, a fluctuation in the temperature
levels affects the growth of plants.
Examples Of Natural Ecosystems
Deserts, virgin rain forests, the abysmal plain are a few examples of naturally occurring
ecosystems. They are majorly devoid of human existence thereby enabling these sites
to continue existing in their natural state. However, these ecosystems, with time
undergo changes in the event of environmental changes regardless of human
existence.
A natural ecosystem is extensive and can be further classified into an either aquatic or
terrestrial ecosystem.
Grassland Ecosystem

Its main characteristic is it is inclusive of non-woody vegetation cover. Grass-like plants

dominate this ecosystem. Grassland ecosystem is common in dry areas where the soil
water is only sufficient to support herbaceous plants.

Grasslands are common in plains, and rolling topography and grazing animals inhabit
the ecosystem. Grassland ecosystems are further divided into three, depending on the
location.

Savanna grasslands are in the tropics. Prairies are in the temperate region while
Steppes can be found either in the temperate or tropical zone.
Temperate Forest Ecosystems

The ecosystem is common in regions that experience warm summers and cold winters.
It comprises of deciduous trees that shed leaves during autumn; as well as coniferous
trees which remain green throughout the year.

Human activities have significantly affected the initial temperate forest ecosystem. The
Great Smoky Mountains is the only temperate forest ecosystem that has not been
tampered with. It is labeled as a World Biosphere Reserve. Of the remaining temperate
forests, 25% are in Canada- British Columbia coast.
Tropical Rainforest System

This type of ecosystem is common in the tropical region and has a better diversity of
fauna and flora than all other ecosystems. Being a rainforest implies they are among the
wettest ecosystems across the globe. Thus, they receive high rainfall annually.

Due to the high rainfall, these ecosystems have dense and leafy vegetation. The trees
here are tall as they contest for sunlight. A common myth of this ecosystem is that the
soil is fertile. It is not.

After receiving heavy rainfall, the water washes away the soil’s nutrients and material.
Thus, the soil remains nutrient poor. Note that this ecosystem has high levels of
humidity approximately 88%.
 Desert Ecosystem

They are significantly characterized by sparse vegetation. The insect and

animal population in this ecosystem is significantly limited. While deserts
are known to be extremely hot, we can categorize deserts into two; tropical
or hot, and temperate or cold deserts.

While the hot and cold deserts have distinct features, they share some
similarities. The similarities include:

 Both ecosystems have dry air.

 Neither receives more than 10 inches of rain every year.
 Plants in both desert ecosystems have an adaptation that enables them to
thrive despite insufficient water.
 Animals living in both ecosystems have adapted to the hard conditions
concerning energy and food consumption.
 Desert ecosystems consist of various abiotic factors such as insufficient moisture and
high temperature. There are also a few biotic factors which include animals and plants.
Coral Reefs

Unlike the desert ecosystem, coral reefs are packed with life. Nearly 25% of the marine
species are dependent on the coral reef ecosystem for shelter and food.

Coral reefs are home to several animals such as corals, sea urchins, bright-colored fish,
sea anemones, sponges and clams.

Natural vs. Artifical Ecosystems

The following are the differences between artificial and natural ecosystems.
Types Of Ecosystems
The size of every ecosystem varies. On earth, ecosystems are interlinked to make biome –
land or atmosphere, the area of sea, forests, reefs etc. Depending upon the habitats,
biomes are connected with each other which possess several ecosystems. There are two
main types of natural ecosystems:

 Terrestrial ecosystem: Land-based

 Aquatic ecosystem: Water-based
There are various other types of ecosystems. Listed below are the types of ecosystems
which are categorized into either terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems

Figure:

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

There are a variety of different ecosystems around the world. Remember that an ecosystem
is a group of communities of both living and inert things that are related to each other. While
there are many ecosystems on earth and water, terrestrial ecosystem is only found
on earth. Biotic beings found in this type of ecosystem include a wide variety of life forms,
such as plants and animals. The abiotic or non-living elements found in such an
ecosystem include the forms of land and climate that predominate in a given place.
 What is a terrestrial ecosystem?

The terrestrial ecosystem is one in which animals and plants live in the soil and air, where
they find what they need to live, each of these animals and plants have
different characteristics and they need to adapt to the place where they live.

Terrestrial ecosystem characteristics

 Animals and plants live on land and air.

 They are classified according to abiotic factors.
 The flora and fauna depend on each other.
 Animals, birds and plants adapt to the habitat in which they live.
 When changes occur and species fail to adapt, extinction
 Parts
Components found in a terrestrial ecosystem are, therefore: the biotic part that includes
everything related to land or soil, vegetation, aerial and terrestrial animals, decomposing
organisms, and part or abiotic factors such as sun, rain, wind, erosion, temperature and
climate change.

Terrestrial ecosystem types

There are several types of terrestrial ecosystem that we mention below:

 Tundra: is located between the Arctic Ocean, filled with coniferous forests and

extends over a vast area in North America, Europe and Asia. The animals we can
find are, for example: arctic fox, polar bear, snowy bear.
 Taiga: This is the most extensive biome On Earth and extends into northern
Europe, Asia and North America, and has more moderate temperatures than the
tundra, however, they always reach below freezing point. The dominant vegetation
includes perennial conifers with some pines and firs, their forests are dense and
always remain green. The animals that inhabit the place are small birds that eat
seeds and predators like falcons, pumas, Siberian tigers, wolves.
 Temperate deciduous or Mediterranean forests: Extend over central and
southern Europe, eastern North America, western China, Japan, New Zealand, etc.
The flora includes trees such as oak and maple. Most animals
are vertebrates and invertebrates. It is characterized by a warm summer and a
mild, low-rainfall winter. This type of biome is used as a focus for migratory birds.
 Tropical rainforest: Found in tropical areas of high rainfall mainly in the equatorial
regions of Central America and North South America. Broad-leaved perennials are
found.
 Savannah: a tropical region dominated by grasses with dispersed trees and fire-
resistant trunk shrubs. Fauna includes a great diversity of herbivores and explorer
animals such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras, elephants and rhinoceroses. It has
a dry and rainy season and its soil is clayey and impermeable.
 Forests

Forests can be divided further into four different subgroups, but all these
terrestrial ecosystems have a dense tree population and medium to high levels
of precipitation in common. Tropical rain forests are home to a great diversity of
animals. The climate is hot with excessive rainfall, and vegetation grows in
several layers from the forest floor to the canopy. The forests of India and
eastern Brazil, however, have specific seasons of rain and dry weather. These
forests are called tropical deciduous forests. Coastal coniferous and temperate
deciduous forests flank the west and east coasts of the U.S., respectively. They
experience four seasons, and only moderate rainfall. Temperate rain forests
also occur along the northwest coast of North America. The northern Canadian
forests are predominately coniferous and experience long sub-arctic winters.

 Grasslands

In a grassland ecosystem, trees are scarce, removed by environmental

conditions and brush fires (though single trees and a few tree stands
do survive). However, the grasslands, as their name indicates, receive
sufficient precipitation to sustain different varieties of grasses. Today,
many grasslands are becoming endangered because of farming
practices and grazing herds of animals, especially when overgrazing
occurs. The grasslands are subdivided into tropical grasslands (also
known as the savannas); temperate grasslands, like the prairies of the
Midwest in the United States; and the polar grasslands like the
northern Canadian tundra. Savannas generally receive 20 to 50 inches
of rain per year, concentrated in a six to eight-month span, followed by
a dry season. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold
winters, with average annual rainfalls between 20 and 35 inches. Some
sources categorize tundra as a separate terrestrial ecosystem. Tundra,
whether arctic or alpine, typically are very cold with little rain.

 Deserts

Deserts are ecosystems with hardy inhabitants, able to survive in an

environment that receives less than 10 inches (25cm) of rainfall
annually. Deserts may be hot or cold. The desert is home to many
plants that lie dormant until it rains, when they bloom and spread their
seeds, which then lie dormant until the next major rainfall. It is also
home to plants capable of storing their own water, such as cacti. Other
plant adaptations in deserts include widespread roots and small leaves
with waxy coverings. In hot deserts, some desert animals survive the
searing heat by burrowing or living in caves. Many animals are largely
 nocturnal, staying underground during the heat of the day and foraging
for food at night when it is cooler.

 Mountains

Mountainous ecosystems can often be home to several smaller

terrestrial ecosystem examples, including meadows or forest regions.
Because of steep elevation changes between peaks and valleys,
mountainous regions can be quite varied in their climates, providing
microclimates that can develop different terrestrial environment
examples. Some mountain ranges, like the Rocky Mountains of North
America and the Andes in South America, extend for thousands of
miles. Other mountains are more isolated, developing ecosystems of
much more limited extent. Mountain regions are quite sensitive to
human impact.

Terrestrial ecosystem fauna and flora

Terrestrial fauna are groups of animals that live in a geographic area and are found in a
given ecosystem. The study of these animals is known as zoogeography. Fauna is
dependent on abiotic and biotic factors, competition and predation of species. The
Terrestrial flora implies the group of vegetal species that are in a determined territory.
Depending on the geographical location, the flora is considered both abundant and poor, so
we can say that it is very variable. It consists of all plants that grow either on land or in the
sea, from giant trees to seaweeds.

Climate and temperature

In reality, both climate and temperature will depend on the type of ecosystem we are
referring to and, in fact, both issues are part of the most important aspects that are taken
into account when making an appropriate ecosystem classification. Sunlight, radiation,
amount of rain, humidity, latitude and altitude are some of the aspects that determine the
climate and the type of flora and fauna of a place.

Importance
Ecosystems are important to man because they give him a wide range of benefits for life,
from trees used to extract wood and build, to some types of animals needed to survive.
 Examples

 Tropical forests.
 Temperate forests.
 Grasslands, scrubland savannas.
 Serum formations.
 Mangroves.

Aquatic ecosystem

Habitat is a part of an ecosystem. The climate, plants, and animals are the identities of a
habitat. Ecosystems primarily have two domains:

1. Terrestrial or Land ecosystem

2. Aquatic or Water ecosystem.

Water supports many lives. Organisms which survive in water are called aquatic
organisms. They depend on water for their food, shelter, reproduction and all other
life activities.
 An aquatic ecosystem includes a group of interacting organisms which are
dependent on one another and their water environment for nutrients and shelter.
Examples of aquatic ecosystem include oceans, lakes and rivers.
An aquatic ecosystem includes freshwater habitats like lakes, ponds, rivers, oceans
and streams, wetlands, swamp, etc. and marine habitats include oceans, intertidal
zone, reefs, seabed and so on. The aquatic ecosystem is the habitat for water-
dependent living species including animals, plants, and microbes.
Different types of aquatic ecosystems are as follows:

Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem

They cover only a small portion of earth nearly 0.8 per cent. Freshwater involves lakes,
ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands, swamp, bog and temporary pools. Freshwater habitats
are classified into lotic and lentic habitats. Water bodies such as lakes, ponds, pools, bogs,
and other reservoirs are standing water and known as lentic habitats. Whereas lotic habitats
represent flowing water bodies such as rivers, streams.

 Lotic Ecosystems
They mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way including
the rivers and streams. These environments harbor numerous species of insects such as
beetles, mayflies, stoneflies and several species of fishes including trout, eel, minnow, etc.
Apart from these aquatic species, these ecosystems also include various mammals such as
beavers, river dolphins and otters.

 Lentic Ecosystems
They include all standing water habitats. Lakes and ponds are the main examples of Lentic
Ecosystem. The word lentic mainly refers to stationary or relatively still water. These
ecosystems are home to algae, crabs, shrimps, amphibians such as frogs and
salamanders, for both rooted and floating-leaved plants and reptiles including alligators and
other water snakes are also found here.

 Wetlands
Wetlands are marshy areas and are sometimes covered in water which has a wide diversity
of plants and animals. Swamps, marshes, bogs, black spruce and water lilies are some
examples in the plant species found in the wetlands. The animal life of this ecosystem
consists of dragonflies and damselflies, birds such as Green Heron and fishes such as
Northern Pike.

Marine Aquatic Ecosystem

Marine ecosystem covers the largest surface area of the earth. Two third of earth is covered
by water and they constitute of oceans, seas, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, estuaries,
hydrothermal vents and rock pools. Each life form is unique and native to its habitat. This is
because they have adaptations according to their habitat. In the case of aquatic animals,
they can’t survive outside of water. Exceptional cases are still there which shows another
example of adaptations (e.g. mudskippers). The marine ecosystem is more concentrated
with salts which make it difficult for freshwater organisms to live in. Also, marine animals
cannot survive in freshwater. Their body is adapted to live in saltwater; if they are placed in
less salty water, their body will swell (osmosis).

 Ocean Ecosystems
Our planet earth is gifted with the five major oceans, namely Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and the
Atlantic Ocean. Among all these five oceans, the Pacific and the Atlantic are the largest and
deepest ocean. These oceans serve as a home to more than five lakh aquatic species. Few
creatures of these ecosystems include shellfish, shark, tube worms, crab small and large
ocean fishes, turtles, crustaceans, blue whale, reptiles, marine mammals, seabirds,
plankton, corals and other ocean plants.

 Coastal Systems
They are the open systems of land and water which are joined together to form the coastal
ecosystems. The coastal ecosystems have a different structure, and diversity. A wide
variety of species of aquatic plants and algae are found at the bottom of the coastal
ecosystem. The fauna is diverse and it mainly consists of crabs, fish, insects, lobsters
snails, shrimp, etc.
Plants and animals in an aquatic ecosystem show a wide variety of adaptations which may
involve life cycle, physiological, structural and behavioral adaptations. Majority of aquatic
animals are streamlined which helps them to reduce friction and thus save energy. Fins and
gills are the locomotors and respiratory organs respectively. Special features in freshwater
organisms help them to drain excess water from the body. Aquatic plants have different
types of roots which help them to survive in water. Some may have submerged roots; some
have emergent roots or maybe floating plants like water hyacinths.

MAN MADE ECOSYSTEM

These are the artificial ecosystems which rely on the human efforts to sustain. They do not
possess a self regulating mechanism. They have almost no diversity and have simple food
webs. The cycling of nutrients is negligible. The inputs are provided by the human efforts.
The man made ecosystems include the villages, towns, cities, rivers, orchids, dams,
gardens, lakes and agriculture.
The agriculture consists of the animal husbandry and the production of crops. The
agriculture is the first manmade ecosystem which occurred with the increase in human
population. There is a difficulty in procuring food. As the human beings discovered fire they
also used to domesticate animals and invented an artificial ecosystem for them. The areas
where they raised crops are known as the agro ecosystem. This system was temporary in
nature and was formed by cutting down the forests.
The land was cultivated for some years and was then left out. In the recent times they have
become permanent in nature and it is impossible for them to survive alone. The feeding of
domestic animals occurs on the pasture land. The pasture land is also known as the
pastoral land. The crop lands and pastoral lands are the essential grasslands. They are
formed by clearing the grasslands.
The forests are also cleared. The agro ecology is defined as the study of relationship
among the agriculture crops and the surrounding environment including the animals. They
are not static and keep on changing with the multiple factors. They can be latitude, altitude,
topography and edaphic factors. The cereals, pulses, seeds and the vegetables are the
main crops. These differ from one are to the other area. They depend upon the choice of
farmers and the climate of that particular area. They form the richest biotic community. 
The organisms included are the weed, pests, earthworms, rodents, birds and domestic
animals. They have common features among themselves. They are made by man and are
artificial and without any self regulatory mechanism. The circulation of nutrients is negligible
and its stability depends upon the diversity.
The croplands are monoculture and lack diversity. There is a usage of technology to
increase the quality of crops. The occurrence of drought makes these crops vulnerable like
the Irish and Bengal famine. They are also affected by the pests, pathogens and disease.
They can be aerated and irrigated.
The biogenetic nutrients are provided in the form of fertilizers. They lead to land and water
pollution. The weeds and pathogens are treated with the use of chemicals. These are very
harmful to the human beings and to the living beings. The plants can also be modified
genetically. These modified forms give rise to high yields and their productivity is many
times more than the natural ecosystem. They do not allow the biomass to accumulate. This
occurs due to the process of reaping. The stubbles are not left now days. The soils are kept
healthy with the use of manures.

Agricultural Ecosystems
A basic element of the rural landscape is represented in agroecosystem.
Agroecosystems are essentially croplands which have been cultivated and maintained
with human inputs like chemical fertilizers, irrigated water, heating systems. They are
distinguished from natural grasslands or forests where the provisions of life-sustaining
cyclical processes are based on what has been inherently present in nature. Species in
agroecosystems is low, and its dependent on the neighboring cosysytems with which
they are by necessity, connected to.
The need for energy sources is not only for maintaining the natural cycles of growth-
decay-and-growth and feeding a certain level of population. More importantly, energy
sources are needed to enhance the productivity for a vastly larger volume of
consumption needs. These needs may either be for feeding larger populations or for
providing outputs for coomercial intents. Agroecosystems are therefore characterized as
having larger input as well as output environments.
In the Philippines, out of 30 million hectare total land area, about 9.9 million hectares or
one-third are classified as croplands. Corn and rice occupy the largest percentage of
croplands planted to annual crops. High yielding varieties of rice occupy about 28% of
total rice cropped areas and 21% of total croplands. Coconuts are the most dominant
perrential crop, occupying 26% of the total cropland area.

It is important that agroecosystems strive to accommodate as much of the natural

processes as possible in order to preserve ecological balance. This means undertaking
such approaches has bioorganic farming and multicropping to maintain species diversity
ans soil health. This also prevents agroecosystem from unduly affecting other
ecosystems through huge amounts of unnatural inputs, such as eroded agricultural
chemical pesticides eventually flowing to water streams.

ECOSYSTEM OF
FOREST
GRASSLANDS

AGROECOSYSTEM

URBANIZED AQUATIC
AREA
ECOSYSTEM

Figure: Depending agroecosystems in the environment

The agricultural ecosystem

An ecosystem is defined as all the organisms (animals, plants, microbes) in a

certain habitat, plus also the environment that they live in (such as the soil, a pond, or a
mountainside).  Natural ecosystems usually contain hundreds or thousands of species
of organisms and are thus very complex in their functioning.  In contrast, an agricultural
ecosystem (such as a corn field or an orchard) is relatively artificial, being modified and
controlled by humans.  It contains fewer species and thus is simpler in its functioning.

But simpler is not really better.  A complex natural ecosystem, with its many species,
operates with an intricate “web” of interrelationships among the species.  They can be
pictured in a very simplified diagram:

These are the basic steps in a food chain.  Plants use soil nutrients, water and carbon
dioxide from the air, and with the sun’s energy, they produce food that nourishes
animals and humans.  But there are a few more vital steps:
In order to be sustainable, wastes and other organic matter are recycled and broken
down by microbes (bacteria, fungi, protozoa) and some larger organisms (worms,
insects) into soil humus and simple nutrients, which are then available for the plants to
use.  It’s a beautiful, self-sustaining system, with each species doing its “job.”
Of course, within each of the large categories (“plants,” “animals,” “microbes”) are
dozens or hundreds of species, each with slightly different activities.  For example, in a
forest there are many types of trees, shrubs, vines, “wildflowers,” grasses, ferns,
mosses, mushrooms, earthworms, roundworms, ants, beetles, flies, caterpillars,
salamanders, birds, mice, squirrels, moles, raccoons, deer, coyotes . . . and so on. 
Some eat certain other species, only to themselves be eaten by others in the food
chain.
Because a natural ecosystem has so many interactions among its species, it is quite
stable, able to withstand disturbances such as a damaging storm or a drought.  So, if
one or several species are largely killed off, there are others that can take over their
function in the system.  Thus a natural ecosystem is sustainable, able to continue
indefinitely.  The variety of species in nature is often called “biological diversity,” or
“biodiversity.”

Natural ecosystems also perform a number of functions that benefit humans,

called ecosystem services.  These may include moderating the local weather (less
extreme temperature and humidity), less severe flooding (by soaking up heavy rains),
cleaning up polluted water, control of plant pests and diseases by their natural enemies,
disposing of dead plants and animals, making the soil more fertile, and pollination of
many plants.  In fact, we might say that human civilization would not exist without these
free services of nature.
The soil on conventional farms has often been nearly sterilized by toxic chemicals or
strong fertilizers, and is often very low in organic matter (humus).  Both humus and
large numbers of soil organisms work to (1) make soil porous and well-aerated, (2)
provide a good balance of soil nutrients to the growing crop, (3) protect  roots from soil-
borne diseases and pests, and (4) reduce soil erosion.

Plants that grow in good, rich soil are likely to be healthy.  Healthy plants are able to
resist or repel most pests and diseases, by means of  various processes analogous to
the way our body’s immune system protects us from diseases.  And healthy plants also
produce more nutritious food for animals and humans.  Eating a diet of healthful,
nutritious food will help keep us healthy and reduce health-care expenses.  It’s a win-
win system.

Considering the many benefits of healthy crops, good soil and a diverse ecosystem, it
only makes sense for the farmer to do as much as possible (or feasible) to
work with natural processes and receive the rewards of better soil, plants and animals. 
Higher quality crops and animals can also command higher market prices, making
farming more profitable.
Some ways a farm can be made to function in a more ecologically sound manner
include:

1. Treat the soil as the valuable resource it is by improving its ability to grow healthy
crops.  Recycle manure, crop residues and/or compost.  Avoid the use of strong
fertilizers and toxic chemicals.
2. Encourage nearby natural ecosystems, such as grassy fence-row vegetation, field
corners, and nearby meadows, woods and marshes.  Build bluebird and wren
houses.
3. Plant more than one crop species at once (or consecutively).  Various cover crops
and interplanted crops can smother weeds and supply nutrients to other crops (as
with legumes supplying nitrogen), and if tilled into the soil, cover crops can supply
humus and nutrients to the soil.  Crop rotations also provide similar benefits.
4. Diversify the farm by raising a variety of crops and animals.  Not only can diversity
protect against bad weather and volatile markets, but a variety of species is a closer
approximation of a natural ecosystem than is a monoculture of one or two crops and
no animals.

A wise farmer should be an applied ecologist, aware of the variety and functions
of both wild and domesticated plants and animals, and especially aware of the
importance of good, “healthy” soil.  Don’t develop the profit-seeking, control-
nature mindset that pervades high-tech agriculture.  Be a steward of the land.
Urban ecosystem
Urban ecosystem, any ecological system located within a city or other densely settled
area or, in a broader sense, the greater ecological system that makes up an
entire metropolitan area. The largest urban ecosystems are currently concentrated in
Europe, India, Japan, eastern China, South America, and the United States, primarily
on coasts with harbours, along rivers, and at intersections of transportation routes.
Large urban areas have been features of the industrialized countries of Europe
and North America since the 19th century. Today, however, the greatest urban growth
occurs in Africa, South and East Asia, and Latin America, and the majority of megacities
(that is, those with more than 10 million inhabitants) will be found there by 2030.

The Structure Of Urban Ecosystems

Urban ecosystems, like all ecosystems, are composed of biological components (plants,
animals, and other forms of life) and physical components (soil, water, air, climate, and
topography). In all ecosystems these components interact with one another within a
specified area. In the case of urban ecosystems, however, the biological complex also
includes human populations, their demographic characteristics, their institutional
structures, and the social and economic tools they employ. The physical complex
includes buildings, transportation networks, modified surfaces (e.g., parking lots, roofs,
and landscaping), and the environmental alterations resulting from human decision
making. The physical components of urban ecosystems also include energy use and
the import, transformation, and export of materials. Such energy and material
transformations involve not only beneficial products (such as transportation and
housing) but also pollution, wastes, and excess heat. Urban ecosystems are often
warmer than other ecosystems that surround them, have less infiltration of rainwater
into the local soil, and show higher rates and amounts of surface runoff after rain and
storms. Heavy metals, calcium dust, particulates, and human-made
organic compounds (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides, and contaminants from pharmaceutical
and personal care products) are also concentrated in cities.
The expansion of large urban areas results in the conversion
of forests, wetlands, deserts, and other adjacent biomes into areas devoted to
residential, industrial, commercial, and transportational uses. Such conversion may
result in the production of barren land. In addition, the conversion process fragments
remaining wild or rural ecosystems into ever-smaller patches, and relatively high
amounts of suboptimal habitat are found at the boundaries between the remaining
native ecosystems and those that have been modified for human use. Such “edge
habitats” inhibit specialist plant and animal species that is, species that can tolerate a
narrow range of environmental conditions. In addition, nonurban ecosystems downwind
and downstream of urban ecosystems are subjected to high loads of water pollution, air
pollution, and introduced exotic species.
Urban ecosystems are the cities, towns, and urban strips constructed by humans.
This is the growth in the urban population and the supporting built infrastructure has
affected both urban environments and also on areas which surround urban areas. These
include semi or 'peri-urban' environments that fringe cities as well as agricultural and natural
landscapes. Semi environments can also be called peri-urban.
Nowadays scientists are developing ways to measure and understand the effects
of urbanization on human and environmental health.
By considering urban areas as part of a broader social-ecological system, scientists can
investigate how urban landscapes function and how they affect other landscapes with which
they interact. In this context, urban environments are affected by their surrounding
environment but also affect that environment. Knowing this may provide clues as to which
alternative development options will lead to the best overall environmental outcome.

https://www.britannica.com/science/urban-ecosystem
BIOME

A biome is an area of the planet that can be classified according to the plants
and animals that live in it.
A biome basically represents an ecological community categorized by its physical
characteristics such as soil, its climate and the life it supports. While Earth can be
considered as one biome, it's normally subdivided into additional biomes.
Scientists separate biomes into two distinct classifications: aquatic and terrestrial.
The largest biome on Earth is the aquatic one, as water covers 75 percent of the
globe

Section Summary

The Earth has terrestrial biomes and aquatic biomes. Aquatic biomes include both
freshwater and marine environments.

There are eight major terrestrial biomes:

1. tropical wet forests

2. savannas

3. subtropical deserts

4. chaparral

5. temperate grasslands

6. temperate forests

7. boreal forests

8. Arctic tundra.

 The same biome can occur in different geographic locations with similar climates.
Temperature and precipitation, and variations in both, are key abiotic factors that
shape the composition of animal and plant communities in terrestrial biomes.
Some biomes, such as temperate grasslands and temperate forests, have
distinct seasons, with cold weather and hot weather alternating throughout the
year. In warm, moist biomes, such as the tropical wet forest, net primary
productivity is high, as warm temperatures, abundant water, and a year-round
 growing season fuel plant growth. Other biomes, such as deserts and tundra,
have low primary productivity due to extreme temperatures and a shortage of
available water.

1.Tropical wet forests:

are also referred to as tropical rainforests. This biome is found in equatorial regions.
The vegetation is characterized by plants with broad leaves that fall off throughout the
year. Unlike the trees of deciduous forests, the trees in this biome do not have a
seasonal loss of leaves associated with variations in temperature and sunlight; these
forests are “evergreen” year-round.

One of the most fascinating biomes on planet Earth is the tropical rainforest. It is filled
with tall trees, interesting plants, giant insects, and all sorts of animals.

What makes a forest a rainforest?

As you might have guessed from the name, rainforests are forests that get a lot of rain.
Tropical rainforests are located in the tropics, near the equator. Most rainforests get at
least 75 inches of rain with many getting well over 100 inches in areas.

Rainforests are also very humid and warm. Because they are close to the equator, the
temperature stays between 70 and 90 degrees F for most of the year.

There are three major areas of tropical rainforests:

  Africa - The major tropical rainforest in Africa is in the southern central portion of
the continent with the Congo River running through it. There are also rainforests
in western Africa and Madagascar.
 Southeast Asia - Much of Southeast Asia is considered part of a tropical
rainforest biome. It runs all the way from Myanmar to New Guinea.
 South America - This is the world's largest tropical rainforest. It covers much of
the northern part of South America as well as the southern portion of Central
America. The area is often called the Amazon basin and has the Amazon and
Orinoco Rivers running through it.

Biodiversity

The tropical rainforest has the most biodiversity of all the land biomes. Despite only
covering around 6% of the Earth's surface, scientists estimate that around half of the
planet's animal and plant species live in the world's rainforests.
Layers of the Rainforest

The rainforest can be divided up into three layers: the canopy, the understory, and the
forest floor. Different animals and plants live in each different layer.

 The canopy - This is the top layer of trees. These trees are usually at least 100
feet tall. Their branches and leaves form an umbrella over the rest of the layers.
Most of the plants and animals live on this layer. This includes monkeys, birds,
insects, and reptiles of all sorts. Some animals can live their entire lives without
leaving the canopy to touch the ground. This layer is the loudest layer with the
animals making lots of noise.
 The understory - Beneath the canopy is the understory. This layer is made up of
some shorter trees and shrubs, but mostly the trunks and branches of the canopy
trees. This layer is home to some of the larger predators like snakes and
leopards. It is also home to owls, bats, insects, frogs, iguanas, and various other
animals.
 The forest floor - Because of the thickness of the canopy, very little sunlight
makes it to the forest floor. This layer is home to lots of insects and spiders.
There are also some animals that live on this layer including deer, pigs,
and snakes. This layer is the quietest layer as animals sneak around in the dark
making little noise.

Sometimes scientists refer to a fourth layer called the emergent layer. This is made up
of tall trees that grow above the canopy.
The rainforests are important to the world for many reasons. One reason is that they act
as the Earth's lungs by producing around 40% of the world's oxygen. Since all of us
need oxygen to live, that reason ranks pretty high. The rainforests also provide a
number of important drugs to help sick people and cure diseases. It is believed by many
that there are even cures for cancer waiting for us to discover in the rainforest. The
rainforest is also home to many species of animals and is a beautiful and irreplaceable
part of nature.

The Disappearing Rainforests

Unfortunately, human development is killing off much of the world's rainforest. Around
40% of the world's rainforests have already been lost. Environmentalists are doing what
they can to help countries preserve this vital biome.
Facts About Tropical Rainforests

 Surprisingly, the soil in a rainforest is shallow and has little nutrients.

 In the Amazon rainforest there are over 2,000 species of butterflies.
 They are home to interesting "flying" animals such as squirrels, snakes, and
frogs.
 It is estimated that 25% of the ingredients in medicines today come from the
rainforest.
 Rainforests impact the temperatures and weather patterns throughout the world.
 One fifth of the world's freshwater supply is in the Amazon rainforest.
 Every second, a section of rainforest the size of a football field is cut down.
 Only about 2% of the sunlight hits the forest floor.

Tropical Rainforest
Test Quiz All the questions on this quiz are based on information that
can be found at tropical wet forest

1) Which of the following does not describe a typical rainforest?

  Humid
  Rainy
  Full of trees
  Cold
  Close to the equator

2) Which continent has a major rainforest?

  North America
  Antarctica
  Africa
  Australia
  Europe
3) What major river runs through much of the rainforest in South America?
  Nile River
  Mississippi River
  Yangtze River
  Congo River
  Amazon River

4) Around what percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by the rainforest biome?
  6%
  19%
  28%
  45%
  90%

5) Which layer of the rainforest is dark and quiet?

  Canopy
  Understory
  Forest floor
  Emergent
  None of the Above

6) Which layer of the rainforest consists of tall trees that grow above the canopy?
  Canopy
  Understory
  Forest floor
  Emergent
  None of the Above

7) Which layer of the rainforest is home to large predators who lurk on tree trunks and large
branches?
  Canopy
  Understory
  Forest floor
  Emergent
  None of the Above

8) Which layer of the rainforest acts like a large umbrella and is full of animals making lots of
noise?
   Canopy
  Understory
  Forest floor
  Emergent
  None of the Above

9) The rainforest acts as the Earth's lungs providing around 40% of the Earth's ________.
  Water
  Nitrogen
  Carbon
  Gold
  Oxygen

10) True or False: Around 40% of the Earth's rainforest has been destroyed by human
development.
  TRUE
   FALSE
  
  
  
Answer:
1. 4
2. 3
3. 5
4. 1
5. 3
6. 4
7. 2
8. 1
9. 5
10. 1

2. SAVANNA
The savanna is a type of grasslands biome. The savanna is sometimes called the
tropical grasslands. To learn about the other major type of grasslands biome.
Characteristics of the Savanna

 Grasses and trees - The savanna is a rolling grassland with scattered trees and
shrubs.
 Rainy and dry seasons - Savannas have two distinct seasons in regards to
precipitation. There is a rainy season in the summer with around 15 to 25 inches
of rain and a dry season in the winter when only a couple of inches of rain may
fall.
 Large herds of animals - There are often large herds of grazing animals on the
savanna that thrive on the abundance of grass and trees.
 Warm - The savanna stays pretty warm all year. It cools down some during the
dry season, but stays warm and humid during the rainy season.

Where are the major savanna biomes?

Savannas are generally found between the desert biome and the rainforest biome. They
are mostly located near the equator.

The largest savanna is located in Africa. Nearly half of the continent of Africa is covered
with savanna grasslands. Other major savannas are located in South America, India,
and northern Australia.
nimals in the Savanna

One of the more spectacular sights in nature is the animals of the African Savanna.
Because the savanna is so rich in grasses and tree life, many large herbivores (plant
eaters) live here and congregate in large herds. These include zebras,
wildebeests, elephants, giraffes, ostriches, gazelles, and buffalo. Of course, where you
have lots of herbivores, there must be predators. There are many powerful predators
roaming the savanna including lions, hyenas, cheetahs, leopards, black mambas, and
wild dogs.
The plant eating animals have developed ways at avoiding predators. Some animals
like the gazelle and ostrich use speed to try and outrun predators. The giraffe uses its
height to spot predators from far off and the elephant uses its shear size and strength to
keep predators away.

At the same time predators of the savanna have adapted their own special skills. The
cheetah is the fastest land animal and can run in bursts of 70 miles per hour to catch its
prey. Other animals, like lions and hyenas, hunt in groups and trap the weaker animals
away from the protection of the herd.

One reason that so many different kinds of plant eating animals can live on the savanna
is that different species have adapted to eat different plants. This may be a different
type of plant or even plants at different heights. Some animals are built to eat low grass
while others, like giraffes, are designed to eat leaves high up in trees.
Plants in the Savanna

The majority of the savanna is covered in different types of grasses including lemon
grass, Rhodes grass, star grass, and Bermuda grass. There are also lots of trees
scattered about the savanna. Some of these trees include the acacia tree, the baobab
tree, and the jackalberry tree.

The plants need to be able to survive the dry season and drought in the savanna. Some
store water and energy in their roots, bulbs, or trunks. Others have roots that go deep
into the ground to reach the low water table.

The baobab tree

Fires in the Savanna

Fires are an important part of the savanna. During the dry season fires clear out old
dead grass and make way for new growth. Most of the plants will survive because they
have extensive root systems that allow them to grow back quickly after a fire. The trees
have thick bark which helps them to survive. The animals generally can run to escape
the fire. Some animals burrow deep into the ground to survive. Insects generally die by
the millions in a fire, but this provides a feast to many birds and animals.
Is the savanna in danger?

Overgrazing and farming has destroyed much of the savanna. When overgrazing
occurs, the grasses don't grow back and the savanna can turn into desert. In Africa, the
Sahara desert is expanding into the savanna at the rate of 30 miles per year.
Facts About the Savanna

 Many animals of the savanna are endangered due to overhunting and loss of
habitat.
 The grassland in Australia is called the Bush.
 Many animals migrate out of the savanna during the dry season.
 Some animals in the savanna, like vultures and hyenas, are scavengers which
eat other animal's kills.
 The African savanna boasts the largest land animal, the elephant, and the tallest
land animal, the giraffe.
 The baobab tree can live for thousands of years.
 The savanna has the highest biodiversity of herbivore animals of any biome.
 Many of the animals in the savanna have long legs which helps them when
migrating long distances.

Savanna Biome
Test Quiz
from Questions on this quiz are based on information

1) What is another name for the savanna biome?

  Temperate grasslands
  Taiga Forest
  Tundra
  Tropical grasslands
  Desert
2) Which of the following best describes the temperature in the savanna?
  Cold all year long
  Warm most of the year
  Freezing all of the time
  Extremely hot all year
  Very hot or very cold depending on the time of year

3) On what continent is the largest savanna biome found?

  Asia
  Europe
  South America
  North America
  Africa

4) Which of the following best describes the typical vegetation found in the savanna?
  Grasses with scattered trees and shrubs
  Sparse vegetation with lots of sand and rocks
  Lush vegetation with lots of trees
  Dense forest
  All of the above

5) Which of the following animals would you find on the savanna?

  Zebras
  Elephants
  Wildebeests
  Lions
  All of the above

6) What animal living in the savanna is considered the fastest land animal reaching speeds of
70 mph?
  Lion
  Zebra
  Cheetah
  Black mamba
  Wildebeest

7) What event often occurs during the dry season of the savanna that helps to make way for
new growth?
   Dust storm
  Fire
  Earthquake
  Flood
  All of the above

8) What biome is slowly taking over the savanna in Africa due to overgrazing?
  Temperate forest
  Tundra
  Rainforest
  Taiga
  Desert

9) What are the savanna grasslands in Australia called?

  Bush
  Prairie
  Steppes
  Pampas
  Pitch

10) True or False: The African savanna is home to the elephant, the tallest land animal in the
world.
  TRUE
   FALSE
  
  
  
ANSWER:
1. 3
2. 2
3. 5
4. 1
5. 5
6. 3
7. 2
8. 5
9. 1
10. 2
3. Desert
We've all seen deserts in the movies. They are full of miles and miles of sand dunes.
However, not all deserts are like this. Many deserts are rocky with scattered plants and
shrubs. There are even deserts that are icy and cold. On this page we will describe the
hot and dry deserts. You can follow these links to read about the icy cold polar deserts
that are found in the Antarctic and the North Pole.

What makes a desert a desert?

Deserts are primarily defined by their lack of rain. They generally get 10 inches or less
rain in a year. Deserts are characterized in an overall lack of water. They have dry soil,
little to no surface water, and high evaporation. They are so dry that sometimes rain
evaporates before it can hit the ground!

Hot in the Day, Cold at Night

Because deserts are so dry and their humidity is so low, they have no "blanket" to help
insulate the ground. As a result, they may get very hot during the day with the sun
beating down, but don't hold the heat overnight. Many deserts can quickly get cold once
the sun sets. Some deserts can reach temperatures of well over 100 degrees F during
the day and then drop below freezing (32 degrees F) during the night.
Where are the major hot and dry deserts?

The largest hot and dry desert in the world is the Sahara Desert in Northern Africa. The
Sahara is a sandy desert with giant sand dunes. It covers over 3 million square miles of
Africa. Other major deserts include the Arabian Desert in the Middle East, the Gobi
Desert in Northern China and Mongolia, and the Kalahari Desert in Africa. Go here to
learn more about the world's deserts.
How do animals survive in the desert?

Animals have adapted to survive in the desert despite its extreme temperatures and
lack of water. Many of the animals are nocturnal. Meaning they sleep during the heat of
the day and come out when it is cooler at night. These same animals sleep in burrows,
tunnels under the ground, during the day in order to stay cool. Desert animals
include meerkats, camels, reptiles such as the horned toad, scorpions,
and grasshoppers.

Animals that live in the desert also have adapted to needing little water. Many get all the
water they need from the food they eat. Other animals store up water that they can use
later. The camel stores up fat in its hump while other animals store up reserves in their
tails.

What plants can live here?

Only certain types of plants can survive the harsh environment of the desert. These
include cactus, grasses, shrubs, and some short trees. You won't see a lot of tall trees
in the desert. Most of these plants have a way to store water in their stems, leaves, or
trunks so they can survive a long time without water. They also tend to be spread out
from each other and have a large root system so they can gather up all the water
possible when it does rain. Many desert plants are armed with sharp spines and
needles to help protect them from animals.
Dust Storms

Because the desert is so dry, the wind will grind pebbles and sand into dust.
Occasionally a big wind storm will gather up this dust into a huge storm. Dust storms
can be over 1 mile high and so thick with dust you can't breathe. They can travel for
over a thousand miles, too.

Expanding Deserts
Currently deserts cover around 20% of the world's land, but they are growing. This is
called desertification and is caused by different factors including human activities. The
Sahara Desert is expanding at the rate of around 30 miles per year.

Facts about the Desert Biome

 The giant saguaro cactus can grow 50 feet tall and live for 200 years.
 Plants that store water in their stems are called succulents.
 Some desert trees have deep taproots that grow up to 30 feet deep in order to
find water.
 The elf owl will sometimes live inside a cactus during the day and then come out
at night to hunt.
 Dust storms from the Gobi Desert have been known to reach Beijing, China
nearly 1,000 miles away.
 Camels can go without water for a week. A thirsty camel can drink 30 gallons of
water in less than 15 minutes.

Activities
Test Quiz

1) What is the main characteristic that makes a biome a desert?

  Sand dunes
  High temperatures
  Tumbleweeds
  Lack of rain
  Lots of snakes

2) What is the largest hot desert in the world?

  Gobi Desert
  Sahara Desert
  Arabian Desert
  Mojave Desert
  Great Basin Desert

3) What does it mean when animals are described as nocturnal?

  They don't need a lot of water
  They are warm-blooded
  They sleep during the day and come out at night
  They hibernate during the winter
  They have an internal cooling system that helps them survive in the desert
4) Where do many desert animals sleep during the day?
  In burrows under the ground
  On warm rocks to stay heated
  In the shade of cactus plants
  On the sand
  None of the Above

5) Where do camels store up fat so they can go without water for long periods of time?
  In their tails
  In their stomachs
  In their hump
  In their shoulders
  Along their sides

6) How have plants adapted to survive in the desert?

  They store water in their leaves and trunks
  They spread out from each other
  They have large root systems to collect water
  They have sharp spines to protect them from animals
  All of the above

7) True or False: Most hot deserts stay hot through the night rarely dropping below 100
degrees F.
  TRUE
  FALSE
  
  
  

8) What term is used to describe the growing in size of the world's deserts?
  Sand expansion
  Drying Earth
  Climate change
  Desertification
  Global warming

9) What does it mean when a plant is called a succulent?

   It tastes really good
  It defends itself from animals with spiny barbs
  It stores water in its stems
  It reproduces using flowers
  It grows in the desert

10) True or False: Many animals in the desert get all the water they need from the food they
eat.
  TRUE
   FALSE
  
  
  
,,,,,,,,,

aNswer:

1. 4
2. 2
3. 3
4. 1
5. 3
6. 5
7. 2
8. 4
9. 3
10. 1

4.CHAPARRAL
The Chaparral Biome can also be called the woodland, forest and even the Scrub
biome.
Chaparral  is a shrubland or heathland plant community found primarily in the US state
of California and in the northern portion of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico. It is
shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers) and
wildfire, featuring summer-drought-tolerant plants with hard sclerophyllous evergreen
leaves, as contrasted with the associated soft-leaved, drought-
deciduous, scrub community of coastal sage scrub, found below the chaparral biome.
Chaparral covers 5% of the state of California and associated Mediterranean shrubland
an additional 3.5%. The name comes from the Spanish word chaparro, for evergreen
oak shrubland.

Chaparral, Santa Ynez Mountains, near Santa Barbara, California

The Chaparral Biome is an interesting biome because it is sometimes mixed up with the
desert biome.  This biome has many plains and many mountains, and it is also very dry
and very hot.  What sets apart the chaparral biome and the desert biome is that the
chaparral biome gets more rainfall than the desert biome.

Where is the Chaparral Biome Located?

The chaparral biome can be found in all of the different continents.  It is found in the
United States, in South Africa, in Australia, Europe and in many other areas.
Some of the areas that the chaparral biome is located include South America, Cape
Town, which is located in South Africa, and in Chile.  In the United States, you can find
the Chaparral Biome in California and in Oregon.

Weather

The Chaparral Biome has very hot and very dry weather.  In the winter, the weather is
usually cooler and can get as low as 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
In the summer, the Chaparral Biome can get really, really hot, even reaching
temperatures up to 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
Plants Grow in the Chaparral Biome

There are may different plants that grow in the Chaparral Biome, but because the
weather is so hot and dry, most of the plants have large leaves that are hard.  These
plants grow in this biome because they have adapted to having little water and they hold
a lot of water in their roots and their leaves.
The plants that grow in the Chaparral Biome have a different type of root system than
other plants so that they can get as much water as they can.  The roots are not as deep
as other plants, but they spread out so that they can catch water that lands on the
ground after it rains.
Most of the plants in the Chaparral Biome get their water from the soil.  They have
taproots which go into the soil and they can catch the water as it flows into the soil.

Animals of the Chaparral Biome

The animals that are found in the Chaparral Biome are animals that are able to adapt to
the dry and hot weather.  Most of the animals are desert and grassland types of
animals.
Some of the animals in this biome are deer, coyotes, alligators, toads, goats, horses,
rabbits, vultures, jack rabbits, boar, lynx and even eagles.
There are other animals that are small animals such as small reptiles, mammals and
insects.

Characteristics of the Chaparral Biome

The Chaparral Biome has characteristics of both a grassland and of a forest.  It has dry
summers and it has plants and animals that have adapted to the hot temperatures.
One interesting thing about the Chaparral Biome is that it sometimes has fires because
the biome is so hot and dry.  When the fires happen, they sometimes kill the plants and
animals that are in the area.
 Because of the fires, some of the plants have learned to adapt to fires and they have
material that can resist the fire.  Other plants adapted so that their seeds do not grow
until after they have been touched by the fire.

More Facts About the Chaparral Biome:

 The Chaparral Biome gets around 10-20 inches of water each year.
 The average temperature in the Chaparral Biome is 64 degrees Fahrenheit.
 During the summer months, the weather is so hot that the biome normally has a
drought.
 Animals have adapted to live on very little water in this biome.
 There are many shrubs that grow in the Chaparral Biome because they need only a
very small amount of water.
 The word Chaparral means shrub oak in Spanish.
 Some of the insects in the Chaparral Biome include butterflies, ladybugs and praying
mantis.
 Most of the animals are nocturnal.
 Nocturnal means that the animals sleep during the day and they are active at nighttime.
 Many people live in the Chaparral Biome.
 The biggest concern for people living in the Chaparral Biomes is the fires.

The Chaparral Biome is an interesting biome because it is sometimes mixed

up with the desert biome.  This biome has many plains and many mountains,
and it is also very dry and very hot.  What sets apart the chaparral biome and
the desert biome is that the chaparral biome gets more rainfall than the desert
biome.

Where is the Chaparral Biome Located?

The chaparral biome can be found in all of the different continents.  It is found in the
United States, in South Africa, in Australia, Europe and in many other areas.
Some of the areas that the chaparral biome is located include South America, Cape
Town, which is located in South Africa, and in Chile.  In the United States, you can find
the Chaparral Biome in California and in Oregon.

What is Another Name for the Chaparral Biome?

The Chaparral Biome can also be called the woodland, forest and even the Scrub
biome.

What is the Weather of the Chaparral Biome?

The Chaparral Biome has very hot and very dry weather.  In the winter, the weather is
usually cooler and can get as low as 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
In the summer, the Chaparral Biome can get really, really hot, even reaching
temperatures up to 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
What Kind of Plants Grow in the Chaparral Biome?

There are may different plants that grow in the Chaparral Biome, but because the
weather is so hot and dry, most of the plants have large leaves that are hard.  These
plants grow in this biome because they have adapted to having little water and they hold
a lot of water in their roots and their leaves.
The plants that grow in the Chaparral Biome have a different type of root system
than other plants so that they can get as much water as they can.  The roots
are not as deep as other plants, but they spread out so that they can catch
water that lands on the ground after it rains.
Most of the plants in the Chaparral Biome get their water from the soil.  They
have taproots which go into the soil and they can catch the water as it flows
into the soil.

Some of the plants found in these areas include poison oak, yucca, shrubs,
scrub oak and more.
Animals of the Chaparral Biome

The animals that are found in the Chaparral Biome are animals that are able
to adapt to the dry and hot weather.  Most of the animals are desert and
grassland types of animals.
Some of the animals in this biome are deer, coyotes, alligators, toads, goats,
horses, rabbits, vultures, jack rabbits, boar, lynx and even eagles.
 There are other animals that are small animals such as small reptiles,
mammals and insects.
Characteristics of the Chaparral Biome

The Chaparral Biome has characteristics of both a grassland and of a forest.

It has dry summers and it has plants and animals that have adapted to the hot
temperatures.
One interesting thing about the Chaparral Biome is that it sometimes has fires
because the biome is so hot and dry.  When the fires happen, they sometimes
kill the plants and animals that are in the area.

Because of the fires, some of the plants have learned to adapt to fires and they have
material that can resist the fire.  Other plants adapted so that their seeds do not grow
until after they have been touched by the fire.

More Facts About the Chaparral Biome:

 The Chaparral Biome gets around 10-20 inches of water each year.
 The average temperature in the Chaparral Biome is 64 degrees Fahrenheit.
 During the summer months, the weather is so hot that the biome normally has a
drought.
 Animals have adapted to live on very little water in this biome.
 There are many shrubs that grow in the Chaparral Biome because they need only a
very small amount of water.
 The word Chaparral means shrub oak in Spanish.
 Some of the insects in the Chaparral Biome include butterflies, ladybugs and praying
mantis.
 Most of the animals are nocturnal.
 Nocturnal means that the animals sleep during the day and they are active at nighttime.
 Many people live in the Chaparral Biome.
 The biggest concern for people living in the Chaparral Biomes is the fires.

Quiz:
1. What is the Chaparral Biome?  
Ans: The Chaparral Biome is a mixture between a desert biome and a grassland
biome, but it is more like a desert biome.
2. Why does the Chaparral Biome and the Desert Biome get mixed up?  
Answer: The Chaparral is a lot like the Desert Biome because it has very hot
temperatures and is very dry.
3. Why are fires a concern for the Chaparral Biome?
Ans:  Fires are a concern in the Chaparral Biomes because the weather is usually hot
and dry, and they get very little rainfall.
4. Do animals and people live in the Chaparral Biome?
Ans:  Many different kinds of animals live in the Chaparral Biome.  Some areas have a
large population of people that live in this biome.
5. What does it mean when an animal is nocturnal?
Ans:  An animal that is nocturnal sleeps during the day and is active at nighttime.

5.Temperate Grasslands
The grasslands biome can be divided up into the temperate grasslands and tropical
grasslands. On this page we will discuss the temperate grasslands. Tropical grasslands
are also called savannas.
What are grasslands?

Grasslands are wide expanses of land filled with low growing plants such as grasses
and wildflowers. The amount of rain is not enough to grow tall trees and produce a
forest, but it is enough to not form a desert. The temperate grasslands have seasons
including a hot summer and a cold winter.

Where are the major world grasslands?

Grasslands are generally located between deserts and forests. The major temperate
grasslands are located in central North America in the United States, in Southeast
South America in Uruguay and Argentina, and in Asia along the southern portion of
Russia and Mongolia.

Types of Temperate Grasslands

Each major area of grasslands in the world has its own characteristics and is often
called by other names:

 Prairie - Grasslands in North America are called the prairies. They cover around
1.4 million square miles of the central United States including some of Canada
and Mexico.
 Steppes - The steppes are grasslands that cover southern Russia all the way to
the Ukraine and Mongolia. The steppes stretch over 4,000 miles of Asia including
much of the fabled Silk Road from China to Europe.
  Pampas - The grasslands in South America are often called the pampas. They
cover around 300,000 square miles between the Andes Mountains and the
Atlantic Ocean.

Animals in the Grasslands

A variety of animals live in the grasslands. These include prairie dogs, wolves, turkeys,
eagles, weasels, bobcats, foxes, and geese. A lot of smaller animals hide down in the
grasses such as snakes, mice, and rabbits.

The North American plains were once full of bison. These large herbivores ruled the
plains. It is estimated there were millions of them before the Europeans arrived and
began slaughtering them in the 1800s. Although there are numerous bison in
commercial herds today, there are few in the wild.
Plants in the Grasslands

Different kinds of grass grow in different areas of the grasslands. There are actually
thousands of different kinds of grasses that grow in this biome. Where they grow usually
depends on the amount of rain that area gets. In wetter grasslands, there are tall
grasses that can grow up to six feet high. In dryer areas the grasses grow shorter,
maybe only a foot or two tall.

Types of grasses that grow here include buffalo grass, blue grama grass, needle grass,
big bluestem, and switchgrass.

Other plants that grow here include sunflowers, sagebrush, clover, asters, goldenrods,
butterfly weed, and butterweed.
Fires

Wildfires can play an important role in the biodiversity of the grasslands. Scientists
believe that occasional fires help to rid the land of old grasses and allow for new
grasses to grow, bringing new life to the area.

Farming and Food

The grassland biome plays an important role in human farming and food. They are used
to grow staple crops such as wheat and corn. They are also good for grazing livestock
such as cattle.

The Shrinking Grasslands

Unfortunately, human farming and development has caused the grassland biome to
steadily shrink. There are conservation efforts going on to try and save the grasslands
that are left as well as the endangered plants and animals.

Facts about the Grassland Biome

 Forbs are plants that grow in the grasslands that aren't grasses. They are leafy
and soft-stemmed plants such as sunflowers.
 Prairie dogs are rodents that live in burrows under the prairies. They live in large
groups called towns that can sometimes cover hundreds of acres of land.
 It is thought that there were over a billion prairie dogs on the Great Plains at one
point.
 Other grassland animals need the prairie dog to survive, but the population is
declining.
 Only around 2% of the original prairies of North America still exist. Much of it has
been turned into farmland.
 Fires on grasslands can move as fast as 600 feet per minute.

Activities:

Test Quiz
1) What type of plants rarely grow in the grasslands?
  Grasses
  Sagebrush
  Wildflowers
  Tall trees
  Clover

2) Grasslands are generally located between what two biomes?

  Tropical rainforest and temperate rainforests
  Deserts and forests
  Taiga and forests
  Tundra and Taiga
  Marine and desert

3) Which type of grasslands covers much of southern Russia?

  Prairie
  Steppes
  Pampas
  Savanna
  
4) Which type of grasslands are also known as tropical grasslands?
  Prairie
  Steppes
  Pampas
  Savanna
  

5) What type of grasslands are found in South America?

  Prairie
  Steppes
  Pampas
  Savanna
  

6) What type of grasslands are found in the central United States?

  Prairie
  Steppes
  Pampas
  Savanna
  

7) What animal was nearly hunted to extinction in the grasslands of the United States during
the 1800s?
  Ground squirrel
  Scorpion
  Badger
  Bobcat
  Bison

8) True or False: Scientists believe that fires in the grasslands can help to bring new life to the
area.
  TRUE
   FALSE
  
  
  

9) How do grasslands play an important role in providing food to people?

   Farming wheat
  Farming corn
  Raising cattle
  All of the above
  None of the Above

10) What has happened to the majority of the grasslands in North America?
  They have slowly dried out and become desert
  They have been turned into farmland
  They have been taken over by forests
  All of the above
  Nothing, they are basically the same they were 1000 years ago

Answer:
1. 4
2. 2
3. 2
4. 4
5. 2
6. 1
7. 5
8. 1
9. 4
10. 2

6.Temperate Forest
All forests have lots of trees, but there are different types of forests. They are
often described as different biomes. One of the main differences is where they
are located in relation to the equator and the poles. There are three main
types of forest biomes: the rainforest, the temperate forest, and the Taiga.
Rainforests are located in the tropics, near the equator. Taiga forests are
located far north. Temperate rainforests are located in between.

What makes a forest a temperate forest?

 Temperature - Temperate means "not to extremes" or "in moderation".

In this case temperate is referring to the temperature. It never gets
really hot (like in the rainforest) or really cold (like in the Taiga) in the
temperate forest. The temperature is generally between minus 20
degrees F and 90 degrees F.
 Four seasons - There are four distinct seasons: winter, spring, summer,
and fall. Each season is about the same length of time. With only a
three month winter, plants have a long growing season.
 Lots of rain - There is lots of rain throughout the year, usually between
30 and 60 inches of rain.
 Fertile soil - Rotted leaves and other decaying matter provide a rich,
deep soil that is good for trees to grow strong roots.

Where are the temperate forests located?

They are located in several locations around the world, around halfway
between the equator and the poles.

Types of Temperate Forests

There are actually many types of temperate forests. Here are the main ones:

 Coniferous - These forests are made up mostly of conifer trees such as

cypress, cedar, redwood, fir, juniper, and pine trees. These trees grow
needles instead of leaves and have cones instead of flowers.
 Broad-leafed - These forests are made up of broad-leafed trees such as
oak, maple, elm, walnut, chestnut, and hickory trees. These trees have
big leaves that change color in the fall.
 Mixed coniferous and broad-leafed - These forests have a mix of
conifers and broad-leafed trees.

Major Temperate Forests of the World

There are major temperate forests located around the world including:

 Eastern North America

 Europe
 Eastern China
 Japan
 Southeast Australia
 New Zealand

Plants of the Temperate Forests

The plants of the forests grow in different layers. The top layer is called the
canopy and is made up of full grown trees. These trees form an umbrella
throughout most of the year providing shade for the layers below. The middle
layer is called the understory. The understory is made up of smaller trees,
saplings, and shrubs. The lowest layer is the forest floor which is made up of
wildflowers, herbs, ferns, mushrooms, and mosses.

The plants that grow here have some things in common.

 They lose their leaves - Many of the trees that grow here are deciduous
trees, meaning they lose their leaves during the winter. There are a few
evergreen trees as well that keep their leaves for the winter.
  Sap - many trees use sap to help them through the winter. It keeps their
roots from freezing and is then used as energy in the spring to start
growing again.

Animals of the Temperate Forests

There are a wide variety of animals that live here including black bears,
mountain lions, deer, fox, squirrels, skunks, rabbits, porcupines, timber
wolves, and a number of birds. Some animals are predators like mountain
lions and hawks. Many animals survive off of nuts from the many trees like
squirrels and turkeys.

Each species of animal has adapted to survive the winter.

 Remain active - Some animals stay active during the winter. There are
rabbits, squirrels, fox, and deer which all stay active. Some are just
good at finding food while others, like squirrels, store up and hide food
during the fall that they can eat during the winter.
 Migrate - Some animals, like birds, migrate to a warmer place for the
winter and then return home come springtime.
 Hibernate - Some animals hibernate or rest during the winter. They
basically sleep for the winter and live off of fat stored in their body.
 Die and lay eggs - Many insects can't survive the winter, but they lay
eggs that can. Their eggs will hatch come spring.

Facts About the Temperate Forest Biome

 Many animals have sharp claws to climb trees such as squirrels,

opossums, and raccoons.
 Much of the forests in Western Europe are gone due to
overdevelopment. Unfortunately, the ones in Eastern Europe are now
dying from acid rain.
 A single oak tree can produce 90,000 acorns in one year.
 Trees use birds, acorns, and even the wind to spread their seed
throughout the forest.
 Deciduous is a Latin word that means "to fall off".
 There were no ground living mammals in the New Zealand forests until
people arrived, but there were lots of varieties of birds.
 Black bears will put on a 5 inch layer of fat before going to sleep for the
winter.

Activities:
Test Quiz
1) What are the other two major forest biomes besides the temperate forest?
  Desert and tundra forest
  Tundra and rainforest
  Rainforest and savanna
  Taiga and rainforest
  Savanna and tundra forest

2) Which of the following does not describe the temperate forest biome?
  Lots of trees
  Deep and rich soil
  Freezing temperatures year round
  Lots of rain
  Four seasons

3) Where are the temperate forests located?

  Around halfway between the equator and the poles
  Far north near the Arctic circle
  Near the poles
  Near the equator
  They are all in the continent of Africa

4) What type of temperate forest is made up mostly of trees with large leaves
that change colors during the Autumn season?
  Coniferous
  Broad-leafed
  Mixed
  None of the above
  

5) What type of temperate forest is made up mostly of trees that have

needles and cones like pine trees?
  Coniferous
  Broad-leafed
   Mixed
  None of the above
  

6) On what layer of the temperate forest would you find smaller trees,
saplings, and shrubs?
  Canopy
  Understory
  Forest floor
  
  

7) What layer of the temperate forest is made up of tall trees that act as an
umbrella for the lower layers?
  Canopy
  Understory
  Forest floor
  
  

8) What helps trees through the winter by keeping the roots from freezing and
then providing energy in the spring?
  Needles
  Insects
  Leaves
  Bark
  Sap

9) What is it called when animals move to a warmer place for the winter and
then return in the spring?
  Coniferous
  Adaptation
  Migration
  Hibernation
  Estivation
10) What is it called when animals sleep during the winter and live off of fat
stored in their bodies?
  Coniferous
  Adaptation
  Migration
  Hibernation
  Estivation

Answer:
1. 4
2. 2
3. 1
4. 2
5. 1
6. 2
7. 1
8. 5
9. 3
10. 4

7.BOREAL FOREST (TAIGA)

Taiga, also called boreal forest, biome (major life zone) of vegetation composed

primarily of cone-bearing needle-leaved or scale-leaved evergreen trees, found in
northern circumpolar forested regions characterized by long winters and moderate to
high annual precipitation. The taiga, “land of the little sticks” in Russian, takes its name
from the collective term for the northern forests of Russia, especially Siberia.

The Taiga is one of the three main forest biomes. The other two are the
temperate forest and the tropical rainforest. The taiga is the driest and coldest
of the three. The taiga is sometimes called the boreal forest or the coniferous
forest. It is the largest of all the land biomes.
What makes a forest a taiga forest?

The taiga has several characteristics that distinguish it from the other forest
biomes:

 Evergreen trees - This forest is covered with evergreen, or

coniferous, trees. These are trees that don't drop their leaves, or
needles, in the winter. They keep their leaves so they can soak up as
much sunlight for as long as possible. The dark green color of their
leaves also helps them to soak up more sun and gain more energy
through photosynthesis.
 Cold weather - The taiga has the coldest weather of the forest biomes.
Winters can get as cold as -60 degrees F. Winter can last for six months
with the temperature averaging below freezing. Summers are warmer,
but very short.
 Dry - The precipitation is only slightly more than the desert or the
tundra. Average precipitation is between 12 and 30 inches per year. It
falls as rain in the summer and snow in the winter.
  Thin layer of soil - Because the leaves don't fall from the trees, like in
the temperate forest, the layer of good soil is thin. Also, the cold
weather causes a slow rate of decay taking it longer for nutrients to get
back into the soil.
 Short growing season - With a long winter and short summer, plants
don't have a lot of time to grow in the taiga. The growing season only
lasts for around three months. This compares to at least six months in
the temperate forest and a year round growing season in the rainforest.
 Where are the taiga forests located in the world?

These forests are located in the far north typically between the
temperate forest biome and the tundra biome. On the globe this is
between 50 degrees latitude north and the Arctic Circle. The largest
taiga forest covers much of northern Russia and Siberia. Other major
taiga forests include North America (Canada and Alaska) and
Scandinavia (Finland, Norway, and Sweden).

Plants of the Taiga

The dominant plant in the taiga is the coniferous evergreen tree. These trees
include spruce, pine, cedar, and fir trees. They grow close together forming a
canopy over the land, like an umbrella. This canopy soaks up the sun and
only lets a little bit of sunlight through to the ground.

The conifers of the taiga produce their seeds in cones. They also have
needles for leaves. Needles are good at holding in water and surviving the
harsh cold winds each winter. The trees also grow in a cone shape. This helps
the snow to slide off their branches.

Under the canopy of the trees, few other plants grow. In some moist areas
plants such as ferns, sedges, mosses, and berries will grow.

Animals of the Taiga

The animals of the taiga must be able to survive the cold winters. Some
animals, like birds, migrate to the south for the winter. Insects lay eggs that
can survive the winter and then die. Other animals, like squirrels, store up
food for the winter while others hibernate by going into a long, deep sleep.
Predators of this biome include the lynx, wolverines, Cooper's hawk, and
wolves. Other animals include moose, the snowshoe hare, deer, elk, bears,
chipmunks, bats, and woodpeckers.

Animals that live here have certain characteristics that help them to survive:

 They generally have thick fur or feathers to keep them warm.

 Many animals have sharp claws and are good at climbing trees.
 They have large feet to allow them to walk on the snow without sinking.
 Many of them change colors from white fur in the winter, to help them
hide in the snow, to brown fur in the summer, to help them hide in the
trees.

Facts About the Taiga Biome

 Taiga is a Russian word meaning forest.

 Many years ago the taiga was covered with icy glaciers.
 The word boreal means northern or “of the north wind”.
 The occasional wildfire is good for the taiga as it opens up area for new
growth. The trees have adapted to fires by growing tough bark. This will
help some of them survive a mild fire.
 Many of the forest floor plants are perennials that come back each
summer after laying dormant for the winter.
 These forests are endangered and shrinking due to logging.

Activities:

Test Quiz

1) What are the other two major forest biomes besides the taiga forest?
  Desert forest and tundra forest
  Tundra forest and rainforest
  Rainforest and savanna forest
  Temperate forest and rainforest
  Savanna forest and tundra forest

2) What type of trees grow in the taiga forest biome?

   Broad-leafed
  Coniferous
  The kind that loses its leaves in the fall
  Deciduous
  All of the above

3) What is the longest season in the taiga forest biome?

  Spring
  Summer
  Fall
  Winter
  They are all the same length

4) Which of the following does not describe the taiga forest biome?
  Cold
  Thin layer of soil
  Rainy
  Evergreen trees
  Dry

5) Where are the taiga forest biomes located in the world?

  Near the equator
  Near the South Pole
  Only on the continent Africa
  In western Australia
  In the far north just below the Artic Circle

6) What is the dominant plant in the taiga forest biome?

  Ferns
  Trees
  Grasses
  Shrubs
  Wildflowers

7) How do animals in the taiga forests survive the winter?

  Migrate to the south
   They store up food for the winter
  They hibernate and sleep during the winter
  They lay eggs and die
  All of the above

8) Taiga is a _______ word meaning ‘forest.’

  Russian
  French
  Danish
  German
  Swedish

9) What is causing the taiga forest biome to shrink?

  Air pollution
  Drought
  Logging
  Volcanic eruptions
  Desert expansion

10) True or False: Animals that live in the taiga forest biome often have large
feet to help them to walk on the snow without sinking.
  TRUE
  FALSE
  
  
  

Answers:
1. 4
2. 2
3. 4
4. 3
5. 5
6. 2
7. 5
 8. 1
9. 3
10. 1

8.ARCTIC TUNDRA

The tundra biome is a cold and treeless plain where harsh conditions make it
hard for plants and animals alike to survive. Around 20% of the Earth's land
surface is covered with tundra.

Characteristics of the Tundra Biome

 It's cold - The tundra is the coldest of the biomes. The

average temperature in the tundra is around -18 degrees F. It gets
much colder in the winter and warmer during its short summer.
 It's dry - The tundra gets about as much precipitation as the average
desert, around 10 inches per year. Most of this is snow.
 Permafrost - Below the top soil, the ground is permanently frozen year
round.
 It's barren - The tundra has few nutrients to support plant and animal
life. It has a short growing season and a slow rate of decay.

Two Types of Tundra

 Alpine tundra - Alpine tundra is the area of land high in the mountains
above the tree line.
 Arctic tundra - The Arctic tundra is located far north in the northern
hemisphere along the Arctic Circle. There are large areas of tundra in
northern North America, northern Europe, and northern Asia.
Tundra Seasons

The tundra has two distinct seasons: a long winter and a short summer. Being
so far north, the tundra has long nights in the winter and long days in the
summer.

The winter lasts around 8 months and is extremely cold. In the middle of
winter the sun may not rise for weeks. The tundra is frozen and often covered
with snow during the winter and will reach temperatures of -60 degrees F.

The summer is shorter and is marked by the other extreme of the sun not
setting. In the middle of summer the sun will be up for 24 hours. During the
summer the temperatures may reach 50 degrees F causing the snow to melt
in areas and wetlands to form.

What is permafrost?

Permafrost is a layer of ground below the topsoil that remains frozen

throughout the year. This layer is generally only a few feet below the
surface. Permafrost prevents trees from growing in the tundra because
trees need to have deep roots and they can't grow in the frozen ground.

Plants in the Tundra

Plants that grow in the tundra include grasses, shrubs, herbs, and lichens.
They grow in groups and stay low to the ground to stay protected from the
icy winds. They tend to have shallow roots and flower quickly during the
short summer months.

Most of the plants in the tundra are perennials that come back each year
from the same root. This allows them to grow during the summer and save
up nutrients as they lay dormant for the winter. They also tend to have
hairy stems and dark leaves. This helps them in absorbing energy from the
sun.
Animals in the Tundra

The tundra has a lot more animal activity during the summer than the winter.
This is because most birds migrate south for the summer, insects lay eggs
that wait for the summer to hatch, and some mammals hibernate for the
winter. There are even some animals, like the caribou, which migrate south for
the winter.

There are some animals that have adapted to winter in the tundra. Some of
them change coats from brown in the summer to white in the winter so they
can blend in with the snow. These include the arctic hare, the ermine, and the
arctic fox. Other animals that are active in the winter include the snowy owl,
musk oxen, and ptarmigans.

During the summer, the tundra will be teeming with insects. Wetland areas will
be filled with mosquitoes. There will also be a lot of bird activity as they come
to eat the insects and fish. Animals will be more active, coming out of
hibernation or migrating from the south.

Facts about the Tundra Biome

 The word tundra comes from a Finnish word tunturi, which means
treeless plain or barren land.
 The tundra is a very fragile biome that is shrinking as the permafrost
melts.
 Lemmings are small mammals that burrow under the snow to eat
grasses and moss during the winter.
 Polar bears come to the tundra for the summer where they have their
babies.
 Animals in the tundra tend to have small ears and tails. This helps them
to lose less heat in the cold. They also tend to have large feet, which
helps them to walk on top of the snow.
 Plants that grow in tight groups to protect themselves from the cold are
sometimes called cushion plants.
 The Inuit people of Alaska live on the tundra.

Tundra
Test Quiz

1) Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the tundra biome?

  It is cold
   It gets lots of precipitation in the form of snow
  The ground below the topsoil is frozen
  It has a short growing season
  It has few nutrients to support plant and animal life

2) What do scientists call the permanently frozen ground that sits just below
the topsoil of the tundra?
  Ice layer
  Cold dirt
  Frozen clay
  Permafrost
  Neverland

3) What do we call a tundra biome that consists of land high in the mountains
above the tree line?
  Alpine tundra
  High tundra
  Arctic tundra
  Frozen tundra
  Treeless tundra

4) What do we call a tundra biome that is located in the far north along the
Arctic Circle?
  Alpine tundra
  High tundra
  Arctic tundra
  Frozen tundra
  Treeless tundra

5) What is the longest season in the northern tundra?

  Spring
  Summer
  Fall
  Winter
  
6) Which of the following plants typically cannot grow in the tundra?
  Grasses
  Lichens
  Herbs
  Shrubs
  Trees

7) Which of the following animals are active in the tundra during the winter?
  Ermines
  Snowy owls
  Musk oxen
  Arctic fox
  All of the above

8) Which of the following animals migrates south for the winter away from the
tundra?
  Insects
  Caribou
  Ermines
  Musk oxen
  All of the above

9) Why do many animals that live in the tundra have small ears and tails?
  Because they don't need to hear well
  In order to sleep better in the winter
  So they lose less heat in the cold
  Because food is so scarce
  False, most animals in the tundra have large ears and tails

10) True or False: The tundra is much more active with plant and animal life
in the winter than in the summer.
  TRUE
  FALSE
  
  
  
Answer:

1. 2
2. 4
3. 1
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
7. 5
8. 2
9. 3
10. 2

AQUATIC BIOMES

Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes

Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are influenced by a series of abiotic factors. The aquatic
medium—water— has different physical and chemical properties than air. Even if the water in a
pond or other body of water is perfectly clear (there are no suspended particles), water still
absorbs light. As one descends into a deep body of water, there will eventually be a depth which
the sunlight cannot reach. While there are some abiotic and biotic factors in a terrestrial
ecosystem that might obscure light (like fog, dust, or insect swarms), usually these are not
permanent features of the environment. The importance of light in aquatic biomes is central to
the communities of organisms found in both freshwater and marine ecosystems. In freshwater
systems, stratification due to differences in density is perhaps the most critical abiotic factor and
is related to the energy aspects of light. The thermal properties of water (rates of heating and
cooling) are significant to the function of marine systems and have major impacts on global
climate and weather patterns. Marine systems are also influenced by large-scale physical water
movements, such as currents; these are less important in most freshwater lakes.
 Figure 1. The ocean is divided into different zones based on water depth and
distance from the shoreline.

The ocean is categorized by several areas or zones (Figure 1). All of the
ocean’s open water is referred to as the pelagic zone. The benthic zone
extends along the ocean bottom from the shoreline to the deepest parts
of the ocean floor. Within the pelagic realm is the photic zone, which is
the portion of the ocean that light can penetrate (approximately 200 m
or 650 ft). At depths greater than 200 m, light cannot penetrate; thus,
this is referred to as the aphotic zone. The majority of the ocean is
aphotic and lacks sufficient light for photosynthesis. The deepest part of
the ocean, the Challenger Deep (in the Mariana Trench, located in the
western Pacific Ocean), is about 11,000 m (about 6.8 mi) deep. To give
some perspective on the depth of this trench, the ocean is, on average,
4267 m. These zones are relevant to freshwater lakes as well.

Marine Biomes

The ocean is the largest marine biome. It is a continuous body of salt water that is relatively
uniform in chemical composition; it is a weak solution of mineral salts and decayed biological
matter. Within the ocean, coral reefs are a second kind of marine biome. Estuaries, coastal areas
where salt water and fresh water mix, form a third unique marine biome.
Ocean

The physical diversity of the ocean is a significant influence on plants, animals, and other
organisms. The ocean is categorized into different zones based on how far light reaches into the
water. Each zone has a distinct group of species adapted to the biotic and abiotic conditions
particular to that zone.

The intertidal zone, which is the zone between high and low tide, is the
oceanic region that is closest to land (Figure 2). Generally, most people think
of this portion of the ocean as a sandy beach. In some cases, the intertidal
zone is indeed a sandy beach, but it can also be rocky or muddy. Organisms
are exposed to air and sunlight at low tide and are underwater most of the
time, especially during high tide. Therefore, living things that thrive in the
intertidal zone are adapted to being dry for long periods of time. The shore
of the intertidal zone is also repeatedly struck by waves, and the organisms
found there are adapted to withstand damage from the pounding action of
the waves (Figure 2). The exoskeletons of shoreline crustaceans (such as the
shore crab, Carcinus maenas) are tough and protect them from desiccation
(drying out) and wave damage. Another consequence of the pounding
waves is that few algae and plants establish themselves in the constantly
moving rocks, sand, or mud.

Figure 2. Sea urchins, mussel shells, and starfish are often found in the intertidal
zone, shown here in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. (credit: NOAA)

The neritic zone (Figure 1) extends from the intertidal zone to depths of

about 200 m (or 650 ft) at the edge of the continental shelf. Because light
can penetrate this depth, photosynthesis can occur. The water here
contains silt and is well-oxygenated, low in pressure, and stable in
temperature. Phytoplankton and floating Sargassum (a type of free-
floating marine seaweed) provide a habitat for some sea life found in the
neritic zone. Zooplankton, protists, small fishes, and shrimp are found in
the neritic zone and are the base of the food chain for most of the
world’s fisheries.

Beyond the neritic zone is the open ocean area known as the oceanic
zone (Figure 1). Within the oceanic zone there is thermal stratification
where warm and cold waters mix because of ocean currents. Abundant
plankton serve as the base of the food chain for larger animals such as
whales and dolphins. Nutrients are scarce and this is a relatively less
productive part of the marine biome. When photosynthetic organisms
and the protists and animals that feed on them die, their bodies fall to
the bottom of the ocean where they remain. The majority of organisms in
the aphotic zone include sea cucumbers (phylum Echinodermata) and
other organisms that survive on the nutrients contained in the dead
bodies of organisms in the photic zone.

The deepest part of the ocean is the abyssal zone, which is at depths of

4000 m or greater. The abyssal zone (Figure 1) is very cold and has very
high pressure, high oxygen content, and low nutrient content. There are a
variety of invertebrates and fishes found in this zone, but the abyssal
zone does not have plants because of the lack of light. Cracks in the
Earth’s crust called hydrothermal vents are found primarily in the abyssal
zone. Around these vents chemosynthetic bacteria utilize the hydrogen
sulfide and other minerals emitted as an energy source and serve as the
base of the food chain found in the abyssal zone.

Beneath the water is the benthic zone (Figure 1), which is comprised of

sand, silt, and dead organisms. This is a nutrient-rich portion of the ocean
 because of the dead organisms that fall from the upper layers of the
ocean. Because of this high level of nutrients, a diversity of sponges, sea
anemones, marine worms, sea stars, fishes, and bacteria exist.

Coral Reefs

Figure 3. Coral reefs are formed by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral organisms, which are
marine invertebrates in the phylum Cnidaria. (credit: Terry Hughes)

Coral reefs are characterized by high biodiversity and the structures created by invertebrates that
live in warm, shallow waters within the photic zone of the ocean. They are mostly found within
30 degrees north and south of the equator. The Great Barrier Reef is a well-known reef system
located several miles off the northeastern coast of Australia. The coral organisms (members of
phylum Cnidaria) are colonies of saltwater polyps that secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton.
These calcium-rich skeletons slowly accumulate, forming the underwater reef (Figure 3). Corals
found in shallower waters (at a depth of approximately 60 m or about 200 ft) have a mutualistic
relationship with photosynthetic unicellular algae. The relationship provides corals with the
majority of the nutrition and the energy they require. The waters in which these corals live are
nutritionally poor and, without this mutualism, it would not be possible for large corals to grow.
Some corals living in deeper and colder water do not have a mutualistic relationship with algae;
these corals attain energy and nutrients using stinging cells on their tentacles to capture prey. It is
estimated that more than 4,000 fish species inhabit coral reefs. These fishes can feed on coral,
other invertebrates, or the seaweed and algae that are associated with the coral.

Global Decline of Coral Reefs

It takes a long time to build a coral reef. The animals that create coral
reefs have evolved over millions of years, continuing to slowly deposit
the calcium carbonate that forms their characteristic ocean homes.
Bathed in warm tropical waters, the coral animals and their symbiotic
algal partners evolved to survive at the upper limit of ocean water
temperature.

Estuaries

Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water

Estuaries are biomes that occur where a source of fresh water, such as a

river, meets the ocean. Therefore, both fresh water and salt water are found
in the same vicinity; mixing results in a diluted (brackish) saltwater. Estuaries
form protected areas where many of the young offspring of crustaceans,
mollusks, and fish begin their lives. Salinity is a very important factor that
influences the organisms and the adaptations of the organisms found in
estuaries. The salinity of estuaries varies and is based on the rate of flow of
its freshwater sources. Once or twice a day, high tides bring salt water into
the estuary. Low tides occurring at the same frequency reverse the current
of salt water.
The short-term and rapid variation in salinity due to the mixing of fresh
water and salt water is a difficult physiological challenge for the plants and
animals that inhabit estuaries. Many estuarine plant species are halophytes:
plants that can tolerate salty conditions. Halophytic plants are adapted to
deal with the salinity resulting from saltwater on their roots or from sea
spray. In some halophytes, filters in the roots remove the salt from the
water that the plant absorbs. Other plants are able to pump oxygen into
their roots. Animals, such as mussels and clams (phylum Mollusca), have
developed behavioral adaptations that expend a lot of energy to function in
this rapidly changing environment. When these animals are exposed to low
salinity, they stop feeding, close their shells, and switch from aerobic
respiration (in which they use gills) to anaerobic respiration (a process that
does not require oxygen). When high tide returns to the estuary, the salinity
and oxygen content of the water increases, and these animals open their
shells, begin feeding, and return to aerobic respiration.
PLANTS: Plants found in estuaries need to be adapted to salty conditions.
Having too much salt can kill many types of plants. Some plants, like pickle
weed, can absorb the salt water and store the salt in special compartments,
called vacuoles, in the leaves. This makes the plant taste very salty which
may be one of the reasons it is called pickle weed. Can you see the other
reason in this picture? Other plants, like salt grass and alkali heath, are able
to push the salt out onto the surface of the leaves. The salt crystals can be
seen if you look very closely.
ANIMALS: Many types of animals are found in estuaries. In fact, the complex
food web found in an estuary helps to support an amazing diversity of
animals. The decaying plants are eaten by microorganisms (animals so tiny
you need a microscope to see them.) The microorganisms are eaten by small
invertebrates (animals without backbones.) Fish, like carp and stickleback,
then eat the invertebrates. Many of the fish we eat depend upon estuaries.
They are sheltered places where fish can have their young and the young fish
can grow before moving out into the open ocean. Without estuaries, the
number of fish in our oceans would decrease greatly. Occasionally, water in
certain areas of the estuary can dry up and all that is left is a mud flat. It may
seem like there is no life in this mud flat at all, but there are all kinds of
mussels, shrimp, worms and other invertebrates living in the mud. Often you
can see birds probing the mud with their beaks looking for a tasty meal.
FRESHWATER BIOMES

Freshwater biomes include lakes and ponds (standing water) as well as rivers and streams
(flowing water). They also include wetlands, which will be discussed later. Humans rely on
freshwater biomes to provide aquatic resources for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation, and
industry. These various roles and human benefits are referred to as ecosystem services. Lakes
and ponds are found in terrestrial landscapes and are, therefore, connected with abiotic and biotic
factors influencing these terrestrial biomes.

Lakes and Ponds

Lakes and ponds can range in area from a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
Temperature is an important abiotic factor affecting living things found in lakes and ponds. In
the summer, thermal stratification of lakes and ponds occurs when the upper layer of water is
warmed by the sun and does not mix with deeper, cooler water. Light can penetrate within the
photic zone of the lake or pond. Phytoplankton (small photosynthetic organisms such as algae
and cyanobacteria that float in the water) are found here and carry out photosynthesis, providing
the base of the food web of lakes and ponds. Zooplankton (very small animals that float in the
water), such as rotifers and small crustaceans, consume these phytoplankton. At the bottom of
lakes and ponds, bacteria in the aphotic zone break down dead organisms that sink to the bottom.
Figure 4. The uncontrolled growth of algae in this lake has resulted in an algal
bloom. (credit: Jeremy Nettleton)

Nitrogen and phosphorus are important limiting nutrients in lakes and

ponds. Because of this, they are determining factors in the amount of
phytoplankton growth in lakes and ponds. When there is a large input of
nitrogen and phosphorus (from sewage and runoff from fertilized lawns
and farms, for example), the growth of algae skyrockets, resulting in a
large accumulation of algae called an algal bloom. Algal blooms (Figure 4)
can become so extensive that they reduce light penetration in water. As a
result, the lake or pond becomes aphotic and photosynthetic plants
rooted in the lake bottom cannot survive. When the algae die and
decompose, severe oxygen depletion of the water occurs. Fishes and
other organisms that require oxygen are then more likely to die, and
resulting dead zones are found across the globe. Lake Erie and the Gulf of
Mexico represent freshwater and marine habitats where phosphorus
control and storm water runoff pose significant environmental
challenges.

LAKE
A lake is a very slow flowing body of open water which occupies a land depression.  This
group of water bodies includes ponds and impoundments.  Lakes do not include artificially
created ponds, excavations, containment structures for agricultural purposes, ponds
constructed for wastewater treatment, fish culture, fire protection, or on golf courses.
Several lakes in the country are of volcanic origin
like Lake Danao in Leyte province

Taal Lake, lake in southwestern Luzon, Philippines, occupying a

volcanic crater with a maximum width of 15 miles (24 km), at less
than 10 feet (3 m) above sea level. It has an area of 94 square
miles (244 square km) and is the country’s third largest lake. Within
the lake rises Volcano Island (984 feet [300 m]), which itself
contains another small crater (Yellow Lake). Volcano Island, called
Taal Volcano, has erupted 25 times since 1572, most recently in
1970.

TAAL LAKE, with volcani island

(also called taal volcano, Philippines), Ian Furtuno

POND
A pond is a small, shallow body of fresh, standing water in which
relatively calm
water and extensive plant growth.
The amount of dissolved oxygen may vary greatly during a day. In
really cold places, the entire pond can freeze solid.
 Water temperature is fairly even from top to bottom and changes with
air temperature.
POND is either or an artificial body of water that is enclosed
Is quiet body of water that is too small for wave action and too
shallow for major
temperature differences from top to bottom
Usually has a muddy or silky bottom with aquatic plants around the
edges.
In a pond the temperature changes with the air temperature and is
relatively uniform
Pond get their energy from the sun
Plants are the primary producers, the Chlorophyll in aquatic plants
captures energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to
organic compounds and oxygen through the process of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
Nitrogen and phosphorous are important nutrients for plants.
The addition of these substances may increase primary productivity…
however too many nutrients can cause algal blooms ,,,, leading to
EUTROPHICATION

Types of ponds
Cypress Ponds
Bog Ponds
Meadow-Stream Ponds
Mountain Ponds
Farm Ponds
Garden ponds

1. Cypress Ponds
Commonly found in the central or lower Mississippi Basin
Waters are described as being brownish in color
 Many dry out during parts of the year

2. Bog Ponds
Bog Ponds are often found in the moist temperature regions of North
America.
Water is highly acidic and often muddy.
Floating-leaf plants usually cover the surface.

3. Meadow-Stream Ponds
* The shallow part of the pond usually has an abundance of
pondweeds, cattails, stoneworts and other plants.
4. Mountain Ponds
Formed by glaciers
Bottoms range from being rocky, muddy.
Most of the time Mountain Ponds have ice in them and they usually
dry up at some point during the summer.
summer season, a variety of animals and plants live in these icy
waters.

5. Farm Ponds

It should also have a spillway to control the water level.

Man-made ponds built to help keep the farmlands fertile.
Farm ponds usually become abundant in fish, and are usually good
waters for swimming and boating.
Biotic Zones of a Pond

Examples of ponds
 Characteristics of Pond ecosystem
1. Still Water:
Pond ecosystems are lentic ecosystem (eg. Involve
stagnant or standing water.)
2. Surrounded by banks:

3. Wet:
4. Different levels:
5. Variable in size

Biotic Zones of a Pond

 A pond is broken up into 4 zones
1. Littoral Zone
2. Limnetic Zone
3. Profundal Zone
4. Benthic Zone
Rivers and Streams

Rivers and streams are continuously moving bodies of water that carry large amounts of water
from the source, or headwater, to a lake or ocean. The largest rivers include the Nile River in
Africa, the Amazon River in South America, and the Mississippi River in North America.

Abiotic features of rivers and streams vary along the length of the river or stream. Streams begin
at a point of origin referred to as source water. The source water is usually cold, low in nutrients,
and clear. The channel (the width of the river or stream) is narrower than at any other place along
the length of the river or stream. Because of this, the current is often faster here than at any other
point of the river or stream.

The fast-moving water results in minimal silt accumulation at the bottom of

the river or stream, therefore the water is clear. Photosynthesis here is mostly
attributed to algae that are growing on rocks; the swift current inhibits the
growth of phytoplankton. An additional input of energy can come from
leaves or other organic material that falls into the river or stream from trees
and other plants that border the water. When the leaves decompose, the
organic material and nutrients in the leaves are returned to the water. Plants
and animals have adapted to this fast-moving water. For instance, leeches
(phylum Annelida) have elongated bodies and suckers on both ends. These
suckers attach to the substrate, keeping the leech anchored in place.
Freshwater trout species (phylum Chordata) are an important predator in
these fast-moving rivers and streams.

RIVER
A river is a large, flowing waterway. Rivers primarily carry freshwater, which is why people
throughout history have made their homes by them. From the Nile River in northern Africa
to the Thames flowing through London, rivers have provided people with drinking water,
water for crops and easy ways to transport people and goods.

The Loboc River in Bohol, Philippines

How Rivers Begin

Rivers begin as humble trickles of water from lakes and springs or from melting snow and
glaciers. Since they start in higher elevations, rivers can't help but travel downhill, taking in
additional streams called tributaries along the way. The Amazon River, one of the longest
in the world at over 6,259 kilometers (3,903 miles), is fed by over 1,000 tributaries.
Thanks to gravity, rivers grow in size and speed as they flow downhill. A current is the rate
and strength of a river's movement. Rivers, of course, move more than just water. They also
carry silt and other bits of earth called sediment. Along with a river's water, sediment
shapes the land in its path. For millions and millions of years, the Colorado River has slowly
shaped a section of the Rocky Mountains into a steep V-shaped valley called the Grand
Canyon.
Humans build dams across rivers to store water in human-made lakes called reservoirs.
Since reservoirs usually hold fresh water, that water can be put to farming and household
use. There are a few bigger dams, including the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, where
the power of the water current is used to create electricity.
Where Do Rivers Go?
Rivers continue their journey out of the mountains onto more gently-sloping land. Because
this terrain is more easily eroded, rivers are able to carve out curved shapes
called meanders. Sometimes a meander will be cut off from the rest of the river by
sediment, creating a body of water referred to as an oxbow lake.

List of rivers in the Philippines

Luzon

 Abra River
 Abulog River
 Agno River
 Angat River
 Apayao River
 Balili River
 Bay River
 Bicol River
o Libmanan River
o Naga River
o Yabu River
o Mangayawan River
 Bued River
 Cabuyao River
 Cagayan River
o Chico River
o Ilagan River
o Magat River
o Pinacanauan River
o Siffu River
o Mallig River
o Calao River
o Diadi River
o Baligatan River
 Calumpang River (Batangas)
 Ifugao River
 Lawaye River
 Mangangate River
 Marikina River (Metro Manila)
 Morong River
 Padsan River
 Pagsanjan River (Laguna)
 Pampanga River
 Pangil River (Laguna)
 Pansipit River
 Parañaque River
 Pasig River (Metro Manila)
o San Juan River
o Taguig River (Metro Manila)
 San Juan River
 San Cristobal River (Laguna)
 Santa Cruz River
 Sapang Baho River
 Siniloan River
 Tarlac River
 Tullahan River
 Tunasan River
 Umiray River
 Zapote River
 Malabon - Navotas River
 Navotas River

Visayas

 Abatan River, Bohol

 Aklan River, Panay
 Banica River, Negros Island
 Bojo River, Cebu
 Butuanon River, Cebu
 Catarman River, Northern Samar
 Catubig River, Northern Samar
 Hilabangan River
 Iloilo River, Panay
 Inabanga River, Bohol
 Jalaur River, Panay
 Kamputhaw River, Cebu
 Loboc River, Bohol
 Matutinao River, Cebu
 Pambujan River, Northern Samar
 Panay River, Panay
 Silmugi River
 Subangdaku River
 Ulot River
Mindanao

 Agusan River
o Sibagat River
o Wawa River
o Umayam River
 Buayan River
 Cagayan River (Mindanao)
o Bubunaoan River
o Kalawaig River
o Tagite River
 Davao River
o Salug River
 Guagua River
 Malungon River
 Mandulog River (Iligan City)
 Rio Grande de Mindanao
o Libungan River
o Pulangi River
 Bobonawan River
 Tigwa River
 Manupali River
 Muleta River
 Sawaga River
o Maradugao River
o Kabacan River
o Buluan River
o Allah River
 Tagum River
 Libuganon River
 Tagoloan River
o Initao River (Initao, Mis. Or.)
o Talabaan River (Naawan, Mis. Or)
o Manticao River (Manticao, Mis. Or.)

Longest rivers in the Philippines

Streams
A stream is a body of water with surface water flowing within the bed and banks of
a channel. The stream encompasses surface and groundwater fluxes that respond to
geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls.
Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety
of local or regional names. Long large streams are usually called rivers.
Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge,
and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity
of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction,
streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in
conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general is known
as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography.
Date Taken: 1997 Place Taken: Laguna

Stream Types
Stream channels can be straight or curved, deep and slow, or rapid and choked with coarse
sediments. The cycle of erosion has some influence on the nature of a stream, but there are
several other factors that are important.

Youthful streams that are actively down-cutting their channels tend to be relatively straight and
are typically ungraded (meaning that rapids and falls are common). As shown in Figures 13.1
and 13.18, youthful streams commonly have a step-pool morphology, meaning that the stream
consists of a series of pools connected by rapids and waterfalls. They also have steep gradients
and steep and narrow V-shaped valleys — in some cases steep enough to be called canyons.
Figure 13.18 The Cascade Falls area of the Kettle River, near Christina Lake, B.C. This
stream has a step-pool morphology and a deep bedrock channel. [SE]

In mountainous terrain, such as that in western Alberta and B.C., steep

youthful streams typically flow into wide and relatively low-gradient U-
shaped glaciated valleys. The youthful streams have high sediment loads,
and when they flow into the lower-gradient glacial valleys where the
velocity isn’t high enough to carry all of the sediment, braided patterns
develop, characterized by a series of narrow channels separated by gravel
bars (Figure 13.19).

Figure 13.19 The braided channel of the Kicking Horse River at Field, B.C. [SE]

Braided streams can develop anywhere there is more sediment than a

stream is able to transport. One such environment is in volcanic regions,
where explosive eruptions produce large amounts of unconsolidated
material that gets washed into streams. The Coldwater River next to Mt. St.
Helens in Washington State is a good example of this (Figure 13.20).

Figure 13.20 The braided Coldwater River, Mt. St. Helens, Washington. [SE]

A stream that occupies a wide, flat flood plain with a low gradient typically
carries only sand-sized and finer sediments and develops a sinuous flow
pattern. As you saw in Figure 13.14, when a stream flows around a corner,
the water on the outside has farther to go and tends to flow faster. This
leads to erosion of the banks on the outside of the curve, deposition on the
inside, and formation of a point bar (Figure 13.21). Over time, the sinuosity
of the stream becomes increasingly exaggerated, and the channel migrates
around within its flood plain, forming a meandering pattern.

Figure 13.21 The meandering channel of the Bonnell Creek, Nanoose, B.C. The stream
is flowing toward the viewer. The sand and gravel point bar must have formed when
the creek was higher and the flow faster than it was when the photo was taken. [SE]
A well-developed meandering river is shown in Figure 13.22. The meander in
the middle of the photo has reached the point where the thin neck of land
between two parts of the channel is about to be eroded through. When this
happens, another oxbow lake will form like the others in the photo.

Figure 13.22 The meandering channel of the Nowitna River, Alaska. Numerous oxbow
lakes are present and another meander cutoff will soon take place. [Oliver Kumis,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nowitna_river.jpg]

Brook
A stream smaller than a creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep. It is usually
small and easily forded. A brook is characterised by its shallowness.

Creek

 In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States, a (narrow) stream that is

smaller than a river; a minor tributary of a river; brook. [11] Sometimes navigable by
motor craft and may be intermittent.
 In parts of Maryland, New England,[12] the UK and India, a tidal inlet, typically in a salt
marsh or mangrove swamp, or between enclosed and drained former
salt marshes or swamps (e.g. Port Creek separating Portsea Island from the
mainland). In these cases, the stream is the tidal stream, the course of
the seawater through the creek channel at low and high tide.

A tidal creek, tidal channel, or estuary is the portion of a stream that is affected by

ebb and flow of ocean tides, in the case that the subject stream discharges to an
ocean, sea or strait. Thus this portion of the stream has
variable salinity and electrical conductivity over the tidal cycle, and flushes salts from
inland soils. Tidal creeks are characterized by slow water velocity resulting in
buildup of fine, organic sediment in wetlands. Creeks may often dry to a muddy
channel with little or no flow at low tide, but with significant depth of water at high
tide. Due to the temporal variability of water quality parameters within the tidally
 influenced zone, there are unique biota associated with tidal creeks which are often
specialised to such zones. Nutrients and organic matter are delivered downstream
to habitats normally lacking these, while the creeks also provide access to inland
habitat for salt-water organisms.

a creek is a small river or a rivulet. Creeks have all the

characteristics that rivers possess with a few differences between
the two. A slender channel flanked by islands may also be called a
creek. A creek does not usually drift out into a new channel or form
a new branch or even have tributaries. A river, on the other hand, is
more likely to branch out into different or multiple routes. In addition,
it is also more likely to have tributaries that connect. Since a creek
can flow under the surface of the earth, it possible for the sea to be
the origin of a rivulet. A river is more likely to have its origins from a
place with a high altitude which equates to rivers mostly having
fresh water.

A rocky creek in Spearfish Canyon, South Dakota, US.

WETLANDS

Wetlands are environments in which the soil is either permanently or

periodically saturated with water. Wetlands are different from lakes because
wetlands are shallow bodies of water that may periodically dry out.
Emergent vegetation consists of wetland plants that are rooted in the soil
but have portions of leaves, stems, and flowers extending above the water’s
surface. There are several types of wetlands including marshes, swamps,
bogs, mudflats, and salt marshes (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Located in southern Florida, Everglades National Park is vast array of

wetland environments, including sawgrass marshes, cypress swamps, and estuarine
mangrove forests. Here, a great egret walks among cypress trees. (credit: NPS)

wetlands
are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor
determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and
animal communities living in the soil and on its surface.

They are characterized by having hydric soils (soil that has been wet
long enough to have oxidized reactions)

Primary Functions
 1. providing a habitat for plants and animals that live
primarily in wetland areas.
2. Provide feeding and spawning grounds for fish
3. Provide home for native and migratory wildlife, including
blue herons.
4. Wetland vegetation traps carbon (that would otherwise be
released as carbon dioxide into atmosphere

Types of wetlands
Marshes
 contains non-woody plants, such as cattails
 Tend to occur on low, flat lands and have little water movement
 Home to many migratory birds from temperate and tropical
habitats
 Benthic zones of marshes are nutrient rich and contain plants
such as cattails, numerous decomposers, and scavengers.
 Waterfowl (like grebes, ducks) have flat beaks adapted for sifting
through the water for fish and insects.

 Water birds (like herons) have spear-like beaks that they use to
grasp small fish and to probe for frogs buried in the mud.
 one of the most ecologically significant wetlands in the Philippines.

 During the rainy season, when the water rises to create large lakes, vast number of ducks come
to Agusan Marsh to nest. In the dry months, thousands of birds come from as faraway as Japan,
China and Russia to escape the chilly winter winds of Northern Asia.

 In the very heart of the marsh is a semi-permanent lake where many square kilometres of lily
pads, hyacinths and other hydrophytic plants spread out like an enormous green quilt.

 In the dark tea-colored waters live untold numbers of catfish, carp, soft-shell fresh water turtles,
and crocodiles.
Liguasan Marsh is a marsh in the Mindanao River basin in the southern island of Mindanao, Philippines.
The marsh covers a vast expanse of territory within the Cotabato region and southern mainland
Bangsamoro. It is the second largest marshland in Mindanao.

SWAMPS
A swamp is a wetland that is forested. Swamps are considered to be transition zones
because both land and water play a role in creating this environment. Many swamps occur
along large rivers where they are critically dependent upon natural water level
fluctuations. Other swamps occur on the shores of large lakes.Some swamps
have hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation, or vegetation that
tolerates periodic inundation] or soil saturation. The two main types of swamp are "true"
or swamp forests and "transitional" or shrub swamps. In the boreal regions of Canada, the
word swamp is colloquially used for what is more correctly termed a bog, fen, or muskeg.
The water of a swamp may be fresh water, brackish water or seawater. Some of the world's
largest swamps are found along major rivers such as the Amazon, the Mississippi, and
the Congo.
A freshwater swamp in Florida, the United States of America

Candaba Swamp

Candaba Swamp is located in the municipality of Candaba, Pampanga, 60 km northeast of Manila. The
swamp encompasses about 32,000 ha, composed of freshwater ponds, swamps and marshes
surrounded by seasonally flooded grasslands.
Differences between marshes and swamps

A marsh is a wetland composed mainly of grasses and reeds found near the fringes of lakes
and streams, serving as a transitional area between land and aquatic ecosystems. A
swamp is a wetland composed of trees and shrubs found along large rivers and lake
shores.

Difference between swamp and marsh