Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape

DEPARTMENT OF PLANTING DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE &
DEPARTMENT OF GARDEN AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

FACULTY OF HORTICULTURE AND LANDSCAPE ENGINEERING
SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE IN NITRA
Editors:
Ing. Katarína Rovná, PhD.
Ing. Ján Kollár, PhD.
Rewievers:
prof. Ing. Ján Supuka, DrSc., Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
prof. Ing. Viera Paganová, PhD., Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
prof. Ing. Ľubica Feriancová, PhD., Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
prof. Ing. Anna Jakábová CSc., NGO School – Florea, Prietrž
doc. Ing. arch. Roberta Štěpánková, PhD., Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture,
FHLE, SUA in Nitra
doc. Ing. Ingrid Karandušovská, PhD., Department of building equipment and technology safety,
FE, SUA in Nitra
Ing. Dušan Páleš, PhD., Department of Machine Design, FE, SUA in Nitra
Ing. Denisa Halajová, PhD., Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
Ing. Katarína Rovná, PhD., Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
Ing. Ladislav Bakay, PhD., Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
Ing. Ján Kollár, PhD., Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, FHLE, SUA in Nitra
Ing. Matej Jasenka, PhD., Zelený domov Ltd., Žilina
Ing. Marek Barta, PhD., Arborétum Mlyňany SAS, Vieska nad Žitavou
Ing. Angela Filová, PhD., Arborétum Mlyňany SAS, Vieska nad Žitavou
Ing. Jana Konôpková, PhD., Arborétum Mlyňany SAS, Vieska nad Žitavou
Ing. Peter Ferus, PhD., Arborétum Mlyňany SAS, Vieska nad Žitavou
Mgr. Marek Kobza, PhD., Institute of Forest Ecology, SAS, Zvolen
Acknowledgement
The edition of the proceedings of scientific papers was supported by grant project KEGA 003SPU-4/2017 entitled
“Development and implementation of the standards for urban greenery management“.
Approved by a rector of the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra

as a proceedings of scientific papers on Februar 16, 2018.
ISSN 2585-9811
on-line ISBN 978-80-552-1829-8

print ISBN 978-80-552-1812-0
PLANTS
IN URBAN AREAS AND LANDSCAPE
Contents
Dagmar Grimm-Pretner | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.3-6
Contemporary Issues in Landscape Architecture | The Challenge of Designing Green Infrastructure....................................................3
Attila Tóth, Martina Verešová | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.7-13

Small Sacral Architecture and Trees as Monuments in Diverse Cultural Landscapes of Slovakia...............................................................7
Katarina Kristianova | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.14-18

Strategies for Tourism Enhancement in Danube Towns – Green Infrastructure Approache..................................................................... 14
Ľuboš Moravčík | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.19-24

Precise Digital Model and Finite Element Analysis of a Single Tree.................................................................................................................... 19
Denisa Halajová, Andrea Cuperová | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.25-28

Approaches to the Interpretation of Military History in the Exteriors of Military Museums –
Case Study of the Military History Museum in Svidník............................................................................................................................................ 25
Viera Paganová, Michaela Vyhnáliková | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.29-34

Pruning Urban Trees – Type and Quality According to Arborist Union Standards ...................................................................................... 29
Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Rožeková | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.35-44

The Performance of Understorey Herbaceous Perennials in Low Maintained Urban Parks...................................................................... 35
T.S. Korobkova, S.M. Sabaraikina | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.45-50

Introductional Possibilities of Woody Plants Used For Landscaping in Central Yakutia.............................................................................. 45
Ladislav Bakay, Ján Kollár | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.51-54

The Spread Rate of Cydalima perspectalis (Walker 1859) in Slovakia (2013–2015)........................................................................................ 51
Katarína Rovná, Jana Černá | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.55-58

Recommended Rosa sp. L. Species in the Green Spaces of Nitra City on the Basis of Their Aesthetic Value
and Ecological Requirements........................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Lucia Okšová, Dagmar Hillová,

Marcin Kubus, Ireneusz Ochmian | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.59-63
The Stomatal Response of Ginkgo biloba L. to Water Stress................................................................................................................................... 59
Viera Šajbidorová, Helena Lichtnerová | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.64-68

Water Deficit Impact on Selected Physiological Parameters of the Woody Plant Cornus mas L. ............................................................. 64
Ingvild Austad, Leif Hauge, Liv Norunn Hamre

Wild Plants for Domestic Gardens and Public Parks................................................................................................................................................. 69
Peter Uhrin, Ján Supuka

Adaptability Assessment of Norway Maple (Acer platanoides L.) on Urban Environment of Nitra ......................................................... 70
Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Magdalena Kulig, Magdalena Nawrotek

Visual Assessment of the Probality of Breakage and Fall Over of Selected Trees at Planty Park in Kraków......................................... 71
Monika Czaja, Anna Kołton, Piotr Muras

Condition of Lime Trees Growing in Cracow............................................................................................................................................................... 72
1
PLANTS
2
PLANTS
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

THE CHALLENGE OF DESIGNING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE
Dagmar Grimm-Pretner
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
This paper explores contemporary issues and challenges involved in designing urban open space in growing cities.
The goal is to stimulate discussion about the quality of urban open space by integrating green infrastructure.
Urban development and urban densification have an impact on open space in the city – both quantitatively and
qualitatively. Urban heat islands also influence the quality of open space. It is argued that green infrastructure can
help mitigate these effects on different levels. Site-specific solutions need to be elaborated and should be monitored
to enhance our knowledge of multifunctional open-space design in growing cities.
Keywords: design, green infrastructure, landscape architecture, urban open space
1 Introduction 2 Challenging Issues

for Open Space Design
Urban open spaces are an essential part of the built
environment. Open spaces in general and green spaces 2.1 Urban Development and Densification
in particular contribute to the quality of life in a city
Vienna has been a growing city for several years.
in various ways. For example, they structure the city,
A further population increase is predicted, from the
influence its image and its walkability, and, last but not
current 1.8 million inhabitants to 2 million in 2030
least, they affect the microclimate and the well-being
(MA23, 2014). The increase in population has led to
of the city’s inhabitants.
intensified construction activity all over the city. The
Urban open spaces need to fulfil many different result of this development was – and is – an increase in
functions. Rather than taking a one-dimensional residential areas and inner city densification, and a loss
approach and attributing a single function to a specific of open and unsealed spaces.
site, social, ecological, economic and technical
The increased construction activity is taking place
functions need to be addressed in parallel.
in every district in Vienna, but it entails a variety of
In growing cities multifunctionality gains even different implications for open space.
more importance, the faster and denser cities grow.
Densely built-up city neighbourhoods are characterized
Population growth leads to increased construction
by a lack of green space; the public open spaces are
activity not only to provide houses for the city’s
streets, squares and small parks. In inner-city areas, as
inhabitants but also to create the necessary technical
well as in urban renewal areas, the densification takes
and social infrastructure. This is a significant challenge,
place in the form of upward extensions with further
but at the same time, a major opportunity to incorporate
floors being added to existing buildings, which puts
green infrastructure as a means to enhance the quality
more pressure on the open spaces currently provided.
of life in cities. In light of the social and climatic changes
The question is, how can a qualitative upgrading of
in European cities, landscape architecture has an
public and private open space be achieved? Can new
important role to play in urban development because
types of open space be developed and how should
it is a matter not only of generating more green spaces
they be designed? How can a multiple use of open
but also of creating better green spaces.
space be realized?
Vienna is used as an example to describe some
Residential areas constructed in the period from the
challenging issues that are similar in all expanding
1950s to the 1970s have a better open-space ratio,
European cities.
but very often these open spaces are of poor quality.
* Dagmar Grimm-Pretner, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Institute of Landscape Architecture,
Department of Landscape, Spatial and Infrastructure Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Straße 82, Vienna, Austria
e-mail: [email protected] 3
Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 3–6 |

https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.3-6
PLANTS
Densification takes place by adding new buildings it be better integrated in urban planning and open-
on the sites. The question is, how can this type of space design?
densification lead to upgraded private and public open
spaces and not just to a quantitative reduction in open 2.3 Integrating Green and Blue Infrastructure
space? The overall goal must be to enhance the living The European Commission broadly defines Green
quality of the old and new residents. Infrastructure “as a strategically planned network
Large new housing and business areas are constructed of high quality natural and semi-natural areas with
on sites that have been repurposed and were formerly other environmental features, which is designed and
used, for example, as railway yards, slaughterhouses, or managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services
airfields. In this case, new open spaces are planned and and protect biodiversity in both rural and urban settings”
built. A complete new network of streets, plazas, parks (European Union, 2013). The advantage of green
and gardens can be developed. The main question infrastructure as opposed to grey infrastructure lies in
in these areas is, how can “urbanity” be planned and its multifunctionality and in the fact that it generates
constructed? What role do different types of open human and ecosystem benefits – from environmental,
space play in structuring the new neighbourhood? social, climate change adaptation, and mitigation
How are they interconnected and what are their benefits to biodiversity benefits (European Union,
specific qualities? 2013). Green infrastructure is made up of a wide variety
of “nature-based solutions” that can operate at different
2.2 Urban Heat Islands scales and ideally form an interconnected network.
One of the consequences of ongoing densification The measures may be applied to individual buildings,
and the loss of open and unsealed open space is an sites, and neighbourhoods or to entire regions, and
intensification of the urban heat island. This means the benefits vary in scale accordingly. So called “blue”
that there is a higher temperature within the city than landscape elements are linked to water. They can be
in the surrounding area. This trend is exacerbated rivers, creeks, pools, ponds, artificial water elements,
by global warming. Urban heat islands impact heat- etc. Together they form the green-blue infrastructure
related illnesses and entail a higher cooling demand network. Many of the nature-based solutions apply to
and cost. But they also mean having to cope with more water management or at least have an influence on
damaging storms and storm surges, increased river the water balance. Because green infrastructure has
flooding, and combined sewer overflows that are more the ability to moderate the impacts of heavy rainfall or
frequent and more intense. high temperatures, many municipalities have started
to implement green infrastructure to meet storm water
The trend toward longer and hotter heat waves can be
management goals or to promote local adaptation to
seen very clearly in Vienna. Between 1961 and 1990,
climate change.
the average number of “heatwave days” was 9.6; in the
period from 1981 to 2010, this increased to 15.2 days The slogan “Parks Not Pipes” was created by researchers
per year (ZAMG, 2012). But also within a city there can and students from the University of Arkansas, and it
be significant differences in temperature depending neatly encapsulates why there is a strong link between
on the degree of surface sealing and the existence urban drainage, green infrastructure, and landscape
of green and blue infrastructure. It is now commonly architecture (University of Arkansas, 2006).
accepted that an increase in green (parks, gardens,
avenue trees, etc.) and blue infrastructure (rivers, 3 Designing Green Infrastructure
creeks, ponds, water elements, etc.) and an increase of
Urban densification and the effects of urban heat island
albedo lead to a reduction in urban heat effects (MA22,
have implications for open space on various levels.
2015).
Measures to mitigate the effects of the urban heat
A major strategy in the urban development plan for island are closely connected with measures relating
Vienna, STEP 2025, is to initiate a positive influence to rainwater management. They target infiltration,
on the urban climate by introducing more “green” evaporation, and evapotranspiration.
into the city. The motto is “city-green instead of air-
With regard to the application of Green Stormwater
conditioning.” The concrete possibilities include the
Infrastructure (GSI) in landscape architecture, we can
construction of high-quality open and green spaces,
distinguish three main approaches in design. The first
the greening of roofs and facades, and the planting
approach is “concealment,” which means that rainwater
of trees on streets (MA18, 2015). The value of green
is removed from view as rapidly and unobtrusively
infrastructure is recognized – the question is, how can
4
Grimm-Pretner, D. | Contemporary Issues in Landscape Architecture
Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 3–6
PLANTS
Figure 1: Rain garden at University Campus Technikerstrasse, Innsbruck, Austria

Source: Design by Karl Grimm Landschaftsarchitekten, image © schreinerkastler
as possible and diverted to is a popular design approach in the kindergartens, schools, or sports
underground systems. The second USA that originated as a concept facilities, additionally need to
approach is “integration”: the water for making infiltration in front meet various infrastructural
flow is open but the system and its yards popular, but the term is now requirements. Urban drainage,
components are not highlighted. It applied to any infiltration measure irrigation, or measures for
is an unobtrusive integration of the using specific planting. improving the microclimate must
infrastructure in the overall design In practice, these three design be key considerations from the very
of the site and the everyday use of approaches are combined and beginning of the design process
the open space. The third approach the overall goal is to achieve an so that green infrastructure can
involves “showcasing rainwater.” integrative solution serving social, be successfully implemented. The
The design not only addresses technical, ecological, and economic same applies to residential areas
storm water management but needs. Landscape architecture and business districts.
transforms these systems into merges rainwater management, Furthermore, there is a need
storm water-based amenities. planting design and irrigation to reinterpret open spaces for
Designs create site-specific planning. This means optimizing mobility. Green infrastructure
features and interactions. A major a system of nature-based solutions can be a means to enhance the
consideration when designing for for various functions, incorporating quality of streets and pathways.
rainwater is that open space is used these in a design concept and – Elements to achieve these effects
less when it rains, so showcasing usually – working within a tight are green roofs, green facades and
rainwater should also point out cost frame. trees. Walking and cycling in the
the system in dry weather. The city call for additional qualities in
term “artful rainwater design” was Implementing and designing green
open space. Footpaths and cycling
coined by Stuart Echols and Eliza infrastructure in densely built-up
routes should be considered an
Pennypacker (2015) to describe city districts aims at the multiple
essential part of the urban green
this approach. use of open spaces to cope with
network.
the increasing pressure on the
A planting design approach is few existing open spaces. Classical The newly constructed
a “rain garden.” Swales are planted types of green spaces, like green neighbourhoods present a major
as herbaceous or mixed borders. It spaces at educational institutions, opportunity to create a new
5
PLANTS
network of open spaces, incorporating innovative References

solutions for private and public open spaces, such as
new multifunctional streets or parks. ECHOLS, S. – PENNYPACKER, E. 2015. Artful rainwater
design: Creative ways to manage storm water.
Washington : Island Press, 2015, 284 p.
4 Conclusions
European Union. 2013. Building a Green Infrastructure for
Qualifying green space and designing Europe. Retrieved October 8, 2017, from http://ec.europa.
eu/environment/nature/ecosystems/docs/green_
for multifunctionality
infrastructure_broc.pdf. DOI: 10.2779/54125
Problems in open space are site-specific – therefore MA18: Magistrat der Stadt Wien, Magistratsabteilung 18 –
the solutions should also be site-specific. The more Stadtentwicklung und Stadtteilplanung. 2015. STEP 2025
functions an open space has to take on, the more Fachkonzept: Grün- und Freiraum. Werkstattbericht 144.
complex the analysis of the site needs to be to achieve Retrieved October 10, 2017, from https://www.wien.gv.at/
a specific design solution. stadtentwicklung/studien/pdf/b008394b.pdf
Site-specific designs with “nature-based solutions” MA22: Magistrat der Stadt Wien, Wiener
Umweltschutzabteilung – Magistratsabteilung 22. 2015.
Knowledge of a broad palette of nature-based solutions Urban Heat Islands: Strategieplan Wien. Retrieved October
is the basis for generating a complete open-space 10, 2017, from https://www.wien.gv.at/umweltschutz/
design that integrates social, technical, ecological, and raum/pdf/uhi-strategieplan.pdf
economic needs. The city should be made “readable,” MA23: Magistrat der Stadt Wien, MA23 – Wirtschaft,
and the various functions of green infrastructure are Arbeit und Statistik. 2014. WIEN WÄCHST…:
made visible by design. Bevölkerungsentwicklung in Wien und den 23 Gemeinde-
und 250 Zählbezirken. Statistik Journal Wien 1/2014.
Strengthening and linking research
Retrieved October 10, 2017, from https://www.wien.gv.at/
“Research by design” should be intensified to explore statistik/pdf/wien-waechst.pdf
new types of open and green spaces that incorporate University of Arkansas. 2006. Parks not pipes. March 30,
green infrastructure. For this purpose and with a view 2006. Retrieved October 10, 2017, from https://news.
to establishing multifunctional streets, more research uark.edu/articles/10855/parks-not-pipes-uacdc-plan-for-
is also needed to understand the social dimensions of habitat-housing-wins-national-awards-groundbreaking-
densification of use and multifunctionality. planned
To increase the number of healthy trees in the city, ZAMG Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik.
research on “structural soils” is essential to enhance 2012. Hitzetage werden immer häufiger. August 20, 2012.
the living conditions for street trees and to prolong Retrieved October 10, 2017, from https://www.zamg.ac.at/
cms/de/klima/news/hitzetage-werden-immer-haeufiger
their lifespan. This technical research needs to be
combined with research on plant selection, water nnnnn
balance, and water quality, as well as contributions to
evapotranspiration and the microclimate.
Monitoring realized projects
In a phase of intensified construction many projects
are realized – some of them with innovative technical,
ecological, or social approaches – but hardly any of
them is monitored to check if the goals have been met.
In the process, important information that could help
improve future projects is lost.
Landscape Architecture should not be confined to
planting design but must also take the lead in designing
new urban open spaces.
6
CONTENTS
PLANTS
SMALL SACRAL ARCHITECTURE AND TREES AS MONUMENTS IN DIVERSE

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES OF SLOVAKIA
Attila Tóth*, Martina Verešová
Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic
This paper elaborates on small sacral architecture in cultural landscapes of Slovakia. It provides a definition and
characterisation of small sacral architecture, its origin and history. It highlights trees as complementary natural
monuments of small sacral architecture and elaborates on their species diversity and symbolic meaning. Based on
the state of the art of current research into small sacral architecture in Central Europe, the aim, goals and objectives
of the paper are defined. The main object of research is represented by elements of small sacral architecture with
the occurrence of mature and/or old tree(s). 38 elements of small sacral architecture with 82 trees serve as research
samples collected in 28 different municipalities in 4 self-governing regions throughout Slovakia, from the West to
the East. The most frequent tree species are horse chestnuts (Aesculus hippocastanum L.), small-leaved lindens (Tilia
cordata Mill.) and large-leaved lindens (Tilia platyphyllos Scop.). Trees occur most frequently as groups of 2 trees, as
single trees, as groups of 3 or 4 trees and rather rarely as groups of 5 trees surrounding an element of small sacral
architecture.
Keywords: cultural landscapes, landscape architecture, monuments, small sacral architecture, trees
1 Introduction impressive elements in landscape structures and as

memorials of local history, art and religion, which impact
the perceived landscape. Small sacral architecture
1.1 Small sacral architecture in cultural landscapes
spreads the spiritual message of churches and chapels
Elements of small sacral architecture in the form of into open landscapes, thereby forming a continuous
roadside shrines, crosses, sculptures of saints or chapels spiritual legacy and identity of local cultural landscapes
are integral components of our cultural landscapes (Kopeček et al., 2015).
and can be defined as elements of visual design in
the landscape (Bell, 2005). Schneeweis (1987) refers to
1.2 Origin and history of small sacral architecture
them as Jewels of the Danubian Sacral Landscape. They
have a significant spiritual value (Matáková, 2012) and History of small sacral architecture objects is always
Christian legacy (Kopeček et al., 2015). Burggraaff and anchored in their location (Hájek and Bukačová, 2004)
Kleefeld (1998) classify these field memorials as point and their abundant representation is closely related to
elements in cultural landscapes of religious and cult the rise of the Catholic faith in the period of counter-
character, which are witnesses of our varied and rich reformation (late medieval period) and subsequently
past and distinctive accents in impressive landscape to the jubilee of John Nepomuk in the 18th century
sceneries (Kitlitschka, 1987), where they represent (Liszka, 2007). Small sacral architecture reached its
the traditional rural vernacular architecture and greatest expansion in the Baroque period, when
crafts (Štěpánková and Feriancová, 2011). They are spirituality was an important element of everyday life.
present along old roads, junctions, streets, squares, It was used as an element of spiritual conceptions in
and elevated locations or within reverential green landscape design. Shrines were built along roads in
spaces (Halajová, 2010; Halajová et al., 2016). They agricultural landscapes as prayer and repentance spots
serve as landmarks, as well as places of contemplation in impressive landscape sceneries. They were used as
and memory and symbolise the essence, the human stations for rituals and harvest processions. Crosses and
dimension, and the local and regional identity of sculptures of saints are to be understood as memorials
the landscape. Salašová and Štefunková (2009) manifesting the faith and diligence of our ancestors
characterise small sacral architecture as aesthetically (Löw and Míchal, 2003).
* Attila Tóth*, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánová
7, SK-949 76, Nitra, Slovakia. e-mail: [email protected] 7

PLANTS
1.3 Trees as complementary natural monuments need for a more complex research in several cultural
of small sacral architecture geographical regions of Slovakia, which will take into
Trees, thanks to their longevity and impressive spatial account the architectural and landscape features of
features, have always been perceived, adored and small sacral architecture.
worshipped by people as natural monuments in
cultural landscapes (Lipský, 2015; Rózová et al., 2015). 1.5 Aim, goal and objectives
They have served as natural landmarks and orientation The aim of this paper is to forward research into small
elements in designed landscapes and have become sacral architecture in Slovakia and to contribute to the
important features of historical landscape structures current state of the art from the perspective of landscape
(Supuka et al., 2015). Trees were often planted as architecture. The goal of this paper is to elaborate on
complementary compositional elements next to small the species diversity and compositional characteristics
sacral monuments, where they serve as monumental, of mature and old trees as accompanying elements of
protective, orientation, compositional, landscaping, small sacral architecture. The objectives are:
symbolic, aesthetic and environmental elements 1. to collect random research samples from different
(Matáková, 2011). Typically, small sacral monuments locations/municipalities throughout Slovakia;
are accompanied by a single tree or a group of 2, 3, 4 or
2. to identify the type of small sacral architecture,
5 trees (Assmann, 1979). The most common tree species
where the occurrence of mature and/or old trees has
planted next to elements of small sacral architecture
been documented;
were according to Mareček (2005) lindens (Tilia sp.),
3. to identify the species of tree(s) in a compositional
oaks (Quercus sp.), maples (Acer sp.) and ashes (Fraxinus
unit with an element of small sacral architecture;
sp.). Verešová and Supuka (2012) also identified the
occurrence of fruit trees, such as pears (Pyrus sp.), 4. to define the number of trees in the compositional
mulberries (Morus sp.), cherries and plums (Prunus unit and to characterise their spatial composition
sp.). Gradually, also foreign woody plant species have and organisation in relation to the respective
been incorporated into our environments and in the element of small sacral architecture.
course of time they have become typical elements of
our cultural landscapes – e.g. horse chestnut (Aesculus 2 Material and Methods
hippocastanum L.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia
L.), mulberry (Morus sp.), lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) or box The object of research is represented by elements of
tree (Buxus sempervirens L.). Horse chestnut, for instance, small sacral architecture along roads in built-up and
was introduced to Central European landscapes in the open-landscapes, with the occurrence of mature and/
baroque period as one of the first exotic species (Löw or old tree(s). The research samples – 38 elements of
and Míchal, 2003). This might explain its frequent small sacral architecture with 82 trees in total – have
occurrence at elements of small sacral architecture as been collected in 28 municipalities located in
identified by Tóth (2016, 2017). 4 different self-governing regions of Slovakia – Nitra,
Prešov, Banská Bystrica and Košice.
1.4 State of the art in small sacral architecture Most of the samples have been collected in the Nitra
research in Central Europe Region within institutional research from 2010 to 2017.
An additional sampling has been done by Tóth in 2017,
Small sacral architecture has been extensively studied during a circular study tour from Western to Eastern,
for decades in Austria (Schneeweis, 1987; Burggraaff through Southern and Northern Slovakia, in the Banská
and Kleefeld, 1998; Kitlitschka, 1987; Assmann, 1979). Bystrica, Košice and Prešov Regions.
In the Czech Republic, there have been several studies
on small sacral architecture, especially regarding their For each sample, the location (municipality and region),
importance in landscape monument zones (Kuča, 2015) the typology of small sacral architecture and the tree
as physical manifestations of Christian liturgy (Kopeček species were identified as key characteristics.
et al., 2015). In Slovakia, the current state of the art is
geographically limited. Matáková (2011) mapped and 3 Results and Discussion
comprehensively evaluated elements of small sacral
architecture in the area of Horná Nitra. Liszka (2007) The field research has revealed that the most frequently
conducted a complex survey in southern Slovakia, occurring tree species at elements of small sacral
while the Dolné Považie Region has been partially architecture in Nitra Region (Western Slovakia) is horse
mapped by Tóth (2016, 2017). However, there is the chestnut – Aesculus hippocastanum L. (13 documented
8
Tóth, A. – Verešová, M. | Small Sacral Architecture and Trees as Monuments in Diverse Cultural Landscapes of Slovakia
PLANTS
Figure 1: Examples of small sacral architecture with one mature and/or old trees
Source: Photos by Tóth
Description: (left) a roadside cross in Tvrdošovce (Western Slovakia) with 1 horse chestnut; (middle) a roadside cross in Spišské Podhradie
with 1 small-leaved linden; (right) a roadside cross in Osturňa (Eastern Slovakia) with 1 European ash
Figure 2: Examples of small sacral architecture with two mature and/or old trees
Source: Photos by Tóth (left and right) and Supuka (middle)
Description: (left) a roadside cross in Mojzesovo (Western Slovakia) with 2 horse chestnuts; (middle) a roadside shrine in Čajkov (Western
Slovakia) with 2 horse chestnuts; (right) a roadside chapel in Ždiar (Eastern Slovakia) with 2 small-leaved lindens
objects / 27 trees in total). In Banská Bystrica, Košice and (Bp); Cerasus avium (L.) Moench (Ca); Fraxinus excelsior
Prešov Regions (Central and Eastern Slovakia), linden L. (Fe); Juglans regia L. (Jr); Larix decidua Mill. (Ld); Morus
trees – Tilia cordata Mill. (8/17) and Tilia platyphyllos alba L. (Ma); Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd. (Pp) and Robinia
Scop. (7/16) prevail. However, the species diversity pseudoacacia L. (Rp), see Table 1.
turned out to be relatively rich, as we have identified Regarding the compositional characteristics, the most
a wide range of other tree species occurring at objects frequently occurring number of trees at an element of
of small sacral architecture, such as Acer platanoides L. small sacral architecture is 2 (19 out of 38 documented
(Apl); Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Aps); Betula pendula Roth elements, 50.00 per cent), followed by 1 (10; 26.32 per
9
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Table 1 Tree species observed at elements of small sacral architecture in different municipalities, from Western to Eastern
Slovakia
Region Municipality SSA Ah Apl Aps Bp Ca Fe Jr Ld Ma Pp Rp Tc Tp
cr 1 1
sh 1 1
Čajkov
sh 2
sh 3
Dolné Obdokovce cr 1
Mojzesovo cr 2
Nitrianske
sc 1
Hrnčiarovce
Nové Zámky cr 2
cr 3
Nitra (NR) Palárikovo cr 4
cr 2
Pohranice sc 3
Rastislavice cr 1
cr 1
Rybník
sh 1 1
Selice cr 1
cr 1
Tvrdošovce cr 1
sh 5
Žitavce cr 2
Čierny Balog cr 3
Lúčky cr 2
Banská Bystrica (BB)
Polomka cr 1
Vaľkovňa cr 4
Košice (KE) Harichovce cr 2
Bertotovce sh 5
Lenartov cr 2
Mokroluh cr 2
Nemešany cr 2
Nižné Ružbachy cr 2
Osturňa cr 1
Prešov (PO) Spišská Belá sh 1 3
Spišské Podhradie cr 1
Široké cr 1 1
Toporec cr 2
ch 2
Ždiar cr 2
cr 2
Total number of trees 27 1 2 1 2 2 2 4 1 1 1 20 18
Frequency 13 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 9 8
Source: authors’ field research (2010 – 2017)
SSA type: cross (cr); chapel (ch), sculpture of a saint (sc), shrine (sh); Species: Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Ah); Acer platanoides L. (Apl);
Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Aps); Betula pendula Roth (Bp); Cerasus avium (L.) Moench (Ca); Fraxinus excelsior L. (Fe); Juglans regia L. (Jr);
Larix decidua Mill. (Ld); Morus alba L. (Ma); Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd. (Pp); Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Rp); Tilia cordata Mill. (Tc); Tilia
platyphyllos Scop. (Tp).
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Figure 3: Examples of small sacral architecture with three mature and/or old trees
Description: (left, middle-left) a roadside cross in Palárikovo (Western Slovakia) with 3 horse chestnuts; (middle-right) a cross in
Pohranice (Western Slovakia) with 3 horse chestnuts; (right) a cross in Čierny Balog (Central Slovakia) with 3 large-leaved lindens
Figure 4: Examples of small sacral architecture with four mature and/or old trees
Description: (left) a roadside shrine in Spišská Belá (Eastern Slovakia) with 3 small-leaved lindens and a Norway maple; (right)
a roadside cross in Vaľkovňa (Central Slovakia) surrounded by 4 large-leaved lindens
cent), 3 (4; 10.53 per cent), 4 (3; 7.89 per cent) and 5 (2; Our research has confirmed the frequent occurrence
5.26 per cent). Thus, 2 and 1 are the most frequently of horse chestnuts (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) at
occurring numbers of trees, while 4 and 5 are rather rare. elements of small sacral architecture in Western
We have documented a roadside cross in Palárikovo Slovakia as documented by Tóth and Feriancová (2015)
(Western Slovakia) surrounded by 4 horse chestnuts, and the occurrence of a wide range of other tree species
a cross in Vaľkovňa (Central Slovakia) surrounded by 4 as indicated by Mareček (2005). The most frequent
large-leaved lindens, a shrine in Spišská Belá (Eastern occurrence of large-leaved lindens (Tilia platyphyllos
Slovakia) surrounded by 3 small-leaved lindens and 1 Scop.) and small-leaved lindens (Tilia cordata Mill.)
Norway maple (see Figure 4), a shrine surrounded by recorded by Kleinová (2017) in Spiš Region (part of
5 horse chestnuts in Tvrdošovce (Western Slovakia) Prešov Region) has also been confirmed by this study, as
and a shrine surrounded by 5 small-leaved lindens in we have identified these two species as the prevailing
Bertotovce (Eastern Slovakia), see Table 1 and Figure 5. species in Eastern Slovakia.
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Figure 5: Examples of small sacral architecture with five mature and/or old trees
Description: (left) a shrine in Tvrdošovce (Western Slovakia) surrounded by 5 horse chestnuts; (right) a roadside shrine in Bertotovce
(Eastern Slovakia) surrounded by 5 small-leaved lindens
4 Conclusions Acknowledgements
The presented research has contributed to the state of This paper was elaborated as an outcome of the research
the art in small sacral architecture in cultural landscapes projects VEGA 1/0371/18 and 07-GA SPU-17 and
by new knowledge of species diversity and spatial educational projects KEGA 008SPU-4/2016 and KEGA
composition of 82 mature and/or old trees growing 001SPU-4/2017 funded by the Ministry of Education,
next to 38 elements of small sacral architecture in 28 Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic and
municipalities from the West to the East of Slovakia. the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra.
It has been found out that horse chestnuts (Aesculus
hippocastanum L.), small-leaved lindens (Tilia cordata References
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KLEINOVÁ, M. 2017. Drobná sakrálna architektúra SUPUKA, J. – PEJCHAL, M. – KUCZMAN, G. 2015. Tree
v kultúrnej krajine Spiša. Nitra : SUA, 2017, 127 p. Heritage in Cultural Landscape and Dendrological Objects.
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CONTENTS
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STRATEGIES FOR TOURISM ENHANCEMENT IN DANUBE TOWNS –

GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE APPROACHE
Katarina Kristianova
Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
DANUrB, the Interreg Danube Transnational Programme project, aims to explore the unused and hidden cultural
and natural heritage resources to enhance sustainable tourism in the settlements along the Danube. Within the
framework of this project we have examined the green infrastructure of the selected pilot city Štúrovo and its
potential to contribute to the offer of thematic tourist routes and to the creation of the common tourism destination
brand of the Danube settlements that can increase the number of visitors and can prolong their stay in the region.
We have developed a set of criteria for the evaluation of green spaces for their selection and inclusion into the
thematic location-based audio tours offered by a mobile application. Sites for local interventions as pilot actions
or for further planning activities have been selected and landscape design proposals for these sites have been
conducted by students. The research points out the prominence of green infrastructure in the development of
strategies for tourism enhancement.
Keywords: cultural heritage, green infrastructure, natural heritage, sustainable tourism
1 Introduction like Central Park in New York City are major tourist
attractions in their own right (Konijnendijk, Annerstedt,
Successful sustainable tourism strategies and Busse Nielsen, Maruthaveeran, 2013). Greenways of
planning initiatives require the ability to predict new high recreational, visual and historical value also tend
key emerging developments and shifts (Moutinho, to attract tourists (Fábos, 1995). Some green spaces are
Ballantyne and Rate, 2011). As Moutinho et al. (2011) integral with the tourist visit points, for example linked
point out, the world`s economic and social climate is with cultural heritage, while others are more or less
generally predicted to produce a strong increase in incidental to the overall tourism experience. As noted by
tourism. New markets will emerge due to changing Kádár (2013) the spatial patterns of tourist space usage
economic conditions, modified consumer behaviour in cities depend mostly on their urban morphologies.
and new technologies. For example, there will be The survey by Terkenli, Bell, Živojinović, Tomićević-
increasing proportion of senior citizens, greater Dubljević, Panagopoulos, Straupe, Toskovic,
emphasis on individual and self-determined holidays Kristianova, Straigyte and O’Brien (2017) tested
and on educational and active recreational pursuits. tourists’ uses and intentions to use urban green
Increasing environmental awareness will affect infrastructure in their plans to visit a specific city. The
planning policies and tourist demand. Cultural and results of the survey show that tourists understand
natural heritage are two main resources of tourism and the term green infrastructure mainly as parks and
as noted by Moutinho et al. (2011), nature, they will perceive urban green infrastructure in a city to be
become more scarce and fragile. visited as important – more than two-thirds of the
Several authors mention that green spaces can play respondents considering it somewhat important, and
an important role in attracting tourists to urban 7% very important. Parks are the main type of green
areas by enhancing the attractiveness of a city and as infrastructure tourists intend to visit and the most
a complement to other urban attractions (Majumdar, usual activities of use are walking, photographing,
Deng, Zhang and Pierskalla, 2011). Aesthetic, historical picknicking.
and recreational values of urban parks increase the Within the framework of the Interreg Danube
attractiveness of a city and are used to promote it as Transnational Programme project DANUrB, which aims
a tourist destination thus generating employment and to explore the strategies for tourism enhancement in
revenues (Chiesura, 2004). Especially high profile parks Danube towns, we have examined the potential of
* Katarina Kristianova, Slovak University of Technology, Institute of Urban Design and Planning, Centre for
Landscape Architecture, Námestie slobody 19, Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected]
14
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green infrastructure in the selected pilot city Štúrovo 3 Results and Discussion
to contribute to the offer of thematic tourist routes and
tourism enhancement. 3.1 Green infrastructure of Štúrovo
The city of Štúrovo is situated in the south-eastern
2 Material and Methods tip of the left bank of the Danubian lowland, on the
DANUrB, the Interreg Danube Transnational Programme boundary breaks of the Ipeľ and Hron loess tables. The
project, aims to explore the unused and hidden cultural area belongs to the warmest part of Slovakia, where
and natural heritage resources to enhance sustainable the rivers Danube, Hron, Ipeľ and Burda – Kováčovské
tourism in the settlements along the Danube and to hills with their Mediterranean flora together with the
create a common tourism destination brand of the open plains constitute its unique natural, economic
Danube settlements that can increase the number of and tourism character. In the summer months, the city
visitors and can prolong their stay in the region. is visited by tourists seeking relaxation, entertainment
and water sports, as it has natural resources of thermal
We have examined the green infrastructure of the water, which is used for recreational purposes in the
selected pilot city Štúrovo and evaluated its green thermal spa Vadaš.
spaces according to a set of criteria for the selection
and inclusion into the thematic location-based audio Green infrastructure of the settlement is represented
tours offered by the mobile application. by green natural areas in the inundation territory of
Danube, recreational green spaces and recreational
The green spaces for inclusion to the tour have to areas – for example recreation site of the thermal spa
meet at least one out of five selection criteria – 1 green Vadaš, with an area of 36 hectares, the areas of sport
infrastructure of outstanding natural heritage value, and relax on the banks of the Danube and public green
2 green infrastructure of outstanding cultural heritage spaces – parks and green spaces of housing estates.
value, 3 green infrastructure linked with built cultural Important components of green infrastructure are
heritage, 4 green infrastructure linked with intangible also cemeteries, allotment gardens and gardens of
cultural heritage, 5 green spaces with outstanding individual family housing.
relaxation and sport functions.
The extra-urban landscape around the city of Štúrovo
For identification of green spaces and their can be characterized as a territory with an extensive
categorization we have used current and historical map representation of agricultural area and with a minimal
sources, historical literary and visual sources, current representation of forest areas. The most important area
urban planning documents – strategic development in the green infrastructure system appears to be the
plans and master plans and we have conducted on-site complex line of riparian forests along the rivers Danube
field surveys. and Hron. The importance of these green spaces lays
We have implemented the approach of “education primarily in their spatial and ecosystem services
by research” – we have combined the research functions. Along the field roads and field boundaries
activities with the educational aims of an urban there are strips of linear greenery. In addition to their
design studio at the Faculty of Architecture, Slovak spatial and aesthetic functions, they fulfil the function
University of Technology (Kristiánová and Joklová, of wind-break and prevent wind erosion. In the territory
2017). The “research by design” method was applied there are many allotment and cottage gardens.
in the last step, to test different design solutions In intra-urban landscape of the settlement the most
based on interpretation and evaluation of research important components of green infrastructure are
outcomes. Erasmus+ programme students at public green spaces, generally freely accessible. These
the Faculty of Architecture, Slovak University of are the areas of parks, smaller designed green spaces,
Technology in Bratislava have elaborated landscape tree alleys along streets and public green areas in
design proposals for the selected sites – sites for local housing estates. As noted by Tóth, Štěpánková and
interventions as pilot actions and for further planning Feriancová (2016), parks in rural settlements and small
activities. As noted by Bašová (2016), impulses of town centers represent the local landscape character.
cultural, urban and social character expressed in In Štúrovo to this type of parks and smaller park
city-forming, architectural and design elements are areas belong: the park at the Freedom Square, the
necessary for the current transformations of public green space on the Main Street, the park green area
spaces, for satisfaction, vitality and opportunities for at the Square of St. Imre and the park area in front of
joyful activities and meetings in squares, parks and the policlinic and Smurfit Kappa Štúrovo. Tree alleys
river promenades.
15
Kristianova, K. | Strategies for Tourism Enhancement in Danube Towns – Green Infrastructure Approache
PLANTS
and line greenery are located on Jesenského Street, The following green spaces in Štúrovo have been
at the bay promenade and on the Road to God Hill, selected for inclusion to the tours:
Sobieskeho Street, Bocskaiho Street, on the Main Street green natural areas in the inundation territory of the
and Komenského street. The green spaces of socialist Danube, meeting the criterion 1 green infrastructure
housing estates represent a quality of original urban of outstanding natural heritage value,
concepts (Kristianova, 2016; Vitkova and Gorner, 2016), recreational green spaces and recreational areas
but they also are subject of degradation and urban of the thermal spa Vadaš, meeting the criterion 5
densification (Vitkova, 2014). green spaces with outstanding relaxation and sport
Green infrastructure is also represented by semi-public functions,
green areas of school and health facilities, cultural and green space of the Main Street with plane trees,
administrative facilities, and retail facilities, in particular meeting the criterion 3 green infrastructure linked
small family shops. The important proportion of with built cultural heritage,
greenery in Štúrovo represent private gardens of the Memorial Park with a monument on the Freedom
individual family housing with ornamental plants in Square, meeting the criterion 4 green infrastructure
front gardens. linked with intangible cultural heritage,
As noted by Halajova, Halaj, Feriancova and Supuka small park on the Square of St. Emeric with the
(2013), greenery of cemeteries often creates church of St. Imre, meeting the criterion 3 green
a substantial part of public greenery in Slovak towns. infrastructure linked with built cultural heritage
Green cemeteries are special elements of urban and the criterion 4 green infrastructure linked with
landscapes, with a strong cultural heritage importance. intangible cultural heritage,
In Štúrovo, there are three sites where it is possible small park on the Street of Jan Sobieski with a statue,
to identify greenery typical for these pious places. meeting the criterion 4 green infrastructure linked
The Old Civil Cemetery with developed high trees is with intangible cultural heritage,
located on the corner of the Near Cemetery Street and Military Cemetery – the graveyard of fallen members
St. Stephen‘s Street. In its vicinity there are two smaller of the Red Army in the Second World War, meeting
cemeteries – the Jewish Cemetery and the Military the criterion 2 green infrastructure of outstanding
Cemetery – the graveyard of fallen members of the cultural heritage value and the criterion 4 green
Red Army in the Second World War, which is registered infrastructure linked with intangible cultural
in the Central List of Cultural Monuments. The new heritage,
cemetery is at Novocintorínska Street. Old Civil Cemetery, meeting the criterion 2 green
The Military cemetery, the Old Civil Cemetery, the infrastructure of outstanding cultural heritage value
Jewish Cemetery, the Memorial Park with a monument and the criterion 4 green infrastructure linked with
on the Freedom Square, the Park of Piece near intangible cultural heritage,
policlinic, and protected trees – horse chestnut trees on Jewish Cemetery, meeting the criterion 2 green
Predmostie Street, plane trees on the Main Street and infrastructure of outstanding cultural heritage value
the yew tree in the courtyard of Komenského Street are and the criterion 4 green infrastructure linked with
listed in the List of Local Heritage Sights. intangible cultural heritage.
3.2 Evaluation of green infrastructure for inclusion 3.3 Design solutions based on interpretation
to the tourist tours of research outcomes
The green spaces identified in Štúrovo have been Erasmus+ programme students at the Faculty of
evaluated against the selection criteria for inclusion to Architecture, Slovak University of Technology in
the tourist tours. Only those green spaces have been Bratislava have participated in the research and
proposed for inclusion to the thematic location-based conducted on-site field surveys. In the final stage
audio tours offered by the mobile application which they have elaborated design solutions based on
met at least one out of the five selection criteria – interpretation of the research outcomes. They have
1 green infrastructure of outstanding natural heritage elaborated urban and landscape design proposals for
value, 2 green infrastructure of outstanding cultural the main sites of interest and urban and landscape
heritage value, 3 green infrastructure linked with design proposals for development of pedestrian
built cultural heritage, 4 green infrastructure linked tourist routs and cycling paths in Štúrovo, connecting
with intangible cultural heritage, 5 green spaces with attractions for tourists.
outstanding relaxation and sport functions.
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Figure 1: Example of student work – Plan for the Štúrovo riverbank program for tourism enhancement by Erasmus+
students Florence Tiberghien, Noa Schumacher, Camille Clap, 2017, supervisor Katarina Kristianova
Source: Archive of Institute of Urban Design and Planning, Centre for Landscape Architecture
Figure 2: Example of student work – Landscape design proposal for the Štúrovo riverbank by Erasmus+ students
Florence Tiberghien, Camille Clap, 2017, supervisor Katarina Kristianova
Source: Archive of Institute of Urban Design and Planning, Centre for Landscape Architecture
17
PLANTS
The urban and landscape design proposals elaborated KONIJNENDIJK, CC. – ANNERSTEDT, M. – BUSSE NIELSEN,
by students can serve as an inspiration source for the A. – MARUTHAVEERAN, S. 2013. Benefits of urban parks
municipality of Štúrovo to select the sites for local a systematic review. In International. International
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activities. These impulses are needed to initiate current Copenhagen/Alnarp, 2013, pp. 1–70.
cultural, urban and social transformations of public KRISTIANOVA, K. 2016. Post-Socialist Transformations
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Estates in Slovakia. In Drusa, M. – Yilmaz, I. – Marschalko,
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vol. 68, 2004, no. 1, pp. 129–138. DOI:10.1016/j. necessity of city development in Slovakia. SGEM 2014
landurbplan.2003.08.003 Geoconference on Nano, Bio and Green – Technologies
FÁBOS, JG. 1995. Introduction and overview: the greenway for a Sustainable Future, vol. 2, Book Series: International
movement, uses and potentials of greenways. In Landscape Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference-SGEM, 2014,
and Urban Planning, vol. 33, 1995, no. 1, pp. 1–13. pp. 527–534.
HALAJOVA, D. – HALAJ, P. – FERIANCOVA, L. – SUPUKA, VITKOVA, L. – GORNER, K. 2016. The strength and
J. 2013. Analysis of greenery in territories of Nitra town. degradation of mass housing concepts in Slovakia. SGEM
SGEM 2013 Geoconference on Nano, Bio and Green – 2016, BK 4: Arts, Performing Arts, Architecture and Design
Technologies for a Sustainable Future Book Series: Conference Proceedings, vol. 2, Book Series: International
International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference- Multidisciplinary Scientific Conferences on Social Sciences
SGEM, 2013, pp. 563–570. and Arts, 2016, pp. 797–804.
KÁDÁR, B. 2013. Differences in the spatial patterns of
urban tourism in Vienna and Prague. In Urbani izziv, vol. nnnnn
24, 2013, no. 2, pp. 96–111.
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CONTENTS
PLANTS
PRECISE DIGITAL MODEL AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

OF A SINGLE TREE
Ľuboš Moravčík
The article deals with computer modelling and structural analysis of a single tree. Terrestrial laser scanning was used
for the acquisition of a precise point model of the Ginkgo biloba tree. In the phase of graphical post-processing,
a registered and purged point cloud model was converted into a 3D-CAD model where all needed material
characteristics were assigned to the trunk and branches under consideration. Additionally, the final computational
model operating on the base of the Finite element Analysis (FEA) was completed. The final model of the tree was
evaluated in the FAE software, whereby selected elements of the trunks were exposed to external load and the
results of strength assessment were evaluated .
Keywords: digital tree model, Finite Element Analysis, terrestrial laser scanning
1 Introduction ScanStation P20 is 8“, what respond to the point

resolution of 3 mm@50 m).
The arborists are expected to evaluate a tree failure TLS produces a big volume of data in the form of point
probability, but there is a lack of well-founded methods clouds; therefore, it is very important to simplify the
to take a good decision (Bond, Sankowich and Luley, primary point model for the purpose of structural
2013). The correct method to determine a structural analysis.
resistance of a tree or its part is the structural analysis,
Point model simplification involves some post
involving a computational model building, defining
processing operations like cleaning it from digital noise,
a load actuating on the tree structure, and material
whereas all important points representing trunks and
properties of a trunk and branches.
primary branches will be preserved.
In the EU countries and USA, there are several methods
in practice for determining and verification of the 2 Material and Methods
functional safety of trees based on various principles
(Bond, 2012). There are methods operated with the The specified original workflow from the Laser
visual inspection only (Matheck, Bethge and West, scanning → CAD/FEM model building → Structural
1994), however, some methods are based on usage analysis have been applied to a Ginkgo biloba tree
of equipment technology (Pernek, Lackovič, Mačak, located in the city park of Nitra, Slovakia. The tree under
Hadžiomerovič and Stamenkovič, 2013). Nowadays, consideration aged 55 years has a forked trunk shape.
there are available computer programs for both static The point model was obtained using the terrestrial
and dynamic analysis of the computational models laser scanner Leica ScanStation P20. The whole model
by the means of the finite element method (Shahbazi, (Figure 1) was created using three particular scans
Kaminski and Evans, 2015). located around the tree in the angular spacing of 120°.
When assembling a finite element model of a tree, The scanning resolution was set up in 1.6 mm@10 m,
at first, it is necessary to build a precise geometrical whereby a pure scan duration of 40’39” (3 scans) for
shape. The most suitable approach in case of a very a full dome scan was needed. A primary registered and
complex geometrical structure such as a tree is using cleaned point cloud involving a forked trunk and entire
the terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). Powerful up-to-date leafless crown contained 7,768,106 points. After the
scanners are able to capture up to 1,000,000 points point cloud purging from digital noise, the branches of
per second. TLS is a contactless measuring method the second and higher order were removed, whereby
characterized by a high precision on a relatively long the number of points was reduced to 1,276,340 (Figure
distance (e.g. the angular precision of the Scanner 2). The functionality of the post-processing software
* Ľuboš Moravčík, Slovak Agricultural University in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department
of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tulipánova 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] 19

PLANTS
(HDS Cyclone) enables us to convert particular groups Throughout the structural analysis the cross sections of
of points to CAD entities like cylinders, cones, etc. the beams were alternated, whereby the full circle, 25%
(Figure 3). Particular segments of the point cloud and 50% reduction of the cross sectional area into were
involving trunks and branches were converted into taken into account (Figure 6).
cylinders with measured lengths and diameters. The
modelling process was finalized by assigning following
parameters necessary for the structural analysis:
material properties of the beams,
cross-section parameters of the trunks and
branches,
constraint (rigid support of all degrees of
freedom),
load cases and load combinations.
In this study we have assumed the following
load cases:
dead weight of the computational model (trunks
+ primary branches),
dead weight representing the branches of the
second and higher order,
dead weight representing the foliage,
tensile force in the global axes X direction acting
on trunk T1, T2, T3.
Figure 2: Simplified point model of the Ginkgo biloba

tree – trunks + primary branches (total number of
points on bark surface = 1,276,340)
Figure 1: Point model of the Ginkgo biloba tree (total Figure 3: Conversion process of Point model to
number of surface points = 7,768,106) 3D-CAD model (trunk cylinders)
20
Moravčík, Ľ. | Precise Digital Model and Finite Element Analysis of a Single Tree
PLANTS
3 Results and Discussion It is possible to perform various types of structural

analyses with the computational model, depending
The computational model (Finite element model) is on the considered load case or load combination. In
represented in the Figure 4. The simplified structure our case we have defined and evaluated theoretical
contains 108 finite elements (beams) connected by 218 load cases with tensile force causing in the global X
nodes. axis. The horizontal force Fx = 2.50 kN was applied in
specified nodes located along particular trunks in the
elevation (Z coordinate) ZT1 = 8.28 m, ZT2 = 7.64 m and
ZT3 = 8.35 m (Figure 5).
Within the framework of the structural analysis, the
strength assessments of particular beams (trunks)
were evaluated. The calculations were repeated with
the variable cross sectional areas of the beams, like full
circle area, 25% and 50% reduction of the cross section.
Figure 4: FEM (Finite element model) of the Ginkgo

biloba tree (total number of beams = 108), represented Figure 6: Cross-sections of the beams: full – 0%, 25%
by the groups of timber beams with uniform sections and 50% reduction of the sectional area
Figure 5: Location of the tensile force Fx = 2.50 kN in the node N. 27 (trunk N1)
21
PLANTS
Figure 7: Strength assessment of trunk T1 (beams B1, B4, B5): tension force Fx = 2.50 kN loaded in node N27. Left 0%,
Middle 25% and Right 50% reduction of the cross-sectional area
Figure 8: Strength assessment of trunk T2 (beams B2, B6): tension force Fx = 2.50 kN loaded in node N31. Left 0%,
22
PLANTS
Figure 9: Strength assessment of trunk T3 (beams B3, B7): tension force Fx = 2.50kN loaded in node N39. Left 0%,
1.8
1,8
4 Conclusions
1,6
1.6
1,4
1.4 The paper deals with the utilization of the up-to-
1,2
1.2 date acquisition method covering precise digital 3d
modelling of a single tree by the means of the terrestrial
1
1.0
laser scanning and graphical post-processing/
0,8
0.8 simplification and the point model conversion to the
0,6
0.6 computational CAD model using the finite element
0,4
0.4 method. The finite element model could be used for
0,2
0.2 the structural analysis under static and dynamic load.
0 In the standard analysing environment like SCIA
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Engineer, the material properties are given according
Trunk1 Trunk2 to design codes for various types of timber, thus
the computational model is virtual and relatively
Figure 10: Relation between relative cross-sectional idealized. The main effort is to obtain as correct result
reduction of trunks and strength assessment of the structural analysis as possible and therefore, it
is necessary to determine the valid material properties
The development of the strength assessments for the by the means of respected experimental methods.
particular trunks T1, T2 and T3 were analysed and for The finite elements of the tree model have cylinder
corresponding load case they are illustrated in the shape with uniform diameter along the trunks and
Figures 7, 8 and 9. branches. Replacing prismatic shape of beam cross
section with conical or other more realistic could reach
The results of the structural analysis for the selected
more accurate results without discontinuities in the
beams belonging to the trunk T1, T2 and T3 are
structural analysis outputs.
presented in the Figure 10, where the relation between
strength assessments and the cross-sectional reduction
is visible.
23
PLANTS
Acknowledgements PERNEK, M. – LACKOVIČ, N. – MAČAK-HADŽIOMEROVIČ,

A. – STAMENKOVIČ, V. 2013. Adapted VTA and SIA method
This work was supported by AgroBioTech Research in tree static assessment with use of resistography. In
Centre built in accordance with the project Building Periodicum B3, vol. 115, 2013, no. 3, pp. 447–453. UDC
“AgroBioTech“ Research Centre ITMS 26220220180 and 57:61. Coden PDBIAD. ISSN 0031-5362.
the project VEGA – registration number 1/0044/17. SHAHBAZI, Z. – KAMINSKI, A. – EVANS, L. 2015. Mechanical
Stress Analysis of Tree Branches. In American Journal of
Mechanical Engineering, vol. 3, 2015, no. 2, pp. 32–40.
References Retrieved September 20, from Science and Education
Publishing database on the World Wide Web: http://pubs.
BOND, J. 2012. Urban tree health. A practical and precise
sciepub.com/ajme/3/2/1/
estimation method. Visual Identification Series. Geneva,
NY : Urban Forest Analytics LLC. WESSOLLY, L. – ERB, M. 1998. Handbuch der Baumstatik
und Baumkontrolle. Berlin : Patzer-Verlag, 1998, 270 p.
BOND, J. – SANKOWICH, S. – LULEY, Ch.J. 2013.
ISBN 3-87617-093-1.
Developing Risk Assessment Standards and Specifications
for a Distribution System. Retrieved September 18, from nnnnn
T&DWorld database on the World Wide Web: http://www.
ecosync.com/tdworld/BondEtAl_TD_Spec.pdf
MATTHECK, C. – BETHGE, K. – WEST, P.W. 1994. Breakage
of hollow tree stems. In Trees – Structure and Function,
vol. 9, 1994, no. 1, pp. 47–50. DOI: 10.1007/BF00197869.
24
CONTENTS
PLANTS
APPROACHES TO THE INTERPRETATION OF MILITARY HISTORY

IN THE EXTERIORS OF MILITARY MUSEUMS – CASE STUDY
OF THE MILITARY HISTORY MUSEUM IN SVIDNÍK
Denisa Halajová,* Andrea Cuperová
Today, more than seventy years after the end of World War II (WW II), we are again experiencing a rise in the interest
in military history and the events or places associated with it. On the one hand, there is a steady increase in the visit
rate of places connected with military history, which has led to the formation of ’military tourism’, on the other hand
there is a dangerous deformation of history and growth of extremism, nationalism and racism. We see the necessity
to preserve objective history also in the form of military museums or places connected with WW II, namely through
the renewal of these places and increasing their attractiveness for the young generation. The aim of this article is to
resume the basic design principles of contemporary military memorials and military museums and to develop a case
study of The Park of Military Equipment at the Military Museum in Svidník based on these principles. The Svidnik
District is closely linked to the fighting during WW II, the Carpathian Operation of the Soviet Army (Red Army),
and the 1st Czechoslovak Army in north-eastern Slovakia in the autumn of 1944. In the territory of the Carpathian
Operation, several memorial sites were created. The whole territory is a national cultural monument registered as
’the Dukla Battleground’ in the Central List of the Monument Fund since 1961. In the town of Svidník, the Memorial
of the Soviet Army was built in the place where Soviet soldiers were buried in spring 1945. There are 9,000 Soviet
soldiers buried in 4 mass graves. In 1965, the Military Historical Museum in Svidník was opened. The museum also
includes an outdoor exposition – the Park of Military Equipment, built between 1971 and 1974. After the current
state analysis of the military park, the principles of contemporary design of memorial places were applied in the
design of the case study area.
Keywords: memorial, park, landscape, military museum
1 Introduction Today, there are two museums in Slovakia focusing on

the issue of WW II. The Military Museum in Piešťany
1.1 Military museums and monuments in Slovakia presents the Czechoslovak Army armament from the
period between 1945 and 1992. The Department of
From the point of view of landscape design of memorial
the Military Museum in Svidník presents the military
places connected with the history of the World War II
history of Slovakia in the period between 1914 and
(WW II) battles in Slovakia, we distinguish the following
1945. The other institution is the Museum of the Slovak
types of objects:
National Uprising, which presents and disseminates
1. memorial sites of special historical importance
materials about the history of the Slovak society in
(Banská Bystrica, Svidník) – complexes of various
the period between 1938 and 1945, with an emphasis
memorial elements, located in a small area;
on the documentation of the anti-fascist national
2. historically significant landscape areas (Dukla
liberation struggle and the Slovak National Uprising.
and Kalište);
It also documents contemporary manifestations of
3. landscape areas affected by WW II; neo-fascism and racial intolerance. Both museums,
4. memorials as modern landmarks of the country, in Banská Bystrica and Svidník, also include outdoor
placed on the top of a hill (Strečno, Slavín, Nicovo, exhibits – parks of military equipment. The museums
Uhrovec – Jankov Vŕšok) or on an elevated location were founded in the late 1970s. Although interior
(Svidník, Dargov, Zvolen). exposures have already been renewed, external
The smallest memorial elements are military cemeteries, exposures have still not been changed since their
small memorials, simple graves (real or symbolic) and establishment.
memorial tables (Benčať and Vreštiak, 1971).
* Denisa Halajová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of Garden and Landscape Architecture,
Tulipánová 7, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] 25

PLANTS
1.2 Military monuments and museums 2.1 The case study area during the World War II
in the world The Svidník District is closely linked to the fighting
From the point of view of landscape design of memorial during WW II, the Carpathian Operation of the Soviet
sites in the world, we focused on studying examples Army (Red Army), and the 1st Czechoslovak Army in
of contemporary design of military museums and north-eastern Slovakia in autumn 1944. The aim of this
other memorial sites. The National Military Museum in military operation was to help the Slovak insurgent army
Soesterberg (Utrecht, the Netherlands) was founded in during the Slovak National Uprising. The participation of
2015, on the site of the former Air Force Base during the 1st Czechoslovak Army in the Carpathian Operation
WW II and the Cold War (Bueno, 2015). The museum was the largest fighting operation of the Czechoslovak
played an important role in the Dutch military history Foreign Army in WW II. The liberation of Slovakia from
as the Dutch Aviation Base during WW II and the Cold German occupiers began with the liberation of the
War and reminds the visitors of the German occupation Dukla Pass. The Carpathian Operation was one of the
on May 5 in 1940 and the Allied bombing at the end most difficult and cruel fighting in the mountains
of WW II. The project is an example of presentation of during WW II. The operation lasted three months and
all physical elements (military, war and aviation relics during the battles, 85,000 Soviet, 6,500 Czechoslovak
and landmarks – pre-existing monuments, abandoned and 52,000 German soldiers died or were injured.
bunkers, bomb craters and the air base itself ); most
of them were left in situ and are placed in different 2.2 The Dukla Historical Landscape Area
landscape sceneries. This is a positive example of
In the territory of the Carpathian Operation, several
linking the past, present and future in accordance
memorial sites were created. The whole territory is
with the surrounding natural environment (Bueno,
a national cultural monument registered as ’the Dukla
2015). The Peaceful Park – Green Road in Utrecht, the
Battleground’ in the Central List of the Monument
Netherlands is a large military area with a defensive
Fund since 1961. The National Cultural Monument
trench and bunker system from WW I and WW II. It
’Dukla Battleground’ consists of two localities:
has been transformed into a peaceful park that shares
1. Dukla – Memorial of the Czechoslovak Army in the
its history with the visitors (Bilir, 2016). The project
cadastral territory of Vyšný Komárnik,
presents the reconstruction of military area with an
2. Memorial of the Soviet Army in the cadastral territory
emphasis on preserving the history and nature of the
of Svidník.
site. The Memorial to Victims of Violence in Mexico City,
Mexico established in 2013 is a public space project The most famous element of the Dukla memorial site
with a memorial based on strong symbolism of three is the imposing Memorial of the Czechoslovak Army
main elements – steel, water, and light – which tell the at Dukla dedicated to the fallen soldiers on the border
story (Coman, 2013). The most positive principle of this crossing between Slovakia and Poland. The memorial
landscape design is an opportunity for an interaction is connected with the cemetery, where 563 soldiers of
of people with the memorial, its story and with nature the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps were buried (Mindoš,
through the power of storytelling. The Saiki Peace 1979). In the area of the Dukla Pass on the Slovak-Polish
Memorial Park in Japan is an example of a modern border, a 49 m high viewing tower was built, from
memorial park, which connects the function of which the visitors can see a wide area of the Slovak and
a historical and a memorial place with the function of an Polish territory, where the Carpathian Operation took
open space for relax. Also the Poppy Plaza – Memorial place. The current tower was built in 1974 at the site of
of WW I and WW II, in Calgary, Canada is a high-quality a wooden tower built in 1959 on the site of the original
public space that connects all elements – the memorial, observation point of the General of the Czechoslovak
people (users) and nature (trees and river). Here, trees Army – Ludvik Svoboda. At the Dukla Battlefield Area
are important design elements, as each of them is (from the village of Kapišová to the Slovak-Polish
a symbolic tombstone of a fallen soldier. border crossing on Dukla), The Dukla Military Open
Air Museum is open to the public since 1959. In ’The
2 Material and Methods Valley of Death’, which occupies the territory of seven
municipalities, a tank technique depicts a tank battle.
The object of the case study is the exposition of The reconstructed artillery firing positions and bunkers
the Military Museum in Svidník. The area of the case have also been made accessible. There is also the War
study is situated in the municipality of Svidník, a small Cemetery of German Soldiers in Hunkovce where 3,100
town populated by 11,289 inhabitants, situated in German soldiers are buried.
northeastern Slovakia in the Prešov Region, 230 m a. s. l.
26
Halajová, D. – Cuperová, A. | Approaches to the Interpretation of Military History...
PLANTS
In the town Svidník, the Memorial of the Soviet Army (L.) H. Karst with 45 individuals (20.5%), Pseutotsuga
was built in the place where Soviet soldiers were buried menziesii (Mirb.) Franco with 34 individuals (15.5%)
in spring 1945. There are 9,000 Soviet soldiers buried and Thuja occidentalis L. with 31 individuals (14%). The
in 4 mass graves. The Monument was built in 1954, species Tilia cordata Mill. with 18 individuals (8.2%) is
reaching a height of 37 m. the most frequently occurring deciduous tree species.
In 1965, the Military Historical Museum in Svidník was
opened. The author of the building design is architect 3.1.3 The Pros and Cons of the area
František Jesenko. The shape of the museum building The flat surface, the open space, a plenty of greenery
symbolises a plate-shaped anti-tank mine. Untypical and the high quality architecture of the museum
is the shape of the roof, which is divided into several building are the positive elements of the park. Negative
smaller parts. The exhibition of the museum documents elements of the park are the lack of park facilities, the
the military history of Slovakia during WW I in the unattractiveness and the unreadable composition of
Eastern Carpathians and during WW II with a focus the park in the exterior spaces of the museum.
on the Carpathian-Duklian operation, the Partisan
Movement and the liberation of Slovakia between
1944 and 1945. The exposition of the Military History 3.2 Revitalisation design of the park
Museum was redesigned in 2011. The museum also The revitalisation design of the park is based on the
includes an outdoor exposition – the Park of Military following basic contemporary design principles:
Equipment, built between 1971 and 1974. In the park, creation of landscape sceneries for exhibits so
there are 14 items of military equipment, tanks, an that the history and the landscape are linked,
armoured transporter, a transport aircraft and a cannon use of symbolism in the design, in the form of
howitzer. The landscape design includes a lake in the compositional elements that tell the story (trees,
shape of the republic with a fountain, surrounded by materials, colours and light)
lindens (Mindoš, 1979). creation of a linkage between the memorial site
and the relaxation and educational function.
3 Results and Discussion
3.2.1 The design concept ’Peace Park’
The concept of a park design as an exterior of the military
3.1 Analysis of the current state of the Park museum lies in the idea of creating a peaceful park. The
of Military Equipments original function of the Park of Military Equipment is
preserved in the new design, but already in line with the
3.1.1Operation and compositional analysis overall idea and architectural design of the ’Peace Park’,
The Memorial of the Soviet Army is the dominant a place full of historical facts and exhibits depicting
compositional element of the whole memorial area cruel battles during WW II will serve for dissemination
in Svidník. Other points of interest in the territory are of knowledge and also as a recreational area. There are
the Military Historical Museum and the Park of Military several zones designed for all age categories.
Equipment. The main axis of the composition leads
from the main road directly to the Memorial of the 3.2.2 Landscape design
Soviet Army, finished by the memorial on the elevated
The design of the park is based on the morphology of
place. The area is not accessible by a motor vehicle,
the round museum building. The artificially created
there are only pedestrian paths and the car parks are
terrain symbolises the original mountainous terrain
reserved for the visitors. The most frequented footpath
where fighting with trenches and bunkers took place.
is not the one on the main compositional axis, but
The Terrain modulation makes the space more dynamic
the walkway that leads from the town and museum
and allows for a more authentic placement of military
through the Park of Military Equipment towards the
equipment exhibits, as the design no longer counts
memorial.
with concentrating of exhibits on one place. Benches
are also sensitively embedded in the modified terrain.
3.1.2 Greenery The material to be used for the construction of the
The greenery in the area consists of a lawn, small groups park consists of three types of materials – concrete,
of trees and tree groves. In the park, there are 220 trees Cor-Ten steel and wood. The use of the park by visitors
and shrubs in total, with coniferous trees accounting is prolonged by the lighting that creates a different
for up to 63%. The most common species is Picea abies atmosphere in the park. The educational function in
27
PLANTS
the park is represented by glass information boards the external exposures in military parks are still in
showing exhibits in their fighting conditions and the original, by now desolate condition. Through an
contexts. analysis of several contemporary landscape designs
of memorial sites and military museums abroad, we
3.2.3 Planting design have identified their following basic compositional
principles: presentation of physical elements placed in
On the basis of the vegetation analysis, we propose
landscape sceneries, linking the history and landscape
a change in the species composition of trees by
and with the surrounding natural environment; using
planting deciduous trees. We propose the planting of
a strong symbolism of compositional elements in the
the species Tilia cordata Mill., which is also mentioned
design of memorial places; telling a story of memorial
in the historical facts about the construction of the
places, designing an opportunity for interaction of
complex and the species Pyrus calleryana Decne. The
people with the memorial, its story and with nature;
modified terrain is covered by perennial plantings and
connecting function of the historical an memorial place
lawns. An important feature is the colour aspect of
and open space for relax. Several of these principles
flowers and the blossoming of woody plants. The white
were applied in the design of the case study area – the
colour in the design of the park is a symbol of peace
Park of Military Equipment at the Military Museum in
and capitulation, the symbol of the liberation of the
Svidník.
town of Svidník in the winter, January 19, 1945, with
which the liberation of the territory of Slovakia began.
The white colour is represented by the white blossoms Acknowledgements
of Pyrus calleryana Decne. and the spring flower bulbs.
This paper presents research supported by the project
The red colour of blooming perennials in the autumn
KEGA “LandArch Studio – Innovation of Teaching
symbolises the bloody fighting, which took place
Structure, Content and Tools“, project registration
in Dukla during autumn 1944. Red, as the colour of
number 008SPU-4/2016.
blood, martyrdom, sacrifice and courage is devoted
as a sign of thankfulness to all the soldiers and victims
fallen during the fights in the Carpathian Operation. References
The flat roof of the Military History Museum building BENČAT, F. – VREŠTIAK, P. 1971. Pamätné miesta
is designed as a green roof, supporting the ecological oslobodzovacích a povstaleckých bojov na Slovensku
side of the complex. (Memorial places of the liberation and rebellion battles
in Slovakia). In Monument protection, 1971, no. 5,
4 Conclusions pp. 258–267.
BILIR, I. 2016. How to Transform an old Military Area
Today, more than seventy years after the end of into a Peaceful Park. [online]. [2017-05-04]. Web: https://
World War II, we are again experiencing a rise in the landarchs.com/how-to-transform-an-old-military-area-
interest in military history and the events or places into-a-peacefulpark/
associated with it. On the one hand, we are currently BUENO, M.R. 2016. How to Keep Heritage Alive Through
looking at World War II without political demagogy and a Military Museum. [online]. [2017-05-04]. Web: https://
negative emotions; on the other hand, it also leads to landarchs.com/military-museum/
forgetting the horrors brought by the war, its causes COMAN, R. 2015. Landscape Storytelling –
and consequences. Although there is a steady increase Memorial to Victims of Violence. [online].
in the visit rate of places connected with military [2017-05-04]. Web: https://landarchs.com/
history leading to the formation of ‚military tourism‘“, landscape-storytelling-memorial-to-victims-of-violence/
a dangerous deformation of the history and growth of MINDOŠ, I. 1979. Sprievodca po expozícií dukelského
extremism, nationalism and racism exists. We see the múzea a pamätných miestach dukelských bojov (The
guide to expositions of the Dukla Museum and memorial
necessity to preserve the objective history also in the
sites of the Dukla battles). Košice : Východoslovenské
form of military museums or places connected with
vydavateľstvo, 1979, 88 p.
the war, namely through the renewal of these places
and increasing their attractiveness for the young nnnnn
generation. Military museums play the most important
role in preserving and disseminating information on
military history. While internal expositions of military
museums in Slovakia have undergone renovation,
28
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PLANTS
PRUNING URBAN TREES – TYPE AND QUALITY ACCORDING TO ARBORIST

UNION STANDARDS
Viera Paganová,* Michaela Vyhnáliková
The aim of the study was assessment of the extent and structure of pruning within urban tree management in
the public greenery and comparison of the quality with union standards on example of the city Nitra. In 2016, all
interventions were carried out on street trees, on trees in the greenery of residential areas and around the apartment
buildings. All pruning has been performed on adult trees (142 specimens in total). The basic data about pruning of
trees in the public greenery were obtained from the register of the Department of Urban Greenery Management
and Maintenance and City Services Centre in Nitra. Within the field survey the type of pruning and its technical
accuracy were evaluated, as well as the quality of the pruning performed on trees in relation to the Arborist Standard
“Pruning of Trees”. The highest rate had reductive pruning due to improvement of the operating conditions around
trees (59%) in the following structure: trimming of trees towards an obstacle (22%), crown reduction (27%), crown
rising (9%), and local reduction (1%). In many cases, the reductive pruning was necessary due to inappropriate
positions of the trees growing very close to buildings. Quite often, the reductive pruning was a consequence of the
missing or neglected trimming during the juvenile stage of tree growth. Within the field assessment, a high rate
of the crown topping (24%) connected with severe reduction of the trunk and branches were found, although in
several cases, such intervention was not appropriate neither founded. Then, substantial part of the crown of a tree
was removed (crown topping) instead of selective removal of branches (crown reduction). This error can be a result
of a vaguely formulated subject of matter in the contract. The obtained results show that only 48% of the pruning
were made in good quality and were technically correct. There were found discrepancies in the terminology and
specification for procurement of the tree trimming in comparison with the Arborist Standard “Pruning of Trees”. In
several cases performance of trimming did not meet the arborist union standard. These facts can adversely affect
the quality and purpose of the tree pruning in the cities. The results also show that in the future, greater attention
should be paid to pruning of young trees. Guidance of growth of young trees and correction of growth defects is
crucial for their successful growth and functionality, as well as for decrease in volume of the reductive and stabilizing
pruning of adult trees.
Keywords: urban trees, tree pruning, urban areas, maintenance, standards
1 Introduction (Harris et al., 2004; Gilman, 2012). A heading (topping)

cut reduces the length of stem or branch without regard
In the urban areas, pruning of trees is a tool for their to the position or diameter of nearby lateral branches.
care and regular maintenance. Pruning and training A removal cut removes a branch at its attachment to
trees and shrubs when they are young will help ensure a trunk or a parent branch.
good growth and long-term structural stability. The Responses of trees to the various pruning cuts are
purposes of pruning young trees are correction of the different. A type of pruning can induce massive
growth defects and stable structure of their crown. In sprouting, changed crown density or susceptibility of
adult trees, pruning is used to enhance their operational trees to storm damage, susceptibility to sun injury or
safety – mechanical and biological stability. stem decay and cracks (Gilman, 2012).
The pruning techniques differ in the way the target The pruning methods and pruning techniques of
branch and its apical portion are managed. A reduction urban trees and trees in open landscape applied for
cut reduces the length of a branch or stem back to live their regular maintenance in the Slovak Republic are
lateral branch of a sufficient size (at least one third to defined in the arborist union standard “Pruning of
one half of the diameter of the removed portion) and Trees” (Paganová et al., 2015).
should assume the apical role for the remaining branch
* Viera Paganová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance,
Tulipánová 7, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected]
29
PLANTS
The standard pruning methods for maintenance of Crown topping – significantly reduces height and
adult trees are: health pruning, safety pruning and spread of trees. It is not recommended to be a regular
reductive pruning. Reductive pruning has several practice. Heading large-diameter branches cause many
specific methods for maintaining operational safety of problems, including massive decay in many species
trees growing along roads and close to buildings. (Gilman and Knox, 2004). Topping causes extensive
Safety pruning reduces the risk of dead or damaged depletion of stored energy and occasionally kills trees
tree parts falling on the objects of value. There are (Gilman 2012). It should be done only if there is a threat
removed dead, dying, diseased, damaged, detached, of a static tree failure and when it is important to
broken and hanging branches. This pruning method preserve a tree on a site for some time.
does not solve the complex static conditions of a whole The Arborist union standard “Pruning Trees” can be
individual (for example, the risk of a tree failure, a trunk used as a reference document for specification of
break, a crown decay, etc.). In the case of unsatisfactory the pruning and standardizing the quality in the area
static properties of an individual, it is necessary to of the professional tree care and maintenance of
apply other technical solutions aimed at increasing the woody plants. The standard is processed for care and
operational safety of a tree. maintenance of trees with non-productive functions.
Health pruning supports tree health, vitality and Pruning trees is a professional job that should be based
operational safety in the long-term perspective. on good professional skills and the knowledge of the
The maximum 20% of assimilation area of a tree is biological properties of trees. Pruning is associated
removed. This pruning is optimally carried out during with some irreversible changes on trees. That can have
the growing season. There are removed branches a major impact on their further growth, development,
which decrease operational safety of trees, rubbing function and life expectancy.
branches and shoots affected by pathogens and pests, The aim of the study was assessment of the extent and
mechanically damaged and broken limbs with reduced structure of pruning within urban tree management
stability, codominant (competitive) shoots or branches in the public greenery and comparison of their quality
with diameter up to 50 mm, secondary shoots with with union standards on example of the city Nitra.
inappropriate position that grow into the crown.
Reductive pruning (called reduction) is the selective 2 Material and Methods
pruning to decrease height and spread of a tree.
This pruning is used mainly to modify the operating In 2016, all interventions were carried out on street
conditions of a tree. Severity and placement of a trees, on trees in the greenery near the apartment
reduction cut must be clearly defined in the design buildings (54%) and in the residential areas (30%) of
of the treatment. Regular tree care and control of a the city Nitra. All pruning has been performed on adult
tree‘s operational safety must be ensured after the trees, 142 specimens in total.
reduction pruning. The cut-off interval depends on the The basic data about pruning of trees in the public
habitat conditions, growth and vitality of a tree and it greenery were obtained from the register of the
is performed in accordance with the legislation. The Department of Urban Greenery Management and
length of a branch or stem should be reduced back to Maintenance and City Services Centre in Nitra. The
live lateral branch of sufficient size (Gilman 2012). information about pruning has been processed in
Crown reduction is aimed at removing the peripheral the form of a table with a number of tree, taxon
parts of the crown in order to reduce the impact area of identification, its location, and type of pruning
the crown and shift the centre of gravity. It is intended according to the customer‘s order.
for adult and senescent trees. The most pruning is done Within the field survey from January to April 2017
in the upper third of the crown, and downwards the the type of pruning and its technical accuracy were
size of removed branches and shoots decreases. The evaluated, as well as the quality of the pruning
total reduction of assimilation apparatus within the performed on trees in relation to the arborist standard
intervention shall not exceed 20%. The original shape “Pruning of Trees”.
of the particular tree should be retained. In the next step a description of the pruning has been
Crown rising is selective pruning to provide vertical processed for each tree. The following was defined: the
clearance under the crown. The lower branches have to type of pruning, its extent and relevance in relation to
be removed to clear them from traffic or to prune them the life stage of a tree and the operating conditions.
away from a building or a walk. The compliance of terminology in the list of pruning
made in 2016 was assessed in comparison with the
30
Paganová, V. – Vyhnáliková, M. | Pruning Urban Trees – Type and Quality According to Arborist Union Standards
PLANTS
Arborist Standard within the detailed analysis. Finally, the structure of An overview of ordered pruning on
pruning made on urban trees and the technical accuracy of cuts made on urban trees in Nitra, requested by
trees in the public greenery were evaluated. the Department of Urban Greenery
Management and Maintenance,
3 Results and Discussion is processed on a graph (Fig. 1).
In 2016, reductive pruning (51%),
All woody plants that were pruned in Nitra in 2016 are adult individuals in namely reduction towards an
the reproductive stage of growth. The species structure of pruned trees was obstacle (41%), crown reduction
quite large, the highest rate had the following taxa: Acer pseudoplatanus (9%) and crown raising (1%), were
(21%), Betula pendula (18%), Tilia cordata (16%), Cerasus avium (4%), planned in Nitra. Furthermore,
Negundo aceroides (3.5%), Carpinus betulus (3%). Further 27 taxa were crown thinning (12.5%) and
represented by less than 4 individuals. The analysis of pruned trees and rejuvenation pruning (12.5%) were
the operating conditions of their habitat resulted in the following findings: planned. The request for last two
1. Trees have not been maintained systematically in the past and many of pruning methods is considered to
them have growth defects that could be eliminated at the earlier stage be a non-standard.
within regular training. In the arborist union standard
2. Several woody plants were not planted on the right place. Now, they are (Paganová et al., 2015) crown
in the conflict with a building and site operational conditions, or habitat thinning is included under the
conditions do not meet the ecological requirements of the particular health and safety pruning. It is not
specimen. classified as a particular type of
3. Purpose of the pruning was in majority a case to maintain the operational pruning.
safety of trees or to improve the health and vitality of the trees. The order of rejuvenation pruning
on urban trees is probably based
3.1 Assessment of the extent and structure on fruit-growing practice. The
of the urban tree pruning in Nitra in 2016 principle of rejuvenation pruning
The request for a certain type of pruning on trees in the public greenery is disturbance in the ratio between
of the city Nitra is released by the Department of Urban Greenery aboveground and underground
Management and Maintenance. The request is defined as the purpose of organs of a tree in the favour of the
pruning for each tree and listed in the subject of the contract. In 2016 the root system. Reduction of growing
purpose of pruning was not uniformly defined in the register, even when points will support elongation
it was the same type of pruning requested for different trees. Therefore, of remaining shoots. The aim of
within assessment of the type of requested and performed pruning, there pruning is to enhance growth of
was used a uniform terminology. a tree (Paulen, 2013).
In urban areas, weak tree growth
can be influenced by site conditions,
such as shade from surrounding
buildings, competition of other
trees, interventions within the
root zone, soil contamination,
etc. In such cases, reduction of
the aboveground organs may
increase stress and weaken a tree.
The rejuvenation pruning was
requested for several trees in
Nitra. However, their weak growth
is often a result of shading and
competition (Figure 2). In this case,
a very close canopy impacted
growth of light-demanding woody
Figure 1: An overview of pruning, that was planned and requested for plants. The purpose of pruning was
trees in Nitra in 2016. There was dominant reductive pruning related mainly not met. Cuting off some weaker
to solving the conflict of trees and buildings and to improve operational
conditions around apartment buildings
31
PLANTS
growing individuals would be

more effective.
In professional arboriculture
effective rejuvenation of adult trees
is achieved by their regular and
targeted maintenance. The method
of health pruning is optimal. Above
to damaged and unstable branches
also codominant (competitive)
shoots or branches with diameter
up to 50 mm, secondary shoots
with inappropriate position that
grow into the crown are removed
within this type of pruning.
A maximum of 20% of the crown‘s
assimilation area is removed.
In 2016 the health and safety
pruning were planned on urban
trees in extent of 10.5% (Figure 1).
The crown topping was ordered
for 4 trees (3%). Within the crown
topping large-diameter branches
are shortened and a substantial
part of tree crown is reduced. The
aim of such significant intervention
is to reduce the risk of failure of
trees with wood decay or disturbed
stability. Crown topping has
negative impact on trees (Gilman
2012). It is therefore inappropriate
to perform crown topping on
healthy trees with a primary crown.
Regular inspection and systematic
care are necessary after this type of
Figure 2: SEQ FIGURE \* ARABIC 2 The rejuvenation pruning was requested
for these trees growing close to each other. pruning.
3.2 Evaluation of the structure

and quality of the pruning
performed on trees in Nitra
Within the field survey, the nature
and quality of pruning were
evaluated to assess the compliance
of the ordered pruning on trees in
public greenery in Nitra with the
arborist standard “Pruning of trees”.
The analysis (Figure 3) shows that
reduction pruning had the highest
rate (59%). There was done mainly
crown reduction (27%), a reductive
pruning towards an obstacle (22%),
Figure 3: Structure of the pruning that was really performed on urban trees crown rising (9%) and a local
in Nitra in 2016
32
PLANTS
reduction (1%). Quite a high rate of the crown reduction to preserve normal branching pattern and had little
is interesting. According to the plan, this method of effects on the leaf structure of trees and photosynthetic
pruning was ordered for 9% of trees, but in reality performance. On the contrary topping a branch
it was performed on 27% of trees. The higher rate of (shortening of the primary axis without providing
crown reduction is probably the result of inappropriate a substitution leader greatly affected tree structure and
and stronger pruning performed on individuals, where functioning.
health pruning or safety pruning were requested. Significant reduction of the main branches and
The safety pruning was performed on 11% of trees assimilation area weaken trees. Large wounds occur
and health pruning on 3% of trees. The performance due to cuts made on thicker branches, and are often
of these types of pruning was originally planned in followed by massive dieback. Loss of the assimilation
a larger extent (Figure 1). However, the character area has a negative impact on the root system of
and severity of the cuts actually made on trees were trees, which do not have enough resources for further
different. The technique of pruning and the volume growth.
of reduced assimilation area corresponded more to The technical accuracy of cuts was also evaluated. The
crown reduction. findings are very serious; more than a half of pruning
Three specimens were removed above the plan (2%) as (52%) was not performed properly. The most frequent
they probably did not meet criteria of the operational mistake was flush cut, when the bark ridge was removed
safety within expert inspection. A local reduction and enlarged the wound area. Branch stubs were left
towards the facade of the house was originally ordered quite often. There was also found the dominance of
for these trees. In one case, trimming of a hedge was heading cut which shortens back branches and stems
performed, as well as removal of tree suckers. to a node without an existing lateral branch. Heading
Compared with the plan, crown topping was carried often results in dead stubs when nearby buds fail to
out on a higher number of city trees (24%). The rise sprout (Gilman 2012).
of this type of pruning is related to the removal of
a larger volume of the assimilation area within crown 4 Conclusions
reduction. Within proper method of crown reduction,
the limbs are shortened in the upper third of the Within the field survey there was found out that many
crown, and downwards the size of removed branches of trees were not planted on the right place. Now
and shoots decreases. Branches are reduced back they are in conflict with buildings and site operating
to live lateral branch of sufficient sizes. The total conditions. Sometimes, habitat conditions do not meet
reduction of assimilation apparatus within shall not ecological requirements of a particular taxon. These
exceed 20%. In fact, pruning performed on many trees were not maintained regularly during earlier
trees did not meet these principles and rules. In the stages of growth (when they were young). Many of
residential areas several trees were reduced by heading them have growth defects which could be eliminated
cuts and shortened to the height of nearby residential within regular training of young trees.
buildings. Due to this situation the structure of planned and
According to literature (Cline, 1996; 1997; Martin, executed pruning is aimed to maintenance of the
1987; Gilman and Grabosky, 2009; Fini et al., 2013; operational safety of these trees. Reductive pruning has
Clark and Matheny, 2010) the pruning method, not the absolute dominance (59%) which should improve
only its severity, modulates the morpho-physiological operating conditions near the trees. Safety pruning
response of trees to pruning. Maintenance of apical (11%) and health pruning (3%) have lower rates. The
control and apical dominance are key issues to preserve obtained results show that in 2016, the maintenance of
a structurally sound tree structure, as well as the long- adult trees had absolute priority in the city Nitra.
term efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus. There was found a relatively high occurrence of
The research done by Fini (et al., 2015) showed that the crown topping (24%), which has a negative impact on
removal of the whole primary axis at its attachment trees. This method of pruning should be used as an
to the trunk provide minimal disturbance to tree alternative to removal of statically unstable trees. Quite
physiology. However, shortening of the branch may high frequency of crown topping and heading cuts
provide different results. Authors found out that the performed on trees in Nitra is the result of improper
reduction of the primary axis to a lateral branch large technique of pruning, when more than 20% of the
enough to become the new branch leader appeared assimilation area of the crown is removed and the main
33
PLANTS
branches significantly reduced by heading cut without FINI, A. – FERRINI, F. – FRANGI, P. – PIATTI, R. – FAORO, M. –
retained lateral branches. AMOROSO, G. 2013. Effect of pruning time on growth,
wound closure and physiology of sycamore maple (Acer
Some faults have also been found in the pruning
pseudoplatanus L.). In Acta Horticulturae, 2013, no. 990,
technique, they indicate that pruning of urban trees
pp. 99–104.
was not carried out properly.
FINI, A. – FRANGI, P. – FAORO, M. – PIATTI, R. – AMOROSO,
The results pointed out importance of uniform G. – FERRINI, F. 2015. Effects of different pruning methods
terminology in the planning and ordering of pruning, on an urban tree species: A four year experiment scaling
as well as the need to comply with the standards of down from the whole tree to the chloroplast. In Urban
urban trees pruning. Forestry and Urban Greening, vol. 14, 2015, no. 3, pp. 664–
The results also show that in the future, higher attention 674. DOI:10.1016/j.ufug.2015.06.011
should be paid to pruning of young trees in city Nitra. GILMAN, E. F. 2012. Illustrated guide to pruning.
Guidance of growth of young trees and correction of 3rd ed., Delmar : Clifton Park, 2012, 476 p. ISBN
growth defects is crucial for their successful growth 978-1-111-30730-1.
and functionality, as well as for decrease in the volume GILMAN, E.F. – KNOX G.W. 2004. Pruning type affects
of the reductive and stabilizing pruning of adult trees. crapemyrtle. In Journal of Arboriculture, 2004, no. 30,
pp. 48–53.
GILMAN, E.F. – GRABOSKY, J.C. 2009. Growth partitioning
Acknowledgements three years following structural pruning of Quercus
virginiana. In Arboriculture and Urban Forestry, 2009,
This work was supported by AgroBioTech Research no. 35, pp. 281–286.
Centre built in accordance with the project Building
HARRIS, R.W. – CLARK, J.R. – MATHENY, N.P. 2004.
“AgroBioTech“ Research Centre ITMS 26220220180 and Arboriculture: integrated management of landscape
project KEGA Development and implementation of the trees, shrubs and vines. 4th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
standards for urban greenery management. Project River, NJ, 2004.
registration number 003SPU-4/2017. MARTIN, G. 1987. Apical dominance. In Hort. Science,
1987, no. 22, pp. 824–833.
References PAGANOVÁ, V. – KOLLÁR, J. – RAČEK, M. – FRAŇO, T. –
HUDEKOVÁ, Z. – KOLNÍK, M. – TRNOVSKÝ, M. – ZELEŇÁK,
CLARK, J.R. – MATHENY, N. 2010. The research foundation M. – KRIŠTOF, M. – SKLENÁROVÁ, M. – KOLAŘÍK, J. 2015.
to tree pruning: a review of the literature. In Arboriculture Arborist standard : Pruning of trees (in Slovak language).
and Urban Forestry, 2010, no. 36, pp. 110–120. 1st ed., Nitra : SUA, 2015, p. 31. ISBN 978-80-552-1402-3.
CLINE, M. 1996. Exogenous auxin effects on lateral bud DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15414/2015.9788055213644
outgrowth in decapitated shoots. In Annals of Botany, PAULEN, O. 2013. Pruning of fruit trees 2013. 1st ed. (in
1996, no. 78, pp. 255–266. Slovak language), Baštan : Olomouc, 2013, 218 p. ISBN
CLINE, M. 1997. Concepts and terminology of apical 9788087091432.
dominance. In American Journal of Botany, 1997, no. 84,
pp. 1064–1069. nnnnn
34
CONTENTS
PLANTS
THE PERFORMANCE OF UNDERSTOREY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS

IN LOW MAINTAINED URBAN PARKS
Dagmar Hillová*, Magdaléna Rožeková
Designing and establishment of rich herbaceous layer is an essential part of recreating urban woodland and urban
parks. Efficient methods for active restoration of the herbaceous layer are therefore needed. The 9-yr-long-time
observation of understorey mixture under the different forest stand structures has showed more divergent changes
in herb layer establishment success and plant vitality. The worst field layer according to the evaluated parameters
(abundance, ground cover, vitality) was observed in a woodland edge dominated by Tilia cordata and Tilia platyphila.
The most perspective plants of the herbaceous layer in forest stands were Aruncus dioicus and Primula veris Ćabrilo´
with enormous expanding growth, and Lysimachia cletroides, Alchemilla mollis Áuslese´ and Geranium macrorrhizum
´Spersard´ with stable growth effects.
Keywords: reintroduction, woodland, herbaceous, survival, planting, vitality
1 Introduction techniques to increase species diversity and additional

correct management may be a long-term benefit in
The stylized naturalistic herbaceous perennial planting the appearance, use, ecology and provision of wildlife
is the most innovative approach in the urban landscape habitat (Woodland, 2005). Mixed planting is the
(Dunnett and Hitchmough, 2007; Oudolf and Kingsbury, simplest way to establish a multipurpose and dynamic
2014; Rainer and West, 2015). The characteristic perennial community in low maintained urban parks.
beautiful prairies and meadows ecosystem (Schmithals The affordable perennial mixes which combine
and Kuhn, 2017; Hitchmough, 2017), as well as the attractiveness with low maintenance were developed
herbaceous understory vegetation (Martinek, 2004; under the auspices of the German Federation of Plant
Hillová, 2010; Schulte, 2017) became the most frequent Nurseries (BdS) (Riedel et al., 2007; Schulte, 2017).
sources of inspiration for landscape designers around This has become an excellent tool for practitioners
the world. The enrichment of herbaceous layers is an who may be possible to ensure quality and functional
essential part of recreation of urban woodland and introduction of semi-shade and shade tolerant herb
urban parks in last decades (Gilbert and Anderson, layers into low maintained urban parks. The aim of this
2004; Brunet, 2007). Enhancement of attractive field research project was to investigate the performance
layer species has been possible by natural succession of diverse herbaceous perennials mixtures in low
processes (Gilbert and Anderson, 2004; Brunet, 2007; maintained urban woodland edges. The key research
Onaindia et al., 2013) or management interventions questions were as follows:
(Martinek, 2004; Riedel et al., 2007). Natural colonization What effects does the structure of woody plant
was found out to be very poor and slow and should species have on the establishment success of
build out from cores of ancient woodland for optimal understorey planting mixtures?
ground vegetation development. However, many
What effects does the structure of woody plant
typical forest species are not able to disperse across
species have on the vitality of understorey planting
open fields (Brunet, 2007) and are not able to persist
mixtures?
through competitive aggressive ruderal weed species
(Francis, 1998; Hill, 2002). Without effective control
of these competitive species, any attempts to either 2 Material and Methods
encourage or actively introduce other less competitive
2.1 Experimental site
ground layer species (by sowing or planting) are
likely to be unsuccessful (Hill, 2002). The successful The investigation of naturalistic herbaceous planting
herbaceous plant introduction by direct enhancement was carried out in the experimental part of the
* Dagmar Hillová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance,
Tulipánová 7, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] 35

PLANTS
Botanical garden located in the campus of the Slovak (Kircher et al., 2017), in planting density 7 species
University of Agriculture in Nitra, Western Slovakia. per m2. The plants were obtained from perennial
The experimental plot was established on former nursery Victoria, Čab Slovakia, in traditional 9 cm
agricultural land at specific transition zone between containers.
open land and diverse woodland edge. The long-term
average rainfall per year is 596.4 mm. The original soil 2.3 Measurements of plant performance
at this area is fertile loamy clay with low organic matter The survival of planted individuals was recorded
content. The two weed treatments were applied before in late October 2008 (mortality after planting) and
experiment initiation: chemical weed control (Roundup May 2017 (mortality caused by ageing of planting).
application, requiring a second treatment) and hand The performance criteria (plant cover, plant survival,
weeding. After clearing, the site was rototilled to 30 cm vitality) of flowering individuals were recorded from
in early 2008. The experiment was performed during April to July, depending on phenological development
2008/2009 and repeated independently for the second in the years 2009 and 2017. The vitality assessment was
time in 2017. set up according to the modified scale of Braun and
Blanquet (1928) in Krížová (2001) with five determined
2.2 Experimental design intervals:
In May 2008, the total of 15 treatment main plots of 1. very weak; occasionally germinating, but not
10 m2 (4 × 2.5 m) in split-plot design of experiment multiplying,
was set up. Five plots were allocated at woodland edge 2. feeble; pronouncedly less vital than normally,
dominated by Acer platanoides (A), another five plots 3. normal vitality,
were allocated at woodland edge dominated by Acer 4. pronouncedly more vital than normally,
platanoides and Prunus domestica (AP), and remaining 5. exceptionally luxuriant.
five plots were allocated at woodland edge dominated
by Tilia cordata and Tilia platyphila (TT). Every main plot 2.4 Data analysis
was then planted by 5 diverse planting mixtures, based Statistical analyses of experimental data were
on diverse number of plant genera (the mix of 3, 5, 7, performed using the Statistica Advanced, Version: 12.0,
10, 13 species). The experimental mixtures consisted License Number: 135-949-814. The analysis of variance
of dominant perennials, companion perennials as (ANOVA) was performed to estimate statistically
well as ground covering perennials. Altogether, 1,050 significant difference in vitality between their mean
plants had been planted (Table 1). The ratio between values at a confidence level of 95% (p-value <0.05). The
the quantities of species plants in mixture was set up multiple range test of the least significant difference
according to their sociability (Hansen and Stahl, 1993). test (LSD test) was used to analyse the existence of
The distribution of perennials was made randomly homogenous samples.
Table 1 The composition of understorey planting mixture

Taxonomic diversity Assortment The count of taxa Total
A B C D E
Aruncus dioicus 7 7 7 5 3 29
A (3-species mixture) Geranium macrorrhizum ´Spersard´ 42 21 14 12 8 97
Helleborus orientalis Ńew Hybrids´ 21 14 7 5 3 50
Ligularia przewalskii 7 7 4 3 21
B (5- species mixture)
Epimedium pinnatum ssp.colchicum 21 14 12 9 56
Campanula persicifolia 9 6 5 20
C (7- species mixture)
Luzula nivea 12 7 7 26
Lysimachia cletroides 5 5 10
D (10- species mixture) Alchemilla mollis Áuslese´ 8 8 16
Primula veris Ćabrilo´ 6 5 11
Helleborus argutifolius 5 5
E (13- species mixture) Matteuccia struthiopteris 3 3
Heuchera micrantha ´Palace Purple´ 6 6
Grand total 70 70 70 70 70 350
36
Hillová, D. – Rožeková, M. | The Performance of Understorey Herbaceous Perennials in Low Maintained Urban Parks
PLANTS
3 Results and discussion layers in every evaluated woodland edge the increase
of their ground covering was equal. The developed
3.1 The impact of the forest stand structure mixtures (9 years after planting) in woodland edges
on the establishment success of understorey (A, AP) reached the ground covering 91.6–93.2%, and
vegetation (field layer) in woodland edges (TT) it reached the ground covering
of 85.2%. Godefroid et al. (2011), based on an extensive
The initial clearing of the experimental site had
study which used data from literature (1989–2009)
an equable effect on the establishment success of
combined with a questionnaire survey showed
understorey mixture under different forest stand
a significant downward trend over time in the survival
structures. The abundance of a newly established
of reintroduced plants, and indicated three variables
understorey planting mixture in the whole experiment
for the reintroduction success: material provenance,
has been between 87.3–87.8% (Table 2). The persistent
removing surrounding plants and site protection. The
effect on the establishment success of the understorey
use of seedlings provided higher survival rates than the
mixture has not been affected by the type of the forest
use of seeds. In our study, we used uniform seedlings
stand, but it has been affected by the initial vegetation
which were reproduced by various methods, and put
clearing (Baeten and Verheyen, 2017). Matteuccia
into pure and protected ground (area of botanical
struthioptris, Primula veris Ćabrilo´ and Lysimachia
garden with fencing). The survival rate can be improved
cletroides were significantly more abundant compared
by various planting techniques:
to Ligularia przewalskii. The 9-yr-long-time observation
a) using bare roots (Godefroid et al., 2011),
showed more divergent changes in the percentage
b) using heteromorphic alternation of generations
abundance of field layer related to difference in
(Gorbunov, 2008),
dominant tree species. The total population size in
the woodland edge (TT) persists almost unchanged c) using miniature root-balls (ø 4 cm) (Schmithals and
compared with the remaining woodland edges (A, AP) Kühn, 2014; Woodland, 2005; Dixie and Francis,
that were increased by abundance of field layer (Table 1996; Gilbert and Anderson, 1998) with peat free
3). Regardless of these differences, there were recorded: composts, planted at a higher density (25 plants/m2)
a) initially decline and then full mortality at (Schmithals and Kühn, 2014; Godefroid et al., 2011)
Ligularia przewalskii, and post-planting management:
b) the initial persistent establish effect and then a) composting (10 cm thick layer of garden waste
full mortality at Matteuccia struthiopteris and compost) (Richnau et al., 2016),
Heuchera micrantha ´Palace Purple´, b) mowing during vegetation (Kircher et al., 2010)
c) progressive decline at Helleborus argutifolius, coupled with maintenance of species-richness.
d) long-term (9-yr-long) stable effect at Lysimachia Godefroid and Vanderborght (2011) emphasized
cletroides, Alchemilla mollis Áuslese´ and that successful plant reintroduction needs a global
Geranium macrorrhizum ´Spersard´, centralized database for rapid and effective
e) enormous expanding of Aruncus dioicus and broadcasting of information in a standardized and
Primula veris Ćabrilo´. accessible form.
The most expanding taxa had different adaptive
strategies (Grime et al., 2014): C-strategist Aruncus 3.2 The impact of the forest stand structure
dioicus (Pierce et al., 2012) and S/CSR-strategist Primula
on vitality of understorey planting
veris (Grime et al., 2014). The remaining taxa showed
mixtures
divergent changes related to differences in dominant
tree species (Table 2, Table 3), they were likely to spread Vitality values of understorey planting mixtures changed
or to diminish with time (Kingsbury, 2011). The total significantly according to the forest stand structure and
ground cover of herbaceous layers was affected by the age stage of the planting mixture (Figure 1). The striking
forest stand structure and the age stage of the planting differences could be detected between the vitality
mixture (Table 4.). The newly established understorey values of the newly established understorey planting
planting mixtures (one year after planting) in woodland mixtures (one year after planting) and fully matured
edges (A, AP) reached the ground covering 78.8–77.6%; and developed mixtures (9 years after planting). The
the remaining soil surface was without vegetation. newly established field layer in the woodland edge
On the other side, the newly established field layer in (A) attained higher values of vitality (3.13) and then
the woodland edge (TT) reached the lowest values during the maturity stage their values decreased (2.72).
of ground covering (57%). During maturation of field On the other side, the newly established field layer
37
38
Table 2 The percentage abundance of herbaceous forbs taxa in different woodland edge, one year afterplanting (2008)
Total Woodland edges with different dominance of tree (% abundance)
number
Assortment A AP TT
of plant in
one edge 3 5 7 10 13 total 3 5 7 10 13 total 3 5 7 10 13 total
Aruncus dioicus 29 85.7 85.7 85.7 40 100 79.4 85.7 85.7 85.7 80 100 87.4 71.4 85.7 71.4 100 100 85.7
Geranium macrorrhizum
97 100 76.2 100 91.7 87.5 91.1 95.2 90.5 85.7 100 100 94.3 97.6 95.2 92.9 91.7 100 95.5
´Spersard´
Helleborus orientalis
50 90.5 71.4 71.4 100 100 86.7 90.5 92.9 100 100 66.7 90.0 90.5 92.9 85.7 100 100 93.8
Ńew Hybrids´
Ligularia przewalskii 21 100 42.9 75 33.3 62.8 57.1 57.1 75 66.7 64.0 28.6 71.4 75 100 68.8
Epimedium pinnatum ssp.
56 61.9 64.3 83.3 66.7 69.1 66.7 85.7 83.3 77.8 78.4 47.6 57.1 83.3 55.6 60.9
colchicum
Campanula persicifolia 20 88.9 83.3 100 90.7 88.9 100 100 96.3 66.7 100 100 88.9
PLANTS
Luzula nivea 26 58.3 85.7 100 81.3 91.7 71.4 57.1 73.4 50 85.7 100 78.6
Lysimachia cletroides 10 100 100 100.0 100 100 100.0 100 100 100.0

Alchemilla mollis
16 100 100 100.0 100 87.5 93.8 100 100 100.0
Áuslese´
Primula veris Ćabrilo´ 11 100 100 100.0 100 100 100.0 100 100 100.0
Helleborus argutifolius 5 80 80.0 60 60.0 80 80.0
Matteuccia struthiopteris 3 100 100.0 100 100.0 100 100.0
Heuchera micrantha
6 100 100.0 100 100.0 83.3 83.3
´Palace Purple´
Total – 92.1 79.0 73.1 85.9 89.8 87.8 90.5 78.6 85.0 91.0 85.8 87.5 86.5 70.0 70.7 93.6 93.8 87.3
Table 3 The percentage abundance of herbaceous forbs taxa in different woodland edge, 9 years after planting (2017)
Assortment Total Woodland edges with different dominance of tree (% abundance)
number
A AP TT
of plant in
one edge 3 5 7 10 13 total 3 5 7 10 13 total 3 5 7 10 13 total
Aruncus dioicus 29 85,7 157,1 214,3 60,0 133,3 130,1 357,0 171,4 257,0 22,0 133,3 188,1 142,9 100,0 42,9 140,0 300,0 145,2
Geranium macrorrhizum
97 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0
´Spersard´
Helleborus orientalis
50 114,3 100,0 85,7 80,0 100,0 96,0 104,8 157,1 114,3 80,0 133,3 117,9 95,2 100,0 42,9 100,0 100,0 87,6
Ńew Hybrids´
Ligularia przewalskii 21 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
Epimedium pinnatum ssp.
56 66,7 50,0 33,3 133,3 70,8 90,5 142,9 75,0 111,1 104,9 47,6 42,9 33,3 44,4 42,1
colchicum
Campanula persicifolia 20 166,7 316,7 620,0 367,8 155,6 10,0 40,0 68,5 166,7 50,0 380,0 198,9
PLANTS
Luzula nivea 26 50,0 71,4 100,0 73,8 66,7 85,7 114,3 88,9 166,7 85,7 71,4 107,9
Lysimachia cletroides 10 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0

Alchemilla mollis
16 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0
Áuslese´
Primula veris Ćabrilo´ 11 500,0 400,0 450,0 550,0 640,0 595,0 167,0 100,0 133,5
Helleborus argutifolius 5 40,0 40,0 40,0 40,0 60,0 60,0
Matteuccia struthiopteris 3 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
Heuchera micrantha
6 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
´Palace Purple´
Total – 100,0 84,8 95,2 136,1 140,5 117,6 187,3 103,8 119,5 112,3 116,3 115,6 112,7 69,5 80,3 87,6 104,3 82,7
39
PLANTS
Table 4 The ground cover of compositions understorey planting mixtures in different types of woodland edges
Numbers of Ground cover
plant genera
Woodland edge (A) Woodland edge (AP) Woodland edge (TT)
in mixture
2008 2017 2008 2017 2008 2017
95% 96% 89% 89% 55% 92%
86% 90% 66% 90% 47% 76%
70% 80% 69% 91% 49% 78%
10
76% 97% 75% 98% 69% 89%
13
67% 95% 89% 98% 65% 91%

Totally ground
78,8% 91,6% 77,6% 93,2% 57% 85,2%
cover
40
PLANTS

3,6
3.6 of field layer in the woodland
edge (AP) had no effect on vitality
3,4
3.4 values that remained stable
(2.56–2.7). The range of vitality
3.2
3,2
values decreased after maturation
3.0
3,0 from 1.97–3.13 in 2008, to the
range 2.39–2.72 in 2017 (Figure
2.8
2,8 1). The assessment of vitality of
different understorey planting
Vitality
2.6
2,6
Year of observation mixtures in the woodland edge
2008
2.4
2,4 2017 (A) demonstrated a significant
decrease only in low taxonomic
2.2
2,2 diversity mixtures (3 and 5 different
2.0
2,0
taxa in mixtures) after maturation.
Monocultures and very simple
1.8
1,8 systems of low diversity are
vulnerable to environmental
1.6
1,6
A AP TT
fluctuation. The main indicators
Major trees in woodland edge
of ecosystem health and
functioning are primarily dictated
Figure 1: The average vitality values of understorey planting mixtures by the performance of vegetation
in different types of woodland edges dominants and these are likely to
be relatively few in numbers. The
in the woodland edge (TT) attained their values increased (2.72), but did successful combination of different
the lowest values of vitality (1.97) not reach the vitality value of the plant species is one the main
and then during the maturity stage woodland edge (A). The maturation functions of planting design and
4,5
4.5 3,8
3.8 3,2
3.2
3.6
3,6
3,0
3.0
4,0
4.0 3.4
3,4
2,8
2.8
3.2
3,2
2.6
2,6
3,5
3.5
3.0
3,0
2.4
2,4
2.8
2,8
V itality
3,0
3.0 2,2
2.2
2,6
2.6 Year of observati
2,0
2.0
2008
2,4
2.4 2017
2.5
2,5
1,8
1.8
2.2
2,2
2.0
2,0
1,6
1.6
2.0
2,0
1.8
1,8 1.4
1,4
1.5
1,5 1,6
3 5 7 10 13
1.6 1,2
1.2
3 5 7 10 13
3 5 7 10 13
Numbers of plant genera in planting mixtures in Numbers of plant genera in planting mixtures
woodland edge A in woodland edge AP Numbers of plant genera in planting
a) b) c) mixtures in woodland edge TT
Year of observation
2008
2017
Figure 2: The average vitality values of understorey planting mixtures in different woodland edges
41
10 13
PLANTS
2008 2017
4.5
4,5
4,0
4.0
3.5
3,5
3.0
3,0
Vitality
Woodland edge A
Woodland edge AP
2.5
2,5 Woodland edge T T
2.0
2,0
1.5
1,5
1.0
1,0
3 5 7 10 13 3 5 7 10 13
Numbers of plant genera in planting mixtures
Figure 3 The average vitality values of understorey planting mixtures in different types of woodland edge and age
stage of planting mixture
landscape management (Dunnet and Hitchmough, to the site characterized by dense shade, southern
2004). Maturation of different understorey planting beechwoods (may only have 10 to 15 species in the
mixtures in the woodland edge (A) led to a stabilization field layer) (Woodland, 2005). Woodland herbaceous
of vitality values at about 2.57–3.1 (no significant species should be introduced into a new area as a part
statistical differences) (Figure 2a). The vitality values of well balanced and robust mixtures, both ecologically
of the lowest and the highest taxonomic diversity and visually, 15–20 woodland species with a range of
mixtures were also significantly lower in the woodland flowering times, colours, heights and structures and
edge (AP) (Figure 2b), and similarly the maturation growth forms (Woodland, 2005; Kircher et al., 2012).
of different understorey planting mixtures in the
woodland edge (AP) led to a stabilization of vitality 4 Conclusion
values at about 2.29–2.7 (no significant statistical
differences). But surprisingly, we noticed a significantly The 9-yr-long-time observation of understorey mixture
increased vitality level in the woodland edge (TT) in under different forest stand structures has showed
3 different possibilities (3-, 7-, and 13-different taxa in more divergent changes in herb layer establishment
mixtures) (Figure 2c). Figure 3 confirms stabilisation success and plant vitality, which can influence setting
effect of maturation understorey planting mixtures in innovative approaches of the herbaceous perennials
different woodland edges, if two years of observation planting design. Based on these results we can state
are compared. the following:
The mixtures did not show statistically significant the total population size of field layer in the first
differences in vitality values, except low taxonomic year of establishment has not been affected by the
diversity mixtures (3-different taxa in woodland edge type of a forest stand,
(A) and 5-different taxa in woodland edge (TT)). In the total population size in woodland edge was
our study, we used 5 variances of taxonomic diversity, dominated by Tilia cordata and Tilia platyphila
but species-richness in plant community varied (TT) persists almost unchanged compared with
from a lowland woodland (may support more than remaining woodland edges dominated by Acer
100 herbaceous species in the field layer, including platanoides (A), or Acer platanoides and Prunus
forbs, grasses, sedges, rushes and ferns), in contrast domestica (AP),
42
PLANTS
the most perspective plants of evaluated mixtures DUNNETT, N. – HITCHMOUGH, J. (Eds.). 2007. The
in forest stand were Aruncus dioicus and Primula dynamic landscape: design, ecology and management of
veris Ćabrilo´ with enormous expanding growth, naturalistic urban planting. Taylor – Francis.
and Lysimachia cletroides, Alchemilla mollis Áuslese´ FRANCIS, J. 1998. Enhancement of the Environmental
and Geranium macrorrhizum ´Spersard´ with stable Benefits of Farm Woodlands. Ecoscope Applied Ecologists
growth effect, Report to MAFF.
the total ground cover of herbaceous layers size GILBERT, O. L. – ANDERSON, P. 1998. Habitat creation and
in woodland edge was dominated by Tilia cordata repair. Oxford University Press on Demand.
and Tilia platyphila (TT) was lower and gradually GODEFROID, S. – PIAZZA, C. – ROSSI, G. – BUORD, S. –
increased during maturation, but start level and final STEVENS, A.D. – AGURAIUJA, R. – JOHNSON, I. 2011. How
successful are plant species reintroductions? In Biological
level of ground covering was higher in woodland
Conservation, vol. 144, 2011, no. 2, pp. 672–682.
edges dominated by Acer platanoides (A), or Acer
GODEFROID, S. – VANDERBORGHT, T. 2011. Plant
platanoides and Prunus domestica (AP),
reintroductions: the need for a global database. In
the vitality values of field layer were significantly Biodiversity and conservation, vol. 20, 2011, no. 14,
different in the first year of establishment (the best pp. 3683–3688.
was in woodland edge (A), then in woodland edge GORBUNOV, Y. N. 2008. Methodological recommendations
(AP) and the lowest values in woodland edge (TT)), for botanic gardens on the reintroduction of rare and
and during maturation of field layers (9-yr-old) the threatened plants. Botanic Gardens Conservation
differences in vitality levels were not significant. International (BGCI).
There is the need to state that the worst field GRIME, J. P. – HODGSON, J. G. – HUNT, R. 2014. Comparative
layer according to the evaluated parameters plant ecology: a functional approach to common British
(abundance, ground cover, vitality) was observed species. Springer.
in the woodland edge dominated by Tilia cordata HILL, D. 2002. The development of practical establishment
and Tilia platyphila (TT). These results appeal to and management techniques in new woodlands for
future research aims based on a) complex herb and multipurpose benefit. Review of Defra´s Farm woodlands
tree assortment and b) establishment, maintenance Research (WD01-Establishment). London : Defra.
and restoration approaches. The complex view on HILLOVÁ, D. 2010. Naturalistic Herbaceous Planting in
understorey vegetation may develop the process of Woodland Edge. In Acta horticulturae et regiotecturae
vol. 13, 2010, Special Issue.
guidelining specific parts of herbaceous perennial
planting design – low maintained understorey HITCHMOUGH, J. 2017. Sowing Beauty: Designing
Flowering Meadows from Seed. Timber Press.
planting design.
KINGSBURY, N. – OUDOLF, P. 2016. Planting: a new
perspective. Timber Press.
Acknowledgements KINGSBURY, N. 2011. The long-term performance
of herbaceous perennials. web: https://www.rhs.
This paper was created within the project KEGA
org.uk/about-the-rhs/publications/magazines/the-
Interactive experimental garden. Project registration
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number 035SPU-4/2016.
KIRCHER, W. – MESSER, U. – FENZL, J. – HEINS, M. –
DUNNETT, N. 2012. Development of Randomly Mixed
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44
CONTENTS
PLANTS
INTRODUCTIONAL POSSIBILITIES OF WOODY PLANTS USED

FOR LANDSCAPING IN CENTRAL YAKUTIA
T.S. Korobkova, S.M. Sabaraikina*
The Botanical Garden of Institute for Biological Problems of Cryolithozone SD RAS, Russia
The analysis of the species composition of plantations of trees in the city of Yakutsk and its surroundings showed that
introduced, mainly natural species of flora of Yakutia (50%). In 40 years of work of employees of the Yakut Botanical
garden culture there were introduced 180 species of trees and shrubs, including 55 species of local flora. All kinds
are divided into groups with different rhythms of growth. The plants with early rhythm the beginning of the growing
season and the early end of the growing season are the most promising ones for implementation in the conditions
of Yakutia.
Keywords: dendroflora, introduction of ornamental woody species, rhythmotypes
1 Introduction introductions to Yakutia with its unfavourable climate

is very difficult.
One of the main problems of plant introduction is The Yakut Botanical Garden of Institute for Biological
the preliminary selection of plant species from other Problems of Cryolithozone SD RAS (IBPC SD RAS)
climate zones, with sufficient stability in the new develops theoretical and practical issues of planting and
conditions of growth. There have been developed ornamental gardening in the Far North since the 1960s.
many methods for the selection of species. The It was recommended to 150 species of ornamental
method of climate analogues X. Myra (the international herbaceous annuals and perennials and 35 species of
Association of genocide scholars, 1890, 1909) – one of woody plants (Krotova, 1980). Nowadays, 222 species
the first introductions of plants – implied the transfer of rees and shrubs, with various geographical origins,
of plants to identical climatic conditions. In the pass the test with the introduction of culture (Petrova,
United States, the dendrologist A. Render (Render, Romanova and Nazarova, 2000).
1947) developed the introduction zonation based on However, even after 50 years of preparation of area-
one factor – absolute minimum of air temperature. based assortments is focused to representatives of
Followers of the method of climate applied analogical local wild flora. According to the current data, the flora
methods with some modifications – A. Pavari (Pavari, of Yakutia has 1,970 species of vascular plants, where
1916), F. Koeppen (Corep, 1923), A. Cajander (Cajander, dendroflora includes 189 species (Variety..., 2005).
1924), G. T. Selyaninov (1937), E. E. Kern (1925, 1934), Yakutian tree species have one advantage – all kinds
V. P. Alekseev (1960), I. I. Galaktionov, A. V. By (1963) of Yakutian trees are very winter-hardy. Therefore, the
and others. In the 1980s B. N. Golovkin attempted to duration of the selection among them for decorative
introduce the territory of the USSR on the same principle qualities is reduced by eliminating the need to select
and to evaluate the winter hardiness of woody plants frost forms. At the same time, the high polymorphism
on the American scale of Reader-Women (1986). The of features allows you to select the most decorative
ecological-historical method by M. V. Kultiasov (1953), forms.
based on the ecological potential of plants, acquired
in the course of historical evolution. According to the
2 Materials and Methods
method of determining selection of species according
to the identity of climates (Maleev, 1933; Shlykov, 1963; Yakutia is the coldest region of Russia with continuous
Vavilov, 1965), Yakutia, having no climatic analogues, permafrost; its thickness is about 100–150 m. The
is considered as an unpromising region to tap into Central Yakutian floristic region is the driest area with
the culture of an alien plant. The choice of sources of sharply continental climate. The total precipitation is
* S.M. Sabaraikina, The Botanical Garden of Institute for Biological Problems of Cryolithozone SD RAS, Russia, Yakutsk,

PLANTS
200–250 mm per year. The period with negative daily became universal for gardeners in other countries
temperature lasts 7–8 months, the average January (Table 2). Russia also sticks to it, because many plants
temperature reaches -41 ... -43 °C and the minimum is are exported from foreign nurseries, and we should
below -60 °C. At the same time, the average temperature focus on the conditions of their cultivation. The map
in July (the hottest month) is 18.8 °C, with an absolute of climatic zones based on the minimum temperature
maximum of 38 °C. High summer temperatures are in winter is in fact a map of hardiness or hardiness of
associated with the peculiarities of the radiation plants. The scale has 12 climatic zones (0 to 12), from
regime. The annual rate of direct radiation reaches northern latitudes (zero zone, the cold) to the equator.
48.4 kcal/cm2 and diffused – 40.2 kcal/cm2 (Agroclimatic The description of winter hardiness of species of plants
Resources of YASSR, 1973; Gavrilova, 1973). Yakutia is and new varieties is based on this scale. In Russia there
represented by seven floristic regions. We allocated are 10 hardiness zones, from zero to nine.
points of input materials for the introduction in central Winter hardiness was determined using a scale
Yakutia and held their evaluation (Table 1). developed in the Main Botanical garden of Academy of
The division into zones was developed in the United Sciences of Russia (Lapin and Sidneva, 1973). According
States Department of Agriculture (USDA), but then
Table 1 Climatic characteristics of the regions under of woody plants species growing.
Days within year with t˚ > Sum of t˚ for Frost-free Average absolute Coefficient*
Location year >10˚С period, days annual, min t˚
5˚С 10˚С С1 С2
Olekminsk 135 100 1600 95 54 100.1 0.49
Aldan 120 87 1300 75 53 99.5 0.89
V. Viliuysk 124 92 1400 75 57 112.2 0.33
Verkhoyansk 110 83 1200 65 67 123.7 0.26
Yakutsk 130 97 1500 90 57 110.3 0.38
`* C1 – conrod continentality; C2 – Mezentcev moistening
Table 2 Data on the winter hardiness zones of the plants

Zone Temperature (C°) Examples of areas with similar climate
min max
1 below -45 Central Siberia
2 -45.5 -40.1 Southern Siberia
3 -40.0 -34.5 Lapland
4 -34.4 -28.9 A large part of Russia, Northern and mountainous areas of Scandinavia
5a -28.9 -26.1 Average Russia, the Baltic countries
5b -26.0 -23.4 North-Eastern Poland, Western Ukraine, southern Sweden, southern Finland
6a -23.3 -20.6 Eastern Poland, Slovakia, Central Sweden, southern Norway
6b -20.5 -17.8 Central Poland, Eastern Hungary, the Czech Republic
7a -17.7 -15.0 Eastern Germany, Western Poland
7b -14.9 -12.3 Eastern Holland, Denmark
8a -12.2 -9.5 Central Holland, Belgium, Northern and Central France, Northern England
8b -9.4 -6.7 Seaside the Netherlands, Western France, Northern Italy, Central England
9 -6.6 -1.2 Southern France, Central Italy, Portugal, South England
10 -1.1 4.4 Southern Italy, southern Spain, Central Greece
11 4.4 10.6 North Africa
more than
12 South Africa
10.6
Source: Hofman H.A. 1998. Raveslot “Winterhardheid van boornkwekeriioewassen”
46
Korobkova, T.S. – Sabaraikina, S.M. | Introductional Possibilities of Woody Plants Used For Landscaping...
PLANTS
to this scale, the points of stability are defined as Taxa in the rank of families and genera are given by
follows: A.L. Takhtadzhyan (1987), generic and specific names
I – plants are not frosted over, are given by S.K. Cherepanov (1995), in some cases
II – frosting not more than 50% of the length of the names are used from different reports (Trees and
annual shoots, shrubs of the USSR, 1949-1962).
III – frosting from 50 to 100% of the length of Life forms of plants were identified by I.G. Serebriakova’s
annual shoots, system (1964) and assigned to two divisions:
IV – freeze with older shoots, 1. woody (trees, shrubs, bushes, tree and bush
V – frosting the aboveground part to the snow vines, cushion plants),
cover, 2. subwoody plants (shrubs, dwarf shrubs, semi-
VI – frosting the whole aboveground part, shrubs and creepers subshrubs).
VII – the plant dies entirely.
Data on plant phenology was processed by
Trulevich N. allocates 4 groups of introduction of plant mathematical statistics methods using the software
resistance and gives the following justification. STATGRAPHICS Plus-Printing, NIRSMAIN and EXCEL.
I – Unstable plants. They do not undergo a complete
annual cycle of development of shoots, rhythmic 3 Results and Discussion
processes are damaged, life as year after year, often
dying in the early stages of ontogenesis (obtained from About 5,000 samples of seeds were tested in Central
a seed) or in the first years of planting (transplanted). Yakutia for 40 years. The choice of plant assortment was
Their life expectancy is up to 5 years. carried out using species of both local flora and from
various botanical and geographical regions of Russia.
II – weakly stable plants. Plants are one-year
development cycle shoots irregularly, life as compared The majority of the species studied in the culture
to the plants natural habitats weakened, the life form refer to latitudinal boreal (96/50, 8%), steppe and
often varies considerably, not independently resume alpine latitudinal elements (28/14, 8% and 27/14, 3%,
the pace of ontogeny often less accelerated or slowed. respectively).
In the collection of live 5-10 years. The species of the Yakut flora make up more than 50%
III – Resistant plants. They have a full cycle of (94 species, about 22 families). This group includes
development of shoots, rhythmic processes are stable, various uses: food, medical, technical. Many types in
adapted to local climatic conditions, life as high on addition to these qualities are also decorative.
productivity, the size of these plants meets or exceeds One of the criteria of introductory stability of plants
their natural life form is preserved, self-seeding, not is the fullness of plants’ phenological phases. In
form, but successfully reproduce by artificial means. conditions of culture, all woody species bloom and
Held in the collection of up to 20 years. bear fruit annually, form the seeds, and their biological
IV – highly resistant plants. They develop fully as the productivity increases. All this testifies their high
previous ones, but multiply rapidly, often form a self- ductility and high capacity of introduction.
seeding or able to vegetatively samboteanu, expanding Comparative analysis of phenological biorhythms
footprint and stored in a collection after 20 years. allowed dividing plants into groups with different
Phenological observations of woody plants were carried rhythmotypes. The fenorhythmotype concept
out according to the “Guidelines for phenological combines plants with similar duration and timing of
observations in the botanical gardens of the USSR the beginning and end of the growing season, and
“, developed in 1975 at the Main Botanical Garden of with the same direction of the main phenological
Academy of Sciences. The degree of adaptation of the shifts states: vegetation and quiet. Timing of flowering
form was determined as the ratio of the actual amount and fruiting are considered. The growing season is
of points to the maximum amount of possible points. determined by the number of days between the dates
This ratio is called the adaptation coefficient and of onset and termination of average daily temperatures
expressed by the equation: Ka = S1 / S* × 100, where above 5 °C. Species, vegetation completed before the
Ka – adaptation coefficient; S1 – actual points sum; end of the growing season, attributed to the early
S* – fully adapted plants points sum. All figures are growing season -ending (Ee), after the end of the
determined on 5 score-scale where the highest score growing season to late (Le)-ending vegetation.
means a high degree of feature. Early rhythmotype is when vegetation starts in the first
half of May, with accumulation of amount of active
47
PLANTS
temperatures is 97.8°; noted bloom in late May – early In a “green building”, it is important to know decorative
June, the amount of active temperatures is 463.6°; properties of woody plants, the conditions of their
fruition in the first or second decade of June. This maximum development. During the observation,
group includes Ribes triste, R. procumbes, R. nigrum, 168 exotic species bloomed and fruited (Korobkova,
local varieties of currants (Yakut), Spiraea betulifolia, Sabaraykina, Pavlova and Ushnitskaya, 2001). The
S. dahurica, Sorbaria sorbifolia, Lonicera edulis, Atragene investigated types are divided into three phenological
sibirica. groups by time and duration of flowering (Table 3).
The average rhythmotype means the beginning of The largest group with the early onset and the end
vegetation occurs in the second decade of May, the of flowering (PP) has 133 species of plants, while
amount of active temperatures is 170.5 °C. This group 53 species of them are local. Most of the observed
includes species: Ribes glabellum, R. palczewskii, species bloom in May and June. The phenogroup PP
R. pauciflorum, local varieties of black currants includes species in the collection of genera: Berberis,
Myuryucheene, Sardana, Khara Kytalyk, all species Lonicera, Viburnum, Hippophae, Caragana, Physocarpus,
of the genera Crataegus, Rosa, Lonicera, Betula, Cerasus, Padus, Amygdalus, Prunus, Pentaphylloides,
Cotoneaster, Spiraea, Padus, Sorbus, Sambucus, Crataegus, Pyrus, Malus, Sorbus, Sorbocotoneaster,
Sorbocotoneaster, Caragana, Populis. Among the Aronia, Grossularia, Ribes, Syringa, Euonimus, Celastrus,
species beginning vegetation at this time, you can Securinega, Salix, Populus, Acer, Alnus, Betula, Ulmus,
select a group by timing of flowering and fruiting: with Vitis. The earliest flowering was observed in 2004–2005
early flowering and fruiting (AvEflEfr), with an average during the period from May 2 to May 24 among
flowering and fruiting (AvAflAfr), and late flowering and many plants (Hippophae rhamnoides L., Cerasus avium
fruiting (AvLflLfr). Moench, Cerasus vulgaris Mill., Salix aegyptiaca L., Salix
The types with late rhythmotype (Lv): the beginning dasyclados Wimm., Ribes rubrum L., Ribes alpinum L.,
of vegetation is observed in the third decade of May, Ribes nigrum L., Grossularia reclinata (L.) Mill.).
the amount of active temperature is 284.8 degrees, for The plants of the average phenogroup (CP) bloom in
bloom is 613 ˚C for native species are not represented. June and July. These include species of genera Colutea,
The plants of the phenogroups EvEflEe, AvEflAe, AvAflEe Ligustrum, Deutzia. The late blooming group PP includes
are most adapted to local climatic rhythm and the following observed species: Symphoricarpus,
therefore more perspective for introduction in Yakutia. Lespedeza, Sorbaria, Rubus, Parthenocissus, Aralia,
The distribution of native species of vegetation on Eleutherococcus, Lycium and Hibiscus.
top as follows: 74 of them (80%) begin vegetation, Siberian species dominate over exotic species. Their
bloom in the early stages, 11 species start growing hardiness is estimated at 1.2 points (on the scale of GBS).
season, flowering takes place in the medium term, The analysis of the causes of unsuccessful introductions
8 species are characterized by average vegetation showed that for berry species migrating from Siberia
period (Ribes glabellum, R. palczewskii, Betula fruticosa, (Berdsk, Novosibirsk, Barnaul) and the Northern
Sorbocotoneaster pozdnjakowii). All 93 species (100%) European part of Russia (Ufa, Syktyvkar, Petrozavodsk,
complete vegetation before the end of the vegetation Michurinsk), the most important is the minimum
growing season. Phenological biorhythm of woody winter temperature and the amount of average daily
plants can be regarded as an integral indicator of the temperatures above 10 °C. The main type of damage
level of adaptation of exotic species, if we consider the is freezing off. When this value is not only the extreme
beginning of the growing season and total duration of minimum temperatures, but also the duration of their
the growing season (Bulygin and Firsov, 1995). exposure. There is repeatability of extremely cold
Table 3 Number of species with different duration of flowering

Phenogroups Terms Average duration (days) Number of species
start finish
EE before 06.06 before 23.06 11 133
AE before 06.06 after 23.06 20 5
LL after 06.06 after 23.06 12 33
E – early; L – late; A – average
48
PLANTS
weather (average daily temperature is below minus Cerasus besseyi Bailey (Vladivostok, Rostov)
45.2 °C) and hard-freezing weather (-32.5–42.4 °C) in 4 points – Berberis amurensis Maxim. (Moscow,
November in Central Yakutia is 40-45%. In December Novosibirsk)
and January, it is 60–70% and 25–30%. Padus maackii (Rupr.) Kom. (Moscow,
Barnaul, Irkutsk, Latvia)
Far Eastern species have significantly lower hardiness.
Species having 1–3 points are perspective. 5 points – Pyrus ussuriensis Maxim (Khabarovsk)
1 point – Crataegus maximowiczii Schneid (Barnaul, 6 points – Armeniaca manschurica (Maxim) Skvorts.
Irkutsk) (Khabarovsk, Kazakhstan)
2 points – Lonicera maximowiczii (Rupr.) Regel. (Altai) Cerasus glandulosa (Thunb.) Loisel.
Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. (Kirovsk, Lithuania) (Kazakhstan, Barnaul, Irkutsk, Vladivostok)
3 points – Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge. (Khabarovsk) Prunus ussuriensis Koval. (Kazakhstan,
Khabarovsk)
Lonicera chrysantha Turcz. (Saint
Petersburg) Ribes komarovii Pojark. (Slovakia, Altai)
Lonicera ruprechtiana Regel (Kirovsk, 7 points – Actinidia arguta Planch (Moscow, Poland)
Moscow, Novosibirsk) A. kolomikta Maxim. (Moscow, Slovakia)
Malus mandschurica (Maxim) Kom. Cerasus maximowiczii Rupr. (Minsk, Ukraine,
(Barnaul, Vladivostok) Tajikistan)
Ribes mandschuricum (Maxim) Kom. (Amur Pyrus japonica Thumb. (Moscow, Tajikistan)
oblast) Ribes ussuriense Jancz. (Moscow, Tajikistan)
Rosa rugosa Thunb. (Moscow, Novosibirsk, Sorbus amurensis Koehne. (Moscow, France)
Lithuania) Vitis amurensis Rupr. (Moscow, Poland)
Sorbus sambucifolia M. Roem. (Kirovsk)
Table 4 Comprehensive Evaluation of Introduction of Woody Plants in the Yakut Botanical Garden (2007–2009)
Σ (+) temperature(°С) Index of Coefficient of Winter-
Species beginning of during thermophilia phenological hardiness,
vegetation vegetation (Fjw) adaptation (Кpha) score
Sorbaria sorbifolia 88.8 2145.4 0.041 3.82 I
Crataegus daurica 147.6 2060.9 0.072 6.47 I
Rosa majalis 88.8 2057.0 0.083 13.31 II
Rosa jacutica 147.6 2068.8 0.071 8.31 I
Lonicera edulis 74.5 2101.2 0.035 5.6 I
Betula dahurica 172.1 2070.6 0.083 12 III
Betula exelis 120.2 2058.7 0.058 7 I
Betula fruticosa 120.2 1978.2 0.061 8 I
Cotoneaster melanocarpus 120.2 2044.8 0.059 7.11 I
Ribes procumbens 74.5 2120.4 0.047 4.97 I
Ribes nigrum ssp. sibiricum 74.5 2133.5 0.035 4.64 II
Ribes pauciflorum 74.5 2005.1 0.037 2.31 I
Ribes glabellum 147.6 2040.6 0.072 2.56 I
Spiraea betulifolia 88.8 2091.3 0.042 5 III
Spiraea dahurica 109.0 2104.4 0.052 9.39 I
Padus avium 100.6 2114.9 0.047 6.16 I
Sorbus sibirica 100.6 2140.2 0.047 5.91 II
Sambucus racemosa 187.0 2076.9 0.090 3.83 II
Sorbocotoneaster pozdnjakowii 147.6 2010.0 0.073 7.96 I
49
PLANTS
A comprehensive assessment of the results of the References

introduction of 19 species of woody plants (Table
3) showed that in the conditions of Central Yakutia, AGROCLIMATIC resources of YASSR. In Gidrometeoyzdat,
floristic area indicators of successful introduction of 1973, 150 p.
different types in Yakutia are various. Winter hardiness BULYGIN, N.E. – FIRSOV, G.A. 1995. Experience and
varies from I to III points, phenological adaptation Perspectives of Introduction of Woody Plants of Red
coefficient from 2.31 (Ribes pauciflorum) to 13.31 Book in St. Petersburg. Biodiversity. In Plant Introduction.
Materials of second international scientific conference,
(Rosa majalis). Such differences may be explained by
St. Petersburg, 1995, pp. 113–115.
the environmental characteristics of plants in places
CHEREPANOV, S.K. Vascular plants of Russia and
of mobilizing culture, exposure to disease and pest
neighboring countries. St. Petersburg, 1995, 900 p.
species.
DIVERSITY of flora in Yakutia. Novosibirsk : SB RAS, 2005,
We can conclude that the prospects for the introduction 328 p.
of woody species are large enough in Yakutia. And GAVRILOVA, M.K. Climate of central Yakutia. Yakutsk :
although the main species representing economic Yakutsk Publishing House, 1973, 119 p.
interests are defined and used, new species may enrich KOROBKOVA, T.S. – SABARAYKINA, S.M. – PAVLOVA, E.O. –
the cultural flora of Yakutia or can be used for breeding USHNITSKAYA, U.P Experience and perspectives of Yakutsk
and scientific purposes. botanical garden for landscaping of Yakutsk. In Materials
of the 6th regional scientific conference “Landscape
4 Conclusions architecture and urban design“, Yakutsk, 2011, pp. 26–28.
KROTOVA, Z.E. Results of introduction iests of ornamental
The most resistant species to adverse abiotic and plants in Yakutia. Ornamental plants for landscaping of
biotic factors include species belonging to the type settlements of Yakutia. Collection of scientific papers,
of sustainable and dynamic development. The plants Yakutsk, 1980, no. 4, 14 p.
of transition and development of indeterminate types PETROVA, A.E. – ROMANOVA, A.J. – NAZAROV, E.I. 2000.
with a long growing season are less stable, but despite Introduction of trees and thrubs in Central Yakutia. Yakutsk
weak frost hardiness, they can normally grow and : Publishing House of SB RAS YSC, 2000, 268 p.
evolve due to high bine formation ability, resistance to TAKHTADZHYAN, A. L. Floristic Regions of the World. In
air drought and resistance to pests and diseases. Science, 1978, 247 p.
During introduction of woody plants into Central TECHNIQUE of phenological observations in Botanical
Gardens of the USSR Under. ed. P.I. Lapin, M. : GBS USSR
Yakutia, changes in terms of vegetation, nature and
Academy of Sciences, 1975, 23 p.
strength of growth are noticed, and coming into fruition
TRULEVICH, N. In Ecological-phytocenotic basis of plant
is slowing. The main factors that should be considered
introduction. M., 1991, 216 p.
when introducing species from other regions of Russia
VSTOVSKAYA, T.N. Introduction of woody plants of Far East
are the minimum winter temperature and the amount
in Western Siberia. Novosibirsk : Nauka, 1987, 196 p.
of average daily temperatures above 10 °C. During the
introduction of Yakut species, moisture content of the nnnnn
territory and duration of period with a temperature
higher than 5 °C are very important.
The largest group with the early onset and the end
of flowering has 133 species of plants, 53 species of
them are local, which allows using native species in
landscaping. During the summer season, the emphasis
falls on the flowering Siberian and Far Eastern species.
50
CONTENTS
PLANTS
THE SPREAD RATE OF CYDALIMA PERSPECTALIS (WALKER 1859)

IN SLOVAKIA (2013–2015)
Ladislav Bakay,* Ján Kollár
The box tree moth, Cydalima perspectalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) was discovered in Slovakia in 2010. In
2013, we started to monitor its spread rate and we continued to do so till 2015. We found that the box tree moth has
a relatively fast spread rate and it is successfully acclimatised with 3 overlapping generations in one year. It thrives
in the warm climatic regions of Slovakia but can also spread to the moderately warm climatic regions. During our
monitoring we observed natural predators of the box tree moth. Passer domesticus L. and Parus major L. Turdus
merula L. and Ficedula albicollis Tem. predated on imagos, while Ficedula albicollis caught distracted flying imagos
(melanic form of C. perspectalis did not attract predators unlike the natural form), Turdus merula searched for the prey
in the the canopy of Buxus sp.
Keywords: Cydalima perspectalis, Buxus sempervirens, invasive alien pest, Lepidoptera
1 Introduction Hizal et al., 2012). However, the species also appears

to be capable of bearing fairly low temperatures and
Globalization of trade and travel on an unprecedented spreading naturally in the continent (Krüger, 2008;
scale has inadvertently led to the increased transport Feldtrauer et al., 2009; Muus et al., 2009; Sigg, 2009;
and introduction of alien species, and the breaking Leuthardt et al., 2010; van der Straten et Muus, 2010), so
down of natural barriers between countries and that its very rapid expansion is most likely due to both
continents (Lowe et al., 2000). Invasive alien species active colonization and independent human-induced
are increasingly recognized as one of the major threats introductions. Box trees are abundantly planted as
to biodiversity (Wittenberg et al., 2006). The box tree ornamentals in most climatically suitable European
moth, Cydalima perspectalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: regions; thus, the availability of host plants should not
Crambidae), formerly placed in the genera Phakellura, be a limiting factor. Although predation and parasitism
Glyphodes, Diaphania and Neoglyphodes (Mally seem to occur in C. perspectalis in Europe, few studies
and Nuss, 2010), is a native pest of Buxus trees in have covered these topics to date (Zimmermann and
Asia (Wang, 1980). Cydalima perspectalis has been Wührer, 2010).
detected in Europe in 2007, when it was reported from
south-western Germany (Krüger, 2008), Switzerland 2 Material and Methods
(Billen, 2007; Käppeli, 2008; Sigg, 2009) and the
Netherlands (Muus et al., 2009; van der Straten et The monitoring of C. perspectalis in the years
Muus, 2010). Since then, the species has been found 2013–2015 in Slovakia was carried out with the help of
in an increasing number of localities and several other questionnaires addressed to landscape architects and
European countries. Between 2008 and 2010, it was horticulturists (mostly Alumni students from the Slovak
recorded from southern England (Mitchell, 2009), University of Agriculture) and field observations. The
France (Feldtrauer et al., 2009), Austria (Rodeland questionnaire contained detailed descriptions and
2009), Slovakia (Slamka, 2010), Belgium (Casteels et photos of C. perspectalis and its symptoms on Buxus sp.
al., 2011; De Prins et Steeman, 2011) and northern The respondents confirmed the presence or absence
Italy (Biondi, 2010; EPPO, 2011a). In September 2011, on the locality and attached pictures, where it was
Sáfian et Horváth (2011) collected the species in possible to clearly identify C. perspectalis. Doubtful
a botanical garden in western Hungary. In 2011, the data were not considered. Areas without information
species appeared in the European part of Turkey, being were visited and the presence of C. perspectalis was
recorded from the western side of Istanbul (Hizal, 2012; confirmed visually. Localities with the presence of
* Ladislav Bakay, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of planting design and maintenance,
Tulipánová 7, 949 01 Nitra, Slovak Republic, e-mail: [email protected]
51

PLANTS
C. perspectalis were categorized

according to the Climatic regions
map of Slovakia (Lapin et al., 2002).
During our field observations we
also tried to observe occurrence of
natural predators on C. perspectalis
larvae and imagos.
3 Results and discussion

In the 1st year of monitoring
(2013) we found C. perspectalis in
Bratislava – Karlova Ves (dfs: 7686a),
Nitra (dfs: 7674c) and Lovinobaňa
(dfs: 7583d). In all localities, we
found heavy infestations and
3 overlapping generations of
C. perspectalis. In the next year
(2014), we found a rapid spread of Figure 1: Number of localities with the presence of Cydalima perspectalis in
C. perspectalis in nearby localities different climatic regions
Source: Lapin et al (2002)
from the infested sites but also
newly infested localities. In 2014, (dfs: 7869d), Podunajské Biskupice (dfs: 7872a), Štitáre (dfs: 7674d) and
4 years after the first record of (7869c), Malinovo (dfs: 7869b), Košice (dfs: 7293c). In all localities,
C. perspectalis in Slovakia, we found Záhorská Bystrica (dfs: 7768c), we found heavy infestation with
infested specimens of Buxus sp. in Chorvátsky Grob, Bernolákovo 3 overlapping generations. In the
Rusovce (dfs: 7968b), Kalinkovo (dfs: (dfs 7769d), Šenkvice (dfs: 7770a), 3rd year of monitoring (2015), we
7969b), Skalica (dfs: 7169c), Senica Senec (dfs: 7770c), Hlohovec (dfs: found C. perspectalis in Zvolen (dfs:
(dfs: 7370a), Devín (dfs: 7869c), 7869b), Piešťany (dfs: 7472b), 7480b), Veľká Ves nad Ipľom (dfs:
Šamorín (dfs: 7969d), Miloslavov Kolíňany (dfs: 7675a), Matúškovo 7980b), Komárno (dfs: 8274b), Nové
Figure 2: Presence of Cydalima perspectalis in the monitored years (2013–2015) in Slovakia
52
Bakay, L. – Kollár, J. | The Spread Rate of Cydalima perspectalis (Walker 1859) in Slovakia (2013–2015)
PLANTS
climatic regions without the presence of Cydalima perspectalis

prediction of the future spread of Cydalima perspectalis according
the climatic regions (2015–2020)
climatic regions with the presence of Cydalima perspectalis
Figure 3: Climatic regions with the presence of Cydalima perspectalis and further prediction of its spread in the years
2015–2020 in Slovakia
Zámky (dfs: 8074b), Sokolovce (dfs: 7473c), Modra (dfs: moderately warm climatic regions, what supports our
7669d), Partizánske (dfs: 7376c), Kosihovce, Čebovce predictions (Bakay, unpublished data).
(dfs: 7881a), Malé Leváre (dfs: 7467d), Nitrianske Sučany During our survey we also observed natural predation
(dfs: 7276d), Kamenica nad Hronom (dfs: 8178c), of larvae and imagos of C. perspectalis. Larvae of
Trenčín (dfs: 7174a), Tvrdošovce (dfs: 7974a), Šaľa (dfs: C. perspectalis were predated by Passer domesticus
7873a), Trnava (dfs: 7671b), Palárikovo (dfs: 7974c) and L. and Parus major L. Turdus merula L. and Ficedula
Trebejov (dfs: 7193c). albicollis Tem. predated on imagos, while Ficedula
Cydalima perspectalis was found during our survey in albicollis caught distracted flying imagos (melanic form
climatic regions characterized as warm, with more than of C. perspectalis did not attract predators unlike the
25 summer days (with daily maximum air temperature natural form), Turdus merula searched for the prey in
≥25 °C). The most localities were in climatic subregions the canopy of Buxus sp.
T1 (warm, very dry, mild winter) and T4 (warm,
moderately dry, with cool winter) (see Fig.1). The total of 4 Conclusions
16 localities were in the climatic subregions T2 (warm,
dry, with cool winter) and T6 (warm, moderately humid, C. perspectalis is considered a dangerous alien pest with
with cool winter). Only 4 localities were in the climatic a rapid spread. The box tree moth seriously damages
regions T5 (warm, moderately dry, with cool winter) Buxus species and can cause even death of older
and T7 (warm, moderately humid, with cool winter). plants. Since Buxus is a widely used ornamental plant
The only climatic subregion in the warm climatic region in Slovakia, we witnessed a very efficient spread of the
without a confirmed presence of Cydalima perspectalis box tree moth mainly in the warm climatic regions of
was the subregion T3 (warm, dry with cool winter). Slovakia. The box tree moth had 3 generations and we
Figure 3 describes the area, where Cydalima perspectalis predict its wider spread in to the moderately warm
is considered a pest and also a prediction for the years climatic regions of Slovakia. Further monitoring is
2015–2020, where C. perspectalis can be a pest on Buxus necessary especially with the focus on natural predators
sp. Our findings are similar to the predictions made by of the box tree moth in Slovakia.
Wan et al (2014) New localities of the box tree moth
from 2016 indicate that it can successfully survive in
53
PLANTS
Acknowledgements perspectalis (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) in der Region Basel –

eine für die Schweiz neue Schädlingsart. In Entomo
This paper was supported by the project KEGA Helvetica, vol. 3, 2010, pp. 51–57.
Development and implementation of the standards LOWE, S. – BROWNE, M. – BOUDJELAS, S. – DE POORTER,
for urban greenery management. Project registration M. 2000. 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species.
number 003SPU-4/2017 and by the project VEGA, A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database.
Grant No. 1/0767/17 Response of ecosystem services Publ. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), a specialist
of grape growing country to climate change regional group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the
World Conservation Union (IUCN). 12 pp. First publ. special
impact – change of function to adaptation potential.
lift-out in Aliens 12 Dec. 2000. Updated and reprinted
version: Nov. 2004.
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EPPO. 2011. New data on quarantine pests and pests of Pyraloidea. Bratislava : Slamka Press, 2010, 174 p. ISBN
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no. 9, pp. 11–12.
SIGG, C. R. 2009. Auch das noch: Ein neuer Buchs-
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54
CONTENTS
PLANTS
RECOMMENDED ROSA SP. L. SPECIES IN THE GREEN SPACES

OF NITRA CITY ON THE BASIS OF THEIR AESTHETIC VALUE
AND ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS
Katarína Rovná,* Jana Černá
This paper deals with floristic screening and biological and taxonomical studies of wild roses naturally growing
in the selected areas around Nitra. The aim was to demonstrate the variability of botanical species in the locality
of Nitra with a focus on the selection of suitable individuals for subsequent use in landscaping. Botanical roses
are characterized by unusual shrub shape, rich flowering and some with intense scents. However, they are mostly
located in large green areas, especially in city parks and extensive green areas within a city. The study and floristic
survey of species which were described by rhodologists such as Větvička and Bertová (1992), Klášterský (1934–1935),
Kerényi-Nagy (2010) and others who carried out the botanical screening in the Zobor Hills was conducted during
2010 to 2013.
Keywords: ecological requirements, floristic survey, Rosa L., variability
1 Introduction is occupied by Rosa canina L., some have only a point

occurrence, for example Rosa glauca and Rosa × reversa.
Roses (Rosa sp. L.) belong to the oldest grown The Zobor Hills are one of the five separate groups of
ornamental plants. The oldest mention of rose growing the Tribeč mountain range. From the floral point of view,
is reported in the South-East Asia from where roses they are the richest territories. They represent valuable
gradually expanded through the Middle East to the natural values important from a scientific, conservation
Mediterranean area and Europe (Večeřa et al., 1967; and aesthetic points of view. The hill Zobor (587 m
Karahan, 2005; Çinar, 2005). Large development of above sea level), is almost in the middle of the Tribeč
cultivation was recorded in ancient Rome. They did grow mountain range. Varied geological conditions have
them not only for their beauty but also for the benefit given room for the expansion of diverse habitat types
(Joublan et al., 1996; Ježovič and Lukáčik, 2011). The with many rare species of plants and animals. From this
application of roses in planting arrangements does not point of view, the Zobor Hills are the most valuable
have a long tradition in Slovakia; even though natural part in the Protected Landscape Area of Ponitrie
conditions are quite favourable for their cultivation (Svobodová, 1980).
there is a lack of domestic producers of rose seedlings,
The previous floristic surveys of the Zobor Hills were
including botanical species. Nonetheless, we found
carried out by Knapp in 1863, Klášterský in 1934–1935,
botanical species regarding the ecological requirement
Klášterská in 1969, Deyl in 1947, Větvička and Višňovská
for suitable primarily on degraded soils (Feriancová,
in 1977, Řehořek et al. (2007), Kerényi-Nagy and
Števulová 1997). Roses are especially popular with the
Baranec (2008) and Kerényi-Nagy, Eliáš and Baranec
beauty of flowers, their shape, richness of flowering and
(2008). We focused on surveys made by Řehořek et al.
colour range. They are variable in shape, too (Večeřa et
(2007), Kerényi-Nagy and Baranec (2008) and Kerényi-
al., 1967; Karahan, 2005).
Nagy, Eliáš and Baranec (2008).
The area of roses extends solely to the northern
Roses do not belong to long-lasting woody plants,
hemisphere. Their spread in individual continents is
but they have undoubtedly very high importance in
almost equal, but the most original species still grow
landscaping. Botanical species, which we focused on
in Asia, in China (Větvička, Krejčová, 2001). Some roses
at evaluated localities, have a great landscape and
have an endemic appearance, like section Carolinae
horticultural potential.
in North America, or on the other side, the vast area
* Katarína Rovná, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová
7, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected]
55

PLANTS
2 Material and Methods obtusifolia Desv., Rosa rubiginosa L., Rosa pimpinellifolia
L., Rosa subcanina (Christ) Dalla Torre et Sarnth. and
The climate of the research area Zobor Hills – Lyžiarska Rosa zalana Wiesb.
lúka is warm and dry. It is the driest area of the northern The previous surveys confirmed 17 species. In Figure
part of the Danube Lowland. These conditions suit 1 there are displayed species whose occurrence
the wild rose and for this reason the site was selected was confirmed in our research during 2010–2013.
for the floristic research. The average temperature is Occurrence of 8 species which were observed in the
7.5–9° C and the average rainfall is 550–750 mm previous surveys held on Lyžiarska lúka was confirmed
(Hreško et al., 2006). Phytogeographically, the group of and 5 different species which were not mentioned
the Zobor Hills belongs to the area of the Slovak pre- by Řehořek et al. (2007), Kerényi-Nagy and Baranec
Carpathian flora (Řehořek et al., 2007). (2008) and Kerényi-Nagy, Eliáš and Baranec (2008)
Based on the previous floristic surveys Řehořek et al. were determined. In our survey we did not confirm the
(2007), Kerényi-Nagy and Baranec (2008) and Kerényi- occurrence of 9 species which were mentioned in the
Nagy, Eliáš and Baranec (2008), we focused on the previous survey. This result may be due to the fact that
occurrence of autochthonous and allochthonous our survey was carried out in Lyžiarska lúka only.
species of Rosa sp. L. in the studied locality.
The selected and evaluated roses have an importance
In addition to the ecological requirements, the for cultivation and landscape purposes in Central
following criteria have been set as the additional Europe.
criteria for the selection of suitable species for the urban
The most widespread species in the Zobor Hills, which
environment: attractiveness of the shape, richness of
was confirmed not only by Řehořek et al. (2007),
flowering, colour and fragrance of flowers, shape, and
Kerényi-Nagy and Baranec (2008) and Kerényi-Nagy,
colour of fruits.
Eliáš and Baranec (2008) but also by others is Rosa
For evaluation of the attractiveness of the shape and canina L. This rose belongs to the subgenus Eurosa and
richness of flowering, the method by Větvička (2001) the section Caninae. Flowers are usually composed in
was used, colour of flowers and fruits were evaluated corymbs. Leaves are composed of 5 to 7 leaflets and
by Wilson (1941) and variability of fruit shape was branches are covered by thick hooked prickles. This
evaluated by Bauer (2005). The sensorial method was rose flowers on annual shoots, and does not remount.
used to evaluate fragrance of flowers. It is the most frequent and the most variable rose of the
The determination of the individual Rosa sp. L. taxa has Slovak nature. According to outer morphological signs
been carried out using the key given in Flora Slovakia we can tell it has contributed to the formation of the
IV / 3 (Větvička and Bertová, 1992) and the key for oldest European cultural roses, such as R. damascena,
determination of roses by Kerényi-Nagy (2010). R. alba and R. centifolia (Ježovič and Lukáčik, 2011). In
modern history, Rosa canina is often used in breeding
3 Results and Discussion because of its resilience. Rudolf Geschwind has
obtained many roses through its hybridization. For
Řehořek et al. (2007) reported the occurrence of urban area it is suitable for parks due to its size. It grows
botanical roses in the Zobor Hills: Rosa agrestis SAVI. up to 3 m and it can be used as a climber.
reported by Klášterský 1934–1935, Rosa arvensis
Rosa tomentosa SMITH belongs to the subgenus Eurosa
HUDSON reported by Knapp 1863, Deyl 1947 and
and the section Caninae. This shrub is up to 2 m high.
Klášterská 1969, Rosa dumalis BECHST. and Rosa inodora
Flowers are light pint to white. Leaves are composed
FR. Reported by Řehořek, Rosa gallica L. and Rosa
of 5–7 leaflets. It is a shrub with arching or climbing
pimpinelifolia L. reported by Benčať and Majer 1976,
stems, which prefers calcareous to mildly acidic soils.
Rosa jundzilli BESS., Rosa micrantha BORRER ex SM. and
Rosa tomentosa reported by Klášterský 1933–1935, Rosa dumalis Bechst. It is a shrub that grows 1–2 m
Větvička and Bertová 1992, Rosa rubiginosa L. reported high. It has long, bent thorns. It bears dark or light pink
by Knapp 1865 and Rosa zalana WIESB. reported by flowers in June and July. The hips are oval and quite
Klášterskou 1969. soft.
Kerényi-Nagy and Baranec (2008) and Kerényi-Nagy, Section Pimpinellifoliae is represented by
Eliáš and Baranec (2008) reported occurrence of: R. pimpinellifolia L. and R. foetida HERRM. These roses
R. arvensis Hudson, Rosa caesia Sm., Rosa canina L., Rosa flower separately on short annual shoots which grow
corymbifera Borkh., Rosa dumalis Bechst., Rosa gallica L., out of last year‘s wood. They flower very early and
Rosa jundzillii Bess., Rosa micrantha Borrer ex Sm., Rosa flowers are white or yellow. Number of leaflets is higher,
56
Rovná, K. – Černá, J. | Recommended Rosa sp. L. Species in the Green Spaces of Nitra City...
PLANTS
Rosa alba L.
Rosa foetida Herman
Rosa mollis Sm.
Rosa subcanina (Christ) Dalla Torre et Samth.
Rosa rubiginosa L.
Rosa obtusifolia Desv.
Rosa corymbifera Borkh.
Rosa caesia Sm.
Rosa micrantha Borrer ex Sm.
Rosa inodora Fries
Rosa gallica L.
Rosa jundzillii Besse
Rosa gizellae Borbás
Rosa canina var. lepidicola Heinr. Braun
Rosa canina var. squarrosa A. Rau
Rosa canina L.
Rosa agrestis Savi
Rosa zalana Wiesb.
Rosa tomentosa Sm.
Rosa dumalis Bechsts.
Rosa arvensis Hudson
Rosa pimpinellifolia L.
floristic Survays Řehořek et al., Kerény-Nagy et al.

our data
Figure 1: Species confirmed by Řehořek et al. (2007), Kerényi-Nagy and Baranec (2008) and Kerényi-Nagy, Eliáš
and Baranec (2008) and our findings
usually 7 to 13. Prickles are straight acicular. They need conditions they are hardy. To this section belong
low maintenance and are very hardy. R. gallica L. R. × alba L. and R. jundzillii Besser (Večeřa et
R. pimpinellifolia L. is a shrub usually 0.5–1.0 m high. al., 1967; Ercisli et al., 2005).
It spreads by basal shoots and can cover large areas. R. gallica L. grows on warm limestone slopes. Its shrub
Flowers are cream white, rarely pink. A well-known is 1 m high. It spreads by basal shoots but not like
group of hybrids, as mentioned in Ježovič and Lukáčik R. pimpinellifolia L. Leaves have only 5 leaflets. Flowers
(2011) are the so-called spring varieties from R. Kordes. are pink or red. Galician rose is the most important
R. foetida HERRM. was imported to Europe in 13th European rose and also the most commonly used in
century and then in 16th century. The shrub is 3 m high. the creation of ancient cultural roses. It is the main
Flowers are yellow. It is a very hardy rose. starting species in the breeding of European cultural
roses (Větvička and Krejčová, 2001; Ježovič and Lukáčik
Section Gallicanae is typical with flowers which appear
2011).
on short annual shoots which grow out of last year‘s
wood, just like the section Pimpinellifoliae. Flowers are R. × alba L. is probably a hybrid between the sections
usually composed in corymbs or appear separately. Caninae and Gallicanae. It is a shrub to 2 m high. Prickles
The colour is usually pink, rarely red or white. Leaves are variable, hooked. Flowers are white, sometimes
are composed of 3 to 7 leaflets. In Slovak climatic light pink, fragrant, most have many petals.
57
PLANTS
R. jundzillii Besser is a shrub 2–4 m high. Flowers are HREŠKO, J. – PUCHEROVÁ, Z. – BALÁŽ, I. 2006. Krajina Nitry
solitary or cluster-formed. Branches are arching, armed a jej okolia – Úvodná etapa výskumu. Nitra : UKF, 2006, 182
with prickles, upright. p. ISBN 80-8094-066-5.
Section Synstylae species grow as strong shrubs. JEŽOVIČ, V. – LUKÁČIK, I. 2011. Selected species of the
genus Rosa L. and the possibility of their use in the
Because of their origin they are not very hardy. This
current landscaping. In Rostliny v podmínkách měnícího
section is represented by R. arvensis (Huds.).
se klimatu. Lednice : Úroda, 2011, p. 191–202. ISSN
R. arvensis (Huds.) is a fast-growing shrub, with arching 0139-6013.
stems, sometimes 6 m long. It has pure white flowers JOUBLAN, J. P. – BERTI, M. – SERRI, H. – WILCKENS, R. –
which are born in July. The flowers are followed by HEVIA, F. – FIGUEROA, I. 1996. Wild rose germplasm
dark red, rounded to oval fleshy hips which enclose evaluation in Chile. pp. 584–588. In J. Janick (ed.) Progress
the seeds. It can be used in hedges, woodlands. Many in new crops. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA. Web: http://www.
insects, including bees, moths and butterflies are hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/v3-584.html
attracted to the R. arvensis (Huds.) KARAHAN, F. 2005. Importance of Landscape
Characteristics for Plant Diversity and Distribution of Rosa
Taxa in the North-Eastern Anatolia Ecoregion, Turkey.
4 Conclusion
In Acta Horticulturae, vol. 690, 2005, pp. 51–56. DOI:
Botanical roses belong to an irreplaceable group of 10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.690.10
ornamental plants that are perfectly adapted to the KERÉNYI-NAGY, V. 2010. Kľúč na určovanie botanických
climatic conditions of Slovakia. The positive features druhov ruží na európskom kontinente. Nepublikovaný
rukopis. 2010.
of the botanical species include resistance to pests
and diseases, winter hardness, and low maintenance. KERÉNYI-NAGY, V. – BARANEC, T. 2008. A Nyitrai Szlovák
Agrártudományi Egyetem Növénytani Tanszékének
Their flowers have long been used for oil production.
rózsa-herbáriuma – Rose herbarium of the Slovak
Fruits are used in a wide variety of food and nutrition
University of Agriculture in Nitra, Department of Botany.
products due the content of vitamin C. In XXVII. Vándorgyűlés Előadások összefoglalói, 2008.
They create unusual shapes that excel in some species szeptember 25.–26., Magyar Biológiai Társaság, Budapest,
with rich bloom and intense scent. Applying them, 2008, pp. 91–104.
in view of the size of the species, is mainly in larger KERÉNYI-NAGY, V. – ELIÁŠ, P. jun. – BARANEC, T. 2008.
areas of greenery, in parks, in the countryside, around Adatok a Zobor-hegység flórájához. Data for flora of the
cycling routes, in recreational areas, in farm facilities or Zobor-mountains. In Kitaibelia, vol. 13, 2008, no. 1, p. 109.
in industrial complexes. KLÁŠTERSKý, I. 1969. Komplex Rosa canina
Slovakia has a rich gene pool of botanical roses in v Československu. In Zpravodaj Československé botanické
společnosti, 1969, no. 6, pp. 174–179.
different climatic regions. There should be a need for
conserving a multiplication of these species. ŘEHOŘEK, V. – SVOBODOVÁ, Z. – ULRICH, L. – KUBINSKÁ,
A. – LACKOVIČOVÁ, A. 2007. Lišajníky, machorasty
a cievnaté rastliny Zoborských vrchov. Nitra : SPU, 2007,
Acknowledgements 162 p. ISBN 978-80-8069-897-3.
VEČEŘA, L. – CHORVÁT, F. – MACHOVEC, J. – STAŇKOVÁ-
This paper was created within the project KEGA
OPOČENSKÁ, E. ŠTURMA, A. 1967. Ruže. Martin : Tlačiarne
Development and implementation of the standards Slovenského národného povstania, 1967, 199 p.
for urban greenery management. Project registration
VĚTVIČKA, V. – BERTOVÁ, L. 1992. Flora Slovenska IV/3.
number 003SPU-4/2017. Bratislava : VEDA, 1992, 564 p.
VĚTVIČKA, V. – KREJČOVÁ, Z. 2001. Růže. Praha : Aventium,
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WILSON, F. 1941. The atlas of colors of Royal horticultural
ÇINAR, I. – ÇOLAKOĞLU, A.S. 2005. Potential health benefits
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London, 1941.
pp. 253–258. DOI: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.690.10
ERCISLI, S. – GÜLERYÜZ, M. 2005. Rose hip utilization in nnnnn
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Triedenie ruží. Zvolen : ÚV SZZ ZO Rosa klub Zvolen, 1997,
62 p. ISBN 80-7125-014-7.
58
CONTENTS
PLANTS
THE STOMATAL RESPONSE OF GINKGO BILOBA L. TO WATER STRESS

Marcel Raček1*, Helena Lichtnerová1, Lucia Okšová1,
Dagmar Hillová1, Marcin Kubus2, Ireneusz Ochmian2
1
2
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
The goal of the presented study was to define stomatal closure and water content changes in the leaves of Ginkgo
biloba L. in relation to dryness of the soil substratum. We supposed that ginkgo would preserve relative water
content in the leaves by stomatal closure after detection of water scarcity in the soil substratum. Relative water
content in the leaves, water content of the soil substratum and stomatal conductance have been measured. The
results showed that ginkgo was able to keep high relative water content in the leaves long time after water scarcity
introduction. During the first three weeks under the conditions of water scarcity there has been observed relatively
high water content in the leaves; its value was about 94%. In relation to the soil desiccation Ginkgo biloba L. plants
reacted by the decrease of stomatal conductance. After the first week without water when water capacity of the soil
substratum reached 58% (from 75% at the beginning of the experiment) stomatal conductance decreased on 28%
(from 0.86 mm/s1 to 0.62 mm/s1). The decrease in stomatal conductance has been observed in all next days. The
most significant results have been observed during the first two weeks of the experiment.
Keywords: Ginkgo biloba L., stomatal conductance, relative water content, drought
1 Introduction of root systems while in the leaves constant water level

is maintained (Chavez et al., 2002). It is assumed that
Drought is the most important environmental stress, ABA induces a signal in plants which helps them reduce
severely impairing plant growth and development the speed of transpiration (Lee, 2013). Except of leaves
(Anjum et al., 2011). It is known that drought can be in conditions of water scarcity ABA synthetized
significantly influences photosynthesis by changes in in roots and through xylem is transported to leaves
metabolism and regulation of stomatal conductance which subsequently dry (Slováková and Mistrík, 2007).
(Bota et al., 2004). Stomatal closure is directly linked with low water
Stomata have two main functions in the plant. They content in the soil (Chapman and Auge, 1994)
participate in photosynthesis course and optimise One of indicators of metabolic changes in the plants
water balance. Stomata open after sunrise (when is a change in relative water content (RWC). RWC
there is light for photosynthesis) and close after sunset represents the total amount of water needed by the
(Procházka et al., 1998). Stomata play key role in plant at full saturation. The RWC expresses the water
retaining water in plants. Stomatal closure is the main content in per cent at a given time as related to the
cause of transpiration restriction in increasing water water content at full turgor (González and González-
stress (Hetterington and Woodward, 2003), which -Vilar, 2001). The decrease of RWC is accompanied with
results into thedecrease of leaf cooling and lower changes in physiological functions of plants, synthesis
nutrients intake and transport (Arve et al., 2011). of growth and stock substances and metabolic
Stomatal control of water loses was identified to be one changes. The relationship between RWC, water content
of the first reactions of plants to water deficit which in the soil substratum and stomatal conductance could
leads to the reduction of CO2 uptake through leaves. be an indicator of plants reactions to water stress.
Stomatal closure occurs at a loss of turgor with the One of the species, generally considered as the
decrease of water potential or by influence of low water most adaptable to environment is Ginkgo biloba L.
content in the environment. Stomatal closure closely Ginkgo biloba L. originates from Southeast Asia. Its
related to soil water content. Stomata react on chemical natural habitat is the eastern China. It grows in wide
signals (abscisic acid – ABA) produced by dehydration range of soils from sandy to heavy loamy losses and
* Marcel Raček, Slovak University of Agriculture, Slovakia, Department of planting design and maintenance

PLANTS
prefers sunny or semi shade sites (URL 1). PH value of taken twice a week on two fully expanded leaves of five
substratum tolerates the range from 5.5 to 7.7. The plants between 07.00 and 10.00 hours. Ten replications
recessive critical point of damage influenced by acid were made for each measurement.
rains reaches the pH 3.0 (Hu et al., 2010). The lack of Once a week there were defined the water capacity
water causes changes in nutrients amount (Wang et of the soil substratum and the relative water content
al., 2005), growth inhibition (Zhang et al., 2005) and in the leaves. There were used two plants for analyses
changes in growth and biomass accumulation in favour each weak. Water contents were set gravimetrically,
of the root system (Jing et al., 2005). RWC was set as follows:
From the previous studies we know that stomatal All leaves per plant were detached to determine their
conductance of Ginkgo biloba leaves is significantly relative water content (RWC). After cuttings, the petiole
lower in shaded leaves compared to the leaves was immediately immersed in distilled water inside of
exposed to direct sunlight. (Sarijeva et al., 2007). a glass tube, which was immediately sealed. The tubes
Ginkgo biloba reduces stomata under the influence were then taken to a laboratory where the increased
of higher concentration of CO2 (Beerling et al., 1998). weight of the tubes was used to determine the leaf
Photosynthetic activity of leaves is the highest from fresh weight (FW). After 4h, the leaves were weighed to
May to July (Tao et al., 1999) and probably linked to the obtain the turgid weight (TW). The dry weight (DW) was
chlorophyll content in leaves, which is the highest at the then measured after oven drying at 80ºC for 48 h, and
end of shoot growth at the turn of June and July (Raček RWC was calculated as follows: RWC =100(FW - DW)/
et al., 2014). It is also known that the decrease of soil TW - DW. After the end of the experiment, the analysis
water capacity on 40% causes chloroplast degradation of variance and multiple range tests were used for the
(Wang et al., 2008). There is little available knowledge data evaluation. The software Statgraphics Centurion
about the influence of water scarcity on stomatal XVI was used for statistical evaluation.
closure in relation to the ability to preserve leaves from
water losses. The goal of the presented study was to
define stomatal closure and water content changes in
the leaves in relation to dryness of the soil substratum. The relationships between soil substratum desiccation,
We supposed that ginkgo would preserve RWC in stomatal conductance and RWC in the leaves were
the leaves by stomatal closure after the detection of analysed. We found out that the stomatal conductance
water scarcity in the soil substratum. The results bring of Ginkgo biloba L. plants decreased in relation to
new knowledge in respond to ginkgo to water stress humidity of soil substratum in accordance with our
and are applicable in the area of plant cultivation and supposition. Soil water capacity was 75% at the
maintenance in urban forestry systems. beginning of the experiment. When irrigation was
stopped after a week, soil water capacity decreased
2 Materials and Methods on 58%. After the second week the soil water capacity
decreased on 55%. Soil desiccation continued in the
The plant material was produced from seeds. The donor next weeks. After five weeks (35 days), the soil water
parent tree was growing in the park of Topoľčianky in capacity finally decreased by 30%.
the south of Slovakia. It were two-year old plants one
In relation to soil desiccation, Ginkgo biloba L. plants
year grown in 3l containers. TS 3 standard substratum
reacted by linear decrease of stomatal conductance.
(pH 5.5 to 6.0 + fertilizer 1 kg/m3) enriched by clay
After the first week without water, stomatal conductance
fraction (0–25 mm / m clay 20 kg/m3) was used. Until
decreased on 28% (from 0.86 mm/s-1 to 0.62 mm/s1)
the end of June the humidity of soil substratum
after second week for next 28% (from 0.62 mm/s-1 to
was on the level of 75% of soil water capacity. From
0.38 mm/s-1). The decrease in stomatal conductance
the mid-June (at the beginning of experiments) the
has been observed in all following days, and after five
irrigation was stopped and the process of continual
weeks (35 days), the stomatal conductance decreased
soil desiccation began. Irrigation was stopped until the
by 0.08 mm/s-1 (Table 1). The most significant results
end of experiments (for the next 35 days). During the
have been observed during the first two weeks of
experiment the plants were stored in a greenhouse,
experiment.
preserved from the rain and full sunlight.
During the first three weeks of the experiment there has
Stomatal conductance, as an index of plant stress and
been observed high RWC in leaves; its value was about
the indicator of photosynthetic activity, was measured
94%. The decrease of RWC was observed after 21 days
with the AP4 Leaf Porometer. Measurements were
without irrigation when RWC began to change more
60
Raček, M. et al. | The Stomatal Response of Ginkgo biloba L. to Water Stress
PLANTS
Table 1 Multiple range test of stomatal conductance in Ginkgo biloba L. significantly. RWC decreased on
leaves under water stress (P-value < 0.05) in weekly intervals 87.8% at the end of the experiment.
Experimental days Count Mean (mm/s1) Groups differences There is a lack of knowledge about
0 10 0.86 * the right influence of the soil
7 10 0.62 * water content on the decrease of
stomatal conductance of Ginkgo
14 10 0.38 *
biloba. It is known that dryness
21 10 0.31 ** and high temperatures cause the
28 10 0.18 ** decrease of stomatal conductance
35 10 0.13 ** in young ginkgo plants (Zhang et
al., 2005); especially the decrease
of field water capacity from 60%
to 40% meant significant decrease
of stomatal conductance against
plants growing in the soil with
field water capacity on 80%
and 60% (Mao, 2005). Stomatal
conductance decreased after
the decrease of the soil water
experimental days capacity under 60%. Our results
Decrease of water capacity in the soil substratum during dessication show that the significant decrease
of stomatal conductance was
1 observed already by the decrease
0.86 of the soil water capacity on
0.8
0.62 60%. Results show that ginkgo
mm/s1
0.6
0.38 plants reacted effectively by
0.4 0.31
0.18 0.13 stomatal closure on the decrease
0.2
0 of the soil water content. That
reaction indicates the ability to
experimental days effectively manage water in plants.
Decrease of stomatal conductance of Ginkgo biloga L. leaves during soil substratum Subsequently, the decrease of
dessication stomatal conductance in relation to
60% soil water content when there
94.38
were not observed more significant
94.16
94.23 94.44 changes in RWC is of importance.
It is well known that the leaf
89.01
water status always interacts
87.8
with stomatal conductance
(Anjum et al., 2011). Increased
stomatal sensitivity is a functional
mechanism that allows plants to
experimental days
maintain high water status during
RWC development in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. during soil substratum dessication
drought periods (Pessarakli, 2002).
Figure 1: Development of water capacity in the soil substratum, The rate of RWC in plants with high
stomatal conductance, RWC content in the leaves of Ginkgo biloba L. resistance against drought is higher
under conditions of water stress than in others (Arjenaki et al., 2012).
Based on this knowledge and our
results we can define Ginkgo biloba
L. as a species with high tolerance
to drought.
Plants long term maintained high
RWC, during the first weeks without
61
PLANTS
water it was 94%. The change of RWC occurred after Edited by Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu, 2011,
three weeks without water, when the soil water content 440 p. DOI: 10.5772/895
decreased on 50% of the soil water capacity. RWC in BEERLING, D.J. – MCELWAIN, J.C. – OSBORNE, C.P. 1998.
the leaves was still high, approximately on 89%. RWC Stomatal responses of the ‘living fossil’ Ginkgo biloba L. to
is closely related to photosynthesis limitation. A border changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. In Journal of
of photosynthesis limitation in relation to RWC could Experimental Botany, vol. 49, 1998, no. 326, pp. 1603–1607.
be very variable and reactions of plants are specific due BOTA, J. – MEDRANO, H. – FLEXAS, J. 2004. Is
to species differences (Bota et al., 2004; Flexas et al., photosynthesis limited by decreased Rubisco activity
2006). Chaves et al (2002) consider the decrease of RWC and RuBP content under progressive water stress? In
New Physiologist, vol. 162, 2004, no. 3, pp. 671–681. DOI:
on 70–75% as a limit for photosynthesis. Due to the fact
10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01056.x
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FLEXAS, J. – RIBAS CARBO, M. – BOTA, J. – GALMÉS, J. –
leaves it is most likely that limit for slowdown or stop
HENKLE, M. – MARTINES CANELLAS, S. – MEDRANO, H.
of photosynthesis is a significant decrease in stomatal
2006. Decreased rubisco activity during water stress is not
conductance or the restriction of transpiration and CO2 induced by decreased relative water content but related
uptake. to conditions of low stomatal conductance and cloroplast
CO2 concentration. In New Phytol., vol. 172, 2006, no. 1,
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GONZÁLEZ, L. – VILAR, M. 2001. Determination of
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URL 1 http://kwanten.home.xs4all.nl/
nnnnn
63
CONTENTS
PLANTS
WATER DEFICIT IMPACT ON SELECTED PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

OF THE WOODY PLANT CORNUS MAS L.
Viera Šajbidorová,* Helena Lichtnerová
Studying resistance of woody plants and herbs to drought has become the subject of various experiments. The
paper presents the study of impact of the water scarcity on chlorophyll fluorescence and stomatal conductance of
the woody plants Cornus mas L. The experiment was carried out on plants in two different water regimes (a control
variant was maintained with soil water supply on 60% and a stress variant with soil water supply on 30%). Chlorophyll
fluorescence was carried out by chlorophyll fluorometer in a 21 days´ period in two growing seasons of 2013 and
2014. The following chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were recorded: maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/
Fm), effective quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII) and chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio (RFD). Stomatal conductance
(gs) was carried out by leaf porometer in 21 days period in two growing season, 2013 and 2014. By the results the
water deficit represented by soil water supply on 30% does not affect the values of Fv/Fm. The values of ΦPSII and Rfd
were significantly affected due to water deficit in the soil in a model plant. Limiting of the irrigation on model plants
resulted in the reduction in the stomatal conductance (gs).
Keywords: chlorophyll fluorescence, stomatal conductance, water deficit
1 Introduction The chlorophyll fluorescence signal is very rich in its

content and very sensitive to changes in photosynthesis
The urban environment is a natural habitat for plants. (Kalaji et al., 2014). Björkman and Demming (1987)
Only some species are able to survive in these extreme consider the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII
conditions (drought, salinity, high temperature, (Fv/Fm) as a screening indicator of plant response to
etc.). The plants were selected with focus on species a particular stress factor. Fv/Fm represents effectiveness
with adequate properties. Nowadays, the plants of light utilization under the standard conditions of
with ornamental and useful character are becoming CO2 fixation and the quantum yield of photochemical
extremely popular, especially fruit species that can be processes (Björkman and Demming 1987). Reactions
grown also in unfavourable environmental conditions of Fv/Fm to drought by woody plants were recorded
(Hričovský and Vargová, 2007). For these reasons, by Bauerle and Dudley (2003), Gallé and Feller (2007),
Cornus mas L. was set as a model plant. Cornus mas L. Percival and Sheriffs (2002).
belongs to useful – ornamental shrubs that bear tasty The effective quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII) is a real yield
fruits. It is used in ornamental horticulture thanks to of active PSII reaction centres in the processing of
its early flowering. The fruits of Cornus mas L. can be absorbed light energy. ΦPSII represents the light used
universally used both in a fresh and processed state as in photochemistry (Genty et al., 1989; Schreiber, 2004).
well as in the medicine. The impact of water stress caused a decrease of ΦPSII
Evaluation of the reaction of plants to the physiological in woody plants (Peguero-Pina et al., 2008, Gallé et al.,
level, especially on the status of photosynthesis 2007).
was chosen. The simple method of measurement Fluorescence decrease ratio (RFD) is considered to be
of the photosystem II, which could be affected by the vitality index of the photosynthetic apparatus
stress factors, is the use of chlorophyll fluorescence (Lichtenthaler and Babani 2000). Lower values are
techniques. Chlorophyll fluorescence technique has typical for plants in suboptimal conditions and the
become popular among breeders, biotechnologists, higher ones represent a higher photosynthetic activity
plant physiologists, farmers, gardeners, foresters, and also adaptability of woody plants (Lichtenthaler et
ecophysiologists and environmentalists (Kalaji et al., al., 2005). The decrease of RFD values was observed by
2016). Pukacki and Kamińska-Rożek (2005).
64
* Viera Šajbidorová, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering,
Department of Planting Design and Maintenance, Tulipánová 7, Nitra, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected]

PLANTS
The stomatal conductance (gs) of the leaves was used to plant by the chlorophyll fluorometer Hansatech FMS
monitor the reactions of stomata through water deficit 1 (Hansatech Instruments Ltd, United Kingdom) in the
impact. It is a very important defence mechanism morning hours. The software Modfluor for the data
against a loss of water (Tardieu and Davis, 1993, in analysis was used and 21 days period of measurements
Živčák, 2006). The impact of water deficit results in the was set in the two years. The following characteristics of
closure of stomata and the decrease in photosynthesis. measurement protocol of the chlorophyll fluorescence
Lower values of stomatal conductance also represent were used: one second light pulses of red light with an
adaptation of plants in extreme conditions (Živčák, intensity of 895 μmol/m2/s1, the intensity of actinic light
2006). 34 μmol/m2/s1 and the saturation light pulse 10 000
One of the crucial factors for plant growth is the μmol/m2/s1. These parameters were measured and also
accessibility of water in the soil. Plants have more used for the statistical analysis: Fv/Fm, ΦPSII and RFD.
adaptive mechanisms that help them to tolerate When measuring the leaf stomatal conductance,
adverse environmental conditions. There has been the Delta T leaf porometer AP4 (Delta-T Devices Ltd,
quite a lot of research about the drought response United Kingdom) was used. The measurement of
of crops but also more testing of drought tolerant a loss of water vapour through the stomata took place
ornamental plant species is needed in the field of before midday (best conditions for measurement were
landscape architecture. The impact of water scarcity to between 8:00–10:00 am because of stomata closure at
ornamental and useful woody plant Cornus mas L. was the midday because of higher temperature and light
tested. The aim of the evaluation was to investigate intensity) on two leaves per plant. The leaf stomatal
if there were any differences in the mean values of conductance was determined in mm/s1, together with
chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and stomatal the recording the current time, light intensity in μmol/
conductance of the leaves on the plants in variants m2/s1 and the current temperature in degrees Celsius.
during the experiment with different levels of soil For the mathematical and statistical analysis of the data,
water supply. the one-way Anova and Kruskal-Wallis Test, P <0.05
were used. The statistical assessment of the data was
2 Material and Methods conducted using the software Statgraphics Centurion
XVII (StatPoint Technologies, USA, XV, licence number:
Within a pot experiment, physiological responses of 7805000000722). The differences in the monitored
plants in relation to water scarcity were monitored. The parameters in the woody plant Cornus mas L. with
non-destructive methods of monitoring the impact of reference to different water content in the soil were
a lack of water in the soil to plants, measurement of tested.
leaf stomatal conductance and modulated chlorophyll
fluorescence were chosen.
The one-year old seedlings (in the year 2013) of
Cornus mas L. come from generative propagation. The Fv/Fm measurements results are presented by non-
two variants with different soil water supply in the 3 significant differences between two variants with
litre size pots were established. A half of plants were different water supply in the soil. The mean value of
exposed to 30% of the soil water supply (a variant with Fv/Fm after 21 days of experiment duration time in
reduced water content in the soil – a stress variant) and the year 2013 was in the stress variant 0.77 and in the
another part of the plants were further hydrated in 60% control variant 0.80. In the year 2014 after 84 days of
of the soil water supply (a control variant). The plants treatment the mean value was 0.81 (stress variant)
were cultivated into the substrate based on the white and 0.83 (control variant), (Table 1). It can be possible
peat, enriched with the clay (20 kg/m3), pH 5.5–6.5, that 30% of water supply for Cornus mas L. was not
with NPK fertilizer 14 : 10 : 18 (Klasmann TS3, Klasmann- the critical level of water stress. Cornic and Massacci
Deilmann GmbH, Germany), under the polypropylene (1996) define that metabolism processes are not
cover with 40% of shading. The experimental plants affected in the moderate water stress and also the
were grown in the differentiated water regime from short period of water deficit does not affect the Fv/Fm
June to September, for the total period of 151 days (Papageorgiou and Govindjee, 2004). These findings
in the year 2013 and 154 days in the year 2014. Ten confirm the results of other authors (Bjorkman and
plants in the control variant and ten plants in the stress Deming 1987; Johnson et al., 1993, Kalaji et al., 2012)
variant were used for the measurement. Chlorophyll that values around 0.83 are optimal for the most of the
fluorescence was measured on two leaves of each plant species in non-stressed conditions. Also Roháček
65
Šajbidorová, V. – Lichtnerová, H. | Water Deficit Impact on Selected Physiological Parameters...
PLANTS
(2002) states the value 0.832 ±0.004 as the constant actual state of the photosynthetic apparatus (Genty et
value which is reached by a lot of different plant species al., 1989; Schreiber, 2004).
under non-stressed conditions. The results in the The values of ΦPSII of the stress variant were significantly
woody plants Spiraea japonica L. ´Little Princess´ and lower in comparison to the control variant (Table 1). In
Cornus stolonifera Michx. ´Kelseyi´ (Šajbidorová, 2013) the year 2013, a significant decrease (46%) in the values
as well as in Pyrus pyraster L. and Sorbus domestica L. of ΦPSII in the control variant (0.13) in comparison to the
(Šajbidorová et al., 2015) confirm that this parameter is stress variant (0.06) after 41 days of lower water supply
non-sensitive to water deficit. in the soil was observed. In the year 2014, a reduction
On the other hand Fv/Fm and ΦPSII are considered by in the values of ΦPSII was more remarkable, a 72%
Maxwell and Johnson (2000) as sensitive indicators decrease between the variants (the control variant
of plants to stress environmental conditions. Both 0.11 and the stress variant 0.08) after longer duration
parameters characterize the function of PSII that of the differentiated irrigation regime (for 84 days). The
significantly reacts to any environmental impact similar decline of ΦPSII was observed in Spiraea japonica
(Swiatek et al., 2001). The values in plants in stressed L. ‚Little Princess´ and Cornus stolonifera Michx. ´Kelseyi´
conditions are rapidly declining, so the parameter is (Šajbidorová 2013). Gallé et al. (2007) found a decrease
considered as an indicator of photoinhibition or other in the values of ΦPSII in the condition of water deficit in
damage of PSII (Roháček, 2002). Water deficit decreased Quercus pubescens Willd., as well as Peguero-Pina et al.
the Fv/Fm values in Acer rubrum L. and Acer × freemanii (2008) in Quercus coccifera L. Hillová (2016) considered
E. Murray (Bauerle and Dudley, 2003) and also in Fagus that the measurement of ΦPSII is a fast and affordable
sylvatica L. (Gallé and Feller, 2007). Percival and Sheriffs method for sorting of herbaceous perennials into
(2002) identified drought tolerant, intermediate, five main groups which not fully correspond with
sensitive and very sensitive woody plants based on the the traditional use of perennials sorting according to
Fv/Fm measurement after dehydration. Hansen and Stahl (1993).
ΦPSII seems to be the significant parameter of the Within two years, the values of fluorescence decrease
condition of drought stress in a model plant. ΦPSII is ratio (RFD) were significantly lower in the stress variant
the real yield of active PSII reaction centres in the for most of the period (Table 1). In the year 2013, after 41
processing of absorbed light energy and reflects the days of a lower level of water supply the decrease (62%)
from 1.42 in the control variant in comparison to 0.88 in
Table 1 The mean values of the analysed parameters and 95% LSD test for the studied taxa Cornus mas L. and for the two
variants of the soil water supply (control/stress) in the year 2013. Values with the same letter are not significantly
different
Parameter Fv/Fm ΦPSII RFD gs
Duration time of
control stress control stress control stress control stress
experiment in 2013
1st day 0.79a 0.76a 0.11a 0.06b 1.25a 0.89b 0.66a 0.53a
nd
21 day 0.80a 0.77b 0.13a 0.06b 1.42a 0.88b 1.41a 0.52b
Table 2 The mean values of the analysed parameters and 95% LSD test for the studied taxa Cornus mas L. and for the two
variants of the soil water supply (control/stress) in the year 2014. Values with the same letter are not significantly
different
Parameter Fv/Fm ΦPSII RFD gs
Duration time of experiment
control stress control stress control stress control stress
in the year 2014
1st day 0.83a 0.79b 0.16a 0.07b 1.71a 1.07b 0.45a 0.18b
st
21 day 0.82a 0.81a 0.10a 0.06b 1.50a 1.07b 0.26a 0.26a
nd
42 day 0.82a 0.81a 0.13a 0.09b 1.58a 1.79a 0.37a 0.27b
rd
63 day 0.82a 0.81a 0.11a 0.06b 1.36a 0.95b 0.52a 0.33b
th
84 day 0.83a 0.81b 0.11a 0.08b 1.42a 0.83b 0.77a 0.27b
66
PLANTS
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landscape architecture is needed, with regards to HRIČOVSKÝ, I. – VARGOVÁ, H. 2007. Možnosti uplatnenia
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68
CONTENTS
Short communication
PLANTS
WILD PLANTS FOR DOMESTIC GARDENS AND PUBLIC PARKS

Ingvild Austad*, Leif Hauge, Liv Norunn Hamre
Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway
Abstract
The assortment of garden plants currently available in garden centres and plant nurseries (planteskoler) in Norway
is a result of a long history of supply and demand patterns, import trends and a local determination to develop plant
varieties fit for specific climate conditions and harsh weather cycles. However, among the assortment available there
are some garden plants with uncertain genetic origin and unknown growth characteristics which have proliferated
not only in private gardens, but also in public parks, urban areas and green-belts all over the country.
Recently, there has been a growing awareness that some of these commonly used plants are alien species included
on the Norwegian black list of alien species. Some of the aliens are invasive, and have spread from domestic gardens
to natural habitats, constituting a threat to the native biodiversity.
While it is clear that many wild native plants may actually provide a suitable replacement for decorative but invasive
garden plants, it has not yet become a common practice in Norway. To date, the demand for such substitute plants
has been low, the production small and the variety of available species limited.
While the importation of alien species has grown, native plant biodiversity has been suffering great declines and
a growing number of plant species are included on the Norwegian Red list. The habitats of many of these wild plants
are further threatened by human development and land cover change. For these species, domestic gardens, public
parks and green areas may actually compensate as biotopes.
These types of issues are discussed in the book entitled «Ville vekster for hager og grøntanlegg», where 150 native
plant species are presented as suitable replacements for non-natives with details on growth requirements and
special characteristics for use.
The book focusses on how wild plants can be an ecological alternative to invasive species and at the same time can
be adapted to the principles of garden design and architecture. It also explores how natural biotopes such as open
forest and species-rich meadows can be established as parts of a garden or park. The presented species are suited
both for domestic gardens and public parks as well as other green areas. The book is accessible to owners of private
gardens as well as professional practitioners in the gardening and landscaping sector.
The book is the first of its kind in Norway and fully illustrated.
Keywords: black listed species, red listed species, landscape architecture, ecological gardening
References
Austad, I. – Hauge, L. – Oterholm, A.I. – Ryvarden, L. – Skaarer, N. 2017. Ville vekster for hager og grøntanlegg. Vigmostad
& Bjørke A/S.
* e-mail: [email protected]
69
Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | p. 69 |

CONTENTS
Short communication
PLANTS
ADAPTABILITY ASSESSMENT OF NORWAY MAPLE

(ACER PLATANOIDES L.) ON URBAN ENVIRONMENT OF NITRA
Peter Uhrin,* Ján Supuka
Abstract
Urban environment impact in the form of the wide range of stress factors on wood growth in the areas close to roads
is nowadays the subject of many research works. This article deals with qualitative assessment of crown destruction,
assimilation organs efficiency, Chlorophyll content, content of allochtonous elements in leaves and adaptability
assessment method of examined specimen of Acer platanoides L. growing in environmentally loaded area of Nitra
and a comparative environmentally unloaded historical park in the rural settlement Nová Ves nad Žitavou. The results
also include a summary of both sites in terms of climate conditions and environmental state of the site at Trieda
Andreja Hlinku Street in Nitra for 2015 and 2016. The results of the visual assessment of the crown destruction level
and assimilation organs state in 2015 and 2016 showed higher crown and leaf quality in individuals grown in the
park area (Qp(2015) = 0.44, Qp(2016) = 0.43) compared to the individuals in Nitra (Qp(2015) = 1.44, Qp(2016) = 1.56).
Chlorophyll – values fluctuated during all three terms of measurements. All in all, higher values were measured in
individuals grown in the park area (CCI = 25.914) compared to those in the urban environment (CCI = 16.290), what
can be evaluated in all three measurement dates in 2016. The performance of assimilation organs was evaluated by
statistical comparison of the parameters Fv/Fm and ETR values between the model sites. During the years 2015 and
2016 there were measured higher values in individuals in the park area (Fv/Fm(2015) = 0.828, Fv/Fm(2016) = 0.820)
compared to those in Nitra (Fv/Fm(2015) = 0.823, Fv/Fm (2016) = 0.772). Higher ETR values were measured in
individuals in the urban area (ETR(2015) = 0.828, ETR(2016) = 0.820) and lower in the park area (ETR(2015) = 0.828,
ETR(2016) = 0.820). The assessment of woody adaptability in the city of Nitra showed a slightly reduced adaptability
Ia(2015) = 1.93, Ia(2016) = 2.13) by the adaptability index (Ia) of Acer platanoides L. specimens compared to the
environmentally loaded urban environment. We consider this species as a non-stable and poorly adaptable one to
the street alleys in urban spaces.
Keywords: Norway maple adaptability, assessment, chlorophyll-a fluorescence, compared settlements
* Peter Uhrin, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering, Department
of Garden and Landscape Architecture, Tr. A. Hlinku 2, 949 76 Nitra, Slovak Republic, e-mail: [email protected]
70
CONTENTS
Short communication
PLANTS
VISUAL ASSESSMENT OF THE PROBABILITY OF BREAKAGE

AND FALL OVER OF SELECTED TREES AT PLANTY PARK IN KRAKÓW
Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Magdalena Kulig,* Magdalena Nawrotek
Warsaw University of Life Science, Warsaw, Poland, University of Agriculture, Krakow, Poland
Abstract
The subject of the study is a detailed dendrological examination, including a visual assessment and taking into
consideration the safety aspects of 23 selected trees growing at Planty Park in Krakow in the zone of a planned
heating pipeline. The WID assessment by Rosłon-Szeryńska (2006) was used for the evaluation. The assessment of
tree vitality was done using the Roloff‘s leafy method of vitality. The field research was conducted in January 2017.
Based on the analysis of the planned excavation for the heat pipe, the percentage of damage to the root system
was estimated. In most cases it is predicted that approximately 30% of the root system will be removed from the
affected trees. Based on the calculated values, the likelihood of tree overturns after the investment was re-evaluated.
In the case of more than a half of the trees, the danger of tipping due to root removal will increase. The high risk of
tipping will be with 8 trees, medium and large risk limit will apply to 5 trees. Due to the fact that the regeneration
of trees depends on their vitality and health status, the objects have been evaluated for the condition of the trees
(Roloff ) (0 phase is the vital tree, 4 is a dead tree). Among the trees examined, it was considered that one tree
(a beech) was in a poor condition (3). Seven trees were also weakened (2). Only one tree (a young ash) was in the
vital state (0). All trees were in average state of health. The tree to be removed due to advanced rot is a common
beech. Seven trees are poorly prone to earthwork survivability when they break the critical reach of the root system
due to weakened condition or strong tilt. In a case of violation of their minimum reach for the root system equal to
4 m, it will be appropriate to remove the trees concerned. Four trees are in the group of less likely ones to survive.
They will be removed when the distance 2 meters from the tree trunk is exceeded. In case of leaving the trees weakly
recommended, the special protection is recommended: root screens, agrotechnical treatments, aeration, mineral
fertilization, watering, mulching of the ground in the growth zone of the roots of tree barks, improved statics, annual
observation of defects/diseases and tree damage. Other trees have the chance to survive with environmental
protection and proper tree care at the construction site and with intensive care.
Keywords: Planty Park, WID assessment, planned heating pipeline
71

CONTENTS
Short communication
PLANTS
CONDITION OF LIME TREES GROWING IN CRACOW

Monika Czaja, Anna Kołton, Piotr Muras
University of Agriculture, Faculty of Biotechnology and Horticulture, Krakow, Poland
Abstract
City areas are known to be extremely difficult for tree growth. The major unfavourable factors are different forms
of pollutants (gaseous and particulate matter), soil compaction (lack of water, oxygen and space for root growth)
and urban heat island effect (enormously high temperatures during summer and high solar radiation due to material
reflection). On the other hand, trees provide many ecosystem services and are indispensable in city structures. In
view of that, selection of species tolerant to poor and severe growth conditions is especially important. Lime trees
(Tilia sp.) are one of the most frequently planted species in Europe, recommended for street, parks and other urban
areas. Although their tolerance to difficult conditions are different among species and still discussed.
The aim of the study was to compare condition of the lime trees species and choose the most resistant one for
urban areas. The research was conducted in Krakow during the whole vegetative season, measurements were
held once each month from April to October. Three young lime species, planted in the last 10 years in the city
area were investigated: Tilia cordata, Tilia tomentosa and Tilia × europea ‘Pallida’. There were four different stands
for T. tomentosa and Tilia × europea ‘Pallida’ and two stands for Tilia cordata; from 3 to 20 trees in one stand. The
condition of the trees was evaluated using chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters. The analysis of the measurements
indicates the best performance for Tilia tomentosa. The received results suggest that this species is the best one for
urban plantings and promise longer lifespan and more effective ecosystem services.
Keywords: JIP-test; city trees; chlorophyll a fluorescence; species selection; environmental stress
72
CONTENTS
Publisher: Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra
Edition: First
Cover design: Martin Pikalík
Typography: Tatiana Šmehilová
Nitra 2018
ISSN 2585-9811
on-line ISBN 978-80-552-1829-8
print ISBN 978-80-552-1812-0

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DEPARTMENT OF PLANTING DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE &

DEPARTMENT OF GARDEN AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

Approved by a rector of the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra

on-line ISBN 978-80-552-1829-8

Attila Tóth, Martina Verešová | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.7-13

Katarina Kristianova | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.14-18

Ľuboš Moravčík | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.19-24

Denisa Halajová, Andrea Cuperová | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.25-28

Viera Paganová, Michaela Vyhnáliková | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.29-34

Dagmar Hillová, Magdaléna Rožeková | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.35-44

T.S. Korobkova, S.M. Sabaraikina | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.45-50

Ladislav Bakay, Ján Kollár | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.51-54

Katarína Rovná, Jana Černá | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.55-58

Marcel Raček, Helena Lichtnerová, Lucia Okšová, Dagmar Hillová,

Viera Šajbidorová, Helena Lichtnerová | https://doi.org/10.15414/PUAL/2018.64-68

Ingvild Austad, Leif Hauge, Liv Norunn Hamre

Peter Uhrin, Ján Supuka

Edyta Rosłon-Szeryńska, Magdalena Kulig, Magdalena Nawrotek

Monika Czaja, Anna Kołton, Piotr Muras

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

Keywords: design, green infrastructure, landscape architecture, urban open space

1 Introduction 2 Challenging Issues

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 3–6 |

Figure 1: Rain garden at University Campus Technikerstrasse, Innsbruck, Austria

network of open spaces, incorporating innovative References

SMALL SACRAL ARCHITECTURE AND TREES AS MONUMENTS IN DIVERSE

1 Introduction impressive elements in landscape structures and as

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 7–13 |

STRATEGIES FOR TOURISM ENHANCEMENT IN DANUBE TOWNS –

Keywords: cultural heritage, green infrastructure, natural heritage, sustainable tourism

PRECISE DIGITAL MODEL AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1 Introduction ScanStation P20 is 8“, what respond to the point

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 19–24 |

Figure 2: Simplified point model of the Ginkgo biloba

3 Results and Discussion It is possible to perform various types of structural

Figure 4: FEM (Finite element model) of the Ginkgo

Acknowledgements PERNEK, M. – LACKOVIČ, N. – MAČAK-HADŽIOMEROVIČ,

APPROACHES TO THE INTERPRETATION OF MILITARY HISTORY

Keywords: memorial, park, landscape, military museum

1 Introduction Today, there are two museums in Slovakia focusing on

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 25–28 |

PRUNING URBAN TREES – TYPE AND QUALITY ACCORDING TO ARBORIST

Keywords: urban trees, tree pruning, urban areas, maintenance, standards

1 Introduction (Harris et al., 2004; Gilman, 2012). A heading (topping)

growing individuals would be

3.2 Evaluation of the structure

THE PERFORMANCE OF UNDERSTOREY HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS

Keywords: reintroduction, woodland, herbaceous, survival, planting, vitality

1 Introduction techniques to increase species diversity and additional

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 35–44 |

Table 1 The composition of understorey planting mixture

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 35–44

Plants in Urban areas and Landscape | 2018 | pp. 35–44

95% 96% 89% 89% 55% 92%

86% 90% 66% 90% 47% 76%

70% 80% 69% 91% 49% 78%

76% 97% 75% 98% 69% 89%

67% 95% 89% 98% 65% 91%

Numbers of plant genera in planting mixtures

ONAINDIA, M. – AMETZAGA-ARREGI, I. – SAN SEBASTIÁN, SCHMITHALS, A. – KÜHN, N. 2017. To mulch or not

Figure 1: Rain garden at University Campus Technikerstrasse, Innsbruck, Austria

Figure 2: Simplified point model of the Ginkgo biloba

Figure 4: FEM (Finite element model) of the Ginkgo

Figure 2: Presence of Cydalima perspectalis in the monitored years (2013–2015) in Slovakia