3rd Flr. GMT Bldg., Cor P del Rosario/Junquera Sts.

, Cebu City
Tel. No. (032) 413-7031

Forensic Photography

David Mark D. Maramba, R. Crim.

Dennis J. Chiong, R. Crim.
Lecturers

PHOTOGRAPHY- (Photo/phos- Light) (Graphos- to draw)

Is the production of a permanent record of an image with the combined action of light and chemical
processing.

Origins of photography

About 1000 BC- Ibn Al-Haitham, an Arab scholar recorded one of the earliest uses of a “dark room” that later called as
“Camera Obscura” from the Latin word for “room or “chamber” and from a Middle English word “obscure” meaning
“dark or lacking in illumination.

1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered that light changes the nature of chemical substances. He found out that light
turned the color of a mixture of chalk, silver and nitric acid from white to yellow. The said theory was verified after 52
years with the use of silver chloride by a Swedish chemist by the name of Carl W. Scheele. He also found out that light
from the violet end of the spectrum darkened the silver chloride faster than light of other spectral colors.

1802- Thomas Wedgewood and Sir Humphry Davy announced success in achieving contact images on paper and
leather that had been sensitized with silver nitrate; they were unable to fix the images.

1812- William Wollaston invents a meniscus lens.

1826- Joseph Nicephore Niepce makes the first photograph from nature which he fixes with bitumen of Judea and calls
his work as “Heliograph”

1835- William Henry Fox Talbot produces negative photograph of a window at Lacock Abbey, Wiltshire, using paper
sensitized by silver chloride.

1837- Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre in collaboration with Isidore Niepce makes daguerro-type using copper plates
sensitized with silver iodide, a mercury vapor developer and a solution of sodium chloride as a fixer.

1839- Sir John Herschel coins the word “Photography”. He is also responsible for the use of sodium thiosulphate as
“fixer”

1841- Fox Talbot patents negative-positive calotype (later called Talbotype) process for paper prints and produces book
of photographs in 1844.

1851- Frederick Scott Archer invents the collodion wet-plate process.

1861- William England makes focal plane shutter with variable aperture.

1871- Richard Leech Maddox uses dry plate coated with gelatin containing silver bromide.

1887- Leon Warnerke makes roll film on paper.

1878- Eadweard Muybridge photographs action of galloping horses. He is considered as one of the pioneers in the field
of motion pictures.

1887- Edward Bausch designs shutter that has iris diaphragm and blades.

1887- Hannibal Goodwin files patent for celluloid roll-film.

1888- Kodak (George Eastman, Rochester, New York) sells roll-film camera with 100 exposures. He is responsible for
making photography easy and affordable.

1891- Kodak introduces daylight-loading roll film.

1924- Leica 35mm Camera, designed by Oskar Barnack in commercial production.

1925- Flashbulbs invented

1928- Rolleiflex twin-lens reflex camera manufactured.

1935- Development of electronic flash.

1937- Production of the first 35mm single-lens reflex camera, the Exacta.

1948- Polaroid Land camera launched, producing developed black and white prints in 60 seconds.

Light- is a form of radiation (electromagnetic radiation). When an atom in a light source is changed physically, it emits
a photon (electromagnetic radiation) which behaves like waves. Light, heat rays, X-rays and radio waves are all forms
of radiant energy, each differing from the others in wavelength. Radiant energy can be identified by its wavelength
(measured in milli-microns or nanometers) and listed on a number line called the electromagnetic spectrum. .
(Wavelength is the distance from peak to an adjacent trough. Frequency is the number of waves per unit of
time.)

The electromagnetic spectrum

1. Cosmic rays
2. Gamma rays
3. x-rays .01-30μ
4. Ultraviolet rays 30-400 μ
5. Visible spectrum 400-700 μ
6. Infrared rays 700-1000+ μ
7. Hertzian waves (radio waves)

The human eye can detect radiations with wavelengths between 400-700 μ (white light).
400-500 μ blue
500-600 μ green
600-700 μ red
Blue, green and red are the primary colors of light. When blended together then the color white appears.
Magenta (blue-red), yellow (green-red), cyan (blue-green) are the secondary colors. When mixed black appears.

Hence, white is the presence of all colors while black is the absence of color.

Light travels through a vacuum and through the air at a speed of 186,000 miles per second but can be slowed by dense
mediums such as glass or water.

Properties of Light:

R.A.T. Law of physics

1. Reflection
2. Absorption
3. Transmission

Mediums which merely slow the speed of light but allows it to pass freely are called transparent objects.

Objects that divert or absorb light, but allow no light to pass through are called opaque.

Those which allows light to pass through them in such a way that the outline of the light source is not visible are
spoken of as translucent.

Sources of light:

Natural- sunlight or moonlight

Artificial- Continuous radiation and short duration
Objects that emit radiations within the visible spectrum are called luminous objects.

Non-luminous objects are visible because they reflect light from luminous objects.

Reflection occurs whenever an object changes the direction of a light ray but does not allow it to pass through
it.

Refraction is the bending of light when passing obliquely from one medium to a medium of different density.

Diffusion happens when light passes through an opaque object.

CAMERA- An instrument by which photographs are made, consisting of a light-tight box fitted with a lens, a shutter, a
film compartment, and various controls for precise operation.

Basic parts of the camera:

1. Camera body- a light-tight container used to hold light sensitive materials (film).
2. Shutter- a mechanism that opens and closes within the camera to provide the time interval necessary for
exposure. Time intervals are called shutter speed.
3. Lens- a single shaped piece of optical glass or molded plastic designed to gather and focus light rays in a
camera to form an image of a subject on film.
4. Diaphragm- a device made of thin overlapping metal leaves within a lens or camera which can be adjusted to
specific apertures of f-stops to control the amount of light that strikes the film.
 5. Aperture- the lens opening, the size of which is regulated by a diaphragm and expressed as an f-stop or f-
number (f-stop represents the ratio of the focal length of the lens to the diameter of the lens. Also the number
that indicates the size of a lens opening.
6. Film holder- part of the camera that holds the light sensitive material/film.

Similarity of a camera to the human eye

1. Eyeball- Camera body

2. Eyelid- Shutter
3. Lens
4. Iris- Diaphragm
5. Pupil- Aperture
6. Retina- Film/film holder

Types of Cameras:
1. Box camera- uses lens and spring-loading shutter and roll film. Shutter speed and aperture usually not
adjustable. Camera body is a rigid box.
2. Folding camera- lens and shutter mounted to camera body by means of accordion-pleated bellows, which can
be folded into camera foe ease of carrying.
3. 35mm camera- any class of cameras designed to use 35-mm film, the same film used in commercial motion
picture production.
4. Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera- uses same lens for picture-taking and viewing. Characterized by focal-plane
shutter (usually) and an operable mirror that directs the image to eve for viewing function.
5. Digital cameras- a type of camera that is electronic and does not require light sensitive materials (film) for
recording images, it either uses a memory card, disc (hard disc, floppy or compact disc) as storage.

The key differences between digital and conventional photography are the means by which the image is
captured and stored. In the digital process, instead of light-sensitive film, the camera uses a charged-coupled
device (CCD)—an electronic sensor that translates light into an electrical signal. This signal is converted
into digital data via an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). A digital signal processor (DSP) then adjusts
the contrast and detail, before compressing the image so that it can be conveniently stored on the camera's
memory card (Flash memory card). Images can be downloaded directly to a computer either by using an
adapter for the memory card or by connecting a cable to the camera's serial port/universal serial bus (USB)
socket. The advantages of the digital camera are its capacity—many more images can be accommodated than
on a conventional roll of film—and its immediacy, as a liquid-crystal display on the back of the camera
allows the user to preview and review images instantly.
.

Exposure: subjecting the light sensitive material to light in order to form an image (initially a latent image). This
involves controlling the right amount of light and time to achieve correct exposure.

Factors that affect exposure:

1. Lighting condition: i.e. bright, hazy, dull

2. Lens opening or aperture
3. Shutter speed
4. Film

Lens opening or apertures are indicated as f numbers or f stops.

F/ expresses the ratio of any aperture diameter to the focal length of the given lens.

The f/ are easily remembered by doubling them alternately starting with 1 and 1.4

Example:

1 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22

1.4 admits 2X more light that 1. The amount of light at 4 is ½ less than that of 5.6.
The bigger the f/ the smaller the aperture or lens opening is while smaller the f/ the bigger the aperture or lens opening.

Basically, small apertures are used in low light conditions while large apertures are used in bright lighting conditions.

Lens speed- is the smallest f/ of any given lens. The smaller the f/ the faster the lens is. It is also indicates the capability
of the lens to gather more light in low light conditions.

Depth of field- is defined as the amount of area in focus. It is the distance from the nearest object in good focus to the
farthest object in good focus.

Depth of field is increased by

a. Shorter focal length lens
b. Smaller lens aperture
c. Greater subject distance

Depth of field is decreased by

a. Longer focal length lens
b. Larger lens aperture
c. Shorter subject distance

Shutter speed is expressed as whole numbers in the shutter speed dial but it is actually fractions of a second. The unit of
measure used for controlling the time light is allowed to enter the camera is Seconds.

Example:

5000 is actually 1/5000 of a second

Slow shutter speeds are basically used for low light while fast shutter speeds are used in bright lighting conditions.
Aside from controlling the amount of time the shutter also controls motion or action. (the ability to “freeze” action)

You have to control both shutter speed and lens opening to achieve correct exposure.

Reciprocity law states that to get a certain amount of exposure on film, no particular amount of light and no particular
length of time is required. The requirement is that the amount of light is multiplied by the length of time must equal the
desired exposure.

Example:
E=I x T

Where E is exposure, while I is illumination (brightness of light that reaches the film) multiplied with the
length of time (T)

Other methods in achieving correct exposures:

a. Exposure meters
b. Bracketing/trial and error
c. Instructions found at the film packaging

Exposure meter: An instrument for measuring light intensity and determining the correct exposure. This contains light-
sensitive cells that covert the light falling on them into an electrical current.

Types of light-sensitive cells:

 1. Selenium Cells: generates their own current without needing batteries. It is the least sensitive of meters and
not very responsive to poor light.
2. Cadmium sulphide (CdS) cells: These are much more sensitive; the cells acts as a battery-powered resistor
that allows current to increase as light reaches it.
Using exposure meters:

1. Reflected light readings: Measure the light coming of the subject. (Pointing the metering cell toward the
subject)
2. Incident light readings: Measures the light falling on the subject. (Point the meter back toward the light
source)
3. Spot metering: basically the same as reflected light meters but they measure light from a very selective area.

Through-the-lens metering (TTL)

Most cameras are now built with integral light metering systems. The system used in most 35mm SLR cameras is
through-the-lens metering. The cells controls the shutter speeds or lens apertures.

Types of TTL metering systems:

1. Averaging meters: are most sensitive at the center of the screen, but they nevertheless give an integrated
reading over the entire picture area.
2. Center-weighted meters have concentrated sensitivity at or near the center, but take some account of the rest
of the picture area.
3. Spot metering: are limited to a small area.

Accessories:

Flash units- are source of additional illumination in low lighting conditions.

Three general types of artificial lighting used in photography:
1. Bulb-type flash
2. Electronic flash
3. Continuous light sources i.e. lamps

Types of Flash units:

1. Manual or non-electronic flash units

2. Thyristor flash units
3. Dedicated Thyristor flash units

Six variables that will affect the choice of exposure settings with flash:

1. Flash to subject distance

2. Output of the flash unit
3. Type of reflector on the flash
4. Speed of the film in use
5. Reflectance of the surrounding areas
6. Shutter speed possible

Synchronization speed- is the fastest shutter speed that can be used with and electronic flash.

When to Use Flash Fill

In scenes illuminated by bright sunlight there will usually be dark shadow areas. Detail in the deep shadow areas will
be lost when the exposure is based on the overall brightness of the scene. With the use of flash fill, the brightness level
in the shadow areas can be raised to the overall brightness of the scene.

Technique

1. Set the shutter speed to the camera’s flash synchronization speed (usually 1/60 or 1/125 second).

2. Use the camera’s light meter to determine the correct f/stop for the shutter speed selected. Set that f/stop on
your lens.
3. With the flash on manual, find the flash-to-subject distance for the f/stop that was selected.
4. Position the flash unit at that distance from the shadow area and take the photograph.

You may wish to use a flash remote cord so you can have more flexibility in choosing the proper angle for the fill flash.

Cameras with dedicated TTL flash systems can provide automatic flash fill. Consult the equipment instruction manual
for further instructions.

Filters- transparent material usually colored (glass or gelatin), fitted to a lens to alter the characteristics of light passing
through it.
Photographic filters are constructed in three basic forms namely:
 1. Glass disk
2. Gelatin Square
3. Glass Square

Filter factor- is a number by which exposure must be multiplied to compensate for loss of light absorbed by the filter
during exposure. Failure to increase exposure as indicated by the filter factor will result in underexposure.

Types of Filters used in black and white photography.

1. Correction filters: render colors in the scene in shades of gray that correspond to their perceived relative
brightness.
2. Contrast filters: increases gray tone separation between two colors that might otherwise appear of the
same tonal value.
3. Haze filters: reduce aerial haze in distance and aerial shots
4. Polarizing screen: reduces glare, haze, and unwanted reflections and increase color saturation.
5. Neutral density filters: reduces the amount of light passing through the lens without altering brightness
relationships within the scene.

Types of Filters used in color photography.

1. Neutral density: reduces the intensity of light without altering the color balance.
2. Polarizing screen: reduces glare, haze, and unwanted reflections and increase color saturation.
3. Skylight or ultraviolet filters: filters out UV light, reduce haze and increase the color saturation of the
sky and to reduce the effect of excessive blue light at high altitudes and on overcast days.
4. Conversion Filters: alters the color balance of light reaching the film to match that of the film in use.
5. Color compensating filters: precisely alters the color balance of any source light during shooting or
printing to achieve any combination of primary and secondary wavelengths desired.

Six colors that Color-compensating filters are manufactured:

a. red
b. blue
c. green
d. cyan
e. magenta
f. yellow

Type of Filter (color) Primary Colors Lightened on Print Primary Colors Darkened on Print
Yellow Red, Green Blue
Red Red Blue, Green
Green Green Red, Blue
Blue Blue Red, Green

Lens- a single shaped piece of optical glass or molded plastic designed to gather and focus light rays in a camera to
form an image of a subject on film.

Lens characteristics:
1. Focal length- distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set
or focused to “infinity”. It determines the image size and the area of coverage or angle of view.
Expressed in millimeters.
2. Focal distance- measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane.
3. Hyperfocal distance- the nearest distance in which a lens is focused with a given particular lens opening
which will give the maximum depth of field.
4. Focus- sharpness of the image.
5. Lens aberrations/defects- there is no such thing as a perfect lens and these defects cannot be eliminated
but only partially corrected.
a. spherical aberration
b. Coma or lateral spherical aberration
c. Curvature of field
d. Chromatic aberrations (color)
e. Distortions (barrel distortion, pin cushion)
f. Astigmatism (defect in a lens or mirror that prevents light rays from meeting at a single point,
producing an imperfect image)
g. Chromatic difference magnification.

Types of lenses according to corrections:

1. Achromatic- for colors
2. Rapid Rectilinear lens- for distortions
3. Anastigmant- for astigmatism
4. Apochromatic- for rapid correction to colors

Types of lenses
1. Converging positive convex
2. Diverging negative concave

Type of lenses according to focal length

 1. Wide-angle lens- focal length is less that the diagonal of its negative material.
2. Normal lens- focal length is equal or not more than the diagonal of its negative material.
3. Telephoto lens- the focal length is more than two times of its negative material.
4. Zoom lens- variable focal length

For 35mm format

1. Wide angle lens: 13-35mm

2. Normal lens: 49-55mm
3. Telephoto lens: 70-up

Methods of focusing

1. Scale bed or use of focusing scale

2. Rangefinders
a. Split image
b. Co-incident image
c. Ground glass

Light sensitized materials

1. Film
2. Photographic paper

Film a thin translucent strip or sheet of cellulose coated with an emulsion sensitive to light, used in a camera to take
still or moving pictures.

Two types of film

1. Negative: used primarily for printing
2. Positive aka reversal types: used for projectors

Classification of film according to Spectral sensitivity

1. Blue film: sensitive to UV, and blue colors only

2. Orthochromatic: UV, Blue and green only
3. Panchromatic: UV, and all colors of the visible spectrum
4. Infrared: sensitive to all

Film speed- it’s the rating of the film’s sensitivity to light. It also indicates the amount of silver salt per square inch of
the negative.

Classification of films according to film speed

1. ASA- American Standards Association

2. DIN-Deutsche Indusrtie Normen
3. ISO- International Standard Organization

ASA DIN ISO

12 12º 12/12º
25 15º 25/15º
50 18º 50/18º
100 21º 100/21º
200 24º 200/24º
400 27º 400/27º
800 30º 800/30º
1600 33º 1600/33º

Graininess- is the pattern of the film’s silver crystals that forms the image. Film speed affects the graininess of the film.

Latitude- is the film’s ability to deliver usable image when it is either over- or underexposed.

Contrast- is the film’s ability to capture a certain tonal range or records the difference in apparent brightness between
adjacent tonal areas.

Resolution- it’s the ability to produce images of high clarity and definition.

Sharpness- it’s the ability to produce image that have the apparent quality of high resolution (also called acutance, a
function of resolution, contrast, density, grain.

Parts of a Black & white Film

1. Top coat
2. Emulsion-the light sensitive part of the film made out of silver crystals
3. Subbing
4. Base- part of the film that supports the rest of the film. Usually made out of acetate or gelatin
 5. Adhesive layer
6. Antihalation backing- a dye coating that prevents light from being reflected back to the emulsion

Parts of a Colored Film

1. Blue sensitive emulsion

2. Yellow filter
3. Green Sensitive emulsion
4. Red Sensitive emulsion
5. Base
6. Antihalation Backing

DX codes- checkered markings on a film that gives information about the film. i.e. latitude, film speed and number of
frames/exposure available. DX coding is a recent innovation in film and camera technology. DX-coded cartridges of
35-mm film have printed on them a characteristic panel corresponding to an electronic code that tells the camera the
ISO rating of the film as well as the number of frames on the roll. Many of the newer electronic cameras are equipped
with DX sensors that electronically sense this information and automatically adjust exposures accordingly.

Photographic paper

Parts of a photographic paper

1. Emulsion
2. Base

Paper types

Contents
a. Bromide paper: enlarging/projecting
b. Chloride paper: Contact printing

Weight

a. Single-weight: used for all ordinary photographic purposes

b. Double-weight: used for large prints

Stock

a. Resin coated: offers more rapid processing time and dry-down time with or without drying machines
b. Fiber coated: has greater image quality and longer stability

Surface

a. Glossy: gives maximum detail and brilliance. Recommended for small prints
b. Matte: are softer and less glaring.

Developing process:

The process of black and white films and paper requires three basic steps: develop, stop, and fix.

Developer: amplifies the exposed latent image in the film or paper and creates a visible image. It turns the exposed
silver halides to metallic silver.

Stop bath: an acidic solution that halts the developing process.

Fixer: removes the unexposed silver halides and “fixes” or makes the image permanent.

Note: the results depend on three factors: temperature, time agitation

Printing or enlargement:
Prints are made by exposing sensitized photo paper which records, much does film, a latent image

Police of Forensic Photography: The art and science of taking photographs of crimes in progress, crime scenes and
evidences so that it can be presented as evidence in court.

Three Principal topics of Police Photography:

1. Principles of Photography
2. Preparation of photographic evidence
3. Application to police works

Application of Forensic Photography:

1. Identification
2. Recording/preservation of evidence
3. Discovering and proving of evidence
4. Action of offenders
5. Court exhibits

Identification:

a. Criminals (suspects, accused, convicts, releases)

b. Missing persons
c. Lost, stolen or damaged property
d. Civilians (applying for a job, visas or clearances)

Recording of evidence:

a. Crime scene
b. Homicide/murder
c. Robbery
d. Traffic accidents
e. Arsons or fires
f. Objects of evidence
g. Evidential traces

Discovering and proving of evidence:

a. Contrast control (use of filters, lighting techniques, proper films and paper)
b. Magnifications
1. Macrophotography- use of short focal length lenses and other accessories (i.e. extension tubes,
close up lenses) to take “close up” photo of the subject.
2. Photomicrography- use of microscope for enlargement purposes
3. Microphotography- reduction of images (microfilming)

c. Invisible radiation:
1. X-rays- used for detection of injuries and contrabands
2. UV rays and Infra red- used to detect chemicals, alterations, erasures and black out or night
vision.

Infrared photography: is the recording of images formed by infrared radiation. Because infrared radiation is invisible,
some special techniques may be needed. But, in general, most of the commonly required methods are as simple as
those of ordinary photography.

Uses In Law Enforcement

1. Questioned documents.
2. Aerial photography.
a. Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of the terrain.
b. Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter) growth is differentiated.
3. Surveillance photography.
4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth.
5. Detection of certain types of secret writings.

Equipment

1. Camera
a. Almost any camera. The 35mm camera is most convenient in most cases.
2. Lenses
a. Most good lenses can be used in infrared photography. It is helpful if the lens has an infrared focusing scale.

Film

1. Black-and-White Infrared Film

a. Records infrared luminescence from subjects.
b. Requires an infrared filter on the camera lens. Try a Kodak
 Wratten Filter #87.
2. Color Infrared Film
a. Not usually a good choice for law enforcement use. Color infrared film is a "false color" film. It is sensitive
to blue radiation in all its film layers so a yellow filter must be used to filter out the blue.
b. Color infrared film can be used to emphasize differences between objects that are visually quite similar.
Color infrared-sensitive films emphasize differences in infrared reflectance.
3. Loading Film
a. Infrared film is sensitive to heat and should be refrigerated. Allow sufficient time for the film to reach room
temperature before opening the package.
b. Kodak High Speed Infrared Film must be loaded and unloaded in total darkness because the felt-lined slots of
the magazines are not "light-tight" to infrared. Both exposed and unexposed film can be safely stored in the sealed film
container.

Lighting

1. Use tungsten lamps or electronic flash units for black-and-white infrared photography.
2. Use electronic flash illumination for color infrared photography. Other light sources (except daylight) require
special filtering.

Exposure

1. Exposure is determined by test shots.

2. Using Kodak High Speed Infrared Film with a Kodak Wratten Filter #87, try an ISO 25 for daylight and an ISO
64 for tungsten lighting.

Focusing

1. Focus in a normal manner without the filter in place.

2. The distance that appears opposite the normal index mark on the lens should then be moved to the red (infrared)
index mark. This will usually result in a lengthening of the lens.
3. Replace the filter for the exposure.

Ultraviolet Photography: Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while others will reflect these radiations. Some have
partial reflection. These effects can be recorded photographically suing ultraviolet radiation. Black-and-white films are
sensitive to most wavelengths of ultraviolet. By using a filter that absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet, it is
possible to make a photographic exposure with just ultraviolet.

Uses in Law Enforcement

1. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques and infrared light techniques fail (questioned
documents, etc.).

2. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust with fluorescent powder or ninhydrin).

3. Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration often glow when illuminated by ultraviolet light.
4. Money and other valuables can be dusted or marked to identify thieves.

Equipment, Films and Filters

1. Camera and lens with a Kodak Wratten filter #18A.

2. Other light sources include mercury vapor lamps and wire-filled flash lamps.

Focusing and Exposure

1. Focus for visible light and then shoot for maximum depth of field to get the correct focus.

2. Accurate focus and exposure for ultraviolet photography requires test exposure.
3. The ISO of film will be much different for ultraviolet photography. A film with a speed of ISO 400 for
visible light may have an effective speed of ISO 10 for ultraviolet photography. Bracket your exposures.

Photographic Necessities for Reflected Ultraviolet Radiation

1. Illuminate the subject by means of a radiation source that emits ultraviolet.

2. Exclude all visible light from the camera by placing over the lens a filter that transmits only ultraviolet.
3. Record the image in the camera on the film.

Action of offenders:

a. Surveillance
b. Re-enactment/ reconstruction crimes and crime scenes
c. Burglary trap or entrapments
 d. Confessions

Court exhibits: the production of photographs for court presentations, using the following methods.

a. Demonstration enlargements
b. Projection slides
c. Motion pictures
d. Individual photos

Lighting Methods for Copy and

Evidence Close-up Photography

The following lighting methods are effective for photographing various evidence subjects. The effects should be
previewed in order to select the best lighting technique for the evidence subject.

Direct Lighting

Direct lighting uses normal copy lighting with one or more light sources at a 45-degree angles.

Direct Reflective Lighting

Light is reflected directly off the subject into the lens. Place the subject at a 10-degree angle from the lens to film plane
and place the light source at 10-degree angle from the subject. The light source reflects at a 20-degree angle into the
lens. The light source may need to be diffused to prevent hot spots. This method creates very high contrast.

Oblique Lighting

Oblique lighting uses a light source at a low angle, usually to show detail by creating shadows in the
subject surface. It is commonly used when photographing impressions, tool marks and certain types of
fingerprints.
 Bounce Lighting

Light is bounced off a white or reflective surface. The bounce surface may be positioned at different locations (above
or to one side of the subject) to create the desired effect. This usually produces even non-glare lighting with low
contrast.

Diffused Lighting

An opaque material is placed between the light source and the the subject to diffuse the light. This usually results in
even lighting with reduced reflections and hot spots.

Transmitted Lighting

With transparent subjects the light source is transmitted through the subject toward the lens. The angle of the
transmitted lighting is adjusted from 90 degrees to 45 degrees for the desired effect.
 Front Directional or Axis Lighting

A clear piece of glass is placed between the subject and lens at a 45-degree angle. The light source is positioned parallel
to the film place and 45-degrees to the glass. While the light is transmitted through the glass, some is reflected
downward directly on the subject. This technique is effective when photographing fingerprints on mirrors and into
glasses or cups.

Other uses of photography in law enforcement works:

a. Public Information
b. Training
c. Reproduction and copying

Crime Scene Photography

A. Basic equipment for crime scene photography
1. Camera(s)
2. Normal lens
3. Wide angle lens
4. Close-up lenses or accessories
5. Filters
6. Electronic flash(s)
7. Remote or sync cord for electronic flash(s)
8. Extra camera and flash batteries
9. Locking cable release
10. Tripod
11. Film
12. Owner's manuals for camera and flash
13. Notebook and pen
14. Ruler
15. Gray card
16. Index cards and felt pen
17. Flashlight
B. Lenses
1. Normal lens
2. Wide angle lens
3. Other lenses
C. Care and maintenance of crime scene photography equipment
1. Cleaning lens and camera
2. Camera repair
3. Protection from extreme heat and cold
4. Protection from rain
D. Film
1. Color vs. black and white
2. Print film vs. slide film
3. Film speed
4. Matching film to the light source

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY IS TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY: Photographs must be correctly exposed, have
maximum depth of field, be free from distortion and be in sharp focus.
1. Correctly exposed
a. Exposure is controlled by the shutter speed and lens aperture
b. Automated camera exposure systems and automatic flash units can be fooled and give incorrect exposures
c. Front, side and back lighting
d. Light meters
e. Flair
f. Using gray card
g. Bracketing exposures
2. Maximum depth of field
a. Depth of field is the area in a photograph in which objects are in sharp focus
b. How to control depth of field
c. Zone focusing
(1) Preview depth of field
3. Free from distortion (must have good perspective)
a. Use a normal focal length lens when ever possible
b. Keep the camera as level as possible
c. Photograph with the camera at eye level whenever possible
4. Sharp focus
a. Keep the camera steady
b. Focus carefully and use maximum depth of field
c. Look at the frame of your scene

FLASH AND NIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY

A. Types of flash illumination
1. Manual flash
a. Set f/stop for the flash-to-subject distance
 2. Automatic flash
a. Uses distance ranges
b. A change to a new range requires a change in f/stop
c. Never work an automatic flash at its maximum range, especially in less than ideal conditions
d. When in automatic flash, make sure the shutter speed dial is set to the flash synchronization speed
e. When photographing a high key scene (light or reflective background) bracket <197> opening up one or
two f/stops
3. Dedicated flash
a. Sets correct flash synchronization speed when the flash is in operation. Still uses automatic sensor and
ranges. The photographer must set the appropriate f/stop for the distance range
OR
b. Sets the correct flash synchronization speed and f/stop for the automatic range selected
4. Dedicated TTL (Through-the-lens)
a. Uses a sensor inside the camera
b. Use smaller f/stops for short distances and larger f/stops for long distances
c. For compensation or bracketing use the exposure compensation dial
B. Problems with electronic flash
1. Flash synchronization
2. Coverage
a. Distances -- inverse square law of light
b. Long distances when outdoors at night or at arson scenes
3. Reflective surfaces
a. Automatic flash units can shut off too soon due to reflected light
4. Rain
C. Lighting techniques
1. Electronic flash (NOTE : Disregard the light meter in the camera when using electronic flash)
a. Flash mounted on camera
b. Flash off camera
c. Bounce flash
(1) Bounce off a white or light colored surface
(2) Manual flash: add the distance up and down for the flash-to-subject distance then figure in the
absorbance loss (one to three f/stops)
(3) Automatic flash with sensor facing the subject: use a range for two times or more times the actual
flash-to-subject distance
d. Multiple flash
(1) Distance the flash units to provide the same f/stop for each flash
2. Available light (no electronic flash)
3. Painting with light
a. The shutter is left open while the light source is moved around until all of the scene is properly illuminated
b. Procedure
(1) Mount the camera on a sturdy tripod
(2) Equip the camera with a lens shade (if available)
(3) Screw a locking cable release into the camera shutter release
(4) Set the shutter speed dial to B (bulb)
(5) Determine the f/stop based on the flash to subject distance (not the camera to subject distance)
(6) Focus carefully
(7) Depress the cable release and lock it to hold the shutter open
(8) Fire the electronic flash to light areas of the scene. The number of flashes and angle of the flashes will
depend on the size and character of the scene. Do not point the flash directly at the camera and
keep yourself out of the view of the camera
(9) Unlock the cable release and allow the shutter to close
(10) Advance the film

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

A. Purpose of Crime Scene Photography
1. To record the original scene and related areas
2. To record the initial appearance of physical evidence
3. It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual record of the scene for later use
4. Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings
B. Admissibility of photographic evidence
1. Three major points of qualification of a photograph in court
a. Object pictured must be material or relevant to the point in issue
b. The photograph must not appeal to the emotions or tend to prejudice the court or jury (inflammatory
photographs)
c. The photograph must be free from distortion and not misrepresent the scene or the object it purports to
reproduce
2. You do not need to be an expert in photography to take crime scene photographs or testify about them

GENERAL CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

A. Photographs are one way to record a crime scene
1. Field notes
2. Photographs
3. Sketches
B. Photographs
1. What photographs can show
2. What photographs do not show
 C. Five steps in recording the crime scene
1. Secure the scene
2. Take preliminary notes
3. Take overview photographs
4. Make a basic sketch
5. Record each item of evidence
D. Taking overview photographs
1. Purpose
a. To show the scene exactly as it was when you first saw it
(1) If something was moved before you arrived, don't try to reconstruct the scene as it was. The
photographs should show the scene as you found it
2. Major crime photography
a. First discuss the crime, evidence and photographs needed with other investigators at the scene
b. Be careful not to destroy any evidence while taking the photographs
c. Outside the scene
(1) Exterior of the building where the crime occurred and in some cases the whole locale
(2) Aerial photographs of the scene and the surrounding area can be useful in some types of cases
(3) Original series of photographs should also show all doors, windows and other means of entrance or
exit
d. Inside the scene
(1) Begin with a view of the entrance
(2) Then photograph the scene as it appear when you first step into the room
(3) Next, move around the room to get photographs of all the walls
(a) These photographs should also show the positions of any potential items of evidence
(4) Include photographs of other rooms connected with the actual crime scene
3. Using video to record the crime scene
a. Frequently valuable to show an overview of the scene
E. Photographs to record items of evidence
1. Take two photographs of each item of evidence
a. One should be an orientation (midrange) shot to show how the item is related to it surroundings
b. The second photograph should be a close-up to bring out the details of the object itself
2. Measuring and marking devices
a. Take two photographs if a marking or measuring device is used
(1) One photograph without the device, the other with the device
(2) So the defense can't claim that the scene was altered or that the device was concealing anything
important

PHOTOGRAPHING SPECIFIC CRIME SCENES

Note: Each crime scene has unique characteristics and the type of photographs needed will be determined at the
scene by the investigator familiar with the crime.
A. Homicide
1. Use color film
2. Photographs (example: homicide inside a residence)
a. Exterior of the building
b. Evidence outside the building
c. Entrance into the scene
d. Room in which the body was found
e. Adjoining rooms, hallways, stairwells
f. Body from five angles
g. Close-up of body wounds
h. Weapons
i. Trace evidence
j. Signs of activity prior to the homicide
k. Evidence of a struggle
l. View from positions witnesses had at time of the crime
(1) Use a normal lens
m. Autopsy
B. Suicide, other dead body calls
1. If there is any doubt, photograph the scene as a homicide
C. Burglaries
1. Photographs (residential or commercial burglaries)
a. Exterior of building
b. Point of entry
c. Entrance into scene
d. Interior views
e. Area from which valuable articles were removed
f. Damage to locks, safe, doors, toolmarks
g. Articles or tools left at the scene by the suspect
h. Trace evidence
i. Other physical evidence
D. Assaults, injuries
1. Photographing injuries
a. Face of victim in the photographs
b. Bruises
c. Bite marks
(1) Orientation shot
 (2) Close-up at 90 degree angle to avoid distortion
(3) Ruler in same plane as bite mark
(4) Focus carefully
(5) Bracket exposures
2. Equipment
a. Always use color film and no filter
b. Use color charts and rulers
c. Flash unit with diffused lighting
E. Traffic Accidents and Hit and Run Cases
1. Photographs at the accident scene
a. Where the vehicles came to rest and in what position
(1) Photographs should show the relationship of each vehicle with each other
b. Damage to vehicles
(1) Technical photographs of damage to a vehicle
(a) Do not take any oblique or corner photographs to show damage for reconstruction purposes because
they are not aligned with the axis of the vehicle. They tend to conceal the amount and direction of the damage.
(b) Take six photographs. Two from each side in line with the axles. Take one of each end of the
vehicle, straight on. If possible take one more from overhead
(c) Use electronic flash to fill in shadows within the damage
c. Debris or marks on the roadway
d. View each driver had approaching the key point of the accident.
e. View from the point a witness observed the accident, at witness' eye level
f. Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles
2. Night photography
a. Use multiple flash, paint with light or available light for extra long skidmarks or to show two vehicles
some distance apart

VII. USING FLASH FILL

A. Steps
1. Set the shutter speed to the camera's flash synchronization speed (usually 1/60 second)
2. Use the camera's light meter to determine the correct f/stop. Set that f/stop on your lens.
3. With the flash on manual, find the flash to subject distance for the above f/stop.
4. Position the flash unit at that distance and take the photograph.

VIII. PHOTOGRAPHING EVIDENCE

A. Fingerprints
1. When to photograph fingerprints
a. Before lifting on major cases or if the latent may be destroyed when lifting
b. To bring out detail in a latent
2. Equipment
a. 1:1 cameras and copy cameras
b. 35mm cameras with macro or close-up lens attachments
c. Gray card for available light exposures
3. Films
Well defined fingerprints can be photographed with color film but black and white film provides more
contrast and is preferred for latent print photography
4. Filters
a. Color filters, when used in black and white photography, can be used to build contrast by either lightening
or darkening the subject (latent print) or by lightening or darkening the background (background drop-out)
(1) To lighten a color, the color filter closest to the color is used
(2) To darken a color, the opposite color filter is used
(3) See Filter Chart for examples
5. Procedures
a. Establish the location of the latent
b. Close-up to show detail
(1) A 1:1 camera or device must be used, or
(2) A scale must be included in the photograph on the same plane as the latent
(3) Photograph with the film plane parallel to the latent surface
(4) Get as much depth of field as possible, especially for curved surfaces
c. Exposure
(1) Available light exposures of latents with normal contrast can be metered using a gray card
(2) Bracketing may reveal more detail in "low contrast" latents.
(a) Underexposing the film will separate the steps on the white end of the gray scale. Overexposure
will separate the steps on the black end of the gray scale.
(b) The latitude for black and white film is generally two stops underexposure and six stops
overexposure.
d. Specific types of fingerprint subjects
(1) Normal, dusted prints
(a) Usually can be photographed with no problem
(2) Impressions in soft substances (wax, putty, clay, adhesive tape, grease, etc.) or in dust
(a) Use cross lighting at an oblique angle
(b) Preview with flashlight lighting
(3) Porous surfaces
(a) May need to use close to a 90 degree lighting angle
(b) Preview with flashlight lighting
(4) Glass and mirrors
 (a) Glass -- place white card or cloth behind glass, use low oblique angle of light
(5) Perspiration prints on glass
(a) Use back (transmitted) lighting and diffusion screen
(6) Ninhydrin fingerprint
(a) Use normal black and white film with a green filter and increase development time 25%
B. Impressions
1. Footprints and tire tracks
a. Procedure
(1) Take an orientation photograph to show where in the scene the impression is located
(2) Take a close-up for detail
(a) Use a scale on the same plane as the impression
(b) Keep the film plane parallel to the plane of the impression
(c) Block out ambient light and use a strong light source at different angles to find the light angle(s)
that shows the best detail in the impression -- then put the electronic flash or light source at that angle for the
photograph
(3) Photograph tire impressions in section showing one circumference of the tire
(a) Use a tape measure for overlapping photographs
C. Bloodstain photography
1. Use color film
2. Orientation photographs to show locations of bloodstain evidence at the scene
3. Close-up photographs to show detail
a. Use a scale on the same plane as the bloodstain
b. Keep the film parallel to the plane of the bloodstain
c. Use a low oblique light angle
D. Toolmarks
E. Serial numbers
F. Small items, copying, etc.
1. Close-up lenses and devices
2. Lighting

Using Video to Record the Crime Scene

Video taping is valuable for showing an overview of the crime scene and should be used in major cases. Video taping
provides an easily understandable viewing medium that shows the layout of crime scene and the location of evidence.

Techniques for Crime Scene Video Taping

When video taping crime, scenes follow these steps:

1. Start the video tape with a brief introduction presented by an investigator. The introduction should include
the date, time, location, type of crime scene, and any other important introductory information. The
introduction should also include a brief description of the rooms and evidence will be viewed in the video
tape. The investigator may want to use a basic diagram as an illustration during the introduction.

2. Video tape the crime scene, after the introduction, without any audio recording.
3. Begin video taping the crime scene with a general overview of the scene and surrounding area.
4. Continue throughout the scene using wide angle and close up views to show the layout of the scene, location
of evidence, and the relevance of evidence within the crime scene.
5. While video taping, use slow camera movements such as panning, and zooming.

Watch for and take care not to disturb:

 Shoe impressions.
 Tyre tracks.
 Blood.
 Fibres.
 Fingerprints.
 Clothing.
 Bedding.
 Impacted vehicles/aircraft.
 Debris.
 Any other object with potential evidential value.

Always use the agreed safety route into and out of the scene.

DO NOT be sidetracked into other tasks by investigators without first consulting with the Forensic team O.I.C..

UNLESS URGENT finish off your systematic evidence gathering run before being diverted to other tasks. This
includes the note taking process.

CAMERA TECHNIQUES
 Check lighting - is it daylight, artificial or a mixture?
 Should the scene be lit - if so how?
 Select appropriate camera filter and ALWAYS WHITE BALANCE!
 Do not mix light of different colour temperature unless absolutely unavoidable! Consider using blue filter
over artificial light to match daylight!
 Every shot is important - shoot it as if it is the most important of the series.
 Take your time - plan your pan - don't chase focus or subject.
 Don't scrub the scene (i.e. pan side to side, up and down). One clean sweep is much more professional.
 Before zooming to close up during a take, zoom, focus and pull back first - then do the take. This will avoid
the awful spectacle of zooming out of focus.
 Always take an exterior GV (General View) or 'establisher' shot of the location (house, factory, boat, caravan,
etc.). This will leave no doubt as to where the scene is located.
 Before (or after) showing a BCU (Big Close Up) of an object, do a LS (Long Shot) or MS (Mid Shot) of it to
establish its location in relation to other parts of the scene.
 When covering a long narrow section of a scene (e.g. road, corridor, rail track, etc.), consider a slow zoom
from a tripod - pulling focus if necessary; rather than clumsily walking along it (Dolly Shot) with the
inevitable, disconcerting sway and judder.
 If perspective has to change (i.e. you have to see behind objects or demonstrate their separation from each
other), then use of a "Dolly Shot" may be unavoidable. In this case use the lens at its widest possible angle (to
minimise sway and judder) and move as smoothly as possible. Again plan your shot - route - focusing points
- etc., before moving off.
 In small rooms or spaces (toilets, bathrooms, caves, etc.) use of a high camera angle from a corner will give
the maximum coverage of the area.
 High camera angles are also useful when separation of objects on similar plains is required.
 Don't be dissuaded from using a tripod when necessary. It may take more time but your shots will be more
professional. DON'T use it if there is any risk of contaminating or disturbing a scene, or interfering with the
duties of other team members.
 AIM FOR quality - not quantity! A lot of ground can be covered with a few well planned shots.
Unnecessarily repeating or prolonging shots will only bore or confuse, and won't enhance the evidential value
of the video.
 THINK LIKE AN EDITOR AS YOU SHOOT!