Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Lab Manual

Basic Electrical Engineering COURSE

COURSE TITLE 21EE151/251
Laboratory (P) CODE:
COURSE L T P C
STRUCTURE 0 0 2 1
COURSE CO-
Dr. Rajiva Dwivedi
ORDINATOR

Objectives:

1. To impart basic knowledge of electrical quantities such as current, voltage, power,

energy etc.

2. To familiarize students with basic circuit components and their connections.

3. To explain working principle of transformer and electrical measuring instruments such

as ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter, digital storage oscilloscope etc.

4. To familiarize students with principles and applications of network Theorems.

Learning Outcomes:
1. At the end of the course student will able to verify fundamental laws like Ohm’s Law,

KCL, KVL, etc.

2. At the end of the course student will able to understand the calibration of energy meter.

3. At the end of the course student will able to understand open circuit and short circuit

test of single-phase transformer.

4. At the end of the course student will able to analyse RLC series and parallel circuits
 Practical
Sl.
Exp. Name Briefing Demonstration Conduction,
No
Q&A

To Identify and Study of Basic

1 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min
electrical components and their
circuit symbols

2 To Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage and 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

Current Laws

3 To Verify Thevenin’s and Norton’s 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

Theorem

4 To Verify Maximum Power 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

Transfer Theorem

5 To Verify Super position and 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

Reciprocity Theorem

6 To Verify Series and parallel LCR 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

resonance circuits

7 To measure power and power factor 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

in single phase AC circuit.

To conduct open circuit and short

8 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min
circuit test on a single-phase
transformer

9 To perform Load test on single 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

phase transformer

10 To study Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min

Calibration and testing of Single

11 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min
Phase Energy meter

To study the balanced three phase

12 15min 15-30min 1Hr 15-30Min
system for star and delta connected
load
INTERNAL EVALUATION (Practical)
Practical Evaluation Schemes
Practical
Experiment Experiment Briefing / Practical Conduction
Evaluation Viva -
Number Title Demonstration Scheduled Lab Record &Verification Total
Voce

Experiment 15 10 25 15
80 Minutes 25 Minutes 50
1 Name Minutes (20%) (50%) (30%)

EXTERNAL EVALUATION (Practical)

Practical Evaluation Schemes

Written Practical Conduction Viva -Voce Total

15 20 15
50
(30%) (40%) (30%)
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 01
Identification and Study of basic electrical components and circuit symbols

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Resistor colour coding  Symbols of Various electrical and

 Active and passive components electronics components
 Applications

AIM: To identify and Study the basic electrical components and their circuit symbols.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Various fixed & variable resistors
2. Inductors
3. Capacitors
4. Diode and Transistor
5. Digital Multimeter

THEORY:

Classification of Electronic components:

A Passive Device is one that contributes no power gain (amplification) to a circuit or system.
It has not control action and does not require any input other than a signal to perform its
function.

Active Devices are components that are capable of controlling voltages or currents and can
create a switching action in the circuit. In other words, "Devices with smart properties.
Examples are Diodes, Transistors and Integrated circuits.

Passive components:
RESISTOR:
It is an element which offers an opposition to the flow of electric current through circuit.
It is measured in ohm. Power ratings & tolerance are important parameter of resistor. Types of
resistor:
1) Fixed resistor
2) Variable resistor
3) Voltage dependent resistor (VDR)
4) Thermistor
5) Thick film resistor
6) Fusible resistor
 1) Fixed resistor
a) Carbon composition resistor

The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. The maximum
rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts. Power is calculated using the square of the
current (I2) x the resistance value (R) of the resistor. If the maximum rating of the resistor is
exceeded, it will become extremely hot and even bum.

b) Film type resistor

i) Carbon film resistor ii) Metal film resistor

c) Wire wound resistor

2) Variable resistor:
The variable resistor may be wire wound or carbon type three terminals with one fixed
terminal of each end of the three movable arm or top potential meter is variable resistor .it may
be:
a) Carbon potentiometer
i) Linear potentiometer ii) Non-linear potentiometer

b) Wire wound potentiometer

i) Present potentiometer ii) Rheostat
Variable Resisters:

b) Wire wound potentiometer

i) Present potentiometer ii) Rheostat

Resister Color Code: Four & Five band resistor:

 ppm – parts per million per degree centigrade

The tolerance of resistors is mostly 1 %, 2%, 5% and 10%. In the old days, 20% was also
common, but these are now rare. Even 10% resistors are hard to get except in extremely high
or low values (> 1M or < 1R), where they may be the only options available at a sensible price.
A 100R resistor with 5% tolerance may be anywhere between 95 and 105 ohms – in most
circuits this is insignificant, but there will be occasions where very close tolerance is needed
(e.g. 0.1 % or better). This is fairly rare for audio, but there are a few instances where you may
see such close tolerance components.
Inductor: It is passive component used in electronics or electrical ac circuit. It is coil of
inducting wire ground hollow for mg as core of same suitable material Definition: Inductance
is the ability of conductor to produce induce voltage, when the current flowing through it is
varies. Inductance is denoted by “Y”& measured in henry (H).

The inductance of coil is given by formula -

L=μo μr AN2/L
Where,
L = length of core of metal
A = area of cross sectional of core in m2
N = no. of turns of coil
μo = absolute permeability of core material 1.25*10-6 for an core
μr = relative permeability of core material & m:1

Types of inductor:
1) Air core inductor
2) Iron core inductor
3) Ferrite inductor
4) Choke
5) RF coils
Capacitor:

The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions
as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). The capacitor is
constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by an insulator. When
DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the
capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has
fully charged.

Symbols:

A capacitor has an infinite (theoretically!) resistance at DC, and with AC, it has impedance.
Impedance is defined as a non-resistive (or only partially resistive) load, and is frequency
dependent. This is a very useful characteristic, and is used to advantage in many circuits. In the
case of a capacitor, the impedance is called Capacitive Reactance generally shown as XC. The
formula for calculating XC is shown below

XC = 1 / 2πfC
Where, π is 3.14159, f is frequency in Hertz and
C is capacitance in Farads
With capacitors, there is no power rating. A capacitor in theory dissipates no power, regardless
of the voltage across it or the current through it. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro),
n (nano) and p (pico):

Remember 1µF = 0.000001 F

µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF p means 10-12 (million-millionth),
so 1000pF = 1nF

Recapping:
1p = 1 picofarad. 1,000p = 1n ( 1 nanofarad) 1,000n = 1u (1 microfarad)
1,000u = 1millifarad 1,000,000u = 1 FARAD.
Capacitor Types:

Sr.No Types Dielectric Used

1 Paper capacitor Waxed paper.
2 Plastic film Plastic film.
3 capacitor Mica Thin sheet of mica.
4 capacitor Ceramic Ceramic material
5 capacitor Glass Flexible glass ribbon
6 capacitor Electrical Oxide layer acts as a dielectric.
7 capacitor Tantalum

Capacitor Coding:

Electrolytic capacitor:

Electrolytics are available in 1u, 2u2 3u3 4u7 10u, 22u, 47u, 100u, 220u, 330u, 470u, 1,000u,
2,200u, 3,300u, 4,700u, 10,000u and higher. The "voltage" or "working voltage" can be: 3.3v,
10v, 16v, 25v, 63v, 100v, 200v and higher. Electrolytics and Tantalums capacitors are the same
for testing purposes but their performance is slightly different in some circuits. A tantalum is
smaller for the same rating as an electrolytic and has a better ability at delivering a current.
They are available up to about 1,000u, at about 50v but their cost is much higher than an
electrolytic.

Ceramic capacitor:

All ceramic capacitors are marked in "p" (puff") A ceramic with 22 is 22p = 22
picofarad
A ceramic with 47 is 47p = 47 picofarad
A ceramic with 470 is 470p = 470 picofarad A ceramic with 471 is 470p = 470
picofarad A ceramic with 102 is 1,000p = 1n
A ceramic with 223 is 22,000p = 22n
A ceramic with 104 is 100,000p = 100n = 0.1u
Mica capacitor:
Capacitor Tolerance Table:
b) Active components:
P-N Junction Diode: It is used as a Rectifier. Diodes can have 4 different faults.
1. Open circuit in both directions.
2. Low resistance in both directions.
3. Leaky.
4. Breakdown under load.

TESTING DIODES: Silver ring indicates cathode.

For example: Light Emitting Diode tester:

The illumination produced by a LED is determined by the quality of the crystal. It is the crystal
that produces the colour and you need to replace a LED with the same quality to achieve the
same illumination. Never connect a LED across a battery (such as 6v or 9v), as it will be
instantly damaged. You must have a resistor in series with the LED to limit the current.

Transistors:
Transistors are solid-state devices and although they operate completely differently to a diode,
they appear as two back-to-back diodes when tested. There are basically 2 types of transistor
NPN and PNP. A transistor is sometimes referred to as BJT (Bi-polar Junction Transistor) to
distinguish it from other types of transistor such as Field Effect transistor, Programmable
Unijunction Transistor and others.

Transistor testing: (If Base, Emitter and Collector terminals are known)
1. Test the resistance between collector and emitter.
2. Then reverse the positive and negative meter connections and test again. If the meter reads
zero or a few ohms in tests 1 and 2, there is a short circuit between collector and emitter and
the transistor is faulty. If both readings are infinity, continue with test 3.
3. Now connect the positive meter lead to the base and test the resistance of both junctions by
connecting the negative meter probe to one of the other two pins. It doesn't really matter
whether this is the collector or the emitter, in our test we are simply testing a junction.
4. Now leave the positive lead on the base and move the negative lead to the other untested
(collector or emitter) pin and measure the resistance of this junction. For tests 3 and 4 you
should get a typical forward resistance reading of less than 1k in both cases.
5. Now connect the negative lead of your meter to the base and the positive lead to another pin
as shown at 5 in the diagram above.
6. Lastly connect the positive probe to the other untested pin as shown at 6 in the diagram
above.
7. In tests 5 and 6 both junctions should read infinity. If all of these six tests are ok you have a
good transistor. If one or more of the tests has failed, so has the transistor!

Transistor Lead identification:

To test the transistor, one must know “When the base voltage is higher than the emitter, current
flows though the collector-emitter leads.

If E, B and C terminals are unknown, you have to first find out those and then apply above test.
Now identify terminals.
Testing a transistor with a Digital Meter must be done on the "DIODE" setting as a digital
meter does not deliver a current through the probes on some of the resistance settings and will
not produce an accurate reading. The "DIODE" setting must be used for diodes and transistors.
It should also be called a "TRANSISTOR" setting.

CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
 WIRES AND CONNECTIONS

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME

To pass current very

1 WIRE easily from one part of a
circuit to another.

A 'blob' should be drawn

where wires are connected
(joined), but it is
sometimes omitted. Wires
2 WIRES JOINED connected at 'crossroads'
should be staggered
slightly to form two T-
junctions, as shown on the
right.

In complex diagrams it is
often necessary to draw
wires crossing even though
they are not connected. I
WIRES NOT prefer the 'bridge' symbol
3
JOINED shown on the right because
the simple crossing on the
left may be misread as a
join where you have
forgotten to add a 'blob'.
 POWER SUPPLIES

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
Supplies electrical energy. The larger
terminal (on the left) is positive
1. CELL (+). A single cell is often called a
battery, but strictly a battery is two or
more cells joined together
Supplies electrical energy. A battery
is more than one cell. The larger
2. BATTERY
terminal (on the left) is positive (+).

Supplies electrical energy.

DC = Direct Current, always
3. DC SUPPLY
flowing in one direction.

Supplies electrical e n e r g y.
4. AC SUPPLY AC = Alternating Current,
continually changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow'
(melt) if the current flowing through
5. FUSE it exceeds a specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron
core. Transformers a r e u s e d t o s
t e p u p (increase) and step down
(decrease) AC voltages. Energy is t
6. TRANSFORMER
ransferred between the coils by the
magnetic field in the core.There is no
electrical connection between the
coils.
A connection to earth. For many
electronic circuits this is the 0V
EARTH (zero volts) of the power supply, but
7. for mains electricity and some radio
(GROUND)
circuits it really means the earth. It
is also known as ground.
 OUTPUT DEVICES: LAMPS, HEATER, MOTOR

COMPONENT
S.NO CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION
NAME
A t r a n s d u c e r w h i c h converts
electrical energy to light. This
LAMP symbol is used for a lamp
1.
(LIGHTING) providing illumination, for
example a car headlamp or torch
bulb
A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.This
symbol is used for a lamp which is
2. LAMP
(INDICATOR) an indicator, for example a
warning light on a car dashboard.

A transducer which converts

3. HEATER electrical energy to heat.

A transducer which converts

4. electrical energy to kinetic energy
MOTOR (motion).

A transducer which converts

5. electrical energy to sound.
BELL

A transducer which converts electrical

6. energy to sound.
BUZZER

A coil of wire which creates a

magnetic field when current passes
through it. It may have an iron core
7. INDUCTOR(SOL inside the coil. It can be used as a
IN OID,COIL) transducer converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy by
pulling on something.
 SWITCHES

COMPONENT
S.NO CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION
NAME
PUSH A push switch allows current to
SWITCH flow only when the button is
1. pressed. This is the switch used to
(PUSH TO
MAKE) operate a doorbell.

PUSH TO This type of push switch is normally

2. BREAK closed (on), it is open (off) only when
the button is pressed.
SWITCH

ON/OFF SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.

SWITCH An on-off switch allows current to
3.
flow only when it is in the closed
(SPST) (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw. A
2-way changeover switch directs the
2 WAY
flow of current to one of two routes
4. SWITCH
according to its position.Some SPDT
(SPDT) switches have a central off position
and are described as 'on-off- on'.

DPST = Double Pole, Single

DUAL ON- Throw.A dual on-off switch which
OFF SWITCH is often used to switch mains
5.
electricity because it can isolate
(DPST) both the live and neutral
connections.
DPDT = Double Pole, Double
REVERG Throw.This switch can be wired up
6. SWITCH as a reversing switch for a motor.
(DPDT) Some DPDT switches have a central
off position.

An electrically operated switch,

for example a 9V battery circuit
connected to the coil can switch a
7. RELAY
230V AC mains circuit. NO =
NormallyOpen, COM =Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
 RESISTERS

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME

A resistor restricts the flow of

current, for example to limit the
1. RESISTOR current passing through an LED.
A resistoris used with a
capacitor in a timing circuit.

This type of variable resistor

with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is
usually used to control current.
VARIABLE Examples include: adjusting
2. RESISTOR
lamp brightness, adjusting
(RHEOSTAT) motor speed, and adjusting the
rate of flow of charge into a
capacitor in a timing circuit.

This type of variable resistor

with 3 contacts(apotentiometer)
VARIABLE is usually used to control
RESISTOR
voltage. It can be used like this
3.
(POTENT as a transducer converting
IOMETER) position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical signal.

This type of variable resistor (a

preset) is operated with a small
screwdriver or similar tool. It is
designed to be set when the
VARIABLE
RESISTER circuit is made and then left
4. without further adjustment.
(PRESET) Presets are cheaper than normal
variable resistors so they are
often used in projects to reduce
the cost
 CAPACITORS

COMPONENT
S.NO CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION
NAME
A capacitor stores electric charge. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a
1. CAPACITOR timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass
20 AC signals.

A capacitor stores electric charge.

This type must be connected the
correct way round.A capacitor is
2. CAPACITOR used with a resistor in a timing
POLARISED circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass
AC signals.

VARIABLE A variable capacitor is used in a

3.
CAPACITOR radio tuner.

DIODES
COMPONENT
S.NO CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION
NAME
1.
A device which only allows
DIODE current to flow in one direction

2. LED
(LIGHT A transducer which converts
EMITTING electrical energy to light.
DIODE)
3. A special diode which is used to
ZENER
maintain a fixed voltage across its
DIODE
terminals

PHOTO
4. A light-sensitive diode.
DIODE
 TRANSISTORS

COMPONENT
S.NO CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION
NAME
A transistor amplifies current. It
can be used with other
1.
TRANSISTOR components to make an amplifier
NPN or switching circuit.
A transistor amplifies current. It
can be used with other
2. TRANSISTOR components to make an amplifier
PNP or switching circuit.

A light-sensitive transistor.
PHOTO
3. TRANSISTOR

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

COMPONENT
S.NO CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION
NAME
A transducer which converts
1. MICROPHONE sound to electrical energy.

A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.
2. EARPHONE

LOUD A transducer which converts

3. SPEAKER electrical energy to sound.

PIEZO A transducer which converts

4. TRANSDUCER electrical energy to sound.

AMPLIFIER An amplifier circuit with one input.

(GENE RAL Really it is a block diagram symbol
5.
SYMBOL) because it represents a circuit rather
than just one component.
A d e v i c e w h i c h i s designed to
ARIEL
6. receive or transmit radio signals. It is
(ANTENNA)
also known as an antenna
 METERS AND OSCILLOSCOPE

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT FUNCTION

NAME SYMBOL
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
VOLTMETER The Proper name for voltage is
1.
'potential difference', but most people
prefer to say voltage.
An ammeter is used to measure
2. AMMETTER Current

A galvanometer is a very sensitive

meter which is used to measure tiny
3. GALVANO
currents, usually 1mA or
METER
less
An ohmmeter is used to measure
4 resistance. Most multimeters have an
OHEMMETER
. ohmmeter setting.

An oscilloscope is used to display the

shape of electrical signals and it can be
5. used to measure their voltage and time
OSCILLOSCOPE
period.

SENSORS (INPUT DEVICES)

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
A transducer which converts
brightness (light) to resistance (an
1. electrical property). LDR = Light
LDR
Dependent Resistor

A transducer which converts

2. THERMISTOR temperature (heat) to resistance
(an electrical property).
RESULT:
Thus the given values of resistors are calculated using color coding technique and also
studied about the various basic electrical components and their circuit symbols.

CONCLUSION:
Thus, we have studied and practiced the colour coding of resistor, capacitor & inductors. Also
we studied diode and transistor testing method and identifying its terminals.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is the tolerance value for a grey color in the tolerance band?
2. What is the color code for a 5KΩ, tolerance ± 5% resistor?
3. What do you meant by Active and Passive components of electrical devices?
4. Draw the light emitting diode symbol.
5. What is the principle of transistor?
6. Why sensors are required?
7. What is the main practical purpose of a capacitor?
8. Draw the variable Rheostat symbol of an electric circuit.
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 2
To verify the Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Principles  Junction
 Nodes  Loops
 Mesh  Conservations of energy

AIM: To verify the Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter Digital (0-20)V 4
2 Ammeter Digital (0-20)mA 4
3 RPS - (0-30) V 1
- 680Ω 1
4 Resistors - 1kΩ 1
- 470Ω 2
5 Bread board - - 1
Connecting wires - - Required
6
Number

THEORY:

a) Kirchhoff’s Voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path
in a given circuit is always zero. In any circuit, voltage drops across the resistors always have
polarities opposite to the source polarity. When the current passes through the resistor, there is
a loss in energy and therefore a voltage drop. In any element, the current flows from a higher
potential to lower potential. Consider the fig (1a) shown above in which there are 3 resistors
are in series. According to kickoff’s voltage law….

V = V1 + V2 + V3
b) Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering a node equal to the sum
of the currents leaving the same node. Consider the fig(1b) shown above in which there are 3
parallel paths. According to Kirchhoff’s current law...

I = I1 + I2 + I3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT:
KCL:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT:

PROCEDURE FOR KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Measure the voltages across the resistors
3. Observe that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero

PROCEDURE FOR KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Measure the currents through the resistors
3. Observe that the algebraic sum of the currents at a node is zero.
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

KVL:

S.NO Voltage Across Theoretical Practical

KCL:

S.NO Voltage Through Theoretical Practical

RESULT:
Thus the Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law for the given circuit was verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections
2. Keep all the knobs in minimum position while switch on and off of the supply.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is another name for KCL & KVL?
2. Define network and circuit?
3. What is the property of inductor and capacitor?
4. What do you mean by algebraic sum.
5. Define the term ‘Node’ and ‘Junction’.
6. Define Loop and Mesh.
7. Is KCL based on the principle of conservation of energy?
8. Derive the equation for converting a voltage source into current source and vice versa.
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 3
Verification of Thevenin’s & Norton’s theorems
Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Theorems  Applications
 Circuit analysis  Mesh
 Nodes

AIM: To verify Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter Digital (0-20)V 1
2 Ammeter Digital (0-20)mA 1
3 RPS (0-30) V 1
- 10KΩ, 1KΩ 1
4 Resistors - 2.2 Ω 1
- 330Ω 1
5 Bread board - - 1
Required
6 Connecting wires - -
Number

THEORY:

THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

It states that in any lumped, linear network having more number of sources and elements the
equivalent circuit across any branch can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
Theremin’s equivalent voltage source Vth in series with Theremin’s equivalent resistance Rth.
Where Vth is the open circuit voltage across (branch) the two terminals and Rth is the resistance
seen from the same two terminals by replacing all other sources with internal resistances.

Thevenin’s theorem:
The values of VTh and Rth are determined as mentioned in Thevenin’s theorem.
Once the Thevenin equivalent circuit is obtained, then current through any load resistance RL
connected across AB is given by,
VTh
I= .
Rth+RL

Thevenin’s theorem is applied to d.c. circuits as stated below.

Any network having terminals A and B can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VTh in
series with a source resistance RTh.The emf the voltage obtained across the terminals A and B
with load, if any removed i.e., it is open circuited voltage between terminals A and B.
The resistance RTh is the resistance of the network measured between the terminals A and B
with load removed and sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances. Ideal voltage
sources are replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources are replaced with open
circuits.

To find VTh,

v
The load resistor ‘RL’ is disconnected, then VTh = XR3
R1+R2

To find RTh,
R1R3
Rth = R2 +
R1+R3
Thevenin’s theorem is also called “ Helmoltz theorem”

NORTON’S THEOREM:
Norton’s theorem states that in a lumped, linear network the equivalent circuit across any
branch is replaced with a current source in parallel a resistance. Where the current is the
Norton’s current this is the short circuit current though that branch and the resistance is the
Norton’s resistance which is the equivalent resistance across that branch by replacing all the
sources sources with their internal resistances.

Norton’s theorem, applied to d.c. circuits may be stated as below.

Any linear network having two terminals ‘A’ and ‘B’ can be replaced by a current source of
current output IN in parallel with a resistance RN. The output IN of the current source is
equal to the current that would flow through AB when A&B are short circuited.

The resistance RN is the resistance of the network measured between A and B with load
removed and sources of e.m.f replaced by their internal resistances.
Ideal voltage source are replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources are replaced with
open circuits.

For source current,

V V(R2+R3)
I= =
Ri R1R2+R1R3+R2R3
For short-circuit current,
R3 VR3
IN = I =
R2+R3 R1R2+R1R3+R2R3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:TO FIND IN:

TO FIND IN:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per fig (1)

2. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say 25V).
3. Note down the response (current, IL) through the branch of interest i.e. AB (ammeter
reading).
4. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply. 5.
Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (2).
6. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 25V.
7. Note down the voltage across the load terminals AB (Voltmeter reading) that gives Vth.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply. 9.
Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (3).
10. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say V
=25V).
11. Note down the current (I) supplied by the source (ammeter reading).
12. The ratio of V and I gives the Rth.
13. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
14. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (4).
15. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 25V
16. Note down the response (current, IN) through the branch AB (ammeter reading).
17. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
18. Disconnect the circuit

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

THEVINENS THEOREM:

S.No Theoretical value Practical value

1 VTh VTh

2 RTh RTh

3 IL IL

NORTONS THEOREM:
 S.No Theoretical value Practical value

1 IN IN

2 RN RN

3 IL IL

RESULT:
Thus the Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem for the given circuit was verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
3. Avoid loose connections
4. Keep all the knobs in minimum position while switch on and off of the supply.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. The internal resistance of a source is 2 Ohms and is connected with an External load of 10
Ohms resistance. What is Rth ?
2. In the above question if the voltage is 10 volts and the load is of 50 ohms. What is the load
current and Vth? Verify IL?
3. If the internal resistance of a source is 5 ohms and is connected with an External load of 25
Ohms resistance. What is Rth?
4. What are the advantages of Thevenin’s theorem?
5. How will you convert Thevenin equivalent circuit into Norton’s equivalent circuit?
6. State the difference between Thevenin and Norton’s. 7. State and explain the importance of
these theorems.

EXPERIMENT NO.: 4
Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Theorems  Applications
 Circuit analysis  Nodes

AIM: To verify the maximum power transfer theorem for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
2 Ammeter (0-20)mA 1
3 DC Voltage source (0-30) V 1
4 Resistors 470Ω 1
5 Decade resistance box (0-10) K 1
6 Connecting wires 1.0.Sq.mm As required

THEORY:
It states that the maximum power is transferred from the source to load when the load resistance
is equal to the internal resistance of the source. Or The maximum transformer states that “A
load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral network when its load resistance is
exactly equal to the Thevenin’s resistance of network, measured looking back into the terminals
of network.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT:

CALCULATIONS:

R = (RS+ RL) = Ω
IL = V / R = mA
Power=(IL2) RL = mW

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Measure the voltages across the resistors
3. Observe that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the above figure.
2. Apply the voltage 12V from RPS.
3. Now vary the load resistance (RL) in steps and note down the corresponding Ammeter.
Reading ( IL)in milli amps and Load Voltage (VL) volts.
4. Tabulate the readings and find the power for different load resistance values.
5. Draw the graph between Power and Load Resistance.
6. After plotting the graph, the Power will be Maximum, when the Load Resistance will be
equal to source Resistance
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:
 S.NO RL(ohms) IL(A) Power(PL) = IL2*RL (mW)

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus the maximum power transfer theorem for the given circuit was verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
5. Avoid loose connections
6. Keep all the knobs in minimum position while switch on and off of the supply.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is maximum power transfer theorem?
2. What is the application this theorem?
3. Give some reason why the value of RL for maximum power transfer is little greater
than the resistance Rs.
4. Is maximum power transfer theorem is applicable to ac circuits?
5. State and explain the importance of maximum power theorems.

EXPERIMENT NO.: 4 (a)

 Verification of Superposition Theorem

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Theorems  Applications
 Circuit analysis  Nodes

AIM: To verify the superposition theorem for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter Digital (0-20)mA 1
2 RPS Digital (0-30) V 1
- 1kΩ 1
3 Resistors - 2.2 kΩ 1
- 560kΩ 1

THEORY:
Superposition theorem states that in a lumped ,linear, bilateral network consisting more number
of sources each branch current(voltage) is the algebraic sum all currents ( branch voltages),
each of which is determined by considering one source at a time and removing all other sources.
In removing the sources, voltage and current sources are replaced by internal resistances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT:
When V1 & V2 source acting (To find I)

Fig (1)

When V1 source acting (To find I1)

Fig (2)
When V2 source acting (To find I2)

Fig (3)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the fig (1).
2. Adjust the output voltage of sources X and Y to appropriate values (Say 15V and20V
respectively).
3. Note down the current (IL) through the 560 0hm resistor by using the ammeter.
4 Connect the circuit as per fig (2) and set the source Y (20V) to 0V.
5. Note down the current (IL l) through 560ohm resistor by using ammeter.
6. Connect the circuit as per fig (3) and set the source X (15V) to 0V and source Y to 20V.
7. Note down the current (IL ll) through the 560 ohm resistor branch by using ammeter.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the sources X and Y to 0V and switch off the supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

From Fig (1)

Applied voltage Applied voltage

S.NO Current IL (mA)
V1(volt) V2(volt)

From Fig (2)

Applied voltage
S.NO Current ILI (mA)
V1(volt)

From Fig (3)

Applied voltage
S.NO Current ILII (mA)
V2(volt)

CALCULATIONS:
 S.NO Load Current Theoretical Values Practical Values

1
When both sources are acting, I1

2 When only sources X is acting, I1I

3 When only sources Y is acting, I1II

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus the superposition theorem for the given circuit was verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
7. Initially keep the RPS output voltage knob in zero volt position.
8. Set the ammeter pointer at zero position.
9. Take the readings without parallax error.
10. Avoid loose connections.
11. Avoid short circuit of RPS output terminals.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
6. What do you meant by Unilateral and Bilateral network? Give the limitations of
Superposition theorem?
7. What are the equivalent internal impedances for an ideal voltage source and for a Current
source?
8. Transform a physical voltage source into its equivalent current source.
9. Under what conditions Superposition Theorem applicable?
10. Can Superposition Theorem be applied to determine ‘Power’ in an element of a circuit?
11. State and explain the importance of Superposition theorem.

EXPERIMENT NO.: 4 (b)

Verification of Reciprocity Theorem

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Theorems  Applications
 Circuit analysis  Bilateral Network

AIM: To verify the reciprocity theorem for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter Digital (0-20)mA 1
2 RPS Digital (0-30) V 1
- 10kΩ 1
3 Resistors - 2.2 kΩ 1
- 470 Ω 1

THEORY:

Statement:

In any linear, bilateral, single source network, the ratio of response to the excitation is same
even though the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT:

CIRCUIT-1:
 Fig (1)

CIRCUIT-2:

Fig (2)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the fig (1).

2. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say 20V).
3. Note down the current through 2.2 KΩ by using ammeter.
4. Reduce the output voltage of the RPS to 0V and switch-off the supply.
5. Disconnect the circuit and connect the circuit as per the fig (2).
6. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say 20V).
7. Note down the current through 10K Ω resistor from ammeter.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the RPS to 0V and switch-off the supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

From Fig (1)

Applied voltage Applied voltage

S.NO Current IL (mA)
V1(volt) V2(volt)

From Fig (2)

Applied voltage
S.NO Current ILI (mA)
V1(volt)

CALCULATIONS:

S.NO Parameter Theoretical Values Practical Values

1
IL / V1
2
IL / V1
RESULT:
Thus the Reciprocity theorem for the given circuit was verified.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Initially keep the RPS output voltage knob in zero volt position.
2. Set the ammeter pointer at zero position.
3. Take the readings without parallax error.
4. Avoid loose connections.
5. Avoid short circuit of RPS output terminals.
6. If voltmeter gives negative reading then interchange the terminals connections of a
voltmeter.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is reciprocity theorem?
2. Why it is not applicable for unilateral circuits.
3. State and explain the importance of reciprocity theorems.

EXPERIMENT NO.: 6
Verification of series and parallel LCR resonance Circuits
Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Frequency response of LCR  Band width

 Quality factor

AIM: To study and verify the frequency response and to find resonant frequencies of L-C-R
series and parallel circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Variable non-inductive resistor
2. Variable capacitor
3. Variable inductor
4. Signal generator
5. A.C. milli- ammeter and connecting wires

THEORY:

L-C-R parallel: When the resistor R, inductor L and capacitor C are connected in series with a
source of emf E , the circuit is called as the series resonant or series tuned circuit ( figure-1).
This is an acceptor circuit, that means it allows maximum current to flow through it at a
particular (resonant) frequency and at all other frequencies it allows less current.

In A.C. circuits the voltage and the current are usually out of phase. Across the inductor, the
current lags behind the voltage by 90O, whereas across the capacitor, the current leads the
voltage by 90O. But across the resistor the voltage and current both are in phase. Under certain
conditions, the voltage and current are in phase, even though the circuit consists of L, C and R
and the circuit behaves as a pure resistor. This phenomenon is called resonance. This occurs at
a single frequency known as resonant frequency. At this frequency the capacitive reactance(
Xc = 1/ωC) and the inductive reactance( XL = ωL) are equal and opposite in direction. So they
get cancelled each other and only resistance acts.

The impedance of the circuit is given by Z = R + j (ωL - 1/ωC )

At resonance the reactive term disappears ωL - 1/ωC = 0

The impedance is minimum i.e. Z=R

The current is maximum I = E/R

The current is maximum, So ωL = 1/ωC

 1
𝜔𝑜 = 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑜 =
√𝐿𝐶
At this frequency the current is maximum and this frequency f0 is called resonant frequency.
The circuit has selective properties. To compare selectivity or sharpness of resonance, a band
1
of frequencies is chosen at which the current falls to √2 times (half power points) of its
maximum value. The frequency difference (f2 – f1) between the half power points is called the
bandwidth.

L-C-R parallel: - Parallel resonant circuit ( figure-2 ) is one in which one branch consists of
an inductor L with associated resistor R and the other branch consists of a capacitor C. This is
a rejector circuit that means it rejects the current or allows minimum current to flow through
it, at a particular (anti-resonant) frequency and it allows more current at all other frequencies.
So the circuit is not selective. But it is highly selective when energized from a high impedance
generator.

The impedance of the circuit is given by

1 1 1
= + 1
𝑍 𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑗𝜔𝐶

At resonance the impedance is maximum.

𝐿
Z=
𝐶𝑅
The impedance at resonance
1 1 𝑅2
𝑓0 = √ − HZ
2𝛱 𝐿𝐶 𝐿2

1 1
𝑓0 = √ HZ
2𝛱 𝐿𝐶

SERIES RLC CIRCUIT:

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for L-C-R series,
2. Make the source resistance and the series resistance should be small.
3. The output voltage of the signal generator is adjusted to be around 5V.
4. The frequency of the signal generator is changed in steps and the corresponding current
values are noted from the a.c. milli ammeter.
5. Note down the readings as Tabulated.
6. Then the current values increase with the increase of frequency, up to the resonant frequency,
further increase of frequency causes the decrease of current.
7. Note down the L, C and R values to calculate the resonant frequency fo and Q factor, using
the above formulae.
8. Repeated with a different value of ‘R’. Here the fo value is unchanged, but Q- factor value
is changed.
9. Plot the graph between frequency Vs current by taking frequency along x-axis and current
along y-axis as shown in fig.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

LCR Series:

S.NO Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)

LCR Parallel:
 S.NO Frequency (Hz) Current (mA)

GRAPH:

A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency corresponding to maximum
current is noted and it is the resonant frequency f0. The frequencies f1 and f2 corresponding to
half power points is noted and from it the bandwidth, (f1 – f2) is noted. From the values of f0,
f1 and f2, the quality factor, Q is calculated.
For L-C-R parallel, the circuit is connected as shown in the figure-2. The frequency of the
signal generator is changed in steps and the corresponding current values are noted from the
a.c. milli- ammeter. The readings are tabulated. But here, the current values decrease with the
increase of frequency up to the anti- resonant frequency, further increase of frequency causes
the increase of current. The anti- resonant frequency fo is noted corresponding to the minimum
current in the circuit. A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency
corresponding to minimum current is noted and it is the anti- resonant frequency f0.

RESULT:
Thus the frequency response and resonant frequencies of L-C-R series and parallel were studied
and verified.

PRECAUTIONS:

9. The internal resistance of the source and series resistance should be small.
10. Before going to the experiment the resonant frequency should be calculated from L and
C values so that to select the range of frequencies for observation.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What do you understand by Resonance of LRC circuit?
2. Define Bandwidth.
3. What do you meant by Q-factor?
4. Give the various applications of series LRC circuit.
5. How the RLC series circuit behaves for the frequencies above and below the resonant
frequencies?
6. What is the condition of resonance in RLC series circuit?

EXPERIMENT NO.: 7
Measurement of electrical quantities-voltage, current, power and power factor in
 RLC circuit
Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Measurement of Voltage  Measurement of Power

 Measurement of Current  Measurement of Power factor

AIM: To measure electrical quantities for the given single phase circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter MI (0-300)V 1
2 Ammeter MI (0-10)A 1
3 Wattmeter UPF 0-300 V/ 10A 1
4 Load RLC Variable 1
5 Auto Transformer 1PH 1KVA, 230/(0-240) V 1

THEORY:

Apparent Power = VI (Voltmeter reading x Ammeter reading)

Real Power = VI Cos Ф (Watt meter reading)
Power factor (Cos Ф) = Real Power / Apparent Power
Indicated Power = Observed reading X Multiplying factor

Error = (Indicated Power –Actual Power) x100 /Actual Power

Actual Power = Voltmeter reading x Ammeter reading x Power factor

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

2. Set the rated voltage by adjusting Auto transformer
3. Observe the meter readings for various loading conditions.
4. Calculate the error and plot the graph between %error and current value.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CALCULATIONS:

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

 Wattmeter Reading (Watts)
Voltmeter Ammeter
S.NO Readings Readings in Power factor
amps Observed Actual reading
in volts reading in watts in watts

RESULT:
Thus electrical quantities like Voltage, Current, Power and Power factor Values Measured.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The autotransformer should be kept at minimum voltage position.
2. Before switching off the supply the variac should be brought back to minimum voltage
position.
3. All connection should be proper and tight.
4. The zero setting of all the meters should be checked before connecting them in the circuit.
5. The current through ammeter should never be allowed to exceed the current rating of variac
and load used.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Why current is taken as a reference?
2. How to reduce error in power calculation?

EXPERIMENT NO.: 8
To conduct open circuit and short circuit test on a single-phase transformer
Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Open circuit loss  Output Power

 Core loss/iron loss  Efficiency
 Input Power  Equivalent circuit Parameters

AIM: To conduct open circuit and short circuit test on a single phase transformer to pre-
determine the efficiency, regulation and equivalent parameters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter MI (0-300)V,(0-150)V Each 1
2 Ammeter MI (0-20)A,(0-5)A Each 1
3 Wattmeter LPF 0-300 V/5A 2
UPF
4 Single Phase Transformer 1 KVA,230/115 V 1
5 Single Auto Transformer 230V/0- 270 V 1

THEORY:

Open circuit test and short circuit test on transformer are very economical and convenient
because they are performed without actually loading of the transformer. open circuit test or no
load test on a transformer is performed to determine 'no load loss (core loss)' and 'no load
current Io'.Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV) winding
is connected to its normal supply. A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are
connected to the LV winding as shown in the figure. Now, applied voltage is slowly increased
from zero to normal rated value of the LV side with the help of a variac. When the applied
voltage reaches to the rated value of the LV winding, readings from all the three instruments
are taken.The ammeter reading gives the no load current IO. As Io itself is very small, the
voltage drops due to this current can be neglected.

The input power is indicated by the wattmeter (W). And as the other side of transformer is open
circuited, there is no output power. Hence, this input power only consists of core losses and
copper losses. As described above, no-load current is so small that these copper losses can be
neglected. Hence, now the input power is almost equal to the core losses. Thus, the wattmeter
reading gives the core losses of the transformer.Sometimes, a high resistance voltmeter is
connected across the HV winding. Though, a voltmeter is connected, HV winding can be
treated as open circuit as the current through the voltmeter is negligibly small. This helps in to
find voltage transformation ratio (K).
The two components of no load current can be given as,

Iμ = I0sinΦ0 and Iw = I0cosΦ0.

cosΦ0 (no load power factor) = W / (V1I0)

Where,
W = wattmeter reading
From this, shunt parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer (X0 and R0) can be calculated
as
X0 = V1/Iμ and R0 = V1/Iw.
These values are referring to LV side of the transformer. Hence, it is seen that open circuit
test gives core losses of transformer and shunt parameters of the equivalent circuit.

Short Circuit or Impedance Test on Transformer:

The LV side of transformer is short circuited and wattmeter (W), voltmere (V) and ammeter
(A) are connected on the HV side of the transformer. Voltage is applied to the HV side and
increased from the zero until the ammeter reading equals the rated current. All the readings are
taken at this rated current. The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current
(Isc).The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared to rated voltage. Hence,
core loss due to small applied voltage can be neglected. Thus, the wattmeter reading can be
taken as copper loss in the transformer.

Therefore, W = Isc2 Req where, Req is the equivalent resistance of transformer.

Zeq = Vsc/Isc.

Therefore, equivalent reactance of transformer can be calculated from the formula

Zeq2 = Req2 + Xeq2

These, values are referred to the HV side of the transformer.

Hence, it is seen that the short circuit test gives copper losses of transformer and approximate
equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer.

PROCEDURE FOR OCC TEST:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Make sure that the secondary side of transformer is open.
3. Keep the variac at zero position before switch on the supply.
4. Switch on A.C supply.
5. By varying the variac apply full supply voltage i.e. 230V to the primary of the transformer
and note the reading of voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter.
6. Keep the variac at zero position and switch of supply.

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST:

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:

PROCEDURE FOR OCC TEST:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Make sure that the secondary side of transformer is shorted.
3. Keep the variac at zero position before switch on the supply.
4. Switch on A.C supply.
5. By varying the variac apply full load current to the transformer and note the reading of
voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter.
6. Keep the variac at zero position and switch of supply.

CALCULATIONS:

1. No load resistance Ro =V1/IW

2. No load reactance XO = V1 / Iμ
3. Active current IW = IO COS фO
4. Reactive current Iμ = IO SinфO
5. Primary impedance Z01 = VSC/ISC
6. Primary resistance R01=WSC/Isc2
7. % Regulation at lead = ISC(RO1COSф0 +XO1 Sin ф0 )/V1
8. % Regulation at lead= ISC(RO1COSф0 +XO1 Sin ф0 )/V1
9. Copper Losses = WSC * X2
10. Output power = KVA*1000*X *PF watts
11. Input power = Output power + Losses
12. Efficiency, %η = output power / input power* 100
Where,
X= fraction of load, PF= power factor, Mf=multiplication factor

Calculate the multiplying factor (M.F) of the wattermeter.

M.F= ((Rating of C.C)*(Rating of P.C)*cosɸ)/(Wattmeter Ratingin)
Iron loss = W (in Watts) = Wattmeter Reading*M.F
No load current=Ammeter reading= I0
Supply Voltage =Voltmeter Reading = V1

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST:

Wattmeter Reading
Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading (VO) Reading (IO) in
amps Actual= WO*mf in
in volts Observed (WO) in watts
watts

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:

 Wattmeter Reading
Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading (VSC) Reading (ISC) in
amps Actual= WSC*mf in
in volts Observed (WSC) in watts
watts

Where,

mf = multiplication factor

PREDETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY AT DIFFERENT POWER FACTORS:

S.No Load load Input losses Core losses Total loss= o/p i/p Efficiency
current (X) Wo=Wo*mf Wc=X2Wsc*mf Wi+ Wc power power (η) in %
If in in % in watts in watts in watts in in
amps watts watts
1
25
2
50
3
75

4 100

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Thus the OC and SC test on single phase transformer was performed and the respective graphs
were drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The autotransformer should be kept at minimum voltage position.
2. Before switching off the supply the variac should be brought back to minimum voltage
position.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. When a transformer is energised what types of losses occur in the magnetic frame of the
transformer?
2. What information can be obtained from open circuit test of a transformer?
3. Why in open circuit test HV side is always kept open?
4. What is the power factor of a transformer under no load test situation?
5. What is the magnitude of no load current as compared to full load current?

EXPERIMENT NO.: 9
 Conduction of load test on single phase transformer

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Regulation of transformer  Output Power

 Input Power  Efficiency

AIM: To conduct load test on single phase transformer and to obtain percentage efficiency
and regulation.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Voltmeter MI (0-300)V 2
2 Ammeter MI (0-20)A 2
3 Wattmeter UPF 0-300 V/5A 2
4 Single Phase Transformer 1 KVA,230/115 V 1
5 Auto Transformer 230V/0- 270 V 1
6 Load 1

THEORY:

Transformer is a device which transforms the energy from one circuit to other circuit without
change of frequency. The performance of any transformer calculated by conducting tests .The
load tests are conducted on transformer to obtain percentage efficiency and regulation of the
transformer at any desired load.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect as per the circuit diagram.
2. Close the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor using auto transformer starter.
4. Note down the readings of primary and secondary side.
5. Repeat the procedure until it reaches rated current value.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CALCULATIONS:

1. No load resistance Ro =V1/IW

2. No load reactance XO = V1 / Iμ
3. Active current IW = IO COS фO
4. Reactive current Iμ = IO SinфO
5. Primary impedance Z01 = VSC/ISC
6. Primary resistance R01=WSC/Isc2
7. % Regulation at lead = ISC(RO1COSф0 +XO1 Sin ф0 )/V1
8. % Regulation at lead= ISC(RO1COSф0 +XO1 Sin ф0 )/V1
9. Copper Losses = WSC * X2
10. Output power = KVA*1000*X *PF watts
11. Input power = Output power + Losses
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

Primary side Secondary side Input power Input power Output Efficiency Regulation
in W1* mf in W2*mf power=V*I
S.No Load
V1 I1 W1 V2 I2 W2 watts watts watts (η) % (R) %
Volt Amp watts Volt Amp watts
12. Efficiency, %η = output power / input power* 100
Where,
X= fraction of load, PF= power factor, Mf=multiplication factor

Calculate the multiplying factor (M.F) of the wattermeter.

M.F= ((Rating of C.C)*(Rating of P.C)*cosɸ)/(Wattmeter Ratingin)
Iron loss = W (in Watts) = Wattmeter Reading*M.F
No load current=Ammeter reading= I0
Supply Voltage =Voltmeter Reading = V1

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Thus the load test on single phase transformer was performed and the respective graph was
plotted.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The autotransformer should be kept at minimum voltage position.
2. Before switching off the supply the variac should be brought back to minimum voltage
position.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. When a transformer is energised what types of losses occur in the magnetic frame of the
transformer?
2. What information can be obtained from open circuit test of a transformer?
3. Why in open circuit test HV side is always kept open?
4. What is the power factor of a transformer under no load test situation?
5. What is the magnitude of no load current as compared to full load current?
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 10
Study of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Construction  Various functions of CRO

 Working Principle

AIM: To study block wise construction and working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

THEORY:

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for deployment of
electronic circuit and system. The CRO allow the amplitude of the electronic signals where
they are voltage, current or power to be displayed as a function of time. The CRO depends on
the moments of an electron beam which is being bombarded (impinged) on a screen coated
with a fluorescent material to produce a visual spot. If the electron is being deflected along the
conventional axes, i.e. x-axis & y-axis, two different displays are produced.

Basic block diagram:

MAIN PARTS OF CRO:

CRT: This is cathode ray tube in which electron beam strikes the screen internally to provide
visual display of signal.
Vertical Amplifier: This is a wide band amplifier used to amplify signal in the vertical section
of the signal.
Delay line: It is used to delay signal for some time in the vertical section.
Time Base: It is used to generate sawtooth voltage which it is applied to Horizontal deflection
plates.
Horizontal Amplifier: This is used to amplify the sawtooth voltage before it is applied to
horizontal deflection plates.
Trigger Circuit: This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulse so that the input
signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized.
Power Supply: There are two power supplies, A negative high voltage (HV) supply and a +ve
low voltage supply (LV). . The +ve voltage supply is from +300V to 400V, the negative voltage
supply is from -1000V to -1500V.

FRONT PANEL CONTROLS:

Power ‘ON/OFF’: Turns ‘On’ & ‘Off’. LED indicates power ‘On’. Use position & Int/Focus
controls to get the beam. All are push buttons
Time / Div: Rotary Switch for TB speed control.
Trigger Input: For feeding external trigger signal.
Volts/Div: For sensitivity selection of CH 1 and CH 2.
DC-AC-Gnd: Switch provided for Input coupling. BNC inputs provided for connecting the
Input signal.
Component Tester: Switch when pressed converts scope into Component Tester mode.
CT: Input & Gnd terminals to be used for CT.
CONTROLS ON PCB:

Intensity: Controls the brightness.

Focus: Controls the sharpness.
Trace Rotation: Controls the horizontal alignment of the trace.
X Pos: Controls the horizontal position.
Y Pos I & II: Controls vertical position of the trace.
X Y: When pressed cuts-off internal TB & connects external horizontal signal via. CH II.
X 5: When pressed gives 5 times magnification.
External: When pressed allows ext. trigger

TV: When pressed allows TV frame to be synchronized.

Cal Variable: Controls the time speed in between the steps.

Auto/ Norm: In AT gives display of trace & auto trigger.When pressed becomes normal &
gives variable level trigger.

Level: Controls the trigger level from positive peak to negative peak.
+ / - : Selects the slope of triggering.

Trig 1/ Trig 2: When out triggers CH I and when pressed triggers CH II

CH I Alt/: When out selects CH I and when pressed selects CH II. When dual switch also
pressed this selects Alt or Chop modes.

Mono / Dual: When out, selects CH I only. When pressed selects both.
AMPLITUDE MEASUREMENTS:

Vrms = effective value

Vp = simple peak or crest value Vpp = peak-to-peak value Vmom = momentary value

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT:
T = time in seconds for one period
F = recurrence frequency in Hz of the signals, F = 1/T,
Ttot = 1.6 cm x 0.5 s/cm : 5 = 160ns

PHASE MEASUREMENT:
Sin q = a/b
RESULT:
Thus the block wise construction and Woking of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope was studied.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is the need of CRO in radio applications?
2. Why the delay line used in a CRO?
3. What is the stage of amplifier?
4. How to measure the AC and DC current in CRO?
5. What is meant by curve tracers?
6. What is meant by the deflection factor of a CRO?
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 11
Calibration and Testing of Single Phase Energy Meter

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Calibration of Energy meter  % Error

 Energy meter testing  % correction

AIM: To Calibrate and test the given Single phase energy meter by direct loading.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Single phase Energy Meter Induction 1500REV/KWH 1
2 Wattmeter UPF 300V/5A 1
3 Voltmeter MI (0-300)V 1
4 Ammeter MI (0-5)A 1
5 Single Phase Variac 1-Ø 230V/ 1
(0-270)V,10A
6 Rheostat WW 1
7 Stop Watch Digital - 1
8 Connecting Wires - - Required

THEORY:
Induction type of energy meters are universally used for measurement of energy in domestic
and industrial a.c. circuits. Induction type of meters possesses lower friction and higher
torque/weight ratio. Also they are inexpensive and accurate, and retain their accuracy over a
wide range of loads and temperature conditions.
There are four main parts of the operating mechanism:
(i) Driving system
(ii) Moving system
(iii)Braking system and
(iv) Registering system.

Driving System: The driving system of the meter consists of two electro-magnets. The core of
these electromagnets is made up of silicon steel laminations. The coil of one of the
electromagnets is excited by the load current. This coil is called the current coil. The coil of
second electromagnet is connected across the supply and, therefore, carries a current
proportional to the supply voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil. Consequently the two
electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets respectively. Copper shading bands are
provided on the central limb. The position of these banks is adjustable. The function of these
bands is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the applied
voltage.
Moving System: This consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc
is positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets.

Braking System: A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc forms
the braking system. The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a
braking torque. The position of the permanent magnet is adjustable, and therefore, braking
torque can be adjusted by shifting the permanent magent to different radial positions as
explained earlier.

Registering (counting) Mechanism: The function of a registering or counting mechanism is

to record continuously a number which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving
system.

In all induction instruments we have two fluxes produced by currents flowing in the windings
of the instrument. These fluxes are alternating in nature and so they produce emfs in a metallic
disc or a drum provided for the purpose. These emfs in turn circulate eddy currents in the
metallic disc or the drum. The breaking torque is produced by the interaction of eddy current
and the field of permanent magnet. This torque is directly proportional to the product of flux
of the magnet, magnitude of eddy current and effective radius R from axis of disc.

The moving system attains a steady speed when the driving torque equals braking torque.
The term testing includes the checking of the actual registration of the meter as well as the
adjustments done to bring the errors of the meter with in prescribed limits.

AC energy meters should be tested for the following conditions:

1. At 5% of marked current with unity pf.
2. At 100% (or) 125% of marked current.
3. At one intermediate load with unity pf.
4. At marked current and 0.5 lagging pf.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the single phase variac at zero volt position.
3. Now switch on the power supply.
4. Gradually vary the variac to apply the rated voltage (230 volts).
5. For different values of load, note down the readings of the ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter
and time taken for 10 revolutions of the disc.
6. Gradually vary the variac to minimum or zero volt position.
7. Switch off the power supply.
8. Calculate observed reading, actual reading, %error, %correction.
9. Draw the graph between Load current (vs) % Error.

CALCULATIONS:
1. Theoretical reading = No. of revolutions / (energy meter constant (k)
Where, no. of revolutions = 10
2. Energy meter constant k=1500 rev/kwh Practical reading = W *t
3. %Error = [(E1-E2)/E2] *100
4. %Correction = - % Error
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS:

S. Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Time Theoretical Practical % Error=

No (Volts) (Amps) (Watts) for 10 E1 E2=W*t (E1-E2)/E2
rev *100
(sec)

Where, Theoretical reading = E1

Practical reading = E2
MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Hence calibrated the given single phase energy meter and tested at different loads and the graph
is plotted for % Error versus IL and % Correction factor versus IL.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Be Careful while observing the revolutions with stop watch.
3. Do not apply more current, more than the rated energy meter current.
4. Take readings without error.
5. Live terminals should not be touched.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is an energy meter?
2. Which type of energy meters are used in dc circuits?
3. Energy meter is an (i) integrating instrument (ii) indicating instrument
4. Can the measured percentage error be negative?
5. What do you meant by Torque adjustment?
6. What is operating torque?
7. Define braking torque?
8. When does the disc on the spindle rotate with a constant speed?
9. The operating torque is directly proportional to speed, state true or false.
 EXPERIMENT NO.: 12
To study the balanced three phase system for star and delta connected load

Learning Objectives:
To learn about:

 Star connected load system  Various Balanced load conditions

 Delta connected load system

AIM: To study the balanced three phase system for star and delta connected load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Ammeter (AC)
2. Voltmeter (AC)
3. Multi-function meter
4. Three phase dimmer stat
5. Rheostats (3-number)

THEORY:

Any three phase system, is divided into two major parts i) Three phase supply system
and ii) Three phase load. Both of these either load or supply can be connected in two ways
either star or delta.

(i) Star Connection: In this connection, the starting or termination ends of all windings are
connected together & along with their phase ends this common point is also brought out called
as neutral point.

(ii) Delta Connection: If the terminating end of one winding is connected to starting end of
other & if connection are continued for all their windings in this fashion we get closed loop.
The three supply lines are taken out from three junctions. This is called as three phase delta
connected system. The load can be connected in similar manner. In this experiment we are
concerned with balanced load.

The load is said to be balanced when

1. Voltages across three phases are equal & phases are displaced by 120° electrical.
2. The impedance of each phase of load is same.
3. The resulting current in all the three phases are equal & displaced by 120° electrical
from each other
4. Active power & reactive volt amperes of each are equal.
Terminology related to 3 phase system:
1. Line Voltage (VL) - The voltage between any two lines of 3ph load are called as line voltage
e.g. VRY, VYB & VBR For balance system all are equal in magnitude.
2. Line Current(IL) – The current in each line is called as line current e.g. IR, IY, & IB. They are
equal in magnitude for balance system.
3. Phase Voltage (Vph) – The voltage across any branch of three phase load is called as phase
voltage. VRN, VYN, & VBN are phase voltage
4. Phase Current (IPh) – current passing through any phase of load is called as phase current.

Relation between voltages and currents:

a) For star connection of load-

Applying KVL to three phase system,

Line voltage (VL) = √3 (Vph)
Line current (IL) = (Iph)

b) For delta connection of load-

Applying KCL to three phase system

Line voltage (VL )= (Vph)
Line current (IL) = √3 (Iph)

Three phase power is given by,

P= power consumed by three phase load = √3VL* IL*cos (Փ) Watts OR

= 3Vph* Iph* cos (Փ) Watts

Where Փ is phase angle & it depends on nature of the load i.e. inductive, capacitive or resistive.

Circuit Diagram: a) For star connected 3 phase balanced load

 Circuit Diagram: b) For Delta connected three phase load:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for star and delta load.
2. Set dimmer-stat to minimum position. (Zero position)
3. Switch on the main supply and apply VL=120 V to 150V.
4. Note down the readings of meters as mentioned in observation table for star and delta
connected load.
5. Change the supply voltage and take two more set of readings.

RESULT:
Thus the balanced three phase system for star and delta connected loads were studied.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What do you understand by balanced three phase load?
2. What are the advantages of 3 phase system over single phase system?
3. In case of balanced load, is there any necessity of neutral wire? Why?
4. What should be the consumer load? Star or delta connected? Why?
5. What do you mean by phase sequence of three phase system?
6. If same resistance which were connected in star are connected in delta, what will be the
power consumed? Derive the expression for relationship between three phase power for
star and delta connected load
7. Show that for star connection, VL = √3 Vph and for delta connection IL = √3 Iph.
8. With diagram, show how the 3-phase, 4 wire supply from MSEDCL can be distributed to
supply power to a 3 story building having one flat on each floor.