6 - Steady State Cornering Formatted
6 - Steady State Cornering Formatted
6 - Steady State Cornering Formatted
ME-492
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑪𝜶 𝜶
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑪𝜶 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒔
A positive slip angle produces a negative force on the tire so 𝐶𝛼 must be negative
Cornering stiffness is dependent on many variables. Tire size and type, number of plies,
cord angles, wheel width and tread are significant variables
The load and inflation pressure are main variables.
Variables Effecting Tire cornering Stiffness
Tire Cornering Forces
𝐶𝐶𝛼 = 𝐶𝛼ൗ𝐹𝑧
Understeer:
In this case the lateral acceleration at the CG causes the front wheels to slip sideways to a
greater extent than at the rear wheels. Thus, to develop the lateral force at the front wheels
necessary to maintain the radius of the turn, the front wheels must be steered to a greater
extent than at the rear wheels.
Oversteer:
In oversteer case the lateral acceleration at the CG causes the slip angle on the rear wheels to
increase more than at the front. The outward drift at the rear of the vehicle turns front wheels
inward, thus diminishing the radius of the turn.
Characteristic speed
In the oversteer case, a critical speed will exist above which the vehicle will
be unstable. The critical speed is given by :
Critical speed is dependent on the wheelbase of the vehicle; for a given level
of oversteer, long-wheelbase vehicle have a higher critical speed than short
wheelbase vehicles.
An oversteer vehicle can be driven at the speeds less than the critical but
becomes directionally unstable at the and above the critical speed
Lateral acceleration gain
It is given by :
𝑉 2ൗ
𝑎𝑦 57.3 𝐿 𝑔
= 2
𝛿 1 + 𝐾𝑉 ൗ57.3 𝐿 𝑔
When lateral acceleration is negligible the rear wheel tracks inboard of the
front wheel, but as lateral acceleration increases the rear of the vehicle must
drift outboard to develop the necessary slip angles on the rear tires.
Sideslip angle may be defined as angle between the longitudinal axis and the
local direction of travel. It will be different at every point on a car during
cornering
At high speed the slip angle on the rear wheels causes the sideslip
𝑐 𝑊𝑟 𝑉 2
𝛽 = 57.3 −
𝑅 𝐶𝛼𝑟 𝑔𝑅
Note that the speed at which the sideslip angle become zero is :
𝑉𝛽 = 0 = 57.3𝑔𝑐(𝐶𝛼𝑟 /𝑊𝑟 )
Although the understeer gradient was derived for the case of a vehicle in a turn, it can be
shown that the gradient determines vehicle response to disturbances in straight-ahead
driving.
Rocard analysis demonstrates that oversteer vehicle have a stability limit at critical speed
due to normal disturbances in straight-ahead travel.
When the front axle is more compliant than the rear (understeer) a lateral disturbance
produce more sideslip at the front axle; hence, the vehicle turns away from disturbance.
This is illustrated in Olley’s definitions for under and oversteer
Roll moment distribution-Suspension Effect
where:
𝐾𝑠 =
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
The body roll acting through the springs impose a torque on the
axle proportional to the roll stiffness 𝐾∅ times the roll angle ∅.
This results in an equation for the roll difference from side to side
of the form:
𝐹𝑦 ℎ𝑟 ∅
𝐹𝑧𝑜 − 𝐹𝑧𝑖 = 2. + 2𝐾∅ = 2∆𝐹𝑧
𝑡 𝑡
Note that lateral load transfer arises form 2 mechanisms:
𝐹𝑦 ℎ𝑟
1) 2. 𝑡
− Lateral load transfer due to cornering forces
𝐹𝑦 ℎ𝑟
2) 2. 𝑡
− Lateral load transfer due to vehicle roll.
Roll moment distribution
The moment about the roll axis is:
𝑀∅ = (𝑊ℎ1 sin ∅ + 𝑊𝑉 2 /(𝑅𝑔)ℎ1 cos ∅) cos 𝜀
𝑊ℎ1 𝑉 2 /(𝑅𝑔)
∅=
𝐾∅𝑓 + 𝐾∅𝑟 − 𝑊ℎ1
The term number 1 inside the brackets is simply the understeer gradient arising from
the nominal stiffness of the tires , 𝐾𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑠 as was developed earlier
The Second term represents the understeer gradient arising from the lateral load
transfer on the tires.
The contribution from the front axle is always understeer
The contribution from rear axle is always negative meaning it is an oversteer effect.
Camber change
The inclination of the wheel outward from
the body is known as camber angle.
Camber on a wheel will produce a lateral
force known as camber thrust
The typical camber thrust curve is given as
Camber angle produces much less lateral
forces than slip angle.
About 4-6 degrees of camber are required
to produce the same lateral force as 1
degree of slip angle on a bias-ply tire.
10-15 degrees more are required on a
radial tire than a bias-ply one.
Camber change
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f n e w t o n ’s
second law in lateral direction
takes the form :
Effect of tractive forces
on cornering
The final turning equation for the case where tractive forces are taken
into account will be :
Term 1 is the Ackerman steer angle altered by tractive force on the front
axle
Positive front axle force means less requirement if steer angle
On a wheel spin 𝐶𝛼𝑓 goes to zero, that means turn of zero radius can
be made by virtually no steer angle
Term 2 is the understeer gradient in an unchanged form
Term 3 represents the effect of tractive forces on the understeer
behavior of the vehicle
Summary of understeer effects
Experimental measurements of understeer gradient
57.3𝐿
𝛿= + 𝐾𝑎𝑦
𝑅
The derivation of this equation assumes the vehicle to be in a steady-
state operating condition therefore, understeer is defined as a steady-
state property.
Constant radius method
The recommended procedure is to drive the vehicle around the circle at very
low speed, for which the lateral acceleration is negligible, and note the steer
angle required to maintain the turn.
𝜕𝛿 𝜕 𝐿 𝜕𝑎𝑦
= (57.3 ) +𝐾
𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝑅 𝜕𝑎𝑦
Constant radius method
The slope of the steer angle curve is the understeer gradient.
Some vehicles will be understeer over the entire operating range, others
may be understeer at low lateral acceleration levels but change to
oversteer at high lateral acceleration.
𝑉2 𝑉
𝑅= =
𝑎𝑦 𝑟
𝐿
𝛿 = 57.3 + 𝐾𝑎𝑦 = 57.3𝐿𝑎𝑦 /𝑉 2 + 𝐾𝑎𝑦
𝑅
𝜕𝛿 𝜕 𝐿
𝐾= − (57.3 2 )
𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝑉
Constant speed method
Since the speed and wheelbase are constant, the Ackerman steer angle gradient is a
straight line of constant slope and appears in a data plot shown;
In regions where the steer angle gradient is greater than that of the Ackerman, the
vehicle is understeer.
The point where the slope of the steer angle curve is zero is the stability boundary
corresponding to the critical speed.