PP Lectures
PP Lectures
PP Lectures
Each society forms a set of rules that establishes the boundaries of generally accepted behavior.
These rules are often expressed in statements about how people should behave, and they fit
together to form the moral code by which a society lives. Unfortunately, the different rules often
have contradictions, and people are sometimes uncertain about which rule to follow.
For instance, if you witness a friend copy someone else’s answers while taking an exam, you
might be caught in a conflict between loyalty to your friend and the value of telling the truth.
Sometimes the rules do not seem to cover new situations, and an individual must determine how
to apply existing rules or develop new ones. You may strongly support personal privacy, but
what rules do you think are acceptable for governing the appropriate use of company resources,
such as e-mail and Internet access?
The term morality refers to social conventions about right and wrong that are so widely shared
that they become the basis for an established consensus. However, individual views of what is
moral may vary by age, cultural group, ethnic background, religion, life experiences, education,
and gender. There is widespread agreement on the immorality of murder, theft, and arson, but
other behaviors that are accepted in one culture might be unacceptable in another. Even within
the same society, people can have strong disagreements over important moral issues. In the
United States,
for example, issues such as abortion, the death penalty, and gun control are continuously
debated, and both sides feel that their arguments are on solid moral ground.
Definition of Ethics: ‘Ethics is a set of beliefs about right and wrong behavior within a society’.
Ethical behavior conforms to generally accepted norms—many of which are almost universal.
However, although nearly everyone would agree that lying and cheating are unethical, opinions
about what constitutes ethical behavior often vary dramatically.
For example, attitudes toward software piracy—that is, the practice of illegally making copies of
software or enabling others to access software to which they are not entitled—range from strong
opposition to acceptance of the practice as a standard approach to conducting business.
The Difference Between Morals, Ethics, and Laws Morals are one’s personal beliefs about right
and wrong, while the term ethics describes standards or codes of behavior expected of an
individual by a group (nation, organization, profession) to which an individual belongs.
For example, the ethics of the law profession demand that defense attorneys defend an accused
client to the best of their ability, even if they know that the client is guilty of the most heinous
and morally objectionable crime one could imagine.
Law is a system of rules that tells us what we can and cannot do. Laws are enforced by a set of
institutions (the police, courts, law-making bodies). Legal acts are acts that conform to the law.
Moral acts conform with what an individual believes to be the right thing to do. Laws can
proclaim an act as legal, although many people may consider the act immoral—for example,
abortion.
The remainder of this chapter provides an introduction to ethics in the business world. It
discusses the importance of ethics in business, outlines what businesses can do to improve their
ethics, provides advice on creating an ethical work environment, and suggests a model for ethical
decision making. The chapter concludes with a discussion of ethics as it relates to information
technology.
Ethics has risen to the top of the business agenda because the risks associated with inappropriate
behavior have increased, both in their likelihood and in their potential negative impact. In the
past decade, we have seen the failure of major corporations such as Enron and WorldCom due to
accounting scandals. We have watched the collapse of financial institutions due to unwise and
unethical decision making over the approval of mortgages and lines of credit to unqualified
individuals and organizations. We have also witnessed numerous corporate officers and senior
managers sentenced to prison terms for their unethical behavior. Clearly, unethical behavior has
led to serious negative consequences that have had a major global impact. Several trends have
increased the likelihood of unethical behavior. First, for many organizations, greater
globalization has created a much more complex work environment that spans diverse cultures
and societies, making it much more difficult to apply principles and codes of ethics consistently.
For example, numerous U.S. companies have garnered negative publicity for moving operations
to third-world countries, where employees work in conditions that would not be acceptable in
most developed parts of the world. Second, in today’s recessionary economic climate,
organizations are extremely challenged to maintain revenue and profits. Some organizations are
sorely tempted to resort to unethical behavior to maintain profits. For example, the Peanut
Corporation of America allegedly shipped tainted products from its plant in Georgia, which led
to a salmonella outbreak in 2008 that killed at least eight people and sickened over 550 people in
43 states.7 Employees, shareholders, and regulatory agencies are increasingly sensitive to
violations of accounting standards, failures to disclose substantial changes in business
conditions, nonconformance with required health and safety practices, and production of unsafe
or substandard products. Such heightened vigilance raises the risk of financial loss for businesses
that do not foster ethical practices or that run afoul of required standards. There is also a risk of
criminal and civil lawsuits resulting in fines and/or incarceration for individuals.
Why Fostering Good Business Ethics Is Important
Organizations have at least five good reasons for promoting a work environment in which
employees are encouraged to act ethically when making business decisions:
1. Gaining the good-will of the community
2. Creating an organization that operates consistently
3. Fostering good business practices
4. Protecting the organization and its employees from legal action
5. Avoiding unfavorable publicity
Although each company’s value system is different, many share the following values:
• Operate with honesty and integrity, staying true to organizational principles • Operate
according to standards of ethical conduct, in words and action • Treat colleagues, customers, and
consumers with respect • Strive to be the best at what matters most to the organization • Value
diversity • Make decisions based on facts and principles
Research by the Ethics Resource Center found that only one in four organizations has a well-
implemented ethics and compliance program. The Ethics Resource Center has defined the
following characteristics of a successful ethics program:
• Employees are willing to seek advice about ethics issues. • Employees feel prepared to handle
situations that could lead to misconduct. • Employees are rewarded for ethical behavior. • The
organization does not reward success obtained through questionable means. • Employees feel
positively about their company
The ethics officer tries to establish an environment that encourages ethical decision making
through the actions described in this chapter. Specific responsibilities include: • Responsibility
for compliance—that is, ensuring that ethical procedures are put into place and consistently
adhered to throughout the organization • Responsibility for creating and maintaining the ethics
culture that the highest level of corporate authority wishes to have • Responsibility for being a
key knowledge and contact person on issues relating to corporate ethics and principle
IT Professional
A profession is a calling that requires specialized knowledge and often long and intensive
academic preparation. Over the years, the United States government adopted labor laws and
regulations that required a more precise definition of what is meant by a professional employee.
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations defines a person “employed in a professional capacity” as
one who meets these four criteria:
1. One’s primary duties consist of the performance of work requiring knowledge of an advanced
type in a field of science or learning customarily acquired by a prolonged course of specialized
intellectual instruction and study or work.
2. One’s instruction, study, or work is original and creative in character in a recognized field of
artistic endeavor, the result of which depends primarily on the invention, imagination, or talent
of the employee.
3. One’s work requires the consistent exercise of discretion and judgment in its performance.
4. One’s work is predominantly intellectual and varied in character, and the output or result
cannot be standardized in relation to a given period of time.
If we as a society are concerned about individual as well as collective security, privacy, and civil
liberties, we need to start finding solutions. A good national cyberspace security policy is needed
to
(i) make everyone aware of the vulnerability and consequences of a cyberspace
attack on their well-being,
(ii) ensure that everyone is well equipped to safely deal with a cyber attack in this
technology-driven and fast-changing society,
(iii) help put in place a set of mechanisms to detect, prevent, and handle any cyber
attack,
(iv) devise a legal and regulatory framework to handle cyberspace’s social
consequences
Internet
Internet is a global network of computers, owes its development to the invention of four
technologies: telegraph, telephone, radio, and computers. History has it that the Internet
originated from the early work of J.C.R. Licklider of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) on “galactic networks.” Licklider conceptualized a global interconnected set of computers
with communication channels between them through which programs and data could be accessed
quickly by any computer from any computer. Licklider left MIT to head the computer research
program at the Department of Defense’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) in 1962. A year before, at MIT, researcher Leonard Kleinrock had written what is
believed to be the first published work on packet switching theory. This work created the
momentum for the concept of a packet-switching network.
World Wide Web, as we know it today, had its humble beginning in concepts contained in Tim
Berners-Lee’s 1989 proposal to physicists calling for comments. Berners-Lee, a physicist-
researcher at the European High-Energy Particle Physics lab—the Conseil Europeenne pour la
Recherché Nucleaire (CERN), Switzerland—wrote the proposal called HyperText and CERN, to
enable collaboration between physicists and other researchers in the high-energy physics
research community. Three new technologies were incorporated. They were:
(1) HyperText Markup Language (HTML) based on hypertext concepts, to be used to write web
documents;
(2) HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), a protocol to be used to transmit web pages between
hosts;
(3) a web browser client software program to receive and interpret data and display results.
His proposal also included a very important concept for the user interface. This browser-
supported interface was based on the concept that it would be consistent across all types of
computer platforms to enable users to access information from any computer. The line-mode
interface was developed and named at CERN in late 1989. It came to be known as the World
Wide Web or WWW.
Moral Decision Making
Human action results from a decision process. Because every human action follows a subscript,
the decision-making process follows a subscript as well. A decision is morally good if the result
from it is good. A good moral decision embodies nearly all moral theories and usually takes into
consideration the following:
1. all the facts surrounding the situation, taking into account the interests of all parties involved,
and
2. the moral principles involved and how they will affect all others involved.
Combining 1 and 2 implies there must be reasoning and impartiality in any moral decision.
Moral and ethical theorists have outlined four ways of ensuring reason and impartiality in moral
decision making:
1. The use of rational intuition of moral principles, which helps us perceive moral principles
such as the notion of justice and deciding what is good.
2. The use of reason to determine the best way to achieve the highest moral good.
3. The ability to distinguish between primary and secondary moral principles. Primary moral
principles are more general; secondary principles are more specific and are generally deduced
from the primary ones.
4. The rational calculation of the consequences of our actions. The calculation should tell us
whether the action is good or bad depending on the consequences.
Moral codes
Moral codes are rules or norms within a group for what is proper behavior for the members of
that group. Although different cultures have different codes, and we have established that
morality is relative to time, there have been some timeless and culture-free (moral) codes that
have been nearly universally observed. Such codes include this partial list created by the
astronomer Carl Sagan:
1. The Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
2. The Silver Rule: “Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you.” Great
men like Mahatma Gandhi followed this rule almost to the letter.
3. The Bronze Rule: “Repay kindness with kindness.” This rule is widely observed because of its
many varying interpretations. Some people think it says, “An eye for an eye,” yet others think of
it as a “carrot-and-stick” rule. However you interpret it, it seems to support the vendetta
syndrome.
4. The Iron Rule: “Do unto others as you like, before they do it unto you.” This rule, if followed
by a leader, can create dictatorships. It seems to say, “He who is on the floor cannot make rules”
or “Do it if you can get away with it.”
5. The Tin Rule: “Pay homage to those above you and intimidate those below you.” This is what
many call the bully rule.
6. The Nepotism Rule: “Give precedence in all things to close relatives, and do as you like to
others.” This rule legitimizes corruption.
Because most of these rules seem vindictive, corruptible, dictatorial, and abusive, Sagan
proposes the following as what seems to be a good culture-free and timeless universal set of
moral codes:
1. Be friendly at first meeting.
2. Do no envy.
3. Be generous; forgive your enemy if he or she forgives you.
4. Be neither a tyrant nor a patsy.
5. Retaliate proportionately to an intentional injury (within the constraints of the rule of the law).
6. Make your behavior fair (although not perfectly) clear and consistent
CODES OF ETHICS
The main domains in which ethics is defined are governed by a particular and definitive regiment
of rules called “codes of ethics.” These rules, guidelines, canons, advisories, or whatever you
want to call them, are usually followed by members of the respective domains. Depending on the
domain, ethical codes can take any of the following forms:
1. Principles, which may act as guidelines, references, or bases for some document.
2. Public policies, which may include aspects of acceptable behavior, norms, and practices of a
society or group.
3. Codes of conduct, which may include ethical principles
4. Legal instruments, which enforce good conduct through courts.
Although the use of codes of ethics is still limited to professions and high-visibility institutions
and businesses, there is a growing movement toward widespread use. The wording, content, and
target of many codes differ greatly. Some codes are written purposely for the public; others are
targeting employees, and yet others are for professionals only. Reproduced here is the ACM
Code of Professional Conduct.
Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct
On October 16, 1992, ACM’s Executive Council voted to adopt a revised Code of Ethics. The
following imperatives and explanatory guidelines were proposed to supplement the Code as
contained in the new ACM Bylaw 17.
Preamble
Commitment to ethical professional conduct is expected of every member (voting members,
associate members, and student members) of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
This Code, consisting of 24 imperatives formulated as statements of personal responsibility,
identifies the elements of such a commitment. It contains many, but not all, issues professionals
are likely to face. Section 1 outlines fundamental ethical considerations, while Section 2
addresses additional, more specific considerations of professional conduct. Statements in Section
3 pertain more specifically to individuals who have a leadership role, whether in the work place
or in a volunteer capacity, for example with organizations such as ACM. Principles involving
compliance with this Code are given in Section 4.
The Code is supplemented by a set of Guidelines, which provide explanation to assist members
in dealing with the various issues contained in the Code. It is expected that the guidelines will be
changed more frequently than the Code.
The Code and its supplemented Guidelines are intended to serve as a basis for ethical decision
making in the conduct of professional work. Second, they may serve as a basis for judging the
merit of a formal complaint pertaining to violation of professional ethical standards. It should be
noted that although computing is not mentioned in the moral imperatives section, the Code is
connected with how these fundamental imperatives apply to one’s conduct as a computing
professional. These imperatives are expressed in a general form to emphasize that ethical
principles which apply to computer ethics are derived from more general ethical principles. It is
understood that some words and phrases in a code of ethics are subject to varying interpretations,
and that any ethical principle may conflict with other ethical principles in specific situations.
Questions related to ethical conflicts can best be answered by thoughtful consideration of
fundamental principles, rather than reliance on detailed regulations.
1. GENERAL MORAL IMPERATIVES
As an ACM member I will...
1.1 Contribute to society and human well-being.
1.2 Avoid harm to others.
1.3 Be honest and trustworthy.
1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
1.5 Honor property rights including copyrights and patents.
1.6 Give proper credit for intellectual property.
1.7 Respect the privacy of others.
1.8 Honor confidentiality.
GUIDELINES
1. GENERAL MORAL IMPERATIVES As an ACM member I will...
1.1 Contribute to society and human well-being.
This principle concerning the quality of life of all people affirms an obligation to protect
fundamental human rights and to respect the diversity of all cultures. An essential aim of
computing professionals is to minimize negative consequences of computing systems, including
threats to health and safety. When designing or implementing systems, computing professionals
must attempt to ensure that the products of their efforts will be used in socially responsible ways,
will meet social needs, and will avoid harmful effects to health and welfare. In addition to a safe
social environment, human well-being includes a safe natural environment. Therefore,
computing professionals who design and develop systems must be alert to, and make others
aware of, any potential damage to the local or global environment.
1.2 Avoid harm to others.
“Harm” means injury or negative consequences, such as undesirable loss of information, loss of
property, property damage, or unwanted environmental impacts. This principle prohibits use of
computing technology in ways that result in harm to any of the following: users, the general
public, employees, employers. Harmful actions include intentional destruction or modification of
files and programs leading to serious loss of resources or unnecessary expenditure of human
resources such as the time and effort required to purge systems of computer viruses. Well-
intended actions, including those that accomplish assigned duties, may lead to harm
unexpectedly. In such an event the responsible person or persons are obligated to undo or
mitigate the negative consequences as much as possible. One way to avoid unintentional harm is
to carefully consider potential impacts on all those affected by decisions made during design and
implementation. To minimize the possibility of indirectly harming others, computing
professionals must minimize malfunctions by following generally accepted standards for system
design and testing. Furthermore, it is often necessary to assess the social consequences of
systems to project the likelihood of any serious harm to others. If system features are
misrepresented to users, co-workers, or supervisors, the individual computing professional is
responsible for any resulting injury. In the work environment the computing professional has the
additional obligation to report any signs of system dangers that might result in serious personal
or social damage. If one’s superiors do not act to curtail or mitigate such dangers, it may be
necessary to “blow the whistle” to help correct the problem or reduce the risk. However,
capricious or misguided reporting of violations can, itself, be harmful. Before reporting
violations, all relevant aspects of the incident must be thoroughly assessed. In particular, the
assessment of risk and responsibility must be credible. It is suggested that advice be sought from
other computing professionals.
1.3 Be honest and trustworthy.
Honesty is an essential component of trust. Without trust an organization cannot function
effectively. The honest computing professional will not make deliberately false or deceptive
claims about a system or system design, but will instead provide full disclosure of all pertinent
system limitations and problems. A computer professional has a duty to be honest about his or
her own qualifications, and about any circumstances that might lead to conflicts of interest.
Membership in volunteer organizations such as ACM may at times place individuals in situations
where their statements or actions could be interpreted as carrying the weight of a larger group of
professionals. An ACM member will exercise care to not misrepresent ACM or positions and
policies of ACM or any ACM units.
1.4 Be fair and take action not to discriminate.
The values of equality, tolerance, respect for others, and the principles of equal justice govern
this imperative. Discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, age, disability, national origin,
or other such factors is an explicit violation of ACM policy and will not be tolerated. Inequities
between different groups of people may result from the use or misuse of information and
technology. In a fair society, all individuals would have equal opportunity to participate in, or
benefit from, the use of computer resources regardless of race, sex, religion, age, disability,
national origin, or other such similar factors. However, these ideals do not justify unauthorized
use of computer resources nor do they provide an adequate basis for violation of any other
ethical imperatives of this code
1.5 Honor property rights including copyrights and patents.
Violation of copyrights, patents, trade secrets, and the terms of license agreements is prohibited
by law in most circumstances. Even when software is not so protected, such violations are
contrary to professional behavior. Copies of software should be made only with proper
authorization. Unauthorized duplication of materials must not be condoned.
1.6 Give proper credit for intellectual property.
Computing professionals are obligated to protect the integrity of intellectual property.
Specifically, one must not take credit for other’s ideas or work, even in cases where the work has
not been explicitly protected, for example by copyright or patent.
1.7 Respect the privacy of others.
Computing and communication technology enables the collection and exchange of personal
information on a scale unprecedented in the history of civilization. Thus there is increased
potential for violating the privacy of individuals and groups. It is the responsibility of
professionals to maintain the privacy and integrity of data describing individuals. This includes
taking precautions to ensure the accuracy of data, as well as protecting it from unauthorized
access or accidental disclosure to inappropriate individuals. Furthermore, procedures must be
established to allow individuals to review their records and correct inaccuracies. This imperative
implies that only the necessary amount of personal information be collected in a system, that
retention and disposal periods for that information be clearly defined and enforced, and that
personal information gathered for a specific purpose not be used for other purposes without
consent of the individual(s). These principles apply to electronic communications, including
electronic mail, and prohibit procedures that capture or monitor electronic user data, including
messages, without the permission of users or bona fide authorization related to system operation
and maintenance. User data observed during the normal duties of system operation and
maintenance must be treated with strictest confidentiality, except in cases where it is evidence
for the violation of law, organizational regulations, or this Code. In these cases, the nature or
contents off that information must be disclosed only to proper authorities.
1.8 Honor confidentiality.
The principle of honesty extends to ‘issues of confidentiality of information whenever one has
made an explicit promise to honor confidentiality or, implicitly, when private information not
directly related to the performance of one’s duties becomes available. The ethical concern is to
respect all obligations of confidentiality to employers, clients, and users unless discharged from
such obligations by requirements of the law or other principles of this Code.
2.5 Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their
impacts, including analysis of possible risks.
Computer professionals must strive to be perceptive, thorough, and objective when
evaluating, recommending, and presenting system descriptions and alternatives.
Computer professionals are in a position of special trust, and therefore have a special
responsibility to provide objective, credible evaluations to employers, clients, users, and
the public. When providing evaluations the professional must also identify any relevant
conflicts of interest, as stated in imperative 1.3
As noted in the discussion of principle 1.2 on avoiding harm, any signs of danger from systems
must be reported to those who have opportunity and/or responsibility to resolve them. See the
guidelines for imperative 1.2 for more details concerning harm, including the reporting of
professional violations.
2.6 Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities. Honoring one’s commitments
is a matter of integrity and honesty. For the computer professional this includes ensuring that
system elements perform as intended. Also, when one contracts for work with another party, one
has an obligation to keep that party properly informed about progress toward completing that
work. A computing professional has a responsibility to request a change in any assignment that
he or she feels cannot be completed as defined. Only after serious consideration and with full
disclosure of risks and concerns to the employer or client, should one accept the assignment. The
major underlying principle here is the obligation to accept personal accountability for
professional work. On some occasions other ethical principles may take greater priority.
A judgment that a specific assignment should not be performed may not be accepted. Having
clearly identified one’s concerns and reasons for that judgment, but failing to procure a change in
that assignment, one may yet be obligated, by contract or by law, to proceed as directed. The
computing professional’s ethical judgment should be the final guide in deciding whether or not
to proceed. Regardless of the decision, one must accept the responsibility for the consequences.
However, performing assignments against one’s own judgment does not relieve the professional
of responsibility for any negative consequences.
2.7 Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences. Computing
professionals have a responsibility to share technical knowledge with the public by encouraging
understanding of computing, including the impacts of computer systems and their limitations.
This imperative implies an obligation to counter any false views related to computing.
2.8 Access computing and communication resources only when authorized to do so.
Theft or destruction of tangible and electronic property is prohibited by imperative 1.2: “Avoid
harm to others.” Trespassing and unauthorized use of a computer or communication system is
addressed by this imperative. Trespassing includes accessing communication networks and
computer systems, or accounts and/or files associated with those systems, without explicit
authorization to do so. Individuals and organizations have the right to restrict access to their
systems so long as they do not violate the discrimination principle. No one should enter or use
another’s computing system, software, or data files without permission. One must always have
appropriate approval before using system resources, including communication ports, file space,
other system peripherals, and computer time.
What are the key points of code of conduct defined by IEEE for the software engineers?
1. PUBLIC – Software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.
2. CLIENT AND EMPLOYER – Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best
interests of their client and employer consistent with the public interest.
3. PRODUCT – Software engineers shall ensure that their products and related modifications
meet
the highest professional standards possible.
4. JUDGMENT – Software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their
professional judgment.
5. MANAGEMENT – Software engineering managers and leaders shall subscribe to and
promote
an ethical approach to the management of software development and maintenance.
6. PROFESSION – Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of the
profession
consistent with the public interest.
7. COLLEAGUES – Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues.
8. SELF – Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of their
profession and shall promote an ethical approach to the practice of the profession.
OPT IN:
Opt-in is an inbound marketing approach whereby a marketer solicits a potential customer's
permission to send them promotional or other types of content about a brand. It is also known as
permission marketing
OPT OUT
Opt-out means an action of users refusing/withdrawing consent in response to a particular event
or process. Not choosing to subscribe to newsletters, unticking a previously ticked checkbox, not
consenting to save personal details, rejecting the use of cookies, etc
PATENT
A patent for an invention is granted by government to the inventor, giving the inventor the right
to stop others, for a limited period, from making, using or selling the invention without their
permission.
➢ Protects inventions or discoveries
➢ Patent rights are just like copyright rights
➢ In many countries, patent protection rights like those of copyrights are provided for by the
constitution.
➢ It is contract between inventor/discoverer and government.
➢ Government gives the exclusive rights to make, use, or sell their invention or discovery for a
specific period of time.
COPYRIGHT
Copyright is a type of intellectual property that protects original works of authorship as soon as
an author fixes the work in a tangible form of expression
The owner of a copyright has five principal rights:
1. The right to reproduce the copyrighted work
2. The right to distribute copies of the work to the public
3. The right to display copies of the work in public
4. The right to perform the work in public
5. The right to produce new works derived from the copyrighted work
FAIR USE
The right given to a copyright owner to reproduce a work is a limited right. Under some circumstances,
called fair use, it is legal to reproduce a copyrighted work without the permission of the copyright holder.
Examples of fair use include citing short excerpts from copyrighted works for the purpose of teaching,
scholarship, research, criticism, commentary, and news reporting.
Digital rights management (DRM) is the management of legal access to digital content.
Various tools or technological protection measures (TPM) like access control technologies, can
restrict the use of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies govern the
use, modification and distribution of copyrighted works (e.g. software, multimedia content) and
of systems that enforce these policies within devices. DRM technologies include licensing
agreements and encryption
One approach to DRM is to encrypt the digital content so that only authorized users can access it.
Another approach is to place a digital mark on the content so that a device accessing the content
can identify the content as copy protected
Criticisms of Digital Rights Management
• Any technological “fix” is bound to fail
• DRM undermines fair use
• DRM could reduce competition
• Some schemes make anonymous access impossible
Data mining can be performed on the different types of data in a large organization:
Such as
Relational Database: A relational database is a collection of multiple data sets formally
organized by tables, records, and columns from which data can be accessed in various ways
without having to recognize the database tables.
A very large database, (originally written with very large data) is a database that contains a very large
amount of data, so much that it can require specialized architectural, management, processing and
maintenance methodologies.
Big data mining (BDM) is an approach that uses the cumulative data mining or extraction
techniques on large datasets / volumes of data. It is mainly focused on retrieving relevant and
demanded information (or patterns) and thus extracting value hidden in data of an immense
volume.
Censorship is the attempt to suppress or regulate public access to material considered offensive
or harmful. Historically, most censorship has been exercised by governments and religious
institutions. For example, Roman censors banished the poets Ovid and Juvenal for their writings.
Direct censorship has three forms:
government monopolization,
prepublication review,
and licensing and registration.
Perhaps the most common form of censorship is self-censorship: a group deciding for itself not
to publish material. In some countries a publisher may censor itself to avoid persecution.