NCERT NOTES

FOR HISTORY
6th Standard
CONTENTS
What, Where, How and When? ................................................................................................ 1 - 3

From Hunting-Gathering to Growing Food ............................................................................ 4 - 8

In the Earliest Cities ..................................................................................................................... 9 - 14

What Books and Burials Tell Us ........................................................................................... 15 - 17

Kingdoms, Kings and An Early Republic ............................................................................ 18 - 21

New Questions and Ideas ....................................................................................................... 22 - 26

Ashoka, the Emperor Who Gave up War .......................................................................... 27 - 30

Vital Villages, Thriving Towns ............................................................................................... 31 - 33

Traders, Kings and Pilgrims .................................................................................................... 34 - 38

New Empires and Kingdom.................................................................................................... 39 - 42

Buildings, Paintings and Books ............................................................................................. 43 - 46

 WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN?
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The past was different for different groups of people. For example, the lives of herders or farmers were
different from those of kings and queens, the lives of merchants were different from those of crafts persons,
and so on.

Sources of information from Past:

· Manuscripts: Manuscripts were written by hand (this comes from the Latin word 'manu', meaning
hand). These were usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as
the birch, which grows in the Himalayas.
Ø Over the years, many manuscripts were eaten away by insects, some were destroyed, but many
have survived, often preserved in temples and monasteries.
Ø These books dealt with all kinds of subjects such as religious beliefs and practices, the lives of
kings, medicine and science. Besides, there were epics, poems, plays.
Ø Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit (languages used by ordinary people)
and Tamil.
· Inscriptions: These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal. Sometimes, kings
got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read and obey them.
Ø There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and women (including kings and queens)
recorded what they did. For example, kings often kept records of victories in battle.

Additional Information:
· Kandahar Inscription: Inscription dates to about 2250 years ago, and was found in Kandahar,
present-day Afghanistan.
Ø It was inscribed on the orders of a ruler named Ashoka.
Ø This inscription was inscribed in two different scripts and languages, Greek (top) and Aramaic
(below), which were used in this area.
· Rosetta Inscription: Rosetta is a town on the north coast of Egypt, and here an inscribed stone was
found, which contained inscriptions in three different languages and scripts (Greek, and two forms
of Egyptian).
Ø Scholars who could read Greek, figured out that the names of kings and queens were enclosed in
a little frame, called a cartouche.

· Archaeological Findings: Archaeologists study the remains of buildings made of stone and brick,
paintings, and sculpture.
Ø They also explore and excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to find tools, weapons, pots,
pans, ornaments and coins.
Ø Some of these objects may be made of stone, others of bone, baked clay or metal. Archaeologists
also look for bones of animals, birds, and fish to find out what people ate in the past.

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Early Settlements of human in Indian Subcontinent:
· People have lived along the banks of river Narmada for several hundred thousand years.
· Some of the earliest people who lived here were skilled gatherers, (i.e., people who gathered their
food).
· They knew about the vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests, and collected roots, fruits and
other forest produce for their food. They also hunted animals.
· Some of the areas where women and men first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about
8000 years ago and are located near the Sulaiman and Kirthar hills.
· People also began rearing animals like sheep, goat, and cattle, and lived in villages. Early agriculture
was also developed in Garo hills to the north-east.
· The places where rice was first grown are to the north of the Vindhyas.
· About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks of river Indus and its
tributaries (tributaries are smaller rivers that flow into a larger river).
· Later, about 2500 years ago, cities were developed on the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries, and
along the sea coasts.

Fig 1.1: Physical Map of the Subcontinent

· In ancient times, the area along Ganga and its tributary called the Son, to the south of the Ganga was
known as Magadha now lying in the state of Bihar.
· Its rulers were very powerful and set up a large kingdom. Kingdoms were set up in other parts of the
country as well.
Reasons for people travelling from one part of the subcontinent to another:
· Throughout the ancient period, people travelled from one part of the subcontinent to another. The hills
and high mountains including the Himalayas, deserts, rivers and seas made journeys dangerous at
times, but never impossible.

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 · Men and women moved in search of livelihood, as also to escape from natural disasters like floods or
droughts.
· Sometimes men marched in armies, conquering others' lands.
· Besides, merchants travelled with caravans or ships, carrying valuable goods from place to place.
· Religious teachers walked from village to village, town to town, to offer religious instruction and
advice.
· Finally, some people perhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure, wanting to discover new and
exciting places.
· All these led to the sharing of ideas between people. These movements of people enriched our
cultural traditions. People have shared new ways of carving stone, composing music, and even
cooking food over several hundreds of years.

Names of the land:

· Two of the words we often use for our country are India and Bharat. The word India comes from the
Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit.
· The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar
with the Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the east of the river was called India.
· The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the northwest, and who are
mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago). Later it
was used for the country.

Interesting points

· All dates before the birth of Christ are counted backwards and usually have the letters BC (Before
Christ) added on.
· AD stands for two Latin words, 'Anno Domini', meaning 'in the year of the Lord' (i.e. Christ). So,
2012 can also be written as AD 2012.
· The letters CE stand for 'Common Era', BCE for 'Before Common Era' and BP meaning 'Before
Present' are used.
· When we write anything, we use a script, consist of letters or signs. When we read what is
written, or speak, we use a language. Languages which were used, as well as scripts, have
changed over time.
· All inscriptions contain both scripts and languages. Scholars understand what was inscribed
through a process known as decipherment.
· South Asia includes the present countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri
Lanka and the neighbouring countries of Afghanistan, Iran, China and Myanmar. South Asia is
often called a subcontinent because although it is smaller than a continent, it is very large, and is
separated from the rest of Asia by seas, hills and mountains.

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 FROM HUNTING-GATHERING
2 TO GROWING FOOD
People who lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago, known as hunter-gatherers. It was a
broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a
percussion surface.

· Palaeolithic period: This comes from two Greek words, 'palaeo', meaning old, and 'lithos', meaning
stone. The name points to the importance of finds of stone tools.
Ø The Palaeolithic period extends from 2 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. This long
stretch of time is divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.
Ø This long span of time covers 99% of human history.

· Mesolithic period: The period when we find environmental changes, beginning about 12,000 years
ago till about 10,000 years ago is called the Mesolithic (middle stone).
Ø Stone tools found during this period are generally tiny, and are called microliths.
Ø Microliths were probably stuck on to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and
sickles. At the same time, older varieties of tools continued to be in use.

· Neolithic Period: The next stage, from about 10,000 years ago, is known as the Neolithic. Neolithic
stone tools include tools that were polished to give a fine cutting edge, and mortars and pestles used
for grinding grain and other plant produce.
Ø At the same time, tools of the Palaeolithic types continued to be made and used, and remember,
some tools were also made of bone.

Hunter-gatherers:
· Hunter-gatherers lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago. Generally, they hunted
wild animals, caught fish and birds, gathered fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks and eggs.
· Hunter-gatherers moved from place to place. There are many reasons for this:
Ø In Search of food: If they had stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the
available plant and animal resources. Therefore, they would have had to go elsewhere in search of
food.
Ø To follow prey movements: Animals move from place to place — either in search of smaller prey, or,
in the case of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why those who hunted them
had to follow their movements.
Ø In search of different kinds of plants: Plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So, people
may have moved from season to season in search of different kinds of plants.
Ø In search of water: People, plants and animals need water to survive. Water is found in lakes,
streams and rivers. While many rivers and lakes are perennial (with water throughout the year)
others are seasonal. People living on their banks would have had to go in search of water during the
dry seasons (winter and summer).

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Tools used by hunter-gatherers:
· Hunter-gatherers used tools of stone, wood, and bone, of which stone tools have survived best.
· Some of these stone tools were used to cut meat and bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides
(animal skins), chop fruit and roots.
· Some may have been attached to handles of bone or wood, to make spears and arrows for hunting.
Other tools were used to chop wood, which was used as firewood. Wood was also used to make huts
and tools.
· Stone tools may also have been used for: Digging the ground to collect edible roots and Stitching
clothes made out of animal skin.

Places from where the evidences of hunter-gatherers are found:

· Many sites were located near sources of water, such as rivers and lakes.
· As stone tools were important, people tried to find places where good quality stone was easily
available.

Fig 2.1: Some Important Archaeological Sites

Factors that led to Hunting–Gathering to Growing Food:

· Changes in the climate: Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the
world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions.
· Development of grasslands: In many areas, Changes in the climate led to the development of
grasslands. This in turn led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e.
animals that survived on grass.
· Herding and rearing of animals: Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about

5
 their food habits and their breeding seasons. It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about
herding and rearing these animals themselves. Fishing also became important.
· Domestication of plants: This was also a time when several grain bearing grasses, including wheat,
barley and rice grew naturally in different parts of the subcontinent.
Ø Men, women and children probably collected these grains as food, and learnt where they grew, and
when they ripened.
Ø This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own. In this way people became
farmers.
· Domestication of animals: People could also attract and then tame animals by leaving food for them
near their shelters. The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog.
Ø Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near the camps where they
lived. These animals such as sheep, goat, cattle and also the pig lived in herds, and most of them ate
grass.
Ø Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals. This is how they became
herders.

Process of Domestication:
· Domestication is the name given to the process in which people grow plants and look after
animals. Very often, plants and animals that are tended by people become different from wild
plants and animals. This is because people select plants and animals for domestication.
· For example, they select those plants and animals that are not prone to disease. They also select
plants that yield large-size grain, and have strong stalks, capable of bearing the weight of the
ripe grain.
· Seeds from selected plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants (and seeds) will
have the same qualities.
· Amongst animals, those that are relatively gentle are selected for breeding.
· As a result, gradually, domesticated animals and plants become different from wild animals and
plants. For example, the teeth and horns of wild animals are usually much larger than those of
domesticated animals.
· Domestication was a gradual process that took place in many parts of the world. It began about
12,000 years ago. Virtually all the plant and animal produce that we use as food today is a result of
domestication.
· Some of the earliest plants to be domesticated were wheat and barley. The earliest domesticated
animals include sheep and goat.

Story of Burzahom:
· In Burzahom (in present-day Kashmir), people built pit-houses, which were dug into the ground,
with steps leading into them. These may have provided shelter in cold weather.
· Archaeologists have also found cooking hearths both inside and outside the huts, which suggests

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 that, depending on the weather; people could cook food either indoors or outdoors.
· Many kinds of earthen pots have also been found. These were sometimes decorated and were used
for storing things. People began using pots for cooking food, especially grains like rice, wheat and
lentils that now became an important part of the diet.
· Besides, they began weaving cloth, using different kinds of materials, for example cotton, that could
now be grown.

Story of Mehrgarh:
· Mehrgarh site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass, which is one of the most important
routes into Iran.
· Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where people learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear
sheep and goats for the first time in this area.
· It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.
· At this site many animal bones were found. Bones of wild animals such as the deer and pig, and also
bones of sheep and goat were found.
· Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house had four or
more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage.
· When people die, their relatives and friends generally pay respect to them. People look after them,
perhaps in the belief that there is some form of life after death. Burial is one such arrangement.
· Several burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead person was buried with
goats, which were probably meant to serve as food in the next world.

Interesting points
· Grain was used as seed, as food, as gifts and stored for food.
· As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people had to think of ways of storing it. In many
areas, they began making large clay pots, or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground.
· Animals multiply naturally. Besides, if they are looked after carefully, they provide milk, which is an
important source of food, and meat, whenever required. In other words, animals that are reared
can be used as a 'store' of food.
· Sites are places where the remains of things (tools, pots, buildings etc.) were found. These
were made, used and left behind by people. These may be found on the surface of the earth,
buried under the earth, or sometimes even under water.
· Many of the caves in which these early people lived have paintings on the walls. Some of the best
examples are from Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh. These paintings show wild
animals, drawn with great accuracy and skill.

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· Bhimbetka (in present day Madhya Pradesh) is an old site with caves and rock shelters. People
chose these natural caves because they provided shelter from the rain, heat and wind. These rock
shelters are close to the Narmada valley.
· Traces of ash have been found in Kurnool caves. This suggests that people were familiar with
the use of fire. Fire could have been used for many things: as a source of light, to roast meat, and
to scar e away animals.
· One of the most famous Neolithic sites, Catal Huyuk, was found in Turkey. Several things were
brought from great distances - flint from Syria, cowries from the Red Sea, shells from the
Mediterranean Sea - and used in the settlement. Remember, there were no carts — most things
would have been carried on the backs of pack animals such as cattle or by people.

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 IN THE EARLIEST CITIES
3
About eighty years ago (1920 AD), archaeologists found the Harappa, and realised that this was one of the
oldest cities in the subcontinent.

Harappan Civilization:
· Harappa was the first city to be discovered, all other sites from where similar buildings (and other
things) were found were described as Harappan.
· These cities developed about 4700 years ago. These cities were found in the Punjab and Sind in
Pakistan, and in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and the Punjab in India.
· Archaeologists have found a set of unique objects in almost all these cities: red pottery painted with
designs in black, stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, and paralleled sided long stone
blades.

Fig 3.1: The Earliest Cities in the Subcontinent

Special Characteristics of the Earliest Cities:

· Divided into two or more parts: Many of these cities were divided into two or more parts. Usually, the
part to the West was smaller but higher. Archaeologists describe this as the Citadel. Generally, the
part to the East was larger but lower. This is called the lower town. Very often walls of baked brick
were built around each part.
· Baked bricks used: The bricks were so well baked that they have lasted for thousands of years. The
bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong. In some cities, special
buildings were constructed on the citadel.

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Great Bath:
· In Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this
area.
· This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster, and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar.
There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were rooms on all sides.
· Water was probably brought in from a well and drained out after use. Perhaps important people
took a dip in this tank on special occasions.

Fig 3.2: Great Bath

· Houses: Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard.
Most houses had a separate bathing area, and some had wells to supply water.
· Drainage system and streets: Many of these cities had covered drains. These were laid out, in straight
lines.
Ø Each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it. Very often, drains in houses were
connected to those on the streets and smaller drains led into bigger ones.
Ø As the drains were covered, inspection holes were provided at intervals to clean them.
Ø All three — houses, drains and streets — were probably planned and built at the same time.
· Fire altars: Other cities, such as Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars, where sacrifices may have been
performed.
· Elaborate store houses: Some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate store
houses.

Harappan Crafts:
Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stone, shell and metal, including
copper, bronze, gold and silver. Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and
vessels. Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels. Perhaps the most striking finds are those
of beads, weights, and blades.

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· Harappan seals: The Harappans made seals out of stone. These are generally rectangular and
usually have an animal carved on them.
Ø The signs on the top of the seal are part of a script. This is the earliest form of writing known in the
subcontinent. Scholars have tried to read these signs but we still do not know exactly what they
mean.
Ø Seals may have been used to stamp bags or packets containing goods that were sent from one
place to another.
Ø After a bag was closed or tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed
on it. The impression of the seal is known as a sealing. If the sealing was intact, one could be sure
that the goods had arrived safely.

Fig 3.3: Harappan seal

· Stone weights: These weights are shaped precisely. These were made of chert, a kind of stone. These
were probably used to weigh precious stones or metals.
· Pottery: The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs. Harappans pottery was red
pottery painted with designs in black.
· Beads making: Many of these were made out of carnelian, a beautiful red stone. The stone was cut,
shaped, polished and finally a hole was bored through the centre so that a string could be passed
through it.

Fig 3.4: Beads making

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Availability of Raw Material used by Harappans:
· While some of the raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally, many items such as
copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones had to be brought from distant places.
· The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in West
Asia.
· Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day
Afghanistan and Iran.
· Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-
day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Agriculture in Harappan cities:

· While many people lived in the cities, others living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals.
These farmers and herders supplied food to crafts persons, scribes and rulers in the cities. Harappans
grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.
· A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real
ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found.
· As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been used. This
means that water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.

Animal rearing:
· The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. Water and pastures were available around
settlements.
· However, in the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in
search of grass and water.
· They also collected fruits like ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.

Dholavira: A closer look

· The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt (also spelled as Bet) in the Rann of Kutch, where
there was fresh water and fertile soil.
· Unlike some of the other Harappan cities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided
into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through
gateways.
· There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies could be held.
· Other finds include large letters of the Harappan script that were carved out of white stone and
perhaps inlaid in wood. This is a unique find as generally Harappan writing has been found on small
objects such as seals.

City of Lothal: A closer look

· The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.

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 · It was situated near areas where raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available.
· This was an important centre for making objects out of stone, shell and metal.
· There was also a store house in the city. Many seals and sealings (the impression of seals on clay) were
found in this storehouse.
· A dockyard is found at Lothal, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river
channel. Goods were probably loaded and unloaded here.
· A building that was found here was probably a workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half
made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.

The mystery of the end:

· Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the
cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Raw materials brought from long distances
became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system
broke down, and new, less impressive houses were built, even over the streets.
· Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. This
could have happened because fuel was required for baking bricks, and for smelting copper ores.
· Besides, grazing by large herds of cattle, sheep and goat may have destroyed the green cover.
· In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities.
Flooding, or a river drying up would have had an effect in only some areas.
· It appears as if the rulers lost control. In any case, the effects of the change are quite clear. Sites in Sind
and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer,
smaller settlements to the east and the south.
· New cities emerged about 1400 years later.

Interesting points
· Pyramids of Egypt: Most of Egypt is a dry desert, except for the lands along the river Nile. Around
5000 years ago, kings ruled over Egypt. These kings sent armies to distant lands to get gold,
silver, ivory, timber, and precious stones. They also built huge tombs, known as pyramids.
Ø When they died, the bodies of kings were preserved and buried in these pyramids. These
carefully preserved bodies are known as 'mummies'.
Ø A large number of objects were also buried with them. These included food and drink, clothes,
ornaments, utensils, musical instruments, weapons and animals.
Ø Sometimes even serving men and women were buried with the rulers. These are amongst
the most elaborate burials known in world history.

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 Fig 3.5: Pyramids of Egypt

· Faience: Unlike stone or shell, that are found naturally, faience is a material that is artificially produced.
A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed,
resulting in a shiny, glassy surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green. Faience
was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels.
· Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.
· Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at
Mohenjodaro.
· Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience. These were used to
spin thread.
· A stone statue of an important man found from Mohenjodaro shows him wearing an embroidered
garment.

Fig 3.6: A stone statue of an important man

· Nearly a hundred and fifty years ago, when railway lines were being laid down for the first time in the
Punjab, engineers stumbled upon the site of Harappa in present-day Pakistan. To them, it seemed
like a mound that was a rich source of readymade, high quality bricks. So they carried off thousands
of bricks from the walls of the old buildings of the city to build railway lines. Many buildings were
completely destroyed.

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 WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
4
There are several ways of describing people such as in terms of the work they do, speaking language, books,
the place to, their family, their communities and cultural practices.
Some of major books of ancient India are four Vedas namely, Rigveda , Samaveda, Yajurveda and
atharvaveda, The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, composed abour 3500 years age.

Rigveda:
· The Rigveda includes more than a thousand hymns, called sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in
praise of various gods and goddesses.
· Three gods are especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, a warrior god; and Soma, a plant
from which a special drink was prepared.
· These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). Priests taught students to recite and memorise each
syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with great care.
· A few were composed by women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit.
· The Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read. It was written down several centuries after it was
first composed, and printed less than 200 years ago.
· Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the form of dialogues. One such hymn is a dialogue between a
sage named Vishvamitra, and two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped as goddesses.
· Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where these rivers flow. They also
suggest that the sage lived in a society where horses and cows were valued animals. That is why the
rivers are compared to horses and cows.
· Other rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the Sarasvati, are also named in the
hymns. The Ganga and Yamuna are named only once.
· There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, children (especially sons), and horses. Horses were
yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which were fought to capture cattle.
· Battles were also fought for land, which was important for pasture, and for growing hardy crops that
ripened quickly, such as barley. Some battles were fought for water, and to capture people.
· Some wealth was used for the performance of yajnas or sacrifices in which offerings were made into
the fire. These were meant for gods and goddesses. Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in some
cases, animals.
· There was no regular army, but there were assemblies where people met and discussed matters of
war and peace. They also chose leaders, who were often brave and skilful warriors.
· The priests, sometimes called Brahmins, performed various rituals.
· Rajas in Rigveda where the rulers were chosen by the jana i.e., the people. Rajas did not have capital
cities, palaces or armies, nor did they collect taxes. Generally, sons did not automatically succeed
fathers as rajas.
· Two words were used to describe the people or the community as a whole. One was the word jana.
The other was vish.
· The family was part of a larger grouping called vis or clan. One or more than one clans made jana or
tribe. The jana was the largest social unit.
· The word vaishya comes from vish. Examples- Puru jana or vish, the Bharata jana or vish, the Yadu
jana or vish.

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 · Aryans in India from the various Vedic texts, especially the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of
the Indo-European language and the chief source of information on the history of this period.
· Dasas or Dasyus- Dasyu were the people who did not have the same religious beliefs as the Aryan.
These were people who did not perform sacrifices, and probably spoke different languages. Later,
the term dasa (and the feminine dasi) came to mean slave. Slaves were women and men who were
often captured in war. They were treated as the property of their owners, who could make them do
whatever work they wanted.

Megaliths:
· Megaliths (literally big stones) were carefully arranged by people, and were used to mark burial sites.
The practice of erecting megaliths began about 3000 years ago, and was prevalent throughout the
Deccan, south India, in the north-east and Kashmir.
· While some megaliths can be seen on the surface, other megalithic burials are often underground.
· All these burials have some common features. Generally, the dead were buried with distinctive pots,
which are called Black and Red Ware. Also found are tools and weapons of iron and sometimes,
skeletons of horses, horse equipment and ornaments of stone and gold.
· Sometimes, more objects are found in one grave than in another. In Brahmagiri , one skeleton was
buried with 33 gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles, and one conch shell. Other skeletons
have only a few pots.
· These finds suggest that there was some difference in status amongst the people who were buried.
Some were rich, others poor, some chiefs, others followers.
· Sometimes, megaliths contain more than one skeleton. These indicate that people, perhaps
belonging to the same family, were buried in the same place though not at the same time. The bodies
of those who died later were brought into the grave through the portholes.
· Cist is one type of megalith. Some cists have port-holes which could be used as an entrance.

Burial Practices at Inamgaon:

· It is a site on the river Ghod, a tributary of the Bhima. It was occupied between 3600 and 2700 years
ago.
· Here, adults were generally buried in the ground, laid out straight, with the head towards the north.
Sometimes burials were within the houses.
· Vessels that probably contained food and water were placed with the dead.
· One man was found buried in a large, four legged clay jar in the courtyard of a five-roomed house
(one of the largest houses at the site), in the centre of the settlement. This house also had a granary.
The body was placed in a cross-legged position.

Occupations at Inamgaon:
· Archaeologists have found seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame.
· Bones of a number of animals, many bearing cut marks that show they may have been used as food,

16
 have also been found. These include cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar,
spotted deer, blackbuck, antelope, hare, and mongoose, besides birds, crocodile, turtle, crab and
fish.
· There is evidence that fruits such as ber, amla, jamun, dates and a variety of berries were collected.

Interesting points
· First evidence of writing: Around 3500 years ago, we find some of the first evidence of writing in
China. These writings were on animal bones. These are called oracle bones, because they were
used to predict the future.
Ø The bones were then put into the fire, and they cracked because of the heat. Then fortune
tellers studied these cracks, and tried to predict the future. In china, Kings did not know the
use of iron.
· Birch bark Manuscript of the Rigveda: A Manuscript of the Rigveda, on birch bark, was found in
Kashmir. About 150 years ago, it was used to prepare one of the earliest printed texts of the
Rigveda, as well as an English translation. It is now preserved in a library in Pune, Maharashtra.
· Charaka Samhita: About 2000 years ago, there was a famous physician named Charaka who
wrote a book on medicine known as the Charaka Samhita.
Ø There he states that the human body has 360 bones. This is a much larger number than the
200 bones that are recognised in modern anatomy.
Ø Charaka arrived at this figure by counting the teeth, joints and cartilage.
· Sanskrit is part of a family of languages known as Indo-European.
Ø Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and Sindhi; Asian
languages such as Persian and many European languages such as English, French, German,
Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to this family. They are called a family because they originally
had words in common.
· Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. For instance, those used in
the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam
belong to the Dravidian family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central
India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family.

17
 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN
5 EARLY REPUBLIC
The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age. These include the Samaveda,
Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, as well as other books. These were composed by priests, and described how
rituals were to be performed. They also contained rules about society.
· Samveda: For purposes of singing, the prayers of the Rigveda were set to tune and this modified
collection was known as the Samveda Samhita.
· Yajurveda: Yajurveda contains not only the hymns but also the rituals which have to accompany their
recitation. The Yajurveda is found in two recensions, Black and White, and are full of rituals to be
performed publicly or individually.
· Atharvaveda: Atharvaveda is completely different from the other three Vedas. It contains charms and
spells to ward off evils and diseases. These are replete with ritualistic formulae and explain the social
and religious meaning of rituals. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-
Aryans. Atharvaveda is the most valuable of the Vedas after the Rig Veda for the history and sociology.

Varna System:
The most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of varna system.
The four varnas in which society came to be divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and
shudras.
These groups were decided on the basis of birth. For example, if one's father and mother were brahmins
one would automatically become a brahmin, and so on.
· The first varna was that of the brahmin. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas,
perform sacrifices and receive gifts.
· In the second place were the rulers, also known as kshatriyas. They were expected to fight battles and
protect people.
· Third were the vish or the vaishyas. They were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. Both the
kshatriyas and the vaishyas could perform sacrifices.
· Last were the shudras, who had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals.
Often, women were also grouped with the shudras. Both women and shudras were not allowed to
study the Vedas.
· Later, they classified some people as untouchable. These included some crafts persons, hunters and
gatherers, as well as people who helped perform burials and cremations. The priests said that
contact with these groups was polluting.

Janapadas:
· The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot and settled down.

Mahajanapadas:
· About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as
mahajanapadas. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means
that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them.

18
 Fig 5.1: Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities

· The new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by
the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins.

Taxes:
· As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they
needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on
occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting
regular taxes.
· Taxes on crops were the most important. This was because most people were farmers. Usually, the tax
was fixed at 1/6th of what was produced. This was known as bhaga or a share.
· There were taxes on crafts persons as well. These could have been in the form of labour. For example,
a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day every month for the king.
· Herders were also expected to pay taxes in the form of animals and animal produce.
· There were also taxes on goods that were bought and sold, through trade.
· And hunters and gatherers also had to provide forest produce to the raja.

19
Changes in agriculture:
· There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron
ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden
ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced.
· Second, people began transplanting paddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground,
from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to
increased production, as many more plants survived.
· However, it was back breaking work. Generally, slave men and women, (dasas and dasis) and landless
agricultural labourers (kammakaras) had to do this work.

Story of the Magadha:

Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years.
· Causes of Magadha's Success:
Ø Ambitious rulers: Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all
possible means to conquer other janapadas. Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He
extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent.
Ø Two capitals: Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years.
Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). Both were situated at very
strategic points.
Ø Resources: Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important
for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested.
o Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore
mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons.
Ø Special advantage in military organization: Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured
and trained for the army.

Story of the Vajji:

· While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a
different form of government, known as gana or sangha.
· Gana is used for a group that has many members. Sangha means organisation or association.
· In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men
ruled together, each one was known as a raja.
· These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be
done and how, through discussion and debate.
· For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the
threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
· Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to ganas or sanghas. Some of the most vivid descriptions
of life in the sanghas can be found in Buddhist books.

20
· Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas. Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long
time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta
rulers.

Interesting points
· Account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya: This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha
Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These
were written down about 2300 years ago.
Ø Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha
to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full
assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper
as long as:
o They held full and frequent public assemblies.
o They met and acted together.
o They followed established rules.
o They respected, supported and listened to elders.
o Vajji women were not held by force or captured.
o Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages
· Alexander's Invasion: More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in
Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror.
Ø Of course, he didn't conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and
came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas.
Ø When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as
they had heard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and
elephants.
· Ashvamedha Ritual: The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let
loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja's men.
Ø If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If
they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to
perform the sacrifice was stronger than them.
Ø These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained
priests, who were rewarded with gifts.
Ø The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who
came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals.
· Earthen pots: Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery
found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware.
· Around 2500 years ago, the people of Athens set up a form of government, which was called a
democracy, which lasted for about 200 years.

21
 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS
6
Some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was
changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They
also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. Buddha and Mahavira were the prominent ones.

Buddha:
· Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago.
· The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana and was a kshatriya. When he was a
young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge.
· He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally
decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh
Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment.
· After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi,
where he taught for the first time.
· He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed
away at Kusinara.

Doctrines of Buddhism:
· The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have
cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled).
· Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other
things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be
removed by following moderation in everything.
· He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed
that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the
next.
· The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could
understand his message.

Mahavira:
· The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around
this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of
the Vajji sangha.
· At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years he led a hard and lonely
life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.

Doctrines of Jainism:
· He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes.
They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.
“All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.”

22
 · In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right
Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Right conduct means observance of five great vows:
Ø Ahimsa (do not commit violence).
Ø Satya vachana (do not speak a lie)
Ø Asteya (do not steal)
Ø Brahmacharya (do not indulge in sexual act)
Ø Aprigraha (do not acquire property).
· Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used
Prakrit.
· Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas (The word Jaina comes from the term Jina,
meaning conqueror), had to lead very simple lives, begging for food.
· It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left
their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those
who became monks and nuns, providing them with food.
· Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops,
found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of
north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
· The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were
written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat,
about 1500 years ago.

The Sangha:
· Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true
knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha, an association of those who left
their homes.
· The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From
this we know that there were separate branches for men and women.
· All men could join the sangha. However, children had to take the permission of their parents and
slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors
that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands' permission.
· Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went
to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the
Prakrit word for renouncer — beggar) and bhikkhunis.
· They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took
place within the sangha.
· Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers,
courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also
composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha.

23
Monasteries:
· To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching
people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult
to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural
caves in hilly areas.
· As time went on, many supporters of the monks and nuns, and they themselves, felt the need for more
permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas. The earliest
viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills,
especially in western India.
· Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or
the king.
· The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the monks and nuns. In return, they
taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and
beyond.

Upanishads:
· Upanishad literally means 'approaching and sitting near' and the texts contain conversations
between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues.
· The Upanishads contain philosophical speculations. They are generally called Vedanta which means
the end of the Vedas.
· One reason is that they came at the end of the Vedic period or that they were taught at the end of the
Vedic instruction. These texts were compiled around 600 B.C. and criticized the rituals and laid stress
on the values of right belief and knowledge.
· Many of thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after
death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul.
They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one.
· Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts.
· Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of
women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning, and participated in debates held in
royal courts. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions.
· One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman
Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher
named Gautama and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time.
· Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.

Six Schools of Indian Philosophy:

German-born British Indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were
developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers.

24
 Darshans Authors Theme

Nyaya Gautama It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the material power Maya, with
the help of God, becomes the universe.

Vaisheshika Kanada It aims is to receive happiness in this life and finally ultimate liberation
through the attachment of true knowledge of Divine.

Sankhya Kapila It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to eliminate all kinds of physical
and mental pains and to receive liberation.

Yoga Maharishi It has 4 chapters and accepts three kinds of evidences for determining
Patanjali the aim of life.

Purva Jaimini It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme and at the same time, the
Mimansa classification of its issues.

Vedanta (Uttara Maharishi It explains that Brahma Sutra is for that person who has a real deep
Mimansa) Vyasa desire to know God. True liberation could only be attained by lovingly
surrendering to Him.

The system of ashramas:

· Around the time when Jainism and Buddhism were becoming popular, brahmins developed the
system of ashramas.
· Here, the word ashrama does not mean a place where people live and meditate. It is used instead for a
stage of life.
· Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa.
Ø Brahmin, kshatriya and vaishya men were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas
during the early years of their life (brahmacharya).
Ø Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha).
Ø Then they had to live in the forest and meditate (vanaprastha).
Ø Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins.
· The system of ashramas allowed men to spend some part of their lives in meditation. Generally,
women were not allowed to study the Vedas, and they had to follow the ashramas chosen by their
husbands.

25
 Interesting points
· The story of two sages Shaunaka and Abhipratarin who worshipped the universal soul is
contained in the Chhandogya Upanishad.
· Zoroastrianism: Zoroaster was an Iranian prophet. His teachings are contained in a book called
the Avesta.
Ø The language of the Avesta, and the practices described in it are very similar to those of the
Vedas.
Ø The basic teachings of Zoroaster are contained in the maxim “Good thoughts, Good Words
and Good Deeds.”
Ø For more than a thousand years, Zoroastrianism was a major religion in Iran. Later, some
Zoroastrians migrated from Iran and settled down in the coastal towns of Gujarat and
Maharashtra. They were the ancestors of today's Parsis.
· Sarnath stupa was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message.
· Panini: One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit.
Ø He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create
formulae like those found in Algebra.
Ø He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae.
· Karle Chaitya is located in present-day Maharashtra. Monks and nuns lived and meditated in
these shelters.

26
 ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO
7 GAVE UP WAR
Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed
on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces.

Mauryan Empire:
· Chandragupta Maurya: He was the founder of the Mauryan Empire.
Ø Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya's
ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra.
Ø Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of
West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.
· Bindusara: He was son of Chandra Gupta, was the second to sit on the throne of the Great Mauryan
Dynasty.
· Ashoka: The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to
history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces.
Ø He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of
Ashoka's inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script.
Ø Kalinga war: Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa. Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga.
However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed and later on, he decided not
to fight any more wars.
Ø He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Eight
years after becoming king, Ashoka conquered Kalinga.
Inscriptions of Ashoka:

Fig. 7.1: Principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found

27
Ashoka's Dhamma:
· Ashoka's dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as
a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the
teachings of the Buddha.
· So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching
people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing
his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves.
· Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt,
Greece and Sri Lanka.
· He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both
human beings and animals.

Governance of Mauryan Empire:

· Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north
to south India. Merchants, officials and crafts persons probably lived in these cities.
· Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be
protected by big armies. So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes.
· As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was
under the direct control of the emperor.
· This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, crafts persons and
traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area.
· Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler's orders. Many of these officials were given
salaries.
· Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor
supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers.
· There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or
Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often
sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed.
· Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and
rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and
tribute.
· For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south
India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute.
· Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was
possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly.

Post Mauryan Age:

· The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new
kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for
about one hundred years.

28
· They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the
north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the
Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings. The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about
2000 years ago).
· In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set
up a kingdom.
· The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other
families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago.
· The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who
ruled over western and parts of central India.
· The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years.
Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and
western India.
· In South India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about
1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.

Interesting points
· The Rampurwa bull is a finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in
Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of
the sculptors of the time.
· Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.
· Great Wall of China: Somewhat before the time of the Mauryan empire, about 2400 years ago,
emperors in China began building the Great Wall.
Ø It was meant to protect the northern frontier of the empire from pastoral people. Additions
to the wall were made over a period of 2000 years because the frontiers of the empire kept
shifting.
Ø The wall is about 6400 km long, and is made of stone and brick, with a road along the top.
Several thousand people worked to build the wall. There are watch towers all along, at
distances of about 100-200 m.
· Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath: National emblem of India is an adaptation of the Lion
Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, a statue from 250 BCE. The statue depicted four Asiatic lions back
to back, with the two-dimensional emblem showing three lions.
Ø The actual Sarnath capital features four Asiatic lions standing back to back, symbolising
power, courage, confidence, and pride, mounted on a circular base.

29
Ø At the bottom is a horse and a bull, and at its centre is a wheel (Dharma chakra). The abacus is
girded with a frieze of sculptures in high relief of The Lion of the North, The Horse of the West,
The Bull of the South and The Elephant of the East, separated by intervening wheels, over a
lotus in full bloom, exemplifying the fountainhead of life and creative inspiration.
Ø Forming an integral part of the emblem is the motto inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari
script: Satyameva Jayate ("Truth alone triumphs"). This is a quote from Mundaka Upanishad,
the concluding part of the sacred Hindu Vedas.

Fig. 7.1: Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath

30
 VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS
8
The kings and kingdoms could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools
and the system of transplantation increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were
built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.

Social life in Southern Villages:

· There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern
parts of the subcontinent.
· In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as
uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai.

Social life in Northern Villages:

· In the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually,
men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary.
· The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to
cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the
village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman.
· Apart from the gramabhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of
whom were smaller landowners.
· And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to
earn a living working on the fields owned by others.

Art and Craft in Towns:

· Sculptors carved scenes depicting peoples' lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forest. Many of
these sculptures were used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings that were visited
by people.
· Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a
shiny black surface.
Ø The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the
blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a
mirror-like shine.
· Manufacture of cloth: There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the
south. Both men and women worked in these centres.
· Punch-marked Coins: Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or
round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical
body).
Ø The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they
are called punch-marked coins.
Ø These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early
centuries CE.

31
Role of Shrenis:
· Many crafts persons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of
crafts persons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then
shrenis of merchants organised the trade.
· Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and
part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries.

Story of Mathura:
· Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was
located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east
and from north to south.
· There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining
areas provided food for people in the city.
· Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years
ago Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas.
· Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an
important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and
statues have been found in Mathura.

Story of Arikamedu:
· Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded
goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at
the site.
· Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled
jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine
Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould.
· There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used.
Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
· Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of
evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass.

Interesting points
· Ring wells: In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one
on top of the other. These are known as ring wells.
Ø These seem to have been used as toilets in some cases, and as drains and garbage dumps.
These ring wells are usually found in individual houses.

32
· Arthashastra, mentioned Rules for spinning and weaving. They describe how spinning and
weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. If a woman does not
complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.”
· Sangam literature: Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were
composed around 2300 years ago.
Ø These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and
compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai.
· Jatakas: These were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people, and then written
down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
· The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago.
· Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials.
· Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for
clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare.

33
 TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS
9
Northern Black Polished Ware fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several
archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. Traders may have carried them from the places where
they were made, to sell them at other places.

Trade from South India:

· South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was
particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold.
· So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans.
There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India.
· Traders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the
seas more quickly.
· So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they
chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys.

New kingdoms along the coasts:

The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys.
Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile.
· Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas:
Ø Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam
poems mention the muvendar. This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of
three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
Ø Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six
cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the
capital of the Pandyas.
Ø The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the
people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas.
· Satavahanas:
Ø Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India.
The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
Ø We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri.
Ø He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route
leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region.
Ø He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts.

The story of the Silk Route:

· The rich, glossy colours of silk, as well as its smooth texture, make it a highly valued fabric in most
societies. Making silk is a complicated process.

34
 · Raw silk has to be extracted from the cocoons of silk worms, spun into thread and then woven into
cloth. Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago.
· While the methods remained a closely guarded secret for thousands of years, some people from China
who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they
followed came to be known as the Silk Route.
· Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and west Asia, and from there, the
knowledge of silk spread further west. About 2000 years ago, wearing silk became the fashion
amongst rulers and rich people in Rome.
· It was very expensive, as it had to be brought all the way from China, along dangerous roads, through
mountains and deserts.
· People living along the route often demanded payments for allowing traders to pass through. Some
kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes,
tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route.
· In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by
robbers.
· The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over
central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago.
· Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their
kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports
at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire.
· The Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold coins. These were
used by traders along the Silk Route.

Kanishka:
· The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who ruled around 1900 years ago. He organised a
Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important matters.
· He started an era in A D. 78, which is now known as the Saka era and is used by the Government of
India.
· Ashvaghosha, a poet who composed a biography of the Buddha, the Buddhacharita, lived in his court.
Ashvaghosha and other Buddhist scholars now began writing in Sanskrit.

The spread of Buddhism:

A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed.
· This had two distinct features.
Ø Earlier, the Buddha's presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his
attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the
Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila.
Ø Bodhisattvas: The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas. These were supposed to be
persons who had attained enlightenment.

35
 o Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace.
However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people.
o The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China,
and later to Korea and Japan.
· Buddhism also spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of
hills for monks to live in. Some of these caves were made on the orders of kings and queens, others by
merchants and farmers.
· These were often located near passes through the Western Ghats. Roads connecting prosperous
ports on the coast with cities in the Deccan ran through these passes. Traders probably halted in these
cave monasteries during their travels.
· Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast
Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more
popular in these areas.

Chinese Buddhist pilgrims:

· As traders journeyed to distant lands in caravans and ships, pilgrims often travelled with them.
· The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent
about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50
years after Xuan Zang.
· They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries.
· Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on
their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the
books they carried back with them.
· Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda, (Bihar) the most famous Buddhist
monastery of the period.

Additional Information:
· Fa Xian began his journey back home from Bengal. He boarded a ship belonging to some
merchants. They had barely travelled for two days when they were caught in a storm.
Ø The merchants began throwing their merchandise overboard so as to lighten the load and save
the ship from sinking.
Ø Fa Xian threw away his meagre personal belongings, but clung to his books and the statues of
the Buddha that he had collected. Finally, the storm subsided after 13 days.
Ø It took him more than 90 days to reach Java, where he halted for five months, before boarding
another merchant ship that took him to China.
· Xuan Zang, who took the land route back to China (through the north-west, and Central Asia)
carried back with him statues of the Buddha made of gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600
manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses.
Ø Over 50 manuscripts were lost when the boat on which he was crossing the Indus capsized.
He spent the rest of his life translating the remaining manuscripts from Sanskrit into Chinese.

36
The beginning of Bhakti:
· This was also the time when the worship of certain deities, which became a central feature of later
Hinduism, gained in importance. These deities included Shiva, Vishnu, and goddesses such as
Durga. These deities were worshipped through Bhakti, an idea that became very popular at this time.
· Bhakti comes from the Sanskrit term bhaj meaning 'to divide or share.' This suggests an intimate,
two-way relationship between the deity and the devotee.
· Bhakti is directed towards Bhagavat, which is often translated as god, but also means one who
possesses and shares bhaga, literally good fortune or bliss. The devotee, known as the bhakta or the
bhagavata, shares his or her chosen deity's bhaga.
· Bhakti is generally understood as a person's devotion to his or her chosen deity. Anybody, whether
rich or poor, belonging to the so-called 'high' or 'low' castes, man or woman, could follow the path of
Bhakti.
· The idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred book of the Hindus, which is included in
the Mahabharata. In this Krishna the God, asks Arjuna, his devotee and friend, to abandon all dharmas
and take refuge in him, as only he can set Arjuna free from every evil.
· This form of worship gradually spread to different parts of the country. Those who followed the system
of Bhakti emphasised devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess, rather than the
performance of elaborate sacrifices.
· According to this system of belief, if a devotee worships the chosen deity with a pure heart, the deity
will appear in the form in which he or she may desire. So, the deity could be thought of as a human
being, lion, tree or any other form.
· Once this idea gained acceptance, artists made beautiful images of these deities.
· Most Bhakti literature tells us that riches, learning and high status do not automatically ensure a
close relationship with the deity.
· Because the deities were special, these images of the deity were often placed within special homes,
places that we describe as temples.
· Bhakti inspired some of the best expressions in art — sculpture, poetry and architecture.

Interesting points
· Christianity: About 2000 years ago, Christianity emerged in West Asia. Jesus Christ was born in
Bethlehem, which was then part of the Roman empire.
Ø Christ's teachings were that he was the Saviour of the world. He also taught people to treat
others with love and trust others, just as they themselves wanted to be treated.
Ø Christ's teachings appealed to ordinary people, and spread through West Asia, Africa and
Europe. The first Christian preachers came from West Asia to the west coast of the
subcontinent within a hundred years of Christ's death.

37
 Interesting points
Ø The Christians of Kerala, known as Syrian Christians because they probably came from West
Asia, are amongst the oldest Christian communities in the world.
· Appar, was a devotee of Shiva who lived about 1400 years ago.
· The word 'Hindu', like the term 'India' is derived from the river Indus. It was used by Arabs and
Iranians to refer to people who lived to the east of the river, and to their cultural practices,
including religious beliefs.

Fig. 9.1: Showing Important Trade Routes including the Silk Route

Fig. 9.2: Showing Important Trade Routes including the Silk Route

38
10 NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOM
Samudragupta, was a famous ruler of a dynasty known as the Guptas. We know about Samudragupta from
a long inscription, inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. It was composed as a Kavya by Harishena,
who was a poet and a minister at the court of Samudragupta.

Samudragupta and Prayag Prashasti:

· Prayag Prashasti is a mirror of Samudragupta's era. Prayag Prashasti was composed by Harishena,
the Darbari poet of Samudragupta. He was the "Kumaramatya" and "sandhivigrivik" during
Samundra Gupta's period.
· The poet praised the king in glowing terms — as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle, who
was learned and the best of poets. He is also described as equal to the gods. The prashasti was
composed in very long sentences.
· Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers and tells us about Samudragupta's policies towards
them.

Ø The rulers of Aryavarta, the area shaded in green on the map. Here there were nine rulers who were
uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta's empire.
Ø The rulers of Dakshinapatha. Here there were twelve rulers, some of whose capitals are marked
with red dots on the map. They surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and he then
allowed them to rule again.
Ø The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of
gana sanghas in the northwest, marked in purple on the map. They brought tribute, followed his
orders, and attended his court.
Ø The rulers of the outlying areas, marked in blue on the map, perhaps the descendants of the
Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka, who submitted to him and offered daughters in
marriage.

· This one mentions Samudragupta's great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother. His mother,
Kumara devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of
the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
His great grandfather and grandfather are mentioned simply as maha-rajas.
· His love for music is attested by his coins that represent him as playing on a vina.

39
 Fig. 10.1: Important Cities and Kingdoms

Chandragupta II:
· Chandragupta II is remembered for his patronage of art and literature. He is credited with
maintaining nine luminaries (navaratna) in his court. The great Sanskrit poet and playwright Kalidasa
was the most notable of them all. It was in Chandragupta's time that the Chinese pilgrim Fahien (399-
414) visited India and wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people.
· He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the Shakas.
· Vikram Samvat era beginning in the 58 BCE is traditionally associated with Gupta king, Chandragupta
II, who had founded it as a mark of victory over the Shakas and assumed the title of Vikramaditya.

Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita:

· Harshavardhana, who ruled nearly 1400 years ago, was one such ruler. His court poet, Banabhatta,
wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in Sanskrit. This gives us the genealogy of Harsha, and ends
with his becoming king.
· Xuan Zang also spent a lot of time at Harsha's court and left a detailed account of what he saw.
· Harsha was not the eldest son of his father, but became king of Thanesar after both his father and
elder brother died.
· His brother-in-law was the ruler of Kanauj and he was killed by the ruler of Bengal. Harsha took over
the kingdom of Kanauj, and then led an army against the ruler of Bengal.
· Although he was successful in the east, and conquered Magadha and probably Bengal also, he was
not as successful elsewhere. He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped
by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II.

40
 · Banabhatta, who adored his court wrote Harshacharita, Parvatiparinay and Kadambari. Harsha
himself wrote 3 plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.

The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin's prashasti:

· The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in south India during this period.
· The kingdom of the Pallavas spread from the region around their capital, Kanchipuram, to the Kaveri
delta, while that of the Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna
and Tungabhadra.
· Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading centre. It developed as a religious
centre, with a number of temples.
· The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another's lands, especially attacking the capital
cities, which were prosperous towns.
· The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We know about him from a prashasti, composed by
his court poet Ravikirti. This tells us about his ancestors, who are traced back through four
generations from father to son. Pulakeshin evidently got the kingdom from his uncle.
· According to Ravikirti, he led expeditions along both the west and the east coasts. Besides, he checked
the advance of Harsha.
· Pulakeshin also attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram. But the
Chalukya victory was short-lived. Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new
rulers belonging to the Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties.

Administration under these kingdoms:

· As in the case of earlier kings, land revenue remained important for these rulers, and the village
remained the basic unit of administration.
· There were some new developments as well. Kings adopted a number of steps to win the support of
men who were powerful, either economically, or socially, or because of their political and military
strength. For instance:
Ø Some important administrative posts were now hereditary. This means that sons succeeded
fathers to these posts. For example, the poet Harishena was a maha-danda-nayaka, or chief
judicial officer, like his father.
Ø Sometimes, one person held many offices. For instance, besides being a maha-danda-nayaka,
Harishena was a kumar-amatya, meaning an important minister, and a sandhi-vigrahika,
meaning a minister of war and peace.
Ø Besides, important men probably had a say in local administration. These included the
nagarashreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city, the sarthavaha or leader of the
merchant caravans, the prathama-kulika or the chief craftsman, and the head of the kayasthas or
scribes.

41
Army:
· Like earlier rulers, some of these kings maintained a well-organised army, with elephants, chariots,
cavalry and foot soldiers. Besides, there were military leaders who provided the king with troops
whenever he needed them.
· They were not paid regular salaries. Instead, some of them received grants of land. They collected
revenue from the land and used this to maintain soldiers and horses, and provide equipment for
warfare. These men were known as samantas. Whenever the ruler was weak, samantas tried to
become independent.
Assemblies in the southern kingdoms:
· The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention a number of local assemblies. These included the sabha,
which was an assembly of brahmin land owners. This assembly functioned through subcommittees,
which looked after irrigation, agricultural operations, making roads, local temples, etc.
· The ur was a village assembly found in areas where the land owners were not brahmins.
· And the nagaram was an organisation of merchants. It is likely that these assemblies were controlled
by rich and powerful landowners and merchants. Many of these local assemblies continued to function
for centuries.
Ordinary people in the kingdoms:
· Kalidasa is known for his plays depicting life in the king's court. An interesting feature about these
plays is that the king and most brahmins are shown as speaking Sanskrit, while women and men
other than the king and brahmins use Prakrit.
· His most famous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, is the story of the love between a king named
Dushyanta and a young woman named Shakuntala.
· The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noticed the plight of those who were treated as untouchables by the
high and mighty. They were expected to live on the outskirts of the city.
Ø He writes: “If such a man enters a town or a market place, he strikes a piece of wood, in order to keep
himself separate; people, hearing this sound, know what it means and avoid touching him or
brushing against him.”
· Banabhatta provides us with a vivid picture of the king's army on the move.

Interesting points
· Arab merchants and sailors played an important role in the sea trade between India and Europe.
Others who lived in Arabia were the Bedouins, pastoral tribes depending mainly on camels, hardy
animals that could survive in the desert.
· Islam: Around 1400 years ago, Prophet Muhammad introduced a new religion, Islam, in Arabia.
Like Christianity, Islam was a religion that laid stress on the equality and unity of all before Allah,
the one supreme god.
Ø Within a hundred years, Islam spread to north Africa, Spain, Iran and India. Arab sailors, who were
already familiar with the coastal settlements of the subcontinent, now brought the new religion
with them. Arabs soldiers conquered Sind (in present-day Pakistan) about 1300 years ago.

42
 BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS
11 AND BOOKS
Iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons. It is made of iron,
7.2. m high and weighs over 3 tonnes. It was made about 1500 years ago by Chandragupta-II, belonged
from Gupta dynasty.

Metallurgy:
· Ancient Indian metallurgists made major contributions to the metallurgical history of the world.
Archaeological excavations have shown that the Harappans were master craftsmen and had
knowledge of copper metallurgy.
· They even manufactured bronze by mixing copper and tin. While the Harappans belonged to the
Bronze Age, their successors belonged to the Iron Age.
· India produced highly advanced types of iron-forged iron, wrought iron and cast iron.

Stupas:
· The word stupa means a mound. There are several kinds of stupas, round and tall, big and small, which
have certain common features. Generally, there is a small box placed at the centre or heart of the
stupa.
· This may contain bodily remains such as teeth, bone or ashes of the Buddha or his followers, or
things they used, as well as precious stones, and coins.
· This box, known as a relic casket, covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was
added on top. And then, the dome like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs.
· Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa. This was surrounded with
railings. Entrance to the path was through gateways.
· Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark of devotion. Both railings and
gateways were often decorated with sculpture.
· Example- Amaravati and Sanchi

Fig. 11.1: Stupa

43
Hindu temples:
· Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built at this time. Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and
Durga were worshipped in these shrines.
· The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of
the chief deity was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered
worship to the deity.
· Often, as at Bhitargaon, a tower, known as the shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark
this out as a sacred place. Building shikharas required careful planning. Most temples also had a space
known as the mandapa. It was a hall where people could assemble.
· An early temple at Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh was built about 1500 years ago, and was made of
baked brick and stone
· Monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram- Each of these was carved out of a huge, single piece of stone
(that is why they are known as monoliths). While brick structures are built up by adding layers of bricks
from the bottom upwards, in this case the stone cutters had to work from top downwards.
· The Durga temple at Aihole, was built about 1400 years ago.

Ajanta caves:
· The finest examples of Buddhist art during Gupta period are the paintings of Ajanta caves. Depicting
the life of Buddha and the Jataka stories, these paintings with lustrous colors have not faded even
after fourteen centuries.
· The Ajanta Caves are approximately 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd
century BCE to about 480 CE in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state of India.

Silappadikaram:
· A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800
years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a
courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi.
· Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the
court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to death.
· Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice, and destroyed the entire city of
Madurai.

Manimekalai:
· Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This
describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

Meghaduta:
· The Meghaduta is the Kalidasa's best-known poem, in which a monsoon cloud is imagined to be a
messenger between lovers who are separated from one another.

44
Purana:
· Purana literally mean old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu,
Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped. Besides, there
are accounts about the creation of the world, and about kings.
· The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be heard by everybody,
including women and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited
in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them.

Mahabharata:
· The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins.
· This was a war to gain control of the throne of the Kurus, and their capital, Hastinapura. The story itself
was an old one, but was written down in the form in which we know it today, about 1500 years ago.
· Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been compiled by Vyasa. The Bhagavad
Gita, was also included in the Mahabharata.

Ramayana:
· The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted
by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back.
· He won and returned to Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, after his victory. Like the Mahabharata, this
was an old story that was now written down. Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit
Ramayana.

Writing books on Science:

· This was also the time when Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit
known as the Aryabhatiyam.
· He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it
seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as
well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle, which is nearly as accurate as
the formula we use today.
· Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya were some other mathematicians and
astronomers who made several discoveries.

Ayurveda:
· Ayurveda is a well-known system of health science that was developed in ancient India.
· The two famous practitioners of Ayurveda in ancient India were Charaka (1st-2nd centuries C.E.) and
Sushruta (c. 4th century C.E.) Charak Samhita, written by Charak is a remarkable book on medicine.
· In his treatise, Susruta Samhita, Sushruta speaks about elaborate surgical procedures.

45
 Interesting points
· Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays.
Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra,
which were written down around this time.
Ø Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places
such as Ajanta.
Ø The story of the monkey king is shown on a piece of sculpture found from a stupa at Bharhut in
central India.
· Symbol for zero: While numerals had been used earlier, mathematicians in India now invented a
special symbol for zero.
Ø This system of counting was adapted by the Arabs and then spread to Europe. It continues to be
in use throughout the world.
Ø The Romans used a system of counting without using zero.
· Paper was invented in China about 1900 years ago, by a man named Cai Lun. He beat plant fibres,
cloth, rope and the bark of trees, soaked these in water, and then pressed, drained and dried the pulp
to create paper. Even today, hand made paper is made through a similar process.
Ø The technique of making paper was a closely guarded secret for centuries. It reached Korea about
1400 years ago, and spread to Japan soon after. It was known in Baghdad about 1800 years ago.
From Baghdad it spread to Europe, Africa, and other parts of Asia including the subcontinent.

Important Dates from Ancient History

· The beginning of farming and herding at Mehrgarh dates to c. 6000 BC/ BCE
· The Harappan cities flourished between c. 2700 and 1900 BCE
· The Rigveda was composed between c. 1500 and 1000 BCE
· Mahajanapadas and cities developed in the Ganga valley and new ideas associated with the
Upanishads, Jainism and Buddhism emerged c. 500 BCE
· Alexander invaded the northwest c. 327-325 BCE
· Chandragupta Maurya became king c. 321 BCE
· Ashoka ruled between c. 272/268 to 231 BCE
· The composition of the Sangam texts, c. 300 BCE-300 CE
· The reign of Kanishka, c. 78-100 CE
· The establishment of the Gupta empire, c. 320 CE
· The compilation of the Jaina texts at the council at Valabhi, c. 512/521 CE
· The rule of Harshavardhana, 606-647 CE
· Xuan Zang comes to India, 630-643 CE.
· The rule of Pulakeshin II, 609-642 CE.

46
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
7th Standard
CONTENTS
Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years ........................................................................ 1 - 6

New Kings and Kingdoms ......................................................................................................... 7 - 14

The Delhi Sultans ...................................................................................................................... 15 - 23

The Mughal Empire ................................................................................................................... 24 - 31

Rulers and Buildings ................................................................................................................. 32 - 40

Towns, Traders and Crafts Persons ..................................................................................... 41 - 48

Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities ........................................................................ 49 - 55

Devotional Paths to the Divine .............................................................................................. 56 - 63

The Making of Regional Cultures ......................................................................................... 64 - 71

Eighteenth-Century Political Formations ........................................................................... 72 - 81

 TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A
1 THOUSAND YEARS
The period from roughly 700 to 1750 AD is known as “medieval” period in India. The archaeological and
literary sources of information help historians trace history.

Spread of peasant societies, the rise of regional and imperial state formations - sometimes at the cost of
pastoral and forest people, the development of Hinduism and Islam as major religions and the arrival of
European trading companies are key developments during this period.

Historians and their Sources:

· Historians use different types of sources to learn about the past depending upon the period of their
study and the nature of their investigation.

· The important sources of this period are Coins, Inscriptions, Architecture and Textual records.
Textual records include:
Ø Manuscripts: Manuscripts provide a lot of detailed information to historians but they are also
difficult to use because as scribes copied manuscripts, they also introduced small changes.
Ø Chronicles: The fourteenth-century chronicler Ziyauddin Barani wrote his first chronicle in 1356
and another version two years later.
Ø Cartography: It is the study and practice of making maps. Arab geographer Al-Idrisi in 1154 CE
created a map that provides detail of the Indian subcontinent.

· Historical records exist in a variety of languages which have changed considerably over the years.

· Medieval Persian, for example, is different from modern Persian. The difference is not just with regard
to grammar and vocabulary; the meanings of words also change over time.
Ø The term “Hindustan”, for example today used for “India”, the modern nation-state.
Ø Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler of thirteenth century, who wrote in Persian, used the term “Hindustan”
for the areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna.
Ø He used the term in a political sense for lands that were a part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultan.
The areas included in this term shifted with the extent of the Sultanate but the term never included
south India.
Ø In the early sixteenth century, Babur used Hindustan to describe the geography, the fauna and the
culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent.

New Social and Political Groups:

· Various developments occurred during the period between 700 and 1750 AD.
· Technological Developments:
Ø Use of Persian wheel (Araghatta) in irrigation, use of the spinning wheel in weaving, use of firearms
in combat and arrival of new foods and beverages in the subcontinent (e.g., potatoes, corn, chillies,
tea and coffee).

1
 Fig. 1.1: Persian wheel

· Period of great mobility:

Ø Groups of people travelled long distances in search of opportunity.
Ø Emergence of Rajputs:
o Rajputs, is a name derived from “Rajaputra”, the son of a ruler.
o Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries the term was applied more generally to a group of
warriors who claimed Kshatriya caste status.
o The term included not just rulers and chieftains but also soldiers and commanders who served in
the armies of different monarchs all over the subcontinent.
o A chivalric code of conduct – extreme valour and a great sense of loyalty – were the qualities
attributed to Rajputs by their poets and bards.
Ø Other groups of people such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a caste of scribes
and secretaries) also used the opportunities of the age to become politically important.
· Extension of agriculture:
Ø Throughout this period there was a gradual clearing of forests and the extension of agriculture.
Ø Changes in their habitat forced many forest-dwellers to migrate.
Ø Others started tilling the land and became peasants. These new peasant groups gradually began
to be influenced by regional markets, chieftains, priests, monasteries and temples.
· Emergence of Jatis:
Ø Peasants became part of large, complex societies, and were required to pay taxes and offer goods
and services to local lords.
Ø As a result, significant economic and social differences emerged amongst peasants. Some
possessed more productive land, others also kept cattle, and some combined artisanal work with
agricultural activity during the lean season.
Ø As society became more differentiated, people were grouped into jatis or sub-castes and ranked
on the basis of their backgrounds and their occupations.
Ø Ranks were not fixed permanently, and varied according to the power, influence and resources
controlled by members of the jati.
Ø The status of the same jati could vary from area to area.
Ø Jatis framed their own rules and regulations to manage the conduct of their members.

2
 Ø These regulations were enforced by an assembly of elders, described in some areas as the jati
panchayat.
Ø But jatis were also required to follow the rules of their villages.
Ø Several villages were governed by a chieftain. Together they were only one small unit of a state.

Region and Empire:

· Large states such as Cholas, Tughluqs or Mughals encompassed many regions during this period.
· By 700 many regions already possessed distinct geographical dimensions and their own language
and cultural characteristics.

Note:
In 1318 the poet Amir Khusrau noted that there was a different language in every region of this land:
· Sindhi, Lahori, Kashmiri (In North-west)
· Dvarsamudri (in southern Karnataka),
· Telangani (in Andhra Pradesh),
· Gujari (in Gujarat),
· Ma'bari (in Tamil Nadu),
· Gauri, (in Bengal)
· Awadhi (in eastern Uttar Pradesh)
· Hindawi (in the area around Delhi).
Amir Khusrau went on to explain that in contrast to these languages there was Sanskrit which did not
belong to any region. It was an old language and “common people do not know it, only the
Brahmanas do”

· They were also associated with specific ruling dynasties. There was considerable conflict between
these states.
· Occasionally dynasties like the Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs and Mughals were able to build an empire
that was pan-regional – spanning diverse regions. Not all these empires were equally stable or
successful.

About Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287):

· Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287) was the ruler of a vast empire that stretched
from Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west and included
all of south India (Dravida).
· People of different regions – Gauda, Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat –
apparently fled before his armies.

· When the Mughal Empire declined in the eighteenth century, it led to the re-emergence of regional
states.

3
 · But years of imperial, pan-regional rule had altered the character of the regions. This was apparent in
the emergence of many distinct and shared traditions: in the realms of governance, the management
of the economy, elite cultures, and language.
· The character of the different regions did not grow in isolation. These regions felt the impact of larger
pan-regional forces of integration without ever quite losing their distinctiveness.

Old and New Religions:

· Religion was often closely connected with the social and economic organisation of local communities.
As the social worlds of these groups altered so too did their beliefs.

· Changes occurred in Hinduism:

Ø worship of new deities
Ø the construction of temples by royalty
Ø Growing importance of Brahmanas: Their knowledge of Sanskrit texts earned the Brahmanas a lot
of respect in society. Their dominant position was consolidated by the support of their patrons –
new rulers searching for prestige.
Ø Emergence of the idea of bhakti: One of the major developments of this period was the emergence
of the idea of bhakti – of a loving, personal deity that devotees could reach without the aid of
priests or elaborate rituals.

· Emergence of Islam as a new Religion:

Ø Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the holy Quran to India in the seventh
century.
Ø Muslims regard the Quran as their holy book and accept the sovereignty of the one God, Allah,
whose love, mercy and bounty embrace all those who believe in Him, without regard to social
background.
Ø Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama – learned theologians and jurists.
Ø Sects of Muslims:
o Shia Muslims: Shia Muslims believed that the Prophet Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, was the
legitimate leader of the Muslim community.
o Sunni Muslims: Sunni Muslims accepted the authority of the early leaders (Khalifas) of the
community, and the succeeding Khalifas.
Ø Schools of law in Islam:
o Hanafi: Followers of Imam Abu Hanifa, the Hanafis see Quran, the Sunnah, the ijma
(consensus) and qiyas (deduction from analogy) as the sources of law. Hanafis are based mostly
in the Indian subcontinent, Iraq, Turkey and the western world.
o Shafi'I: The Shafis are the followers of Imam Shafi and give emphasis on ijma (consensus). The
Shafis are widely spread and form around 15 per cent of Muslims globally.

4
Interesting Points:
· Miniature paintings: Miniature paintings are made on a very small scale especially for books or albums.
Miniature paintings were sometimes used to illustrate the texts of manuscripts.
· Styles of Persian and Arabic handwriting
Ø Nastaliq: The nastaliq style is cursive and easy to read.

Fig 1.2: Nastaliq style

Ø Shikaste: Shikaste is denser and more difficult.

Fig 1.3: Shikaste style

5
Provinces of the Delhi Sultanate during Muhammad Tughluq's Reign:

Fig. 1.4: Provinces of the Delhi Sultanate during Muhammad Tughluq's reign

6
 NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS
2
Many new dynasties emerged after the seventh century. Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas
and Chahamanas (Chauhans) were the major ruling dynasties in different parts of the subcontinent
between the seventh and twelfth centuries.

Fig. 2.1: Major kingdoms (7th-12th centuries)

The Emergence of New Dynasties

Samantas emerging as Kings:
· By the seventh century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the
subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas.
· They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide
them with military support.
· As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-
mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on. Sometimes they asserted their
independence from their overlords.

Rashtrakutas:
· Rashtrakutas were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century,
Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord.
· He performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was
performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a
Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.

7
 · By use of Military powers:
Ø Men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms.
Ø For instance, the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were
Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing
kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.

Administration in the Kingdoms:

· Kings: Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king,
overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on.
· Subordinates: Kings often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants,
traders and Brahmanas.
· Army: close relatives of the king held important positions in the army. Positions were often
hereditary.
· Revenue resources and their uses:
Ø In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers – that is, peasants, cattle-
keepers, artisans – who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they
produced.
Ø Sometimes these were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land.
Revenue was also collected from traders.
Ø These resources were used to finance the king's establishment, as well as for the construction of
temples and forts.
Ø They were also used to fight wars, which were in turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth
in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes.
Ø The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and
positions were often hereditary.

Prashastis:
· Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict
themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example.
· These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration.
· Nagabhata prashasti, was written in Sanskrit and found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. Nagabhata,
was a Pratihara king.

Land Grants:
· Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which
were given to those who received the land.
· The ring holding the plates together is secured with the royal seal, to indicate that this is an authentic
document.

8
 Fig 2.2: Copper Plates

· Brahmanas can collect taxes from land received as grant under Chola Kingdom.

Warfare for Wealth:

· Kanauj “tripartite struggle”:
Ø The struggle for control over Kannuj among these three dynasties (Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta
and Pala dynasties) is known as the Tripartite struggle in Indian history.
Ø The reason for the origin of the tripartite struggle was the fertile Kaveri valley. As it was a very
fertile land ruler fought for centuries to get control over it so that they could have control over it and
get taxes from the peasants.
· Targeting temples:
Ø Rulers tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. So, when they
attacked one another's kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes
extremely rich.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni:

· Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan ruled from 997 to 1030, and extended control over parts
of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent.
· He raided the subcontinent almost every year – his targets were wealthy temples, including that of
Somnath, Gujarat (1025 AD).
· Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni.
· Sultan Mahmud was also interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and
entrusted a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent.
· This Arabic work, known as the Kitab ul-Hind, remains an important source for historians. He
consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account.

· Control over trade routes:

Ø Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
Ø They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were opposed by the
Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.

9
 Ø The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler
named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 (First Battle of Tarain) , but lost to him the very next year,
in 1192 (Second Battle of Tarain).

The Cholas
Vijayalaya:
· A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. They were subordinate
to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram.
· Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta
from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple
for goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
· The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and
power.
· The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom.

Rajaraja I:
· Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985 and expanded control over
most of these areas. He also reorganised the administration of the empire.

Rajendra I:
· Rajaraja's son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley (assumed the title of
'Gangaikonda' and it means one who has conquered places up to the Ganga river), Sri Lanka and
countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.

Fig 2.3: The Chola kingdom and its neighbours

10
Chola Architecture:
· The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are
architectural and sculptural marvels.
· Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centres
of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others.
· Temples were not only places of worship; they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as
well.

Chola crafts:
· Making of bronze images was the most distinctive craft of chola period. Chola bronze images are
considered amongst the finest in the world.
· While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well.

Fig 2.4: A Chola bronze sculpture

Agriculture during Chola Period:

· Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through new developments in
agriculture.
· River Kaveri branches off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These
channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the channels also
provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice.
· Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or
sixth century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation.
· Forests had to be cleared in some regions; land had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta region
embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to carry water to the
fields. In many areas two crops were grown in a year.

11
Irrigation system under Cholas:
· A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas, wells were dug. In other places huge
tanks were constructed to collect rainwater.
· Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, took an active interest in irrigation planning.

Sluice gate:
· A sluice gate is traditionally a wood or metal barrier which is commonly used to control water
levels and flow rates in rivers and canals.
· It regulated the outflow of water from a tank into the channels that irrigated the fields.

Fig 2.5: A ninth-century Sluicegate in Tamil Nadu

The Administration of the Chola Empire:

· Ur: Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation
agriculture.
· Nadu: Groups of peasants villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council and the nadu
performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
Ø Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under
the supervision of the central Chola government.
Ø The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving
three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of
the state at the centre.
· Brahmadeya: Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number of
Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India.
· Sabha: Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana
landholders.
Ø These assemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions,
often on the stone walls of temples.
Ø Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in
which the sabha was organised.
Ø The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc.
Ø Members of sabha were elected by lottery system.

12
Additional Information:
Uttaramerur inscription provides the details about members of Sabha. It lays down the conditions for
the members of sabha. For being member, a person should be:
· owners of land from which land revenue is collected.
· have their own homes.
· between 35 and 70 years of age.
· have knowledge of the Vedas.
· well-versed in administrative matters.
· Honest.
If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last three years, he cannot become a member
of another committee.
Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, and those of his relatives, cannot contest the
elections.

Types of land in Chola Kingdom:

· Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
· Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas.
· Shalabhoga: Land for the maintenance of a school.
· Devadana, tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.
· Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.

Taxes under Cholas Empire:

The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadu refer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of
taxes.
· Vetti: Taken not in cash but in the form of forced labour,
· Kadamai: Land revenue.
· Other taxes: There were also taxes on thatching the house, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a
cess on succession to family property, etc.

Interesting Points:
· Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion is depicted in Cave 15 of Ellora. It is a work of the Rashtrakuta
period.
· Rajatarangini: Kalhana's Rajatarangini is the oldest and fullest record of Kashmir history.
Ø Kalhana used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and
earlier histories, to write his account.
Ø Unlike the writers of prashastis, he was often critical about rulers and their policies.
Ø It is written in Sanskrit.
· Periyapuranam: Periyapuranam, is a twelfth century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives of
ordinary men and women.

13
 Ø It provides information about Pulaiyas (a name used for a social group considered “outcastes” by
Brahmanas and Vellalas).

· China under the Tang dynasty:

Ø In China, an empire was established under the Tang dynasty, which remained in power for about
300 years (from the seventh to the tenth centuries).
Ø Its capital, Xi'an, was one of the largest cities in the world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians,
Japanese and Koreans.
Ø The Tang Empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruited through an examination, which
was open to all who wished to appear for it. This system of selecting officials remained in place,
with some changes, till 1911.

14
 THE DELHI SULTANS
3
Delhi became an important city in the twelfth century. The transformation of Delhi into a capital that
controlled vast areas of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in the beginning
of the thirteenth century.
The Delhi Sultans built many cities in the area that we now know as Delhi.

Fig 3.1: Selected Sultanate cities of Delhi (13th-14th centuries)

The Rulers of Delhi:

· Rajput Dynasties: Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were
defeated in the middle of the twelfth century by the Chauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of
Ajmer.
Ø It was under the Tomaras and Chauhans that Delhi became an important commercial centre.
Ø Many rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several temples.
Ø Coins minted here, called dehliwal, had a wide circulation.

Timeline of Rajput Dynasties:

· Tomaras: Early twelfth century-1165 (Ananga Pala: 1130-1145)
· Chauhans: 1165-1192 (Prithviraj Chauhan: 1175-1192)

· Early Turkish Rulers/ Mamluk Dynasty/ Slave dynasty: In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish's daughter,
Raziyya, became Sultan.
Ø The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, recognised that she was more able and qualified than all
her brothers.
Ø But he was not comfortable at having a queen as ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at her attempts
to rule independently. She was removed from the throne in 1240.
Ø Minhaj-i Siraj thought that the queen's rule went against the ideal social order created by God, in
which women were supposed to be subordinate to men.
Ø On her inscriptions and coins, Raziyya mentioned that she was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish.

15
Other Prominent Female Rulers:
· Queen Rudramadevi: Rudramadevi (1262- 1289), was queen of the Kakatiya dynasty of
Warangal, part of modern Andhra Pradesh. Rudramadevi changed her name on her inscriptions
and pretended she was a man.
· Didda: Queen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980- 1003). Her title comes from “didi” or “elder sister”,
an obviously affectionate term given to a loved ruler by her subjects.

Ø Timeline of Early Turkish Rulers (1206-1290)

o Qutbuddin Aybak: 1206-1210
o Shamsuddin Iltutmish: 1210-1236
o Raziyya: 1236-1240
o Ghiyasuddin Balban: 1266-1287

· Khalji Dynasty:
Ø Timeline of Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
o Jalaluddin Khalji: 1290-1296
o Alauddin Khalji: 1296-1316

· Tughluq Dynasty:
Ø Timeline of Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1414)
o Ghiyasuddin Tughluq: 1320-1324
o Muhammad Tughluq: 1324-1351
o Firuz Shah Tughluq: 1351-1388

· Sayyid Dynasty:
Ø Timeline of Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
o Khizr Khan: 1414-1421

· Lodi Dynasty:
Ø Timeline of Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)
o Bahlul Lodi: 1451-1489

· After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.
· By then, Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire south India had independent
rulers who established flourishing states and prosperous capitals.
· This was also the period which saw the emergence of new ruling groups like the Afghans and the
Rajputs.
· Some of the states established in this period were small but powerful and extremely well administered.

16
Sher Shah Sur:
· Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) started his career as the manager of a small territory for his uncle in
Bihar and eventually challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun (1530-1540,
1555-1556).
· Sher Shah captured Delhi and established his own dynasty.
· Although the Sur dynasty ruled for only fifteen years (1540-1555), it introduced an
administration that borrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji and made them more efficient.
· Sher Shah's administration became the model followed by the great emperor Akbar (1556-
1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

Sources of Information about the Delhi Sultans:

The major source of information about Delhi Sultans are the coins, inscriptions architecture, etc.
Architecture: The Delhi Sultans built several mosques in cities all over the subcontinent. These
demonstrated their claims to be protectors of Islam and Muslims.
· Mosques also helped to create the sense of a community of believers who shared a belief system and
a code of conduct.
· It was necessary to reinforce this idea of a community because Muslims came from a variety of
backgrounds.
· Quwwat al-Islam mosque: This was the congregational mosque of the first city built by the Delhi
Sultans, described in the chronicles as Dehli-iKuhna (the old city).
Ø Quwwat al-Islam mosque and minaret built during the last decade of the twelfth century.
Ø The mosque was enlarged by Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji. The minar was built by two Sultans:
Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish.

Fig 3.2: Quwwat al-Islam mosque and minaret

Ø Begumpuri mosque, built in the reign of Muhammad Tughluq, was the main mosque of
Jahanpanah, the “Sanctuary of the World”, his new capital in Delhi.

17
 Fig 3.3: Begumpuri mosque

Ø Moth ki Masjid, built in the reign of Sikandar Lodi by his minister.

Ø Mosque of Jamali Kamali, built in the late 1520s.
Ø Iltutmish's tomb: The Mausoleum of Shams al-Din Iltutmish, is located in the northwest corner of
the Qutb complex next to Iltutmish's own extensions to the Qutb Mosque.

Fig 3.4: Iltutmish's tomb

Ø Ala'i Darwaza is the southern gateway of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Qutb complex,
Mehrauli, Delhi. Built by Sultan Alauddin Khalji in 1311 and made of red sandstone.

Fig 3.5: Ala'i Darwaza

Ø Firuz Shah Tughluq's tomb is located in Hauz Khas (New Delhi), close to the tank built by Alauddin
Khalji.

Fig 3.6: Firuz Shah Tughluq's Tomb

18
 · Tawarikh (Histories): Tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), were written in Persian, the language of
administration under the Delhi Sultans.
Ø The authors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages. They often wrote
their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards.
Ø These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birth right
and gender distinctions. Their ideas were not shared by everybody.

The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate:

· In the early thirteenth century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified
towns occupied by garrisons.
· The Sultans seldom controlled the hinterland of the cities and were therefore dependent upon trade,
tribute or plunder for supplies.
· Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sind from Delhi was extremely difficult. Rebellion,
war, even bad weather could snap fragile communication routes.
· Delhi's authority was also challenged by Mongol invasions from Afghanistan and by governors who
rebelled at any sign of the Sultan's weakness.
· The Sultanate barely survived these challenges. Its consolidation occurred during the reign of
Ghiyasuddin Balban and further expansion under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.

Fig 3.7: Major cities captured by Shamsuddin Iltutmish

· Campaigns along the “internal frontier”: The first set of campaigns along the “internal frontier” of the
Sultanate aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns.
Ø During these campaigns, forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter gatherers
and pastoralists expelled from their habitat.
Ø These lands were given to peasants and agriculture was encouraged. New fortresses, garrison
towns and towns were established to protect trade routes and to promote regional trade.

19
 · Campaigns along the “external frontier”: The second expansion occurred along the “external frontier”
of the Sultanate. Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji
and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq.
· In their campaigns, Sultanate armies captured elephants, horses and slaves and carried away
precious metals.

Fig. 3.8: Alauddin Khalji's campaign into South India

· By the end of Muhammad Tughluq's reign, 150 years after somewhat humble beginnings, the armies
of the Delhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of the subcontinent.
· They had defeated rival armies and seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry
and dispensed justice in its realm.

Administration and Consolidation under the Khaljis and Tughluqs:

The consolidation of a kingdom as vast as the Delhi Sultanate needed reliable governors and
administrators.
· Bandagan System: Rather than appointing aristocrats and landed chieftains as governors, the early
Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military service,
called bandagan in Persian.
Ø They were carefully trained to man some of the most important political offices in the kingdom.
Since they were totally dependent upon their master, the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.
Ø The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and also raised people of humble birth, who
were often their clients, to high political positions.
Ø They were appointed as generals and governors. However, this also introduced an element of
political instability.

20
 Ø Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and patrons, but not to their heirs. New Sultans had
their own servants. As a result, the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the old
and the new nobility.

· Iqta System: The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of
territories of varying sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or
muqti.
Ø The duty of the muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas.
Ø In exchange for their military services, the muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as
salary. They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.
Ø Control over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable and if they were assigned
iqtas for a short period of time before being shifted.
Ø These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and
Muhammad Tughluq.
Ø Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis.
Care was taken that the muqti collected only the taxes prescribed by the state and that he kept the
required number of soldiers.

· Assessment and collection of land revenue: As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities
under their control, they forced the landed chieftains – the samanta aristocrats – and rich landlords
to accept their authority.
Ø Under Alauddin Khalji, the state brought the assessment and collection of land revenue under its
own control. The rights of the local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled and they were also
forced to pay taxes.
Ø The Sultan's administrators measured the land and kept careful accounts. Some of the old
chieftains and landlords served the Sultanate as revenue collectors and assessors.
Ø There were three types of taxes:
o On cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 per cent of the peasant's produce,
o On cattle and
o On houses.

· Controlling distant provinces: Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the
Delhi Sultans. It was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal from Delhi and soon after
annexing southern India, the entire region became independent.
Ø Even in the Gangetic plain there were forested areas that Sultanate forces could not penetrate.
Local chieftains established their rule in these regions.
Ø Sometimes rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq could force their control in these
areas but only for a short duration.

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 · Genghis Khan Invasion and defence strategies: The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded
Transoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219 and the Delhi Sultanate faced their onslaught soon after.
Ø Mongol attacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and in the early
years of Muhammad Tughluq's rule.
Ø This forced the two rulers to mobilise a large standing army in Delhi which posed a huge
administrative challenge.

Alauddin Khalji Muhammad Tughluq

Delhi was attacked twice, in 1299- · The Sultanate was attacked in the early years of
1300 and 1302-1303. As a defensive Muhammad Tughluq's reign. The Mongol army was
measure, Alauddin Khalji raised a defeated. Muhammad Tughluq was confident about the
large standing army. strength of his army and his resources to plan an attack on
Transoxiana. He therefore raised a large standing army.

Alauddin constructed a new garrison · Rather than constructing a new garrison town, the oldest of
town named Siri for his soldiers. the four cities of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) was emptied of its
residents and the soldiers garrisoned there. The residents of
the old city were sent to the new capital of Daulatabad in
the south.

The soldiers had to be fed. This was · Produce from the same area was collected as tax to feed the
done through the produce collected army. But to meet the expense of maintaining such a large
as tax from lands between the Ganga number of soldiers, the Sultan levied additional taxes. This
and Yamuna. Tax was fixed at 50 per coincided with famine in the area.
cent of the peasant's yield.

The soldiers had to be paid. · Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cash salaries.
Alauddin chose to pay his soldiers · But instead of controlling prices, he used a “token”
salaries in cash rather than iqtas. currency, somewhat like present-day paper currency, but
· The soldiers would buy their made out of cheap metals, not gold and silver.
supplies from merchants in Delhi · People in the fourteenth century did not trust these coins.
and it was thus feared that They were very smart: they saved their gold and silver coins
merchants would raise their and paid all their taxes to the state with this token
prices. To stop this, Alauddin currency.
controlled the prices of goods in · This cheap currency could also be counterfeited easily.
Delhi.
· Prices were carefully surveyed by
officers, and merchants who did
not sell at the prescribed rates
were punished.

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 · Alauddin's administrative · Muhammad Tughluq's administrative measures were a
measures were quite successful failure.
and chroniclers praised his reign · His campaign into Kashmir was a disaster. He then gave up
for its cheap prices and efficient his plans to invade Transoxiana and disbanded his large
supplies of goods in the market. army.
· He successfully withstood the · Meanwhile, his administrative measures created
threat of Mongol invasions. complications. The shifting of people to Daulatabad was
resented.
· The raising of taxes and famine in the Ganga-Yamuna belt
led to widespread rebellion.
· And finally, the “token” currency had to be recalled.

· First time in the history of the Sultanate, a Delhi Sultan (Muhammad Tughluq) planned a campaign to
capture Mongol territory.
· Unlike Alauddin's defensive measures, Muhammad Tughluq's measures were conceived as a part of
a military offensive against the Mongols.

Interesting Points:
· “Three Orders”: The idea of the “Three Orders” was first formulated in France in the early eleventh
century. It divided society into three classes: those who prayed, those who fought, and those who
tilled the land.
Ø This division of society into “Three Orders” was supported by the Church to consolidate its
dominant role in society.
Ø This helped the emergence of a new warrior group called Knights. The Church patronised this
group and used them to propagate their idea of “Peace of God”.
Ø The attempt was to direct warriors away from conflict amongst themselves and sends them instead
on a campaign against the Muslims who had captured the city of Jerusalem. This led to a series of
campaigns called the Crusades.
Ø These campaigns in the service of God and the Church completely altered the status of Knights.
Originally, these Knights did not belong to the class of nobles. But by the end of the eleventh
century in France, and a century later in Germany, the humble origins of these warriors were
forgotten. By the twelfth century, nobles also wanted to be known as Knights.
· Ibn Battuta, was a fourteenth-century traveller from Morocco. He lived in royal court of Mohammad
Bin Tughlaq.
· Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar, a wine distiller, Firuz Hajjam, a barber, Manka
Tabbakh, a cook, and two gardeners, Ladha and Pira, to high administrative posts. Ziyauddin Barani, a
midfourteenth-century chronicler, reported their appointments as a sign of the Sultan's loss of
political judgement and his incapacity to rule.
· The circle of justice: Fakhr-i Mudabbir wrote in the thirteenth century: A king cannot survive without
soldiers. And soldiers cannot live without salaries. Salaries come from the revenue collected from
peasants. But peasants can pay revenue only when they are prosperous and happy. This happens
when the king promotes justice and honest governance.

23
 THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
4
Ruling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent with such a diversity of people and cultures was an
extremely difficult task for any ruler to accomplish in the Middle Ages. But Mughals created an empire.

From the later half of the sixteenth century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi, until the
seventeenth century when they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.

Mughals:
· The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers.
· From their mother's side, they were descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler who
ruled over parts of China and Central Asia.
· From their father's side, they were the successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and
modern-day Turkey.
· However, the Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol. This was because Genghis Khan's
memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people.
· It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors.
· The Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all because their great ancestor had
captured Delhi in 1398.
· They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each ruler getting a picture made of Timur and himself.

Mughal Emperors:
· Babur (1526-1530):
Ø Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526- 1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when
he was only 12 years old.
Ø He was forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of another Mongol group, the
Uzbegs. After years of wandering, he seized Kabul in 1504.
Ø In 1526, he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra.
(First Battle of Panipat)
Ø In 1527 he defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanua.
Ø In 1528 he defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi.
Ø He also established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

Additional Information:
· Cannons were an important addition in sixteenth-century warfare. Babur used them effectively
in the first battle of Panipat.
· Gun powder technology was brought to India for warfare in the 14th century.
· Fire arms were used for the first time in regions such as Gujarat, Malwa and Deccan, and were
used by Babur in early 16th century.

24
· Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556):
Ø Humayun divided his inheritance according to the will of his father. His brothers were each given a
province.
Ø The ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran weakened Humayun's cause against Afghan
competitors.
Ø Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), forcing him to flee to Iran.
Ø In Iran, Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died the
next year after an accident in his building.

· Akbar (1556-1605):
Ø Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor. His reign can be divided into three periods.
o (1) 1556-1570: Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan and other members of
his domestic staff. Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other Afghans,
against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of his
half-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor and in 1569
Ranthambhore was seized.
o (2) 1570-1585: Military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar,
Bengal and Orissa. These campaigns were complicated by the 1579-1580 revolt in support of
Mirza Hakim.
o (3) 1585-1605: Expansion of Akbar's empire. Campaigns were launched in the north-west.
Qandahar was seized from the Safavids, Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death
of Mirza Hakim. Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of
Ahmadnagar were annexed. In the last years of his reign Akbar was distracted by the rebellion of
Prince Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.

Fig 4.1: Military campaigns under Akbar and Aurangzeb

25
 · Jahangir (1605-1627):
Ø Military campaigns started by Akbar continued. The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh,
accepted Mughal service.
Ø Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.
Ø Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last years of his reign.
Ø The efforts of Nur Jahan, Jahangir's wife, to marginalise him were unsuccessful.

Nur Jahan's influence in Jahangir's court:

· Mehrunnisa married the Emperor Jahangir in 1611 and received the title Nur Jahan. She remained
extremely loyal and supportive to the monarch.
· As a mark of honour, Jahangir struck silver coins bearing his own titles on one side and on the
other the inscription “struck in the name of the Queen Begum, Nur Jahan”.

· Shah Jahan (1627-1658):

Ø Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jahan. The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi
rebelled and was defeated.
Ø Campaigns were launched against Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were defeated and Orchha seized.
Ø In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar
was lost to the Safavids.
Ø In 1632 Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.
Ø In 1657-1658, there was conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan's sons. Aurangzeb was
victorious and his three brothers, including Dara Shikoh, were killed.
Ø Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.

· Aurangzeb (1658-1707):
Ø In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s.
Ø Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful.
Ø Mughal intervention in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to
their rebellion.
Ø Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. But Aurangzeb insulted
Shivaji who escaped from Agra, declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns
against the Mughals.
Ø Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the Marathas and the Deccan
Sultanate. He finally fled to Safavid Iran.
Ø After Akbar's rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur was
annexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687.
Ø From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas who
started guerrilla warfare.

26
 Ø Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the north-
east of the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas.
Ø His death was followed by a succession conflict amongst his sons.

Mughal Traditions of Succession:

· The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited his
father's estate.
· Instead, they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division of
the inheritance amongst all the sons.

Mughal Relations with Other Rulers:

· Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against rulers who refused to accept their authority. But as the
Mughals became powerful, many other rulers also joined them voluntarily.
· The Rajputs are a good example of this. Many of them married their daughters into Mughal families
and received high positions.

Additional Information:
· The mother of Jahangir was a Kachhwaha princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Amber
(modern day Jaipur).
· The mother of Shah Jahan was a Rathor princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Marwar
(Jodhpur).

· But many resisted as well. The Sisodiya Rajputs of Mewar refused to accept Mughal authority for a
long time. Once defeated, however, they were honourably treated by the Mughals, given their lands
(watan) back as assignments (watan jagir).
· The careful balance between defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the Mughals to
extend their influence over many kings and chieftains. But it was difficult to keep this balance all the
time.

Mansabdars:
· As the empire expanded to encompass different regions the Mughals recruited diverse bodies of
people. From a small nucleus of Turkish nobles (Turanis) they expanded to include Iranians, Indian
Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other groups. Those who joined Mughal service were
enrolled as mansabdars.
· The term mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a
grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities.
· Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat. The higher the zat, the more
prestigious was the noble's position in court and the larger his salary.

27
 Ø Nobles with a zat of 5,000 were ranked higher than those of 1,000. In Akbar's reign there were 29
mansabdars with a rank of 5,000 zat; by Aurangzeb's reign the number of mansabdars had
increased to 79.
· The mansabdar's military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or
cavalrymen. The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their horses
branded and then received money to pay them as salary.

Jagirdars:
· Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs which were somewhat like
iqtas.
· But unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their jagirs. They only
had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them by their servants while
the mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country.
· In Akbar's reign these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues were roughly equal to the
salary of the mansabdar.
· By Aurangzeb's reign, this was no longer the case and the actual revenue collected was often less than
the granted sum.
· There was also a huge increase in the number of mansabdars, which meant a long wait before they
received a jagir. These and other factors created a shortage in the number of jagirs.
· As a result, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while they had a jagir.
Aurangzeb was unable to control these developments in the last years of his reign and the peasantry
therefore suffered tremendously.

Zamindars:
· The main source of income available to Mughal rulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry.
· In most places, peasants paid taxes through the rural elites, that is, the headman or the local chieftain.
The Mughals used one term – zamindars – to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local
headmen of villages or powerful chieftains.
· In some areas the zamindars exercised a great deal of power. The exploitation by Mughal
administrators could drive them to rebellion.
· Sometimes zamindars and peasants of the same caste allied in rebelling against Mughal authority.
These peasant revolts challenged the stability of the Mughal Empire from the end of the seventeenth
century.

Zabt System:
· Akbar's revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices and areas
cultivated for a 10-year period, 1570- 1580. On the basis of this data, tax was fixed on each crop in
cash.

28
 · Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual
crops. This revenue system was known as zabt.
· It was prevalent in those areas where Mughal administrators could survey the land and keep very
careful accounts. This was not possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.

Akbar's Policies:
· The broad features of administration were laid down by Akbar and were elaborately discussed by Abul
Fazl in his book, the Akbar Nama, in particular in its last volume, the Ain-i Akbari.

Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari:

· Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign. Abul
Fazl wrote a three-volume history of Akbar's reign, titled Akbar Nama.
· The first volume dealt with Akbar's ancestors and the second volume recorded the events of
Akbar's reign.
· The third volume is the Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar's administration, household, army, the
revenues and the geography of his empire. It also provides rich details about the traditions and
culture of the people living in India. The most interesting aspect about the Ain-i Akbari is its rich
statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.

· Administration Policies:
Ø Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided into provinces called subas, governed by a
subadar who carried out both political and military functions.
Ø Each province also had a financial officer or diwan.
Ø For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by other
officers such as the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and
charitable patronage (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander
(kotwal).

· Military Management:
Ø Akbar's nobles commanded large armies and had access to large amounts of revenue. While they
were loyal the empire functioned efficiently but by the end of the seventeenth century many nobles
had built independent networks of their own.
Ø Their loyalties to the empire were weakened by their own self-interest.

· Religious Policy:
Ø While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570s he started discussions on religion with the
ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians. These discussions
took place in the ibadat khana.

29
 Ø He was interested in the religion and social customs of different people. Akbar's interaction with
people of different faiths made him realise that religious scholars who emphasised ritual and dogma
were often bigots.
Ø Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst his subjects. This eventually led Akbar
to the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace”.

· Sulh-i kul:
Ø This idea of tolerance did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm.
Instead, it focused on a system of ethics – honesty, justice, peace – that was universally applicable.
Ø Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a vision of governance around this idea of sulh-i kul. This
principle of governance was followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well.

The Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century and After:

· The administrative and military efficiency of the Mughal Empire led to great economic and
commercial prosperity. International travellers described it as the fabled land of wealth.
· But these same visitors were also appalled at the state of poverty that existed side by side with the
greatest opulence. The inequalities were glaring.
· Documents from the twentieth year of Shah Jahan's reign inform us that the highest-ranking
mansabdars were only 445 in number out of a total of 8,000. This small number – a mere 5.6 per cent of
the total number of mansabdars – received 61.5 per cent of the total estimated revenue of the empire
as salaries for themselves and their troopers.
· The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of their income on salaries and goods.
This expenditure benefited the artisans and peasantry who supplied them with goods and produce.
But the scale of revenue collection left very little for investment in the hands of the primary producers
– the peasant and the artisan.
· The enormous wealth and resources commanded by the Mughal elite made them an extremely
powerful group of people in the late seventeenth century.
· As the authority of the Mughal emperor slowly declined, his servants emerged as powerful centres of
power in the regions. They constituted new dynasties and held command of provinces like Hyderabad
and Awadh.
· Although they continued to recognise the Mughal emperor in Delhi as their master, by the
eighteenth century the provinces of the empire had consolidated their independent political
identities.

30
 Interesting points
· Mughals Lineage: Timur- Miran Shah- Sultan Muhammad Mirza- Abu Said- Umar Shaikh –
Babur- Humayun- Akbar- Jahangir- Shah Jahan- Aurangzeb.
· Akbar commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian. A Maktab Khana or
translation bureau was also established at Fatehpur Sikri for this purpose.
Ø The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Lilavati and Yogavashisht were some of the notable Sanskrit
works that were taken up for translation.
Ø The Razmnamah, Persian translation of the Mahabharata contains lavish illustrations of the
events of Mahabharata.

· Sultan Suleyman (1520-1566): During his rule the Ottoman (Turkey) state expanded into
Europe, seizing Hungary and besieging Austria. His armies also seized Baghdad and Iraq. Much
of north Africa, all the way into Morocco, acknowledged Ottoman authority.
Ø Suleyman also reconstructed the Ottoman navy. Its domination over the eastern
Mediterranean brought the navy into competition with Spain. In the Arabian Sea it challenged
the Portuguese.
Ø The monarch was given the title of “al-Qanuni” (the “lawgiver”) because of the large number
of regulations (qanun) passed during his reign.
Ø These were aimed to standardise administrative procedures throughout the expanding
domains of the empire and specifically to protect the peasantry from forced labour and
extraordinary taxes.
Ø Later, in the seventeenth century, when public order declined in the Ottoman domains, the
reign of Suleyman Qanuni was remembered as a period of ideal governance.

· Akbar's contemporaries: Sultan Suleyman, Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603), Safavid ruler of

Iran, Shah Abbas (1588-1629), controversial Russian ruler, Czar Ivan IV Vasilyevich, also called
“Ivan the Terrible” (1530-1584).

31
 RULERS AND BUILDINGS
5
The creation of large empire by Mughals brought different regions under their rule helped in the cross-
fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.

As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth centuries there was also a
considerable sharing of ideas across regions: the traditions of one region were adopted by another.
Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries, kings and their officers built two kinds of structures:
Ø The first were forts, palaces, garden residences and tombs – safe, protected and grandiose places
of rest in this world and the next.
Ø The second were structures meant for public activity including temples, mosques, tanks, wells,
caravanserais and bazaars. Kings were expected to care for their subjects, and by making
structures for their use and comfort, rulers hoped to win their praise.

Construction activity was also carried out by others, including merchants. They built temples, mosques and
wells. However, domestic architecture – large mansions (havelis) of merchants – has survived only from
the eighteenth century.

Styles of architecture:
Monuments provide an insight into the technologies used for construction.
· “Trabeate” or “corbelled” style: Between the seventh and tenth centuries architects started adding
more rooms, doors and windows to buildings. Roofs, doors and windows were still made by placing a
horizontal beam across two vertical columns, a style of architecture called “trabeate” or “corbelled”.
Ø Between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, the trabeate style was used in the construction of
temples, mosques, tombs and in buildings attached to large stepped-wells (baolis).

Fig. 5.1: Corbelled technique

· “Arcuate” architectural form: The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was
sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was called “arcuate”.

32
 Fig. 5.2: A “true” arch

Ø Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction. This was very high-quality cement,
which, when mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. This made construction of large
structures easier and faster.

Religious Architecture:
· Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they were places of worship. They were
also meant to demonstrate the power, wealth and devotion of the patron.

Important Information:
Rajarajeshvara Temple:
· The Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had the tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time.
· It was built by King Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god, Rajarajeshvaram. Constructing it was
not easy because there were no cranes in those days and the 90 tonne stone for the top of the
shikhara was too heavy to lift manually.
· So, the architects built an inclined path to the top of the temple, placed the boulder on rollers and
rolled it all the way to the top. The path started more than 4 km away so that it would not be too
steep.
· This was dismantled after the temple was constructed. But the residents of the area remembered
the experience of the construction of the temple for a long time. Even now a village near the temple
is called Charupallam, the “Village of the Incline”.

Fig. 5.3: Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur

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Kandariya Mahadeva temple:
· The Kandariya Mahadeva temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by the king
Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty.
· The Khajuraho complex contained royal temples where commoners were not allowed entry. The
temples were decorated with elaborately carved sculptures.

Fig. 5.4: Kandariya Mahadeva temple

· The largest temples were all constructed by kings. The other, lesser deities in the temple were gods
and goddesses of the allies and subordinates of the ruler.
· The temple was a miniature model of the world ruled by the king and his allies. As they worshipped
their deities together in the royal temples, it seemed as if they brought the just rule of the gods on
earth.
· Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god but Persian court chronicles
described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”.
· An inscription in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque explained that God chose Alauddin as a king because
he had the qualities of Moses and Solomon, the great lawgivers of the past. The greatest lawgiver and
architect was God Himself. He created the world out of chaos and introduced order and symmetry.
· As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise their moral right to be rulers.
Constructing places of worship provided rulers with the chance to proclaim their close relationship
with God, especially important in an age of rapid political change.
· Rulers also offered patronage to the learned and pious, and tried to transform their capitals and cities
into great cultural centres that brought fame to their rule and their realm.
· Constructing water tanks and reservoirs: Making precious water available by constructing tanks and
reservoirs was highly praised. Sultan Iltutmish won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir
just outside Dehli-i-Kuhna. It was called the Hauz-i-Sultani or the “King's Reservoir”.

34
 Fig. 5.5: Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple)
with the holy sarovar (tank) in Amritsar

Targeting Temples:
· Because kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and their power and wealth, it is
not surprising that when they attacked one another's kingdoms they often targeted these buildings.
· In the political culture of the Middle Ages most rulers displayed their political might and military
success by attacking and looting the places of worship of defeated rulers.

Examples of Temple Targeting in History:

· Pandyan king Shrimara Shrivallabha: In the early ninth century, when the Pandyan king Shrimara
Shrivallabha invaded Sri Lanka and defeated the king, Sena I (831-851), the Buddhist monk and
chronicler Dhammakitti noted: he removed statue of the Buddha made entirely of gold.
· Sinhalese ruler, Sena II: Sinhalese ruler, Sena II, ordered his general to invade Madurai, the capital
of the Pandyas. The Buddhist chronicler noted that the expedition made a special effort to find
and restore the gold statue of the Buddha.
· Chola king Rajendra I: Similarly, in the early eleventh century, when the Chola king Rajendra I built
a Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prized statues seized from defeated rulers.
Ø An incomplete list included: A Sun-pedestal from the Chalukyas, a Ganesha statue and
several statues of Durga; a Nandi statue from the eastern Chalukyas; an image of Bhairava (a
form of Shiva) and Bhairavi from the Kalingas of Orissa; and a Kali statue from the Palas of
Bengal.
· Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni: Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a contemporary of Rajendra I. During
his campaigns in the sub-continent, he attacked the temples of defeated kings and looted their
wealth and idols.
Ø Sultan Mahmud was not a very important ruler at that time. But by destroying temples –
especially the one at Somnath – he tried to win credit as a great hero of Islam.

35
Chahar bagh Gardan Style:
· In his autobiography, Babur described his interest in planning and laying out formal gardens, placed
within rectangular walled enclosures and divided into four quarters by artificial channels.
· These gardens were called chahar bagh, four gardens, because of their symmetrical division into
quarters.

Fig. 5.6: The chahar bagh in Humayun's tomb, Delhi, 1562-1571

· Beginning with Akbar, some of the most beautiful chahar baghs were constructed by Jahangir and
Shah Jahan in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi.

Fig 5.7: Terraced chahar bagh at Shalimar gardens, Kashmir, 1620 and 1634

· In the early years of his reign, Shah Jahan's capital was at Agra, a city where the nobility had
constructed their homes on the banks of the river Yamuna. These were set in the midst of formal
gardens constructed in the chahar bagh format.
· The chahar bagh garden also had a variation that historians describe as the “riverfront garden”. In this
the dwelling was not located in the middle of the chahar bagh but at its edge, close to the bank of the
river.

Fig 5.8: The chahar bagh adapted as a river-front garden at Lal Mahal Bari, 1637

36
 · Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden in the layout of the Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural
accomplishment of his reign. Here the white marble mausoleum was placed on a terrace by the edge
of the river and the garden was to its south.

Fig 5.9: The Taj Mahal at Agra, completed in 1643

Tomb Architecture:
· There were several important architectural innovations during Akbar's reign. For inspiration, Akbar's
architects turned to the tombs of his Central Asian ancestor, Timur.
· Humayun's tomb: The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important
aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun's tomb.
Ø The tomb was placed in the centre of a huge formal chahar bagh and built in the tradition known as
“eight paradises” or hasht bihisht – a central hall surrounded by eight rooms. The building was
constructed with red sandstone, edged with white marble.

Fig 5.10: Tomb of Humayun

Fort Architecture:
· It was during Shah Jahan's reign that the different elements of Mughal architecture were fused
together in a grand harmonious synthesis. His reign witnessed a huge amount of construction activity
especially in Agra and Delhi.
· The connection between royal justice and the imperial court was emphasised by Shah Jahan in his
newly constructed court in the Red Fort at Delhi.

37
 · Behind the emperor's throne were a series of pietra dura inlays that depicted the legendary Greek god
Orpheus playing the lute. It was believed that Orpheus's music could calm ferocious beasts until they
coexisted together peaceably.

Pietra Dura:
· Pietra dura is a term for the inlay technique of using cut and fitted, highly polished colored
stones to create images. It is considered a decorative art.
· In Mughal India, this technique was known as Parchin Kari.

Fig. 5.11: Pietra Dura Art

· The construction of Shah Jahan's audience hall aimed to communicate that the king's justice would
treat the high and the low as equals creating a world where all could live together in harmony. The
ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i khas) were carefully planned. Placed within
a large courtyard, these courts were also described as chihil sutun or forty-pillared halls.
· Shah Jahan's audience halls were specially constructed to resemble a mosque. The pedestal on
which his throne was placed was frequently described as the qibla, the direction faced by Muslims at
prayer, since everybody faced that direction when court was in session.
· The idea of the king as a representative of God on Earth was suggested by these architectural
features.

Fig. 5.12: The throne balcony in the diwan-i am in Delhi, completed in 1648

38
Cross-fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles:
· As construction activity increased between the eighth and eighteenth centuries there was also a
considerable sharing of ideas across regions, the traditions of one region were adopted by another.
· In Vijayanagara, for example, the elephant stables of the rulers were strongly influenced by the style
of architecture found in the adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
· In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were constructed in architectural styles that were very similar to
the Mughal palaces in Fatehpur Sikri.
Ø Eg: Temple of Govind Deva in Vrindavan was constructed out of red sandstone. Intersecting
arches is used in this temple. It is style of architecture is from north-east Iran (Khurasan) and was
used in Fatehpur Sikri.
· The creation of large empires that brought different regions under their rule helped in this cross-
fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles.
· Mughal rulers were particularly skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the construction of
their own buildings.
· In Bengal, for example, the local rulers had developed a roof that was designed to resemble a thatched
hut. The Mughals liked this “Bangla dome” so much that they used it in their architecture.
· In Akbar's capital at Fatehpur Sikri many of the buildings show the influence of the architectural styles
of Gujarat and Malwa. E.g. Jodh Bai palace in Fatehpur Sikri.

Interesting points
· Gothic architectural style: It was distinguished by high pointed arches, the use of stained glass,
often painted with scenes drawn from the Bible, and flying buttresses. Tall spires and bell towers
which were visible from a distance were added to the church.
Ø One of the best-known examples of this architectural style is the church of Notre Dame in
Paris, which was constructed through several decades in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

Fig. 5.13: church of Notre Dame in Paris

39
· The Persian terms abad, populated, prosperous, and abadi, flourishing, are both derived from the
word ab, meaning water.
· The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan's chronicler declared that the ruler was the “architect of the
workshop of empire and religion”.
· Raniji ki baori: Raniji ki baori or the 'Queen's Stepwell', located in Bundi in Rajasthan is the largest
among the fifty step wells that were built to meet the need for water. Known for its architectural
beauty, the baori was constructed in 1699 C.E. by Rani Nathavat Ji, the queen of Raja Anirudh
Singh of Bundi.
· Built by Akbar, the Agra Fort required 2,000 stone cutters, 2,000 cement and lime-makers and
8,000 labourers.
· Qutb Minar: The Qutb Minar is five storeys high. The first floor was constructed by Qutbuddin
Aybak and the rest by Iltutmish around 1229. Over the years it was damaged by lightning and
earthquakes and repaired by Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughluq, Firuz Shah Tughluq and
Ibrahim Lodi.

40
 TOWNS, TRADERS
6 AND CRAFTS PERSONS
Medieval towns, on the basis of their functions, can be categorised into three general forms of towns -
administrative centres, temple towns, as well as centres of commercial activities and craft production.

Administrative Centres:
· In Administrative Centres, there are palaces with mandapas or pavilions from where the Kings hold
court in these mandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates.
· Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas was one such town. The perennial river Kaveri flows near this
town.
· There were also barracks for the army. Water supply for the town comes from wells and tanks.
· Architecture: Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajaraja Chola is situated in this town.
Ø The architect of this temple was Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan who has proudly carved
his name on the temple wall. A massive Shiva linga is located inside it.
· Economic Activities: The town is bustling with markets selling grain, spices, cloth and jewellery.
Ø Svamimalai is the famous place for the sthapatis or sculptors, who involve in the making exquisite
bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps.
Ø The Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and the nearby town of Uraiyur are busy producing cloth for flags
to be used in the temple festival, fine cottons for the king and nobility and coarse cotton for the
masses.

Fig. 6.1: Some important centres of trade and artisanal production in Central and South India

41
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres:
· Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop.
· Thanjavur is also an example of a temple town.

· Importance of Temples: Temples were often central to the economy and society.
Ø Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities.
Ø They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed
pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals.
Ø Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations.
Ø Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking.
Ø Gradually a large number of priests, workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple to cater
to its needs and those of the pilgrims. Thus grew temple towns.

· Examples of Temple towns:

Ø Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa or Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh),
Ø Somnath in Gujarat.
Ø Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu
Ø Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.

· Pilgrimage Centres: Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships.

· Examples of Pilgrimage Centres:

Ø Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh)
Ø Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu)
Ø Ajmer (Rajasthan): It was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the twelfth century and later became
the suba headquarters under the Mughals.
o It provides an excellent example of religious coexistence.
o Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, the celebrated Sufi saint who settled there in the twelfth century,
attracted devotees from all creeds.
o Near Ajmer is a lake, Pushkar, which has attracted pilgrims from ancient times.

A Network of Small Towns:

· From the eighth century onwards, large villages in the subcontinent are transformed into small
towns.
· They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) to which nearby villagers brought their
produce to sell.
· They also had market streets called hatta (haat of later times) lined with shops.
· There were streets for different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy
makers, smiths, stonemasons, etc.

42
 · Many traders came to towns to buy local articles and sell products of distant places like horses, salt,
camphor, saffron, betel nut and spices like pepper.
· Usually a samanta/zamindar built a fortified palace in or near these towns.
· They levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade and sometimes “donated” the “right” to
collect these taxes to local temples, which had been built by themselves or by rich merchants.
· These “rights” were recorded in inscriptions.
· A tenth-century inscription from Rajasthan recorded the details of dues that were to be collected by
temple authorities. Some of these taxes were collected in kind, while others were collected in cash.

Big and Small Traders:

Banjaras are one among the trader communities in medieval period.
Guilds: Several traders, especially horse traders, formed associations, with headmen who negotiated on
their behalf with warriors who bought horses.
· Since traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests, they usually travelled in caravans and
formed guilds to protect their interests.

· There were several such guilds in south India from the eighth century onwards – the most famous
being the Manigramam and Nanadesi.

· These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.

· Trading Communities and traded items:

Ø There were also communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal were the principal trading
groups of the country.
Ø Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded
extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China.
o They sold textiles and spices in these ports and, in exchange, brought gold and ivory from
Africa; and spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver from Southeast Asia and China.
Ø The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish and Syrian Christian
traders. Indian spices and cloth sold in the Red Sea ports were purchased by Italian traders and
eventually reached European markets, fetching very high profits.
Ø Spices grown in tropical climates (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried ginger, etc.) became an
important part of European cooking, and cotton cloth was very attractive.
Ø This eventually drew European traders to India.

Crafts in Towns:
· Bidri inlay work: The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper and silver that
it came to be called Bidri.

43
 Fig. 6.2: A seventeenth century
candlestand; brass with black overlay

· The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths,

masons and carpenters, were essential to the building of temples.
· They also played an important role in the construction of palaces, big buildings, tanks and reservoirs.
· Similarly, weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities, making
donations to temples.
· Some aspects of cloth making like cotton cleaning, spinning and dyeing became specialised and
independent crafts.

The Architectural Splendour of Hampi:

Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire,
founded in 1336.
· Characteristics of Architecture in Hampi: The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city.
Ø No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these walls and the technique
followed was to wedge them together by interlocking.
· Royal Architecture: The buildings in the royal complex had splendid arches, domes and pillared halls
with niches for holding sculptures.
Ø They also had well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as the
lotus and corbels.
· Temple architecture of Hampi: Temples were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple
dancers) performed before the deity, royalty and masses in the many-pillared halls in the Virupaksha
(a form of Shiva) temple.

Fig. 6.3: Stone chariot, Vitthala temple, Hampi.

44
 Ø Mahanavami Dibba: The Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south, was one of
the most important festivals celebrated at Hampi.
o Archaeologists have found the Mahanavami platform where the king received guests and
accepted tribute from subordinate chiefs.
o From here he also watched dance and music performances as well as wrestling bouts.

· Trade in Hampi: In the fifteenth sixteenth centuries, Hampi was major centre of commercial and
cultural activities.
Ø Muslim merchants, Chettis and agents of European traders such as the Portuguese, thronged the
markets of Hampi.

· Fall of Hampi: Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani
Sultans – the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Bidar.

Surat:
· Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period along with Cambay
(Khambat) and somewhat later, Ahmedabad.
· Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz.
· Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim ships set sail from here.
· The city was cosmopolitan and people of all castes and creeds lived there.
· In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at
Surat.
· The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people from all over the world who
came to the city. There were magnificent buildings and innumerable pleasure parks.
· According to the English chronicler Ovington who wrote an account of the port in 1689, on average a
hundred ships of different countries could be found anchored at the port at any given time.
· Textiles of Surat: There were also several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles.
Ø The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders (zari) and had a market in West Asia,
Africa and Europe.
· Banking system in Surat: The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) had huge banking
houses at Surat.
Ø The Surat hundis (Bills of Exchange) were honoured in the far-off markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra
in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.
· Reasons of decline of importance of Surat began towards the end of the seventeenth century:
Ø the loss of markets and productivity because of the decline of the Mughal Empire,
Ø Control of the sea routes by the Portuguese
Ø Competition from Bombay (Mumbai) where the English East India Company shifted its
headquarters in 1668.

45
Masulipatnam:
The town of Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam (fish port town) lay on the delta of the Krishna river. In the
seventeenth century it was a centre of intense activity.
· Trade competition in Masulipatnam: Fierce competition among various trading groups – the
Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders – made the city
populous and prosperous.
Ø Both the Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to control Masulipatnam as it became
the most important port on the Andhra coast.
Ø The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch.
Ø The Qutub Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices and
other items to prevent the trade passing completely into the hands of the various East India
Companies.
Ø As the Mughals began to extend their power to Golconda their representative, the governor Mir
Jumla who was also a merchant, began to play off the Dutch and the English against each other.

Reasons to decline the importance of Masulipatnam:

· Annexation of Golconda by Aurangzeb: In 1686-1687 Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb annexed
Golconda. This caused the European Companies to look for alternatives.
· New policy of the English East India Company: It was a part of the new policy of the English East India
Company that it was not enough if a port had connections with the production centres of the
hinterland.
Ø The new Company trade centres, it was felt, should combine political, administrative and
commercial roles.
· Emergence of new trade towns: As the Company traders moved to Bombay, Calcutta (Kolkata) and
Madras (Chennai), Masulipatnam lost both its merchants and prosperity and declined in the course of
the eighteenth century.

New Towns and Traders:

· In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, European countries were searching for spices and
textiles, which had become popular both in Europe and West Asia.
· The English, Dutch and French formed East India Companies in order to expand their commercial
activities in the East.

The following were the key developments:

· Naval Supremacy of European Companies: Initially great Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and
Virji Vora who owned a large number of ships competed with them.
Ø The European Companies used their naval power to gain control of the sea trade and forced Indian
traders to work as their agents.

46
 Ø Ultimately, the English emerged as the most successful commercial and political power in the
subcontinent.
· Emergence of Textile Industries: The spurt in demand for goods like textiles led to a great expansion
of the crafts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, etc. with more and more people taking them up.
Ø Indian textile designs became increasingly refined.
· Decline of the independence of craftspersons: this period also saw the decline of the independence
of craftspersons.
Ø They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that they had to weave cloth which
was already promised to European agents.
Ø Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving their own patterns.
Ø They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the Company agents.
· Rise of New cities: The eighteenth century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, which are
nodal cities today.
· Concept of Black Towns: Crafts and commerce underwent major changes as merchants and artisans
(such as weavers) were moved into the Black Towns established by the European companies within
these new cities.
Ø The “blacks” or native traders and craftspersons were confined here while the “white” rulers
occupied the superior residencies of Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.

Interesting points

· Vasco da Gama: Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sailor, sailed down the African Coast, went round
the Cape of Good Hope and crossed over to the Indian Ocean.
Ø His first journey took more than a year; he reached Calicut in 1498, and returned to Lisbon, the
capital of Portugal, the following year.
Ø He lost two of his four ships, and of the 170 men at the start of the journey, only 54 survived.
Ø He was followed by English, Dutch and French sailors.
· Christopher Columbus: On the assumption that the Earth was round, Christopher Columbus, an
Italian, decided to sail westwards across the Atlantic Ocean to find a route to India.
Ø He landed in the West Indies (which got their name because of this confusion) in 1492.
Ø He was followed by sailors and conquerors from Spain and Portugal, who occupied large parts
of Central and South America, often destroying earlier settlements in the area.
· “Lost wax” technique:
Ø Bronze is an alloy containing copper and tin. Bell metal contains a greater proportion of tin
than other kinds of bronze. This produces a bell-like sound.
Ø Chola bronze statues were made using the “lost wax” technique.
Ø Steps of Making Bronze statues by using “lost wax” technique:
o First, an image was made of wax. This was covered with clay and allowed to dry.

47
 o Next it was heated, and a tiny hole was made in the clay cover. The molten wax was drained
out through this hole.
o Then molten metal was poured into the clay mould through the hole.
o Once the metal cooled and solidified, the clay cover was carefully removed, and the image
was cleaned and polished.
· Kabul:
Ø Kabul (Afghanistan) became politically and commercially important from the sixteenth
century onwards.
Ø Kabul and Qandahar were linked to the celebrated Silk Route.
Ø Trade in horses was primarily carried on through this route.
Ø In the seventeenth century Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a diamond merchant, estimated that the
horse trade at Kabul amounted to Rs 30,000 annually, which was a huge sum in those days.
Ø Camels carried dried fruits, dates, carpets, silks and even fresh fruits from Kabul to the
subcontinent and elsewhere.
Ø Slaves were also brought here for sale.
· The changing fortunes of towns: Some towns like Ahmedabad (Gujarat) went on to become
major commercial cities but others like Thanjavur shrank in size and importance over the centuries.
Ø Murshidabad (West Bengal) on the banks of the Bhagirathi, which rose to prominence as a
centre for silks and became the capital of Bengal in 1704.
o It declined in the course of the century as the weavers faced competition from cheap mill-
made cloth from England.
· Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes visited Hampi in the sixteenth century:
· Tanks and canals construction during Vijaynagara rule: During their rule, the Vijaynagara rulers
took keen interest in building tanks and canals.
Ø The Anantraj Sagar Tank was built with a 1.37 km. long earthern dam across the Maldevi river.
Ø Krishnadeva Raya built a huge stone embankment between two hills to create a massive lake
near Vijayanagara, from which water was carried through aqueducts and channels to irrigate
fields and gardens.
· Hundi is a note recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in
another place by presenting the record of the deposit.
· An English Man, William Methwold, visited the Masulipatnam.

48
 TRIBES, NOMADS
7 AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES
In large parts of the subcontinent, society was already divided according to the rules of varna. These rules,
as prescribed by the Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms.

The difference between the high and low, and between the rich and poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans
and the Mughals, this hierarchy between social classes grew further.
· Varna-based society and tribal people constantly interacted with each other. This interaction caused
both kinds of societies to adapt and change.
· There were many different tribes and they took up diverse livelihoods. Over a period of time, many of
them merged with caste-based society.
· Others, however, rejected both the caste system and orthodox Hinduism.
· Some tribes established extensive states with well-organised systems of administration. They thus
became politically powerful.
· This brought them into conflict with larger and more complex kingdoms and empires.

Tribal Societies:
· Tribes did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas. Nor were they divided
into numerous unequal classes.
· Members of each tribe were united by kinship bonds.
· Many tribes obtained their livelihood from agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders.
They make full use of the natural resources of the area in which they lived.
· Some tribes were nomadic and moved from one place to another.
· A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly, and divided these amongst households according
to its own rules.
· They usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach.
· Sometimes they clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies.
· In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and preserved their separate culture.
· But the caste-based and tribal societies also depended on each other for their diverse needs. This
relationship, of conflict and dependence, gradually caused both societies to change.
· Tribal people did not keep written records. But they preserved rich customs and oral traditions.
These were passed down to each new generation.

Some of the major Indian tribes:

· Khokhar and Gakkhars: In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential during the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more important.
Ø Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was made a noble (mansabdar) by Emperor Akbar.
· Langahs and Arghuns: In Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated extensive regions
before they were subdued by the Mughals.
· Balochis: The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe in the north-west. They were divided
into many smaller clans under different chiefs.

49
· Gaddis: In the western Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis.
· Nagas and Ahoms: The distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was entirely dominated by
tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.
· Chero: In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand, Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the
twelfth century.
Ø Raja Man Singh, Akbar's famous general, attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591.
Ø A large amount of booty was taken from them, but they were not entirely subdued.
Ø Under Aurangzeb, Mughal forces captured many Chero fortresses and subjugated the tribe.
· Mundas and Santals: The Mundas and Santals were lived in areas of present-day Bihar and
Jharkhand and also in Orissa and Bengal.
· Kolis and Berads: The Maharashtra highlands and Karnataka were home to Kolis, Berads and
numerous others. Kolis also lived in many areas of Gujarat.
· Koragas, Vetars and Maravars: Further South, there were large tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars,
Maravars and many others.
· Bhils: The large tribe of Bhils was spread across western and central India.
Ø By the late sixteenth century, many of them had become settled agriculturists and some even
zamindars. Many Bhil clans, nevertheless, remained hunter - gatherers.
· Gonds: The Gonds were found in great numbers across the present-day states of Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

Fig. 7.1: Location of some of the major Indian tribes

50
Nomads:
· Nomadic pastoralists moved over long distances with their animals.
· Nomads are wandering people. Many of them are pastoralists who roam from one pasture to another
with their flocks and herds.
· Similarly, itinerant groups, such as craftspersons, pedlars and entertainers travel from place to place
practising their different occupations.
· Both nomads and itinerant groups often visit the same places every year.
· They lived on milk and other pastoral products. They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled
agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.
· They bought and sold these goods as they moved from one place to another, transporting them on
their animals.
· Banjaras: The Banjaras were the most important trader nomads.
Ø Their caravan was called tanda.
Ø Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets.
Ø Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grain on their bullocks from
different areas and sold it in towns.
Ø They transported food grain for the Mughal army during military campaigns. With a large army
there could be 100,000 bullocks carrying grain.
· Pastoral tribes: Many pastoral tribes reared and sold animals, such as cattle and horses, to the
prosperous people.
· Petty pedlars: Different castes of petty pedlars also travelled from village to village. They made and
sold wares such as ropes, reeds, straw matting and coarse sacks.
· Mendicants: Sometimes mendicants acted as wandering merchants. There were castes of
entertainers who performed in different towns and villages for their livelihood.

New Castes and Hierarchies:

As the economy and the needs of society grew, people with new skills were required.
· Emergence of new jatis: Smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varnas.
Ø For example, new castes appeared amongst the Brahmanas. On the other hand, many tribes and
social groups were taken into caste-based society and given the status of jatis.
· Emergence of Specialised artisans as separate Jati: Specialised artisans – smiths, carpenters and
masons – were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas.
Ø Jatis, rather than varna, became the basis for organising society.
· Emergence of Rajputs: Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the eleventh
and twelfth centuries.
Ø They belonged to different lineages, such as Hunas, Chandelas, Chalukyas and others. Some of
these, too, had been tribes earlier.
Ø Many of these clans came to be regarded as Rajputs. They gradually replaced the older rulers,
especially in agricultural areas.

51
 Ø The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set an example for the tribal people to follow.
· Gradually, with the support of the Brahmanas, many tribes became part of the caste system. But only
the leading tribal families could join the ruling class. A large majority joined the lower jatis of caste
society.
· Emergence of Islam and Change in Caste system: Many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and the
North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early.
Ø They continued to reject the caste system. The unequal social order, prescribed by orthodox
Hinduism, was not widely accepted in these areas.
· The emergence of states is closely related to social change amongst tribal people.

The Gonds:
· The Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”.

Fig. 7.2: Gondwana

· They practised shifting cultivation.

· The large Gond tribe was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan had its own raja or rai.
· About the time that the power of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond kingdoms were
beginning to dominate the smaller Gond chiefs.
· Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga:
Ø The Akbar Nama, a history of Akbar's reign, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga that
had 70,000 villages.
Ø The administrative system of these kingdoms was becoming centralised.

52
 Ø The kingdom was divided into garhs. Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clan.
Ø This was further divided into units of 84 villages called chaurasi.
Ø The chaurasi was subdivided into barhots which were made up of 12 villages each.
Ø The emergence of large states changed the nature of Gond society.
· Society of Gonds: Their basically equal society gradually got divided into unequal social classes.
Ø Brahmanas received land grants from the Gond rajas and became more influential.
· Status upliftment: The Gond chiefs now wished to be recognised as Rajputs.
· Aman Das, the Gond raja of Garha Katanga, assumed the title of Sangram Shah.
· His son, Dalpat, married princess Durgawati, the daughter of Salbahan, the Chandel Rajput raja of
Mahoba. Dalpat, however, died early.
· Rani Durgawati: Rani Durgawati was very capable and started ruling on behalf of her five-year-old
son, Bir Narain.
Ø Under her, the kingdom became even more extensive. In 1565, the Mughal forces under Asaf Khan
attacked Garha Katanga.
Ø A strong resistance was put up by Rani Durgawati. She was defeated and preferred to die rather
than surrender. Her son, too, died fighting soon after.

The Ahoms:
· The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth
century.
· They created a new state by suppressing the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
· During the sixteenth century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas (1523) and of Koch-Hajo
(1581) and subjugated many other tribes.
· The Ahoms built a large state, and for this they used firearms as early as the 1530s.
· By the 1660s they could even make high quality gunpowder and cannons.
· However, the Ahoms faced many invasions from the south-west.
· In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom. Despite their brave defence, the
Ahoms were defeated. But direct Mughal control over the region could not last long.
· Paiks system: The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Those forced to work for the state were
called paiks.
Ø A census of the population was taken. Each village had to send a number of paiks by rotation.
· People from heavily populated areas were shifted to less populated places. Ahom clans were thus
broken up.
· By the first half of the seventeenth century the administration became quite centralised.
· Almost all adult males served in the army during war. At other times, they were engaged in building
dams, irrigation systems and other public works.
· The Ahoms also introduced new methods of rice cultivation.
· Ahom society: Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. There were very few castes of artisans,
so artisans in the Ahom areas came from the adjoining kingdoms.

53
 Ø A khel often controlled several villages. The peasant was given land by his village community.
Ø Even the king could not take it away without the community's consent.
Ø Ahom society was very sophisticated. Poets and scholars were given land grants.
· Theatre was encouraged.
· Important works of Sanskrit were translated into the local language.
· Historical works, known as buranjis, were also written – first in the Ahom language and then in
Assamese.
· Religious beliefs: Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods.
Ø During the first half of the seventeenth century, however, the influence of Brahmanas increased.
Ø Temples and Brahmanas were granted land by the king.
Ø In the reign of Sib Singh (1714-1744), Hinduism became the predominant religion.
Ø But the Ahom kings did not completely give up their traditional beliefs after adopting Hinduism.

Fig. 7.3: Tribes of eastern India.

54
 Interesting points
· A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor. Tribal
organisation is often based on kinship or clan loyalties.
· Peter Mundy, an English trader who came to India during the early seventeenth century, has
described the Banjaras.
· Rathakaras: A twelfth-century inscription from Uyyakondan Udaiyar, in Tiruchirapalli taluka (in
present-day Tamil Nadu), describes the deliberations in a sabha of Brahmanas.
Ø They deliberated on the status of a group known as rathakaras (literally, chariot makers).
Ø They laid down their occupations, which were to include architecture, building coaches and
chariots, erecting gateways for temples with images in them, preparing wooden equipment
used to perform sacrifices, building mandapas, making jewels for the king.
· Shifting cultivation: Shifting cultivation is slash and burn type of agriculture system. In this type
of cultivation, Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and burnt.
Ø The crop is sown in the ashes. When this land loses its fertility, another plot of land is cleared
and planted in the same way.

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 DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO
8 THE DIVINE
Intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements that have
evolved since the eighth century.

The Idea of a Supreme God:

Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. As
people were brought together through the growth of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop.
· Idea of good and bad deeds: The idea that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and
rebirth performing good deeds and bad came to be widely accepted.
· Idea of social privileges: The idea that all human beings are not equal even at birth gained ground
during this period. The belief that social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or a “high” caste
was the subject of many learned texts.
· Ideas from teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas: According to the teachings of the Buddha or the
Jainas, it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth through personal
effort.
· Idea of Supreme God: According to idea of a Supreme God, devotion (or bhakti) can liberate the
humans from the bondage of cycle of rebirth. This idea, advocated in the Bhagavadgita, grew in
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.

· Key features developed under this idea:

Ø Emergence of Shiva, Vishnu and Durga as supreme deities.
Ø Local myths and legends became a part of the Puranic stories.
Ø Methods of worship recommended in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.
Ø Devotees can receive the grace of God regardless of their caste status.
Ø Popularization of the idea of bhakti.

Nayanars and Alvars:

· The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars
(saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).
· They came from all castes including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
· They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu
as the path to salvation.
· They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the earliest example
of Tamil literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended them with
the values of bhakti.
· The Nayanars and Alvars went from place-to-place composing exquisite poems in praise of the
deities enshrined in the villages they visited and set them to music.

56
Nayanars:
· There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds such as potters,
“untouchable” workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs.
· The best known among them were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar.
· There are two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.

Alvars:
· There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally divergent backgrounds, the best known being
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar.
· Their songs were compiled in the Divya Prabandham.

· Between the tenth and twelfth centuries the Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around
many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition
and temple worship.
· Hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed. Today we
use these texts as sources for writing histories of the bhakti tradition.

Concept of Advaita:
· Shankara, one of the most influential philosophers of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century.
· He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme
God which is the Ultimate Reality.
· He taught that Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes.
· He considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world
and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman and attain
salvation.

Doctrine of Vishishtadvaita:
· Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.
· According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the bliss of union with Him.
· He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when
united with the Supreme God remained distinct.
· Ramanuja's doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in north India
subsequently.

Basavanna's Virashaivism:
· Virashaiva movement was initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and
Akkamahadevi.
· This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.

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 · The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas
about caste and the treatment of women.
· They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
· Basavanna's teachings are compiled into vachanas.

Cult of Vitthala:
· From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets,
whose songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people.
· The Vaishnava poet-saints of Maharashtra such as Jnaneshwar, Namadeva, Eknath and Tukaram as
well as women like Sakhubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable”
Mahar caste were devotees of lord Vitthala.
· Devotion around lord Vitthala gave rise to the Varkari sect which lay emphasis on an annual
pilgrimage to Pandharpur.
· The cult of Vitthala emerged as a powerful mode of devotion and was very popular amongst the
people.
· This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of all
people.
· These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences
based on birth.
· They rejected the idea of renunciation and preferred to live with their families, earning their
livelihood like any other person, while humbly serving fellow human beings in need.
· A new humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others' pain. As the famous
Gujarati saint Narsi Mehta said, “They are Vaishnavas who understand the pain of others.”
· Abhang (Marathi devotional hymn) is a form of devotional poetry sung in praise of god Vitthal, also
known as Vithoba.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis:

· Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion
and the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
· They advocated renunciation of the world.
· To them the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of
oneness with it.
· To achieve this, they advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like
yogasanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
· These groups became particularly popular among “low” castes.
· Their criticism of conventional religion created the ground for devotional religion to become a
popular force in northern India.

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Islam and Sufism:
· Islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God.
· In the eighth and ninth centuries, religious scholars developed different aspects of the Holy Law
(Shariat) and theology of Islam.
· While the religion of Islam gradually became more complex, Sufis provided it with an additional
dimension that favoured a more personal devotion to God.
· Sufis were Muslim mystics.
· They rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion
towards all fellow human beings.
· The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious
scholars.
· They sought union with God much as a lover seeks his beloved with a disregard for the world.
· Like the saint-poets, the Sufis too composed poems expressing their feelings, and a rich literature in
prose, including anecdotes and fables, developed around them.
· Like the Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis, the Sufis too believed that the heart can be trained to look at
the world in a different way.
· They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula),
contemplation, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc. under the
guidance of a master or pir.

· Concept of khanqahs: The Sufi masters held their assemblies in their khanqahs or hospices.
Ø Devotees of all descriptions including members of the royalty and nobility, and ordinary people
flocked to these khanqahs.
Ø They discussed spiritual matters, sought the blessings of the saints in solving their worldly
problems, or simply attended the music and dance sessions.
Ø Often people attributed Sufi masters with miraculous powers that could relieve others of their
illnesses and troubles.

· The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all
faiths thronged.

· Concept of Silsilas:
Ø A large number of Sufis from Central Asia settled in Hindustan from the eleventh century onwards.
This process was strengthened with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, when several major
Sufi centres developed all over the subcontinent.
Ø Silsilas, is a spiritual genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method
(tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.
Ø Chishti silsila: The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders.

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 o It had a long line of teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki
of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Bandanawaz
Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
· Rishi order of Sufism: In Kashmir, the Rishi order of Sufism flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Ø This order was established by Sheikh Nuruddin Wali also known as Nund Rishi and had a deep
impact on the life of the people in Kashmir.
Ø A number of shrines dedicated to Rishi saints can be found in many parts of Kashmir.
· Great Sufis of Central Asia: Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi.
Jalaluddin Rumi was a great thirteenth-century Sufi poet from Iran who wrote in Persian.

New Religious Developments in North India:

The period after the thirteenth century saw a new wave of the bhakti movement in north India. This was an
age when Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various strands of bhakti, and the Nathpanths, Siddhas
and Yogis influenced one another.
· Tulsidas: Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama.
Ø Tulsidas's composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern Uttar
Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work.

· Surdas: Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions, compiled in the Sursagara,
Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion.

· Shankaradeva of Assam: Shankaradeva of Assam (late fifteenth century) emphasised devotion to

Vishnu, and composed poems and plays in Assamese.
Ø He began the practice of setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice that
continues to date.
Ø The essence of Shankaradeva's devotion came to be known as Eka Sarana Nama Dharma
(supreme surrender to the One).
Ø The teachings of Shankaradeva were based on the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana.
Ø He also encouraged the establishment of satra or monasteries for transmission of knowledge.
Ø His major compositions included Kirtana-ghosha.

· Mirabai: Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenth century.
Ø Mirabai became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered “untouchable”.
Ø She was devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans expressing her intense devotion.
Ø Her songs also openly challenged the norms of the “upper” castes and became popular with the
masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

· Chaitanyadeva: Chaitanyadeva, was a sixteenth-century bhakti saint from Bengal, preached selfless
devotion to Krishna-Radha.

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 · Contribution of New Religious Developments in North India:
Ø Promotion to Regional languages: A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were
composed in regional languages and could be sung.
Ø Development of music: An important contribution of Bhakti saints was towards the development
of music.
o Jayadeva of Bengal composed the Gita Govinda in Sanskrit, each song composed in a
particular raga and tala.
o A significant impact that these saints had on music was the use of bhajan, kirtan and abhang.
o These songs which emphasised on emotional experience had a tremendous appeal to the
common people.

Fig. 8.1: Major bhakti saints and the regions associated with them

Kabir:
· Kabir, who probably lived in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one of the most influential saints.
· He was brought up in a family of Muslim julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Benares
(Varanasi).
· Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God and preached that the only path to salvation was through
bhakti or devotion.

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 · Kabir's teachings were based on a complete, indeed vehement, rejection of the major religious
traditions.
· His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam,
the pre-eminence of the priestly classes and the caste system.
· The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi widely understood by ordinary people. He also
sometimes used cryptic language, which is difficult to follow.
· A vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been composed by him and sung by
wandering bhajan singers.
· Some of these were later collected and preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak.

Baba Guru Nanak:

Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan).
· Teachings of Guru Nanak:
Ø He emphasised the importance of the worship of one God.
Ø He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation.
Ø His idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a
strong sense of social commitment.
o Baba Guru Nanak's insisted that his followers must be householders and should adopt
productive and useful occupations.
o They were also expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of followers.
Ø He himself used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which actually meant
right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
Ø His teachings are now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-karna and vandchhakna, which also
underline the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and helping others.

· He travelled widely before establishing a centre at Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi).
· A regular worship that consisted of the singing of his own hymns was established there for his
followers.
· He introduced the concept of common kitchen (langar).
· The sacred space created by Baba Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is now known as Gurdwara.
· Before his death in 1539, Baba Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers as his successor. His name
was Lehna but he came to be known as Guru Angad, signifying that he was a part of Baba Guru Nanak
himself.
· Guru Granth Sahib: Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Baba Guru Nanak, to which he added
his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi.
Ø The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of “Nanak” and all of their
compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604.
Ø To this compilation were added the writings of other figures like Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat
Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur.

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 Ø In 1706 this compilation was authenticated by Guru Tegh Bahadur's son and successor, Guru
Gobind Singh. It is now known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs.
· By the beginning of the seventeenth century the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed
around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple).
· Later developments in Sikkhism:
Ø It was virtually self-governing and modern historians refer to the early-seventeenth-century Sikh
community as 'a state within the state'.
Ø The Mughal emperor Jahangir looked upon them as a potential threat and he ordered the
execution of Guru Arjan in 1606.
Ø Khalsa Panth: The Sikh movement began to get politicised in the seventeenth century, a
development which culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.
o The community of the Sikhs, called the Khalsa Panth, became a political entity.
o The changing historical situation during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries influenced the
development of the Sikh movement.

Interesting points

· Martin Luther: The sixteenth century was a time of religious ferment in Europe as well. One of the most
important leaders of the changes that took place within Christianity was Martin Luther (1483-1546).
Ø Luther felt that several practices in the Roman Catholic Church went against the teachings of
the Bible.
Ø He encouraged the use of the language of ordinary people rather than Latin and translated
the Bible into German.
Ø Luther strongly opposed to the practice of “indulgences” or making donations to the Church
so as to gain forgiveness from sins.
Ø His writings were widely disseminated with the growing use of the printing press.
Ø Many Protestant Christian sects trace their origins to the teachings of Luther.

63
 THE MAKING OF REGIONAL
9 CULTURES
Regional cultures today are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with
ideas from other parts of the subcontinent.

The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam:

· The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western
part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala.
· The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.
· This is one of the earliest examples of the use of a regional language in official records in the
subcontinent.
· Sanskritic traditions under Cheras: The Cheras drew upon Sanskritic traditions.
Ø The temple theatre of Kerala, which is traced to this period, borrowed stories from the Sanskrit
epics.
Ø The first literary works in Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are directly indebted to
Sanskrit.
Ø Lilatilakam: A fourteenth-century text, the Lilatilakam, dealing with grammar and poetics, was
composed in Manipravalam – literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two languages,
Sanskrit and the regional language.

The Jagannatha Cult:

· Cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa is best example of
regional cultures grown around religious traditions.
· Initially the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was
originally a local god, who was later identified with Vishnu (Jagannatha). Later Balabhadra, Subhadra
and Jagannatha emerged as major gods of this cult.
· In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided
to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
· Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed
himself as the “deputy” of the god.
· As the temple gained in importance as a centre of pilgrimage, its authority in social and political
matters also increased.
· All those who conquered Orissa, such as the Mughals, the Marathas and the English East India
Company, attempted to gain control over the temple because they felt that this would make their rule
acceptable to the local people.

The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism:

· In the nineteenth century, the region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan, was called
Rajputana by the British. It was mainly inhabited by Rajputs.
· From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput
families. Prithviraj was one such ruler.

64
· These rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the
battlefield rather than face defeat.
· Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were recited by specially
trained minstrels.
· Women are also depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death – there are stories
about the practice of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

Fig. 9.2: Regions discussed in this chapter.

65
The Story of Kathak:
· It was recognised as one of six “classical” forms of dance in the country after independence.
· Kathak, now associated with several parts of north India. It is prevalent in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
· The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story.
· The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their
performances with gestures and songs.
· Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the
spread of the bhakti movement.
· The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance
with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
· Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired
its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style.
· Emphasis was laid on intricate and rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as on the enactment
of stories.
· Kathak, like several other cultural practices, was viewed with disfavour by most British
administrators in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
· Gharanas of Kathak: it developed in two traditions or gharanas:
Ø Jaipur Gharana: It is popular in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur)
Ø Lucknow Gharana: Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into
a major art form.

“Classical” Dances:
· Dance forms that are recognised as classical at present are:
Ø Kathak (Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan)
Ø Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)
Ø Kathakali (Kerala)
Ø Odissi (Odisha)
Ø Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
Ø Manipuri (Manipur)

Miniature Paintings:
· Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest
miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.
· Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts.
· Mughal Miniature Paintings: The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised
highly skilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry.
Ø These were generally painted in brilliant colours and portrayed court scenes, scenes of battle or
hunting, and other aspects of social life.

66
Ø They were often exchanged as gifts and were viewed only by an exclusive few – the emperor and
his close associates.

Fig. 9.3: Akbar resting during a hunt, Mughal miniature

Ø Rajasthani School of Miniature Paintings: With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters
moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states.
Ø As a result, Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts
of Rajasthan.
Ø Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh are the main regions around them these paintings
flourished.
Ø Themes: Portraits of rulers and court scenes and themes from mythology and poetry

Fig. 9.4: Maharana Ram Singh II playing Holi (Rajput miniature, Kota)

67
 Ø Pahari Paintings: Another region that attracted miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills
around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh.
Ø Nadir Shah's invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists
to the hills to escape the uncertainties of the plains.
Ø Basohli Paintings: By the late seventeenth century this region had developed a bold and intense
style of miniature painting called Basohli.
o The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari.
Ø Kangra school of painting: By the mid eighteenth century the Kangra artists developed a style
which breathed a new spirit into miniature painting.
o The source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite traditions.
o Soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themes distinguished
Kangra painting.

Fig. 9.5: Krishna, Radha and her companion (Pahari miniature, Kangra)

Growth of a Bengali Language:

· Bengali is now recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit, early Sanskrit texts (mid-first
millennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengal did not speak Sanskritic languages.
· Phases of development of Bengali as Regional language:
Ø From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between Bengal and
Magadha (south Bihar), which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit.
Ø During the fourth century, the Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal and
began to settle Brahmanas in this area. Thus, the linguistic and cultural influence from the mid-
Ganga valley became stronger.
Ø In the seventh century, the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observed that languages related to
Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal.
Ø From the eighth century, Bengal became the centre of a regional kingdom under the Palas .
Ø Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, Bengal was ruled by Sultans who were
independent of the rulers in Delhi.

68
 Ø In 1586, when Akbar conquered Bengal, it formed the nucleus of the Bengal suba. While Persian
was the language of administration, Bengali developed as a regional language.
Ø By the fifteenth century the Bengali group of dialects came to be united by a common literary
language based on the spoken language of the western part of the region, now known as West
Bengal. Thus, although Bengali is derived from Sanskrit, it passed through several stages of
evolution.
Ø Also, a wide range of non-Sanskrit words, derived from a variety of sources including tribal
languages, Persian, and European languages, have become part of modern Bengali.
· Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories:
Ø Indebted to Sanskrit: It includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (literally
auspicious poems, dealing with local deities) and bhakti literature such as the biographies of
Chaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava bhakti movement.
o The texts belonging to this category are easier to date, as several manuscripts have been found
indicating that they were composed between the late fifteenth and mid-eighteenth centuries.
Ø Independent of Sanskrit: It includes Nath literature such as the songs of Maynamati and
Gopichandra, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairy tales, folk tales and
ballads.
o The texts belonging to this category circulated orally and cannot be precisely dated. They were
particularly popular in eastern Bengal, where the influence of Brahmanas was relatively weak.

Maynamati, Gopichandra and Dharma Thakur:

· The Naths were ascetics who engaged in a variety of yogic practices.
· Maynamati, was a queen, encouraged her son Gopichandra to adopt the path of asceticism in the
face of a variety of obstacles.
· Dharma Thakur is a popular regional deity, often worshipped in the form of a stone or a piece of
wood.

Cult of Pirs in Bengal:

· From the sixteenth century, eastward Migration of people from the less fertile western Bengal to the
forested and marshy areas of south-eastern Bengal led to cleared forests and brought the land under
rice cultivation.
· Gradually, local communities of fisher folk and shifting cultivators, often tribals, merged with the new
communities of peasants.
· Due to the establishment of Mughal control over Bengal with their capital in the heart of the eastern
delta at Dhaka, led to the growing influence of mosques. That led to the emergence of the concept of
pirs in Bengal.
· Cult of Pirs: Pirs are community leaders, who also functioned as teachers and adjudicators and were
sometimes ascribed with supernatural powers.
Ø This term included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities, daring colonisers and deified

69
 soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits.
Ø The cult of pirs became very popular and their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.

Temple Architecture in Bengal:

· Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late fifteenth century, which culminated in
the nineteenth century.
· Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in Bengal were built with the support of several
“low” social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers).
· The coming of the European trading companies created new economic opportunities. As their social
and economic position improved, they proclaimed their status through the construction of temples.
· Then local deities, once worshipped in thatched huts in villages, gained the recognition of the
Brahmanas, their images began to be housed in temples.
· The temples began to copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of the
thatched huts.
· This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture.
· Features of Bengali style of temple architecture:
Ø In the comparatively more complex four-roofed structure, four triangular roofs placed on the four
walls move up to converge on a curved line or a point.
Ø Temples were usually built on a square platform.
Ø The interior was relatively plain, but the outer walls of many temples were decorated with
paintings, ornamental tiles or terracotta tablets.
Ø In Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal, such decorations reached a high degree of
excellence.

Fig. 9.6: Double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) temple

Fish as Food in Bengal:

· Traditional food habits are generally based on locally available items of food.
· Bengal is a riverine plain which produces plenty of rice and fish. Fishing has always been an important
occupation and Bengali literature contains several references to fish.

70
· Terracotta plaques on the walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) depict scenes of fish
being dressed and taken to the market in baskets.

Fig. 9.7: Fish being dressed for domestic consumption, terracotta

plaque from the Vishalakshi temple, Arambagh.

· Brahmanas were not allowed to eat non-vegetarian food, but the popularity of fish in the local diet
made the Brahmanical authorities relax this prohibition for the Bengal Brahmanas.
· The Brihaddharma Purana, a thirteenth-century Sanskrit text from Bengal, permitted the local
Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.

Interesting points

Interesting Points:
· Lakshmana temple is located at Khajuraho.
· Emergence of nation-states in Europe: From the late eighteenth century, a factor of common
language, such as French or German created the consciousness among the people that each
linguistic community was a separate nation.
Ø This feeling was strengthened by the movements for Italian and German unification in the
late nineteenth century.

71
 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL
10 FORMATIONS
Political conditions in the eighteenth-century India changed quite dramatically and within a relatively short
span of time. During the first half of the 18th century, the Mughal Empire declined and British emerged as a
major power in the Indian subcontinent.

Fig 10.1: State formations in the eighteenth century

During the first half of the eighteenth century – roughly from 1707, when Aurangzeb died, till the third battle
of Panipat in 1761, new political groups were emerged in the subcontinent.

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

Fig. 10.2: British territories in the mid-eighteenth century

72
 Reasons of decline of Mughal Empire:
Mughal Empire started facing a variety of crises towards the closing years of the seventeenth century. The
reasons are:
· Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long
war in the Deccan.
· Weak Successors: Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down. It
became increasingly difficult for the later Mughal emperors to keep a check on their powerful
mansabdars.
Ø The Mughal emperors after Aurangzeb were unable to arrest the gradual shifting of political and
economic authority into the hands of provincial governors, local chieftains and other groups.
· Growing powers of Provinces: Nobles appointed as governors (subadars) often controlled the offices
of revenue and military administration (diwani and faujdari) as well.
Ø This gave them extraordinary political, economic and military powers over vast regions of the
Mughal Empire.
Ø As the governors consolidated their control over the provinces, the periodic remission of revenue
to the capital declined.
· Peasant and zamindari rebellions: Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and
western India added to these problems. These revolts were sometimes caused by the pressures of
mounting taxes.
· Nadir Shah's invasion: In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah,
sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth including
Peacock throne.
· Attacks of Ahmad Shah Abdali: This invasion was followed by a series of plundering raids by the
Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

· Growing influence of nobles: The Mughal Empire, was already under pressure, further weakened by
competition amongst different groups of nobles.
Ø They were divided into two major groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis (nobles of Turkish
descent).
Ø For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of either one or the other of
these two powerful groups.
Ø The worst possible humiliation came when two Mughal emperors, Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and
Alamgir II (1754-1759) were assassinated, and two others Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) and Shah
Alam II (1759-1816) were blinded by their nobles.

Emergence of New States:

With the decline in the authority of the Mughal emperors, the governors of large provinces, subadars, and
the great zamindars consolidated their authority in different parts of the subcontinent.
Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent,
regional states. States of the eighteenth century can be divided into three overlapping groups:

73
 · States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Although extremely
powerful and quite independent, the rulers of these states did not break their formal ties with the
Mughal emperor.
· States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These
included several Rajput principalities.
· The last group included states under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. These
were of differing sizes and had seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn
armed struggle.

The Old Mughal Provinces:

· Amongst the states that were carved out of the old Mughal provinces in the eighteenth century, three
stand out very prominently. These were Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.
· All three states were founded by members of the high Mughal nobility who had been governors of
large provinces – Sa'adat Khan (Awadh), Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal) and Asaf Jah (Hyderabad).
· All three had occupied high mansabdari positions and enjoyed the trust and confidence of the
emperors.

Hyderabad:
· Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state (1724-1748), was one of the most
powerful members at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
· He was first entrusted with the governorship of Awadh, and later given charge of the Deccan.
· As the Mughal governor of the Deccan provinces, during 1720-22 Asaf Jah had already gained
control over its political and financial administration.
· Taking subsequent advantage of the turmoil in the Deccan and the competition amongst the court
nobility, he gathered power in his hands and became the actual ruler of that region.

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

· Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India who welcomed the new
opportunities in the south.
· He appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs.
· He was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, but he ruled quite independently without seeking any
direction from Delhi or facing any interference.
· The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas to the west and
with independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau.
· The ambitions of the Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah to control the rich textile-producing areas of the
Coromandel coast in the east were checked by the British who were becoming increasingly powerful
in that region.

Awadh:
· Awadh was founded by Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa'adat Khanin in 1722.
· It was a prosperous region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain and the main trade route between
north India and Bengal.

74
 · Burhan-ul-Mulk was appointed as subadar of Awadh. He also held the combined offices of subadari,
diwani and faujdari. He was responsible for managing the political, financial and military affairs of the
province of Awadh.
· He tried to decrease Mughal influence in the Awadh region by reducing the number of office holders
( jagirdars) appointed by the Mughals.
· He also reduced the size of jagirs, and appointed his own loyal servants to vacant positions.
· The accounts of jagirdars were checked to prevent cheating and the revenues of all districts were
reassessed by officials appointed by the Nawab's court.
· He seized a number of Rajput zamindaris and the agriculturally fertile lands of the Afghans of
Rohilkhand.

System of Ijaradars (Revenue Farmers):

· The state depended on local bankers and mahajans for loans. It sold the right to collect tax to the
highest bidders.
· These “revenue farmers” (ijaradars) agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money.
· Local bankers guaranteed the payment of this contracted amount to the state.
· In turn, the revenue-farmers were given considerable freedom in the assessment and collection
of taxes.
· These developments allowed new social groups, like moneylenders and bankers, to influence
the management of the state's revenue system, something which had not occurred in the past.

Bengal:
· Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed as
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

the naib, deputy to the governor of the province.

· Murshid Quli Khan commanded the revenue administration of the state.
· In an effort to reduce Mughal influence in Bengal he transferred all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and
ordered a major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal.
· Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all zamindars. As a result, many zamindars
had to borrow money from bankers and moneylenders.
· Those unable to pay were forced to sell their lands to larger zamindars. The formation of a regional
state in eighteenth century Bengal therefore led to considerable change amongst the zamindars.
· Bengal under the rule of Alivardi Khan (1740-1756): During his reign, the banking house of Jagat
Seth became extremely prosperous.

Common features amongst these states:

· They were highly suspicious about the jagirdari system.
· All three regimes contracted with revenue-farmers for the collection of revenue rather relying
upon the officers of the State.
· Emerging relationship with rich bankers and merchants.

75
The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs:
· Many Rajput kings, particularly those belonging to Amber and Jodhpur, had served under the
Mughals with distinction. In exchange, they were permitted to enjoy considerable autonomy in their
watan jagirs.
· Ajit Singh, the ruler of Jodhpur, was also involved in the factional politics at the Mughal court.
· These influential Rajput families claimed the subadari of the rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa.
· Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was
governor of Malwa.
· These offices were renewed by Emperor Jahandar Shah in 1713. They also tried to extend their
territories by seizing portions of imperial territories neighbouring their watans.
· Nagaur was conquered and annexed to the house of Jodhpur, while Amber seized large portions of
Bundi.
· Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded his new capital at Jaipur and was given the subadari of Agra in 1722.
· Maratha campaigns into Rajasthan from the 1740s put severe pressure on these principalities and
checked their further expansion.

Hills forts of Rajasthan:

· Many Rajput chieftains built a number of forts on hill tops which became centres of power.
· With extensive fortifications, these majestic structures housed urban centres, palaces, temples,
trading centres, water harvesting structures and other buildings.
· The Chittorgarh fort contained many water bodies varying from talabs (ponds) to kundis
(wells), baolis (stepwells), etc.

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

Fig. 10.3: Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan

The Sikhs:
· The organisation of the Sikhs into a political community during the seventeenth century helped in
regional state-building in the Punjab.

76
 · Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before
and after the institution of the Khalsa in 1699.
· After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under Banda
Bahadur's leadership, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and
Guru Gobind Singh,
· He established their own administration between the Sutlej and the Jamuna. Banda Bahadur was
captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.
· Misls: Under a number of able leaders in the eighteenth century, the Sikhs organized themselves into a
number of bands called jathas, and later on misls.
Ø Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal khalsa).
Ø The entire body used to meet at Amritsar at the time of Baisakhi and Diwali to take collective
decisions known as “resolutions of the Guru (gurmatas)”.
· Rakhi System: A system called rakhi was introduced, offering protection to cultivators on the
payment of a tax of 20 per cent of the produce.
· Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule (raj karega
khalsa).
· Their well-knit organization enabled them to put up a successful resistance to the Mughal governors
first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who had seized the rich province of the Punjab and the Sarkar of
Sirhind from the Mughals.
· The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking their own coin again in 1765. Significantly, this
coin bore the same inscription as the one on the orders issued by the Khalsa in the time of Banda
Bahadur.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

· The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth century extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they
were divided under different rulers.
· Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.

The Marathas:
· The Maratha kingdom was another powerful regional kingdom to arise out of a sustained opposition
to Mughal rule.
· Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families
(deshmukhs).
· Groups of highly mobile, peasant-pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the Maratha army.
Shivaji used these forces to challenge the Mughals in the peninsula.
· After Shivaji's death, effective power in the Maratha state was wielded by a family of Chitpavan
Brahmanas who served Shivaji's successors as Peshwa (or principal minister). Poona became the
capital of the Maratha kingdom.

77
· Under the Peshwas, the Marathas developed a very successful military organisation.
· Their success lay in bypassing the fortified areas of the Mughals, by raiding cities and by engaging
Mughal armies in areas where their supply lines and reinforcements could be easily disturbed.
· Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded. It gradually chipped away at the authority
of the Mughal Empire.
· Malwa and Gujarat were seized from the Mughals by the 1720s. By the 1730s, the Maratha king
was recognised as the overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.
· He possessed the right to levy chauth and sardeshmukhi in the entire region.
Ø Chauth is the 25 per cent of the land revenue claimed by zamindars. In the Deccan this was
collected by the Marathas.
Ø Sardeshmukhi is the 9-10 per cent of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in the
Deccan.
· After raiding Delhi in 1737 the frontiers of Maratha domination expanded rapidly: into Rajasthan
and the Punjab in the north; into Bengal and Orissa in the east; and into Karnataka and the Tamil
and Telugu countries in the south.
· These were not formally included in the Maratha empire, but were made to pay tribute as a way of
accepting Maratha sovereignty.
· Expansion brought enormous resources, but it came at a price. These military campaigns also
made other rulers hostile towards the Marathas.
· As a result, they were not inclined to support the Marathas during the third battle of Panipat in
1761.
· Alongside endless military campaigns, the Marathas developed an effective administrative

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

system as well.
· Once conquest had been completed and Maratha rule was secure, revenue demands were
gradually introduced taking local conditions into account.
· Agriculture was encouraged and trade revived.
· This allowed Maratha chiefs (sardars) like Sindhia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda and Bhonsle of
Nagpur the resources to raise powerful armies.
· Maratha campaigns into Malwa in the 1720s did not challenge the growth and prosperity of the
cities in the region.
· Ujjain expanded under Sindhia's patronage and Indore under Holkar's.
· By all accounts these cities were large and prosperous and functioned as important commercial
and cultural centres. New trade routes emerged within the areas controlled by the Marathas.
· The silk produced in the Chanderi region now found a new outlet in Poona, the Maratha capital.
· Burhanpur which had earlier participated in the trade between Agra and Surat now expanded its
hinterland to include Poona and Nagpur in the south and Lucknow and Allahabad in the east.

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 Shivaji:
· Towards the end of the 17th century a powerful state started emerging in the Deccan under the
leadership of Shivaji which finally led to the establishment of the Maratha state.
· Shivaji was born to Shahji and Jija Bai at Shivneri in 1630.
· Under the guidance of his mother and his guardian Dada Konddev, Shivaji embarked on a career
of conquest at a young age.
· The occupation of Javli made him the undisputed leader of the Mavala highlands which paved
the way for further expansion.
· His exploits against the forces of Bijapur and the Mughals made him a legendary figure.
· He often resorted to guerrilla warfare against his opponents.
· By introducing an efficient administrative system supported by a revenue collection method
based on chauth and sardeshmukhi he laid the foundations of a strong Maratha state.

The Jats:
Like the other states, the Jats consolidated their power during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
· Churaman: Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control over territories situated to the west
of the city of Delhi.
Ø By the 1680s they had begun dominating the region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and
Agra.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

Ø For a while they became the virtual custodians of the city of Agra.
Ø The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became
important trading centres in the areas dominated by them.
· Suraj Mal: Under Suraj Mal, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
Ø The power of the Jats reached its zenith under Suraj Mal who consolidated the Jat state at Bharatpur
(in present day Rajasthan) during 1756-1763.
Ø The areas under the political control of Suraj Mal broadly included parts of modern eastern
Rajasthan, southern Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi.
Ø Suraj Mal built a number of forts and palaces and the famous Lohagarh fort in Bharatpur is
regarded as one of the strongest forts built in this region.
o While the Bharatpur fort was built in a fairly traditional style, at Dig the Jats built an elaborate
garden palace combining styles seen at Amber and Agra.
o Its buildings were modelled on architectural forms first associated with royalty under Shah
Jahan.

79
 Fig. 10.4: Eighteenth-century palace complex at Dig.

· When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739, many of the city's notables took refuge there. His son Jawahir
Shah had 30,000 troops of his own and hired another 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops to
fight the Mughals.

Interesting points

Interesting Points:
· The French Revolution (1789-1794): The American (1776-1781) and French Revolutions
challenged the social and political privileges enjoyed by the aristocrats.
Ø During the French Revolution, the middle classes, peasants and artisans fought against the
special rights enjoyed by the clergy and the nobility.
Ø They believed that no group in society should have privileges based on birth. Rather, people's
social position must depend on merit.

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

Ø The philosophers of the French Revolution suggested that there be equal laws and
opportunities for all.
Ø They also held that the authority of the government should come from the people who must
possess the right to participate in its affairs.
Ø Movements such as the French and American Revolutions gradually transformed subjects
into citizens.
Ø The ideas of citizenship, nation-state and democratic rights took root in India from the late
nineteenth century.

· Rana Pratap: Many Rajput rulers had accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals but Mewar was the only
Rajput state which defied Mughal authority.
Ø Rana Pratap ascended the throne at Mewar in 1572, with Udaipur and large part of Mewar under
his control.
Ø A series of envoys were sent to the Rana to persuade him to accept Mughal suzerainty, but he stood

80
 his ground.
· Sawai Jai Singh: Sawai Jai Singh, the ruler of Amber constructed five astronomical observatories,
one each in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi.
Ø Commonly known as Jantar Mantar, these observatories had various instruments to study
heavenly bodies.
· Baji Rao I: Baji Rao I, also known as Baji Rao Ballal was the son of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.
Ø He was a great Maratha general who is credited to have expanded the Maratha kingdom beyond
the Vindhyas
Ø He is known for his military campaigns against Malwa, Bundelkhand, Gujarat and the Portugese.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS

81
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
8th Standard
CONTENTS
How, When and Where ................................................................................................................ 1 - 2

From Trade to Territory: The Company Establishes Power ............................................ 3 - 11

Ruling the Countryside ............................................................................................................ 12 - 17

Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age ................................................................. 18 - 21

When People Rebel 1857 and After ................................................................................... 22 - 28

Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners ................................................................... 29 - 35

Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation .................................................................... 36 - 41

Women, Caste and Reform .................................................................................................... 42 - 47

The Making of the National Movement: 1870s—1947 ................................................. 48 - 57

India After Independence ........................................................................................................ 58 - 61

 HOW, WHEN AND WHERE
1
History is certainly about changes that occur over time. It is about finding out how things were in the past
and how things have changed.
Time does not have to be always precisely dated in terms of a particular year or a month. Sometimes it is
actually incorrect to fix precise dates to processes that happen over a period of time.

A History of British India:

· In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political philosopher, published a massive three-volume
work, A History of British India.
· In this he divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British.
· Mill thought that all Asian societies were at a lower level of civilisation than Europe.
· According to his telling of history, before the British came to India, Hindu and Muslim despots ruled the
country. Religious intolerance, caste taboos and superstitious practices dominated social life.
· British rule, Mill felt, could civilise India. To do this it was necessary to introduce European manners,
arts, institutions and laws in India.
· Mill, in fact, suggested that the British should conquer all the territories in India to ensure the
enlightenment and happiness of the Indian people.
· For India was not capable of progress without British help.
· In this idea of history, British rule represented all the forces of progress and civilisation. The period
before British rule was one of darkness.

Classification of Indian History:

· Historians have usually divided Indian history into 'ancient', 'medieval' and 'modern'.
· It is a periodisation that is borrowed from the West where the modern period was associated with the
growth of all the forces of modernity – science, reason, democracy, liberty and equality.
· Medieval was a term used to describe a society where these features of modern society did not exist.
· Many historians refer to modern period as 'colonial'.

Colonisation:
· When the subjugation of one country by another, leads to political, economic, social and cultural
changes, it is referred as the process of colonisation.
HOW, WHEN AND WHERE

Sources to find details of Modern Indian History:

· Administration produces records, an important source is the official records of the British
administration.
· The British believed that the act of writing was important. Every instruction, plan, policy decision,
agreement, investigation had to be clearly written up.
· This conviction produced an administrative culture of memos, notes and reports.
Ø Preservation of Records: The British also felt that all important documents and letters needed to be
carefully preserved. So they set up record rooms attached to all administrative institutions.

1
 o The village tahsildar's office, the collectorate, the commissioner's office, the provincial
secretariats, the lawcourts – all had their record rooms.
o Specialised institutions like archives and museums were also established to preserve important
records.
Ø Copying of Records: In the early years of the nineteenth century, these documents were carefully
copied out and beautifully written by calligraphists.
o By the middle of the nineteenth century, with the spread of printing, multiple copies of these
records were printed as proceedings of each government department.
· Surveys: The practice of surveying also became common under the colonial administration.
Ø The British believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be effectively
administered.
Ø By the early nineteenth century detailed surveys were being carried out to map the entire country.
Ø In the villages, revenue surveys were conducted.
Ø The effort was to know the topography, the soil quality, the flora, the fauna, the local histories, and
the cropping pattern – all the facts seen as necessary to know about to administer the region.
Ø From the end of the nineteenth century, Census operations were held every ten years. These
prepared detailed records of the number of people in all the provinces of India, noting information
on castes, religions and occupation.
Ø There were many other surveys – botanical surveys, zoological surveys, archaeological surveys,
anthropological surveys, forest surveys.
o Botanical gardens and natural history museums established by the British collected plant
specimens and information about their uses. Local artists were asked to draw pictures of these
specimens.
· Other Sources: Diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims and travellers, autobiographies of important
personalities, and popular booklets are other important sources.
Ø As printing spread, newspapers were published and issues were debated in public. Leaders and
reformers wrote to spread their ideas, poets and novelists wrote to express their feelings.

Interesting Points:
· James Rennel was asked by Robert Clive to produce maps of Hindustan. An enthusiastic supporter
of British conquest of India, Rennel saw preparation of maps as essential to the process of
HOW, WHEN AND WHERE

domination.
· Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of India in 1773.
· Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy.
· The National Archives of India came up in the 1920s.

2
 FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE
2 COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, many Mughal governors (subadars) and big zamindars began asserting
their authority and establishing regional kingdoms. As powerful regional kingdoms emerged in various parts
of India, Delhi could no longer function as an effective centre.
By the second half of the eighteenth century, however, a new power was emerging on the political horizon –
the British.

Advent of Europeans:
· Portuguese: Portuguese were the first European to come to India and the last to go. Vasco da Gama, a
Portuguese explorer, had discovered this sea route to India in 1498.
Ø Portuguese had established their presence in the western coast of India.
· The Dutch: By the early seventeenth century, the Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in
the Indian Ocean.
· The English: In 1600, the East India Company (EIC) acquired a charter from the ruler of England,
Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East. This meant that no other trading
group in England could compete with the East India Company.
Ø With this charter the Company could venture across the oceans, looking for new lands from which
it could buy goods at a cheap price, and carry them back to Europe to sell at higher prices.
FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

Ø The Company did not have to fear competition from other English trading companies.
Ø Mercantile trading companies in those days made profit primarily by excluding competition, so that
they could buy cheap and sell dear.
Ø The royal charter, however, could not prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern
markets.
· The French: French were the last European to come to India with the purpose of trade.
· Conflict among trading powers: The problem was that all the companies were interested in buying
the same things.
Ø The fine qualities of cotton and silk produced in India had a big market in Europe. Pepper, cloves,
cardamom and cinnamon too were in great demand.
Ø Competition amongst the European companies inevitably pushed up the prices at which these
goods could be purchased, and this reduced the profits that could be earned.
Ø The only way the trading companies could flourish was by eliminating rival competitors.
Ø The urge to secure markets therefore led to fierce battles between the trading companies.
Ø Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they regularly sank each other's ships,
blockaded routes, and prevented rival ships from moving with supplies of goods.
Ø Trade was carried on with arms and trading posts were protected through fortification.
Ø This effort to fortify settlements and carry on profitable trade also led to intense conflict with local
rulers. The company therefore found it difficult to separate trade from politics.

3
 Fig 2.1: Routes to India in the eighteenth century

Conquest of Bengal:

FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

· Trade in Bengal: The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651. This was
the base from which the Company's traders, known at that time as “factors”, operated.
· The factory had a warehouse where goods for export were stored, and it had offices where Company
officials sat.
· As trade expanded, the Company persuaded merchants and traders to come and settle near the
factory.
· By 1696 it began building a fort around the settlement.
· Two years later it bribed Mughal officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three
villages. One of these was Kalikata, which later grew into the city of Calcutta or Kolkata.
· Farman of Aurangzeb: It also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting
the Company the right to trade duty free.
Ø The Company tried continuously to press for more concessions and manipulate existing
privileges. Aurangzeb's farman, for instance, had granted only the Company the right to trade duty
free.
Ø But officials of the Company, who were carrying on private trade on the side, were expected to pay
duty. This they refused to pay, causing an enormous loss of revenue for Bengal.
· Trade led to battles: Through the early eighteenth century the conflict between the Company and the
nawabs of Bengal intensified.
Ø After the death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal nawabs asserted their power and autonomy, as other
regional powers were doing at that time.
Ø Murshid Quli Khan was followed by Alivardi Khan and then Sirajuddaulah as the Nawab of
Bengal. Each one of them was a strong ruler.

4
 Ø They refused to grant the Company concessions, demanded large tributes for the Company's
right to trade, denied it any right to mint coins, and stopped it from extending its fortifications.
Ø Accusing the Company of deceit, they claimed that the Company was depriving the Bengal
government of huge amounts of revenue and undermining the authority of the nawab.
Ø It was refusing to pay taxes, writing disrespectful letters, and trying to humiliate the nawab and
his officials.
Ø Company's Response: The Company on its part declared that the unjust demands of the local
officials were ruining the trade of the Company, and trade could flourish only if the duties were
removed.
o It was also convinced that to expand trade it had to enlarge its settlements, buy up villages, and
rebuild its forts.
o The conflicts led to confrontations and finally culminated in the famous Battle of Plassey.
· The Battle of Plassey: When Alivardi Khan died in 1756, Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal.

Reasons:
Ø Company's meddling in the political affairs of Bengal: Company was helping one of
Sirajuddaulah's rivals to become the nawab because of its self-interest to get trade concessions
and other privileges. Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to stop meddling in the political affairs of
FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

his dominion.
Ø Fortification by EIC: Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to stop fortification but company refused
to do so.
Ø Non-payment of taxes: Officials of the Company, who were carrying on private trade on the side,
were expected to pay duty. Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to pay the revenues.

Course of Battle:
After negotiations failed, the Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar,
captured the Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships.

Ø Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over the Company's fort there.
Ø Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive, reinforced by naval
fleets. Prolonged negotiations with the Nawab followed.
Ø Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company's army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey.
Ø Main Reason for the defeat of Nawab: One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was
that the forces led by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah's commanders, never fought the battle.
o Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing
Sirajuddaulah.
Ø The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory the Company won in
India.
Ø After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated, and Mir Jafar was made the nawab.

5
 · The Battle of Buxar: The primary cause of battle was the conflict between the English and Mir Qasim.
When Mir Qasim complained, he in turn was defeated in a battle fought at Buxar (1764), driven out of
Bengal, and Mir Jafar was reinstalled.
Ø The Nawab had to pay Rs 500,000 every month but the Company wanted more money to finance
its wars and meet the demands of trade and its other expenses. It wanted more territories and more
revenue.
Ø By the time Mir Jafar died in 1765 the mood of the Company had changed. Having failed to work
with puppet nawabs, Clive declared: “We must indeed become nawabs ourselves.”
· Diwani Rights to Company: In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of
the provinces of Bengal.
Ø The Diwani allowed the Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal. This solved a major
problem that the Company had earlier faced.
Ø From the early eighteenth century its trade with India had expanded. But it had to buy most of the
goods in India with gold and silver imported from Britain.
Ø This was because at this time Britain had no goods to sell in India.
Ø The outflow of gold from Britain slowed after the Battle of Plassey, and entirely stopped after the
assumption of Diwani.
Ø Now revenues from India could finance Company expenses.

FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

Ø These revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain Company
troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta.

Company Rule Expands:

· Key aspects of EIC's process of annexation of Indian states from 1757 to 1857:
Ø Rare use of direct military attack: The Company rarely launched a direct military attack on an
unknown territory.
o It used a variety of political, economic and diplomatic methods to extend its influence before
annexing an Indian kingdom.
Ø Concept of Residents: After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in
Indian states.
o They were political or commercial agents and their job was to serve and further the interests of
the Company.
o Through the Residents, the Company officials began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian
states.
o They tried to decide who was to be the successor to the throne, and who was to be appointed in
administrative posts.
Ø Subsidiary alliance: According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have
their independent armed forces.
o They were to be protected by the Company, but had to pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the
Company was supposed to maintain for the purpose of this protection.

6
 o If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, then part of their territory was taken away as
penalty.
o For example, when Richard Wellesley was Governor General (1798-1805), the Nawab of
Awadh was forced to give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801, as he failed to pay for
the “subsidiary forces”.
o Hyderabad was also forced to cede territories on similar grounds.

Conquest of Mysore:
· Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761
to 1782) and his famous son Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799).
· Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the Company purchased pepper
and cardamom.
· In 1785 Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of
his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company.
· He also established a close relationship with the French in India, and modernised his army with their
help. The British were furious.
· They saw Haidar and Tipu as ambitious, arrogant and dangerous – rulers who had to be controlled
and crushed.
FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

· Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799). After the victory of the
Battle of Seringapatam, the conquest of Mysore was complete.
· Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam, Mysore was placed under the former
ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.

About Tipu Sultan:

· The Company forces were defeated by Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan in several battles.
Ø But in 1792, attacked by the combined forces of the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad
and the Company, Tipu was forced to sign a treaty with the British by which two of his sons
were taken away as hostages.
· Tipu Sultan is known as the “Tiger of Mysore” because he killed a tiger. He had the image of the
tiger on his flag.
· Tipu's toy tiger: Tipu possessed a big mechanical toy having tiger mauling a European soldier.
This toy-tiger is now kept in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. The British took it away
when Tipu Sultan died defending his capital Seringapatam on 4 May 1799.

War with the Marathas:

From the late eighteenth century, the Company sought to curb and eventually destroy Maratha power.

7
With their defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas' dream of ruling from Delhi was
shattered.
· Confederacy System: Marathas were divided into many states under different chiefs (sardars)
belonging to dynasties such as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsle.
Ø These chiefs were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister) who
became its effective military and administrative head based in Pune.
Ø Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis were two famous Maratha soldiers and statesmen of the late
eighteenth century.
· Anglo-Maratha Wars: The Marathas were subdued in a series of wars.
Ø First Anglo-Maratha War: In the first war that ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was
no clear victor.
Ø Second Anglo-Maratha War: The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on different
fronts, resulting in the British gaining Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river
including Agra and Delhi.
Ø Third Anglo-Maratha War: The Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1817-19 crushed Maratha power.
The Peshwa was removed and sent away to Bithur near Kanpur with a pension.
o The Company now had complete control over the territories south of the Vindhyas.

FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

Policy of “Paramountcy”:
· Under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823) a new policy of “paramountcy” was
initiated.
· According to this policy, Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme, hence its
power was greater than that of Indian states.
· Annexing or threatening to annex any Indian kingdom was justified on the basis that the action was
taken in order to protect British interests.
· Rani Channamma's revolt against Policy of “paramountcy”: When the British tried to annex the
small state of Kitoor (in Karnataka), Rani Channamma took to arms and led an anti-British resistance
movement.
Ø She was arrested in 1824 and died in prison in 1829.
Ø Rayanna, a poor chowkidar of Sangoli in Kitoor, carried on the resistance.
Ø With popular support, he destroyed many British camps and records. He was caught and hanged
by the British in 1830.

War with Afghanistan:

· In the late 1830s the East India Company became worried about Russia.
· The fear of Russia expansion across Asia and attacking India from the north-west led to a prolonged
war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842 and established indirect Company rule there.
· Sind was taken over in 1843.

8
 Anglo-Sikh Struggle:
Ø Political instability spread in Punjab after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839.
Ø Taking advantage of that, two prolonged wars were fought with the Sikh kingdom.
Ø Ultimately, in 1849, Punjab was annexed.

The Doctrine of Lapse:

· The final wave of annexations occurred under Lord Dalhousie who was the Governor-General from
1848 to 1856.
· He devised a policy known as the Doctrine of Lapse.
· The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would “lapse”, that
considered as part of Company's territory.
· One kingdom after another was annexed simply by applying this doctrine: Satara (1848), Sambalpur
(1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854).
· Case of Awadh: In 1856, the Company also took over Awadh.
Ø Awadh was annexed on the ground of “misgovernment”.
Ø Enraged by the humiliating way in which the Nawab was deposed, the people of Awadh joined the
great revolt that broke out in 1857.
FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

Expansion of British territorial power in India:

· The East India Company was transformed from a trading company to a territorial colonial power.
· The arrival of new steam technology in the early nineteenth century also aided this process. Till then it
would take anywhere between six and eight months to travel to India by sea.
· Steamships reduced the journey time to three weeks enabling more Britishers and their families to
come to a far-off country like India.
· By 1857, the Company came to exercise direct rule over about 63 per cent of the territory and 78 per
cent of the population of the Indian subcontinent.
· Combined with its indirect influence on the remaining territory and population of the country, the East
India Company had virtually the whole of India under its control.

Setting up a New Administration:

· Warren Hastings (Governor-General from 1773 to 1785) was one of the many important figures who
played a significant role in the expansion of Company power. By his time the Company had acquired
power not only in Bengal, but also in Bombay and Madras.
· British territories were broadly divided into administrative units called Presidencies. There were
three Presidencies: Bengal, Madras and Bombay.
· Each was ruled by a Governor.

9
 · The supreme head of the administration was the Governor-General.

New System of Justice:

· Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced several administrative reforms, notably in the
sphere of justice.
· From 1772 a new system of justice was established.
· Each district was to have two courts – a criminal court (faujdari adalat) and a civil court (diwani
adalat).
· Maulvis and Hindu pandits interpreted Indian laws for the European district collectors who presided
over civil courts.
· The criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors.

Uniformity of laws:
· A major problem was that the Brahman pandits gave different interpretations of local laws based on
different schools of the dharmashastra.
· To bring about uniformity, in 1775 eleven pandits were asked to compile a digest of Hindu laws. N.B.
Halhed translated this digest into English.
· By 1778 a code of Muslim laws was also compiled for the benefit of European judges.

FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

New Supreme Court:
Ø Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a new Supreme Court was established.
Ø A court of appeal – the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at Calcutta.

Office of Collector:
· The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector. His main job was to collect revenue and
taxes and maintain law and order in his district with the help of judges, police officers and darogas.
· His office – the Collectorate – became the new centre of power and patronage that steadily replaced
previous holders of authority.

The Company army:

· Colonial rule in India brought in some new ideas of administration and reform but its power rested on
its military strength.
· The East India Company adopted the same method when it began recruitment for its own army,
which came to be known as the sepoy army (from the Indian word sipahi, meaning soldier).
· As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the Company's army
declined. This is because the British empire was fighting in Burma, Afghanistan and Egypt where
soldiers were armed with muskets and matchlocks.
· The soldiers of the Company's army had to keep pace with changing military requirements and its
infantry regiments now became more important.

10
 · In the early nineteenth century the British began to develop a uniform military culture.
· Soldiers were increasingly subjected to European-style training, drill and discipline that regulated
their life far more than before.
Ø Often this created problems since caste and community feelings were ignored in building a force
of professional soldiers.

Interesting points
· Slave Trade in South Africa: The Dutch trading ships reached southern Africa in the
seventeenth century. Soon a slave trade began.
Ø People were captured, chained, and sold in slave markets.
Ø When slavery ended in 1834 there were 36,774 privately owned slaves at the Cape –
located at the southernmost tip of Africa.
· Bahadur Shah Zafar: After Aurangzeb there was no powerful Mughal ruler, but Mughal
emperors continued to be symbolically important.
Ø When a massive rebellion against British rule broke out in 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar, the
FROM TRADE TO TERRITORY: THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

Mughal emperor at the time, was seen as the natural leader.

Ø Once the revolt was put down by the company, Bahadur Shah Zafar was forced to leave
the kingdom, and his sons were shot in cold blood.
· Mercantile company is a business enterprise that makes profit primarily through trade,
buying goods cheap and selling them at higher prices.
· Plassey is an anglicised pronunciation of Palashi and the place derived its name from the
palash tree known for its beautiful red flowers that yield gulal, the powder used in the
festival of Holi.
· The term Qazi is used for a judge.
· The term Mufti is used for a jurist of the Muslim community responsible for expounding the
law that the qazi would administer.
· When Warren Hastings went back to England in 1785, Edmund Burke accused him of
being personally responsible for the misgovernment of Bengal. This led to an
impeachment proceeding in the British Parliament that lasted seven years.
· Dharmashastras are Sanskrit texts prescribing social rules and codes of behaviour,
composed from 500 BCE onwards.
· The term Musket was used for a heavy gun used by infantry soldiers.
· The term Matchlock was used for an early type of gun in which the powder was ignited by
a match.

11
 RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE
3
Over the years the Company learnt that being an alien power, it needed to pacify those who in the past had
ruled the countryside, and enjoyed authority and prestige. Those who had held local power had to be
controlled but they could not be entirely eliminated.

The Company Becomes the Diwan:

· Robert Clive accepted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the Mughal ruler in 1765.
· As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control.
Company had to think of administering the land and organising its revenue resources.
· This had to be done in a way that could yield enough revenue to meet the growing expenses of the
company.

Revenue for the Company:

· The Company had become the Diwan, but it still saw itself primarily as a trader.
· The effort was to increase the revenue as much as it could and buy fine cotton and silk cloth as
cheaply as possible. Within five years the value of goods bought by the Company in Bengal doubled.
· Before 1865, the Company had purchased goods in India by importing gold and silver from Britain.
Now the revenue collected in Bengal could finance the purchase of goods for export.
· This led to the crisis in Bengal Economy. It has following impacts:
Ø Artisans were deserting villages since they were being forced to sell their goods to the Company
at low prices.
Ø Peasants were unable to pay the dues that were being demanded from them.
Ø Artisanal production was in decline, and agricultural cultivation showed signs of collapse.
· In 1770 a terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal. About one-third of the population was
wiped out.
· If the economy was in ruins, most Company officials began to feel that investment in land had to be
encouraged and agriculture had to be improved.
· This led to the introduction of Permanent Settlement.

Permanent Settlement:
· Charles Cornwallis was the Governor-General of India when the Permanent Settlement was RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE
introduced in 1793.
· By the terms of the settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars. They were
asked to collect rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the Company.
· The amount to be paid was fixed permanently, that is, it was not to be increased ever in future.
· It was felt that this would ensure a regular flow of revenue into the Company's coffers and at the same
time encourage the zamindars to invest in improving the land.
· Since the revenue demand of the state would not be increased, the zamindar would benefit from
increased production from the land.

12
 Problems with Permanent Settlement:
· Issues with Zamindars: Zamindars were not investing in the improvement of land.
Ø The revenue that had been fixed was so high that the zamindars found it difficult to pay.
Ø Anyone who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari. Numerous zamindaris were sold off at
auctions organised by the Company.
· No gain for the Company: By the first decade of the nineteenth century the situation changed. The
prices in the market rose and cultivation slowly expanded.
Ø This meant an increase in the income of the zamindars but no gain for the Company since it could
not increase a revenue demand that had been fixed permanently.
· Cultivators Problem: In the villages, the cultivator found the system extremely oppressive.
Ø The rent he paid to the zamindar was high and his right on the land was insecure.
Ø To pay the rent he had to often take a loan from the moneylender, and when he failed to pay the rent
he was evicted from the land he had cultivated for generations.

Mahalwari Settlement:
· This settlement is introduced by Holt Mackenzie in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal
Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh), which came into effect in 1822.
· In British revenue records mahal is a revenue estate which may be a village or a group of villages.
· Collectors went from village to village, inspecting the land, measuring the fields, and recording the
customs and rights of different groups.
· The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each
village (mahal) had to pay.
· This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed.
· The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the Company was given to the village headman,
rather than the zamindar.

Ryotwari System:
· It was tried on a small scale by Captain Alexander Read in some of the areas that were taken over by
the Company after the wars with Tipu Sultan.
· Subsequently developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over south India.
· Read and Munro felt that in the South, there were no traditional zamindars.
· The settlement had to be made directly with the cultivators (ryots) who had tilled the land for
RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE

generations.
· Their fields had to be carefully and separately surveyed before the revenue assessment was made.
· Munro thought that the British should act as paternal father figures protecting the ryots under their
charge.

Crops for Europe:

· By the late eighteenth century the Company was trying its best to expand the cultivation of opium
and indigo.

13
 · In the century and a half that followed, the British persuaded or forced cultivators in various parts of
India to produce other crops: jute in Bengal, tea in Assam, sugarcane in the United Provinces (now
Uttar Pradesh), wheat in Punjab, cotton in Maharashtra and Punjab, rice in Madras.

Reasons of growing demand for Indian Indigo:

· The indigo plant grows primarily in the tropics. By the thirteenth century Indian indigo was being used
by cloth manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.
· By the end of the eighteenth century, the demand for Indian indigo grew further. The main reasons for
this were:
Ø Industrialization in Britain.
Ø Growing textile industries due to expansion in the cotton production that led to creating an
enormous new demand for cloth dyes.
Ø Collapse of Supply Chain: While the demand for indigo increased, its existing supplies from the
West Indies and America collapsed for a variety of reasons.
o Between 1783 and 1789 the production of indigo in the world fell by half.
o Cloth dyers in Britain now desperately looked for new sources of indigo supply.

Interesting facts about Woad Plant:

· Only small amounts of Indian indigo reached the European market and its price was very high.
European cloth manufacturers therefore had to depend on another plant called woad to make violet
and blue dyes.
· Being a plant of the temperate zones, woad was more easily available in Europe.
· It was grown in northern Italy, southern France and in parts of Germany and Britain.
· Worried by the competition from indigo, woad producers in Europe pressurised their governments
to ban the import of indigo.
· Cloth dyers, preferred indigo as a dye. Indigo produced a rich blue colour, whereas the dye from
woad was pale and dull.
· By the seventeenth century, European cloth producers persuaded their governments to relax the
ban on indigo import.

RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE

Indigo cultivation in India:

· Faced with the rising demand for indigo in Europe, the Company in India looked for ways to expand
the area under indigo cultivation.
· From the last decades of the eighteenth century indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly and
Bengal indigo came to dominate the world market.
· In 1788 only about 30 per cent of the Indigo imported into Britain was from India. By 1810, the
proportion had gone up to 95 per cent.

14
 · As the indigo trade grew, commercial agents and officials of the Company began investing in indigo
production.
· Over the years many Company officials left their jobs to look after their indigo business.
· Attracted by the prospect of high profits, numerous Scotsmen and Englishmen came to India and
became planters.
· Those who had no money to produce indigo could get loans from the Company and the banks that
were coming up at the time.

Systems of Indigo Cultivation:

There were two main systems of indigo cultivation – nij and ryoti.

System of nij cultivation:

· Within the system of nij cultivation, the planter produced indigo in lands that he directly controlled.
· He either bought the land or rented it from other zamindars and produced indigo by directly employing
hired labourers.
· Less than 25 per cent of the land producing indigo was under this system. The rest was under an
alternative mode of cultivation – the ryoti system.
· Problems with nij cultivation:
Ø Large area needed: The planters found it difficult to expand the area under nij cultivation.
o Indigo could be cultivated only on fertile lands, and these were all already densely populated.
Only small plots scattered over the landscape could be acquired.
o Planters needed large areas in compact blocks to cultivate indigo in plantations.
o They attempted to lease in the land around the indigo factory, and evict the peasants from the
area. But this always led to conflicts and tension.
Ø Labour mobilization: Labour was not easy to mobilise. A large plantation required a vast number
of hands to operate.
o Labour was needed precisely at a time when peasants were usually busy with their rice
cultivation.
Ø Requirement of ploughs and bullocks: Nij cultivation on a large scale also required many ploughs
and bullocks. One bigha of indigo cultivation required two ploughs.
o This meant that a planter with 1,000 bighas would need 2,000 ploughs. Investing on purchase
RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE

and maintenance of ploughs was a big problem.

o Nor could supplies be easily got from the peasants since their ploughs and bullocks were busy
on their rice fields, again exactly at the time that the indigo planters needed them.

Ryoti system of indigo cultivation:

· Under the ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an agreement (satta).
· Village headmen was pressurised to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots.
· Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the planters at low rates of interest to produce

15
 indigo. But the loan committed the ryot to cultivating indigo on at least 25 per cent of the area under
his holding.
· The planter provided the seed and the drill, while the cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the seed
and looked after the crop.
· When the crop was delivered to the planter after the harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and
the cycle started all over again.
· Problems with ryoti system:
Ø Peasants considered this as a harsh system.
Ø Peasants got very low price for Indigo.
Ø Never ending nature of cycle of loans.
Ø The planters usually insisted that indigo be cultivated on the best soils in which peasants preferred
to cultivate rice.
Ø Indigo had deep roots and it exhausted the soil rapidly. After an indigo harvest the land could not
be sown with rice.

The “Blue Rebellion”:

· The Indigo system was intensely oppressive therefore in March 1859 thousands of ryots in Bengal
refused to grow indigo.
· As the rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the planters, and attacked indigo factories.

Key features of Blue Rebellion:

· Women also actively participated in this rebellion.
· Support of the local zamindars and village headmen: Headmen, who had been forced to sign indigo
contracts, mobilised the indigo peasants and fought pitched battles with the lathiyals.
Ø Zamindars were unhappy with the increasing power of the planters and angry at being forced by
the planters to give them land on long leases.

Response of British Government:

· The Lieutenant Governor toured the region in 1859.
· Magistrate Ashley Eden issued a notice stating that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo
contracts.
· The government brought in the military to protect the planters.
· Indigo Commission: the government set up the Indigo Commission to enquire into the system of RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE
indigo production.
Ø The Commission held the planters guilty, and criticised them for the coercive methods they used
with indigo cultivators.
Ø It declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots.
Ø The Commission asked the ryots to fulfil their existing contracts but also told them that they could
refuse to produce indigo in future.
· Impact of Blue Rebellion: After the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. But the planters
now shifted their operation to Bihar.

16
 Ø With the discovery of synthetic dyes in the late nineteenth century their business was severely
affected, but yet they managed to expand production

Champaran Movement:
· When Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa, a peasant from Bihar persuaded him to
visit Champaran and see the plight of the indigo cultivators there.
· Mahatma Gandhi's visit in 1917 marked the beginning of the Champaran movement
against the indigo planters.

Interesting points
· In many villages of Bengal, some of the powerful ryots did not cultivate, but instead gave
out their lands to others (the under-tenants), taking from them very high rents. In 1806, H.
T. Colebrook described the conditions of these undertenants in Bengal.
· Kalamkari print is created by weavers of Andhra Pradesh in India.
· Morris cotton print: William Morris, was a famous poet and artist of nineteenth-century
Britain. Morris cotton print use a rich blue colour – commonly called indigo. Blue dye used in
the Morris prints in nineteenth-century Britain was manufactured from indigo plants
cultivated in India.
· The French began cultivating indigo in St Domingue in the Caribbean islands, the
Portuguese in Brazil, the English in Jamaica, and the Spanish in Venezuela. Indigo
plantations also came up in many parts of North America.
· In 1792 France abolished slavery in the French colonies.
· Bigha is a unit of measurement of land. Before British rule, the size of this area varied. In
Bengal the British standardised it to about one-third of an acre.
· Indigo making in the West Indies: In the early eighteenth century, a French missionary,
Jean Baptiste Labat, travelled to the Caribbean islands, and wrote extensively about the
region. He described the all the stages of Indigo plantation in the Caribbean islands.
RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE

17
 TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION
4 OF A GOLDEN AGE
Most tribes had customs and rituals that were very different from those laid down by Brahmans. These
societies also did not have the sharp social divisions that were characteristic of caste societies. All those
who belonged to the same tribe thought of themselves as sharing common ties of kinship.

Jhum cultivators:
· Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of north-east and central India.
· The lives of these tribal people depended on free movement within forests and on being able to use
the land and forests for growing their crops. That is the only way they could practise shifting
cultivation.

Jhum cultivation/ Shifting cultivation:

· This was done on small patches of land, mostly in forests.
· The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation
on the land to clear it for cultivation.
· They spread the ash from the firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil.
· Once the crop was ready and harvested, they moved to another field. A field that had been
cultivated once was left fallow for several years.
· Bewar – A term used in Madhya Pradesh for shifting cultivation.

Hunters and gatherers:

TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE

· In many regions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce.
· They saw forests as essential for survival.
· The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Orissa.
· They used many forest shrubs and herbs for medicinal purposes, and sold forest produce in the local
markets.
· When supplies of forest produce shrank, tribal people had to increasingly wander around in search of
work as labourers.
· Baigas of central India: They saw themselves as people of the forest, who could only live on the
produce of the forest. It was below the dignity of a Baiga to become a labourer.
· They consider moneylender and trader as evil outsiders and the cause of their misery.

Animal Herder:
· Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. They were pastoralists who moved with their
herds of cattle or sheep according to the seasons.
· The Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the
Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.

18
 Settled Cultivator:
· Even before the nineteenth century, many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down.
· Mundas of Chottanagpur: In Mundas society, the land belonged to the clan as a whole. All members
of the clan were regarded as descendants of the original settlers, who had first cleared the land.
Therefore, all of them had rights on the land.
· British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised than hunter-
gatherers or shifting cultivators.
· Those who lived in the forests were considered to be wild and savage. They needed to be settled and
civilised.

Effect of Colonial Rule on the Tribal Lives:

· On tribal chiefs: Before the arrival of the British, in many areas the tribal chiefs were important
people.
Ø They enjoyed a certain amount of economic power and had the right to administer and control
their territories.
Ø In some places they had their own police and decided on the local rules of land and forest
management.
Ø Under British rule, they were allowed to keep their land titles over a cluster of villages and rent out
lands.
Ø They lost much of their administrative power and were forced to follow laws made by British
officials in India.
Ø They also had to pay tribute to the British, and discipline the tribal groups on behalf of the British.
TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE

Ø They lost the authority they had earlier enjoyed amongst their people, and were unable to fulfil
their traditional functions.
· On shifting cultivators: Settled peasants were easier to control and administer than people who were
always on the move.
Ø The British also wanted a regular revenue source for the state. So they introduced land settlements.
Ø The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful because:
o Settled plough cultivation is not easy in areas where water is scarce and the soil is dry.
o Jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered, since their fields did not
produce good yields.
Ø The jhum cultivators in north-east India insisted on continuing with their traditional practice.
Ø Facing widespread protests, the British had to ultimately allow them the right to carry on shifting
cultivation in some parts of the forest.

Forest laws and their impact:

· The life of tribal groups was directly connected to the forest. So changes in forest laws had a
considerable effect on tribal lives.
· The British extended their control over all forests and declared that forests were state property.

19
 · Some forests were classified as Reserved Forests. They produced timber which the British wanted. In
these forests people were not allowed to move freely, practise jhum cultivation, collect fruits, or hunt
animals.
· Forest Department established forest villages to ensure a regular supply of cheap labour. jhum
cultivators were allowed to carry shifting Cultivation on small patches of land in the forests in return of
labour.
· Revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam, and the forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the Central
Provinces were organised by Tribal people against Forest laws.

Tribals relation with traders and moneylenders:

· Many tribal groups saw the market and the traders as their main enemies.
· Case of the silk growers: In the eighteenth century, Indian silk was in demand in European markets.
The fine quality of Indian silk was highly valued and exports from India increased rapidly.
Ø As the market expanded, East India Company officials tried to encourage silk production to meet
the growing demand.
Ø Hazaribagh, in present-day Jharkhand, was an area where the Santhals reared cocoons.
Ø The traders dealing in silk sent in their agents who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the
cocoons. The growers were paid Rs. 3 and Rs. 4 for a thousand cocoons. But traders sell at high prices.
Ø Middlemen made huge profits. The silk growers earned very little. So they revolted against it.

Coal miners and workers in Tea plantation:

· From the late nineteenth century, tea plantations started coming up and mining became an

TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE

important industry.
· Tribals were recruited in large numbers to work the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines of
Jharkhand.
· They were recruited through contractors who paid them miserably low wages, and prevented them
from returning home.
· In the 1920s about 50 per cent of the miners in the Jharia and Raniganj coal mines of Bihar were
tribals.

Tribal Rebellions:
· Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled
against the changes in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay, and
the exploitation by traders and moneylenders.
· The Kols rebelled in 1831-32, Santhals rose in revolt in 1855, the Bastar Rebellion in central India
broke out in 1910 and the Warli Revolt in Maharashtra in 1940. The movement that Birsa led was
one such movement (1895).

20
 Birsa Munda:
· Birsa was born in the mid-1870s. Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group that lived in
Chottanagpur.
· Birsa went to the local missionary school. Later Birsa also spent some time in the company of a
prominent Vaishnav preacher.
· He wore the sacred thread, and began to value the importance of purity and piety.
· But his followers included other tribals of the region – Santhals and Oraons. People believed that he
had miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply grain.
· Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to save his people from trouble, free them from the
slavery of dikus (outsiders).

Movement of Birsa:
· His movement was aimed at reforming tribal society. He urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor,
clean their village, and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.
· He saw missionaries and Hindu landlords as outside forces that were ruining the Munda way of life.
· The land policies of the British were destroying their traditional land system, Hindu landlords and
moneylenders were taking over their land, and missionaries were criticising their traditional culture.
· In 1895 Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past. He talked of a golden age in the past –
a satyug (the age of truth) – when Mundas lived a good life.
· Birsa also wanted people to once again work on their land, settle down and cultivate their fields.
· British arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted him on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years. When
Birsa was released in 1897 he began touring the villages to gather support.
TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE

· He used traditional symbols and language to rouse people, urging them to destroy “Ravana” (dikus
and the Europeans) and establish a kingdom under his leadership.
· Birsa's followers began targeting the symbols of diku and European power.
· They attacked police stations and churches, and raided the property of moneylenders and
zamindars. They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
· In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.

Significance of this Movement:

· It forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily
taken over by dikus.
· It showed once again that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express
their anger against colonial rule. They did this in their own specific way, inventing their own rituals and
symbols of struggle.

21
 WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857
5 AND AFTER
Policies of the East India Company affected different sections of society. Kings, queens, peasants, landlords,
tribals, and soldiers were all affected in different ways. These policies and their impact on the different
sections of Indian society led to people to revolt against British empire. One such big revolt happened in
1857. The impact of these policies is summarized in following manner:

Nawabs lose their power:

Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost
their authority and honour.
· Problems with Residents: Residents had been stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers
reduced, their armed forces disbanded, and their revenues and territories taken away by stages.
· Failed Negotiations with British: Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect
their interests. However, the Company, confident of its superiority and military powers, turned down
these pleas.
Ø Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the
kingdom after the death of her husband.
Ø Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he should be given his father's
pension when the latter died.
· Case of Awadh: Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance
was imposed on Awadh, and in 1856 it was taken over.
Ø Governor-General Dalhousie declared that the territory was being misgoverned and British rule
was needed to ensure proper administration
· End of Mughal dynasty: The Company even began to plan how to bring the Mughal dynasty to an end.
Ø The name of the Mughal king was removed from the coins minted by the Company.
Ø In 1849, Governor -General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the
family of the king would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place in Delhi to reside in.
Ø In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal
king and after his death none of his descendants would be recognised as kings – they would just
be called princes.

WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

The peasants and the sepoys:
· High taxes and rigid methods of collection: In the countryside peasants and zamindars resented the
high taxes and the rigid methods of revenue collection.
Ø Many failed to pay back their loans to the moneylenders and gradually lost the lands they had tilled
for generations.
· Issues of Sepoys: The Indian sepoys in the employ of the Company also had reasons for discontent.
Ø They were unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service.
Ø Violations of religious sensibilities and beliefs: Some of the new rules, moreover, violated their
religious sensibilities and beliefs.
Ø Crossing sea Issue: Many people in the country believed that if they crossed the sea they would
lose their religion and caste.
o So when in 1824 the sepoys were told to go to Burma by the sea route to fight for the Company,

22
 they refused to follow the order, though they agreed to go by the land route.
o They were severely punished, and since the issue did not die down, in 1856 the Company
passed a new law which stated that every new person who took up employment in the
Company's army had to agree to serve overseas if required.

Responses to reforms:
· Laws were passed to stop the practice of Sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
· English-language education was actively promoted.
· After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even
own land and property.
· In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law allowed an Indian
who had converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors.
· Many Indians began to feel that the British were destroying their religion, their social customs and
their traditional way of life.

Revolt of 1857:
· After a hundred years of conquest and administration, the English East India Company faced a massive
rebellion that started in May 1857 and threatened the Company's very presence in India.
· Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning from Meerut and a large number of people from different
sections of society rose up in rebellion.
· Some regard it as the biggest armed resistance to colonialism in the nineteenth century anywhere in
the world.

From Meerut to Delhi:

· On 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in
Barrackpore.
· Some days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new
cartridges, which were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.
WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

· Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced to ten years in jail for disobeying their
officers. This happened on 9 May 1857.
· The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was quite extraordinary. On 10 May, the soldiers
marched to the jail in Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys.
· They attacked and killed British officers. They captured guns and ammunition and set fire to the
buildings and properties of the British and declared war on the firangis. The soldiers were determined
to bring an end to their rule in the country.
· They marched to Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Jafar as as their leader.
· He wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organise a confederacy
of Indian states to fight the British. This single step taken by Bahadur Shah had great implications.
· Bahadur Shah Zafar's decision to bless the rebellion changed the entire situation dramatically. Often
when people see an alternative possibility they feel inspired and enthused. It gives them the courage,
hope and confidence to act.

23
 Other Centres of Revolt and leaders

Centre Leaders and their actions

Kanpur Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope

· He proclaimed himself Peshwa. He declared that he was a governor under Emperor
Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Lucknow Birjis Qadr and Begum Hazrat Mahal

· In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed
the new Nawab.
· He too acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar.
· His mother Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part in organising the uprising against the
British.

Jhansi Rani Lakshmibai

· Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the
general of Nana Saheb.

Mandla Rani Avantibai Lodhi

· In the Mandla region of Madhya Pradesh, Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh raised and led an
army of four thousand against the British who had taken over the administration of her state.

Faizabad Ahmadullah Shah

· Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the rule of the British would
come to an end soon.

WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

· He caught the imagination of the people and raised a huge force of supporters. He came to
Lucknow to fight the British.
· In Delhi, a large number of ghazis or religious warriors came together to wipe out the white
people.

Bareilly Bakht Khan

· Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to
Delhi. He became a key military leader of the rebellion.

Bihar Kunwar Singh

· In Bihar, an old zamindar, Kunwar Singh, joined the rebel sepoys and battled with the
British for many months. Leaders and fighters from across the land joined the fight.

24
 The Company Fights Back:
Unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might. It
brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease,
and then moved into the storm centres of the revolt.
· Fate of Bahadur Shah Zafar: Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857. The last
Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Ø He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858.
Ø Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862.
· Lucknow was taken in March 1858. Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858.
· A similar fate awaited Rani Avantibai, who after initial victory in Kheri, chose to embrace death when
surrounded by the British on all sides.
· Tantia Tope escaped to the jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the
support of many tribal and peasant leaders. He was captured, tried and killed in April 1859.
· The British also tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people. They announced rewards for loyal
landholders would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over their lands.
· Hundreds of sepoys, rebels, nawabs and rajas were tried and hanged.

Important changes that were introduced by the British after the revolt of 1857:
· Act of 1858: The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East
India Company to the British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian
affairs.
Ø A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible
for all matters related to the governance of India.
Ø He was given a council to advise him, called the India Council.
Ø The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of
WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

the Crown.
Ø Through these measures the British government accepted direct responsibility for ruling India.
· End of annexation policy: All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never
be annexed in future.
Ø They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However,
they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount.
Ø Thus the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown.
· Change in Army: It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced
and the number of European soldiers would be increased.
Ø It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south
India, more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.

25
 · Confiscated properties of Muslims: The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large
scale and they were treated with suspicion and hostility. The British believed that they were
responsible for the rebellion in a big way.
· The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.
· Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their
lands.

The Khurda Uprising:

· Khurda Uprising took place in 1817. Khurda, a small kingdom built up in the late 16th century in the
south-eastern part of Odisha.
· Its king, Raja Birakishore Dev had to earlier give up the possession of four parganas, the
superintendence of the Jagannath Temple and the administration of fourteen garjats (Princely
States) to the Marathas under compulsion.
· His son and successor, Mukunda Dev II was greatly disturbed with this loss of fortune.
· The British, having established their sway over Bengal Province and Madras Province to the north and
south of Odisha, occupied it in 1803.
· Mukunda Dev II was only given the rights of management of the Jagannath Temple with a grant
amounting to a mere one-tenth of the revenue of his former estate and his residence was fixed at Puri.
· This unfair settlement commenced an era of oppressive foreign rule in Odisha, which paved the way
for a serious armed uprising in 1817.

Paika Bidroha (Paika Rebellion):

· Paika Bidroha (Paika Rebellion) of 1817 in Odisha briefly shook the foundations of British rule in the
eastern part of India.
· Paikas were essentially the peasant militias of the Gajapati rulers of Odisha who rendered military

WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

service to the king during times of war while taking up cultivation during times of peace.
· They unfurled the banner of rebellion against the British under the leadership of Baxi Jagandhu
Bidyadhara as early as 1817 to throw off the British yoke.
· Soon after taking over Khurda, the British followed a policy of resuming service tenures. It bitterly
affected the lives of the ex-militia of the state, the Paiks.
· The severity of the measure was compounded on account of an unreasonable increase in the demand
of revenue and also the oppressive ways of its collection.
· Consequently, there was large scale desertion of people from Khurda between 1805 and 1817.
· The hereditary Military Commander of the deposed king, Jagabandhu Bidyadhar Mahapatra
Bhramarabar Rai or Buxi Jagabandhu as he was popularly known, was one among the dispossessed
land-holders.

26
 · The uprising was set off on 29 March 1817 as the Paiks attacked the police station and other
government establishments at Banpur killing more than a hundred men and took away a large amount
of government money.
· Soon its ripples spread in different directions with Khurda becoming its epicenter. The zamindars and
ryots alike joined the Paiks with enthusiasm.
· A 'no-rent campaign' was also started. The British tried to dislodge the Paiks from their entrenched
position but failed.
· April 1817, Buxi Jagabandhu, leading five to ten thousand Paiks and men of the Kandh tribe seized
Puri and declared the hesitant king, Mukunda Dev II as their ruler.
· The priests of the Jagannath Temple also extended the Paiks their full support.

Response of British:
· Seeing the situation going out of hand, the British clamped Martial Law. The King was quickly
captured and sent to prison in Cuttack with his son.
· The Buxi with his close associate, Krushna Chandra Bhramarabar Rai, tried to cut off all
communications between Cuttack and Khurda as the uprising spread to the southern and the north-
western parts of Odisha.
· Consequently, the British sent Major-General Martindell to clear off the area from the clutches of the
Paiks while at the same time announcing rewards for the arrest of Buxi jagabandhu and his associates.
· In the ensuing operation hundreds of Paiks were killed, many fled to deep jungles and some returned
home under a scheme of amnesty. Thus by May 1817 the uprising was mostly contained.
· However, outside Khurda it was sustained by Buxi Jagabandhu with the help of supporters like the
Raja of Kujung and the unflinching loyalty of the Paiks until his surrender in May 1825.

Impact of Paika Rebellion:

WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

· The British henceforth adopted a policy of 'leniency, indulgence and forbearance' towards the
people of Khurda.
· The price of salt was reduced and necessary reforms were made in the police and the justice
systems.
· Revenue officials found to be corrupt were dismissed from service and former land-holders were
restored to their lands.
· The son of the king of Khurda, Ram Chandra Dev III was allowed to move to Puri and take charge of
the affairs of the Jagannath Temple with a grant of rupees twenty-four thousand.
· Government of India recognised Paika Bidroha (Paika Rebellion) of 1817 in Odisha as first war of
independence. Previously, the revolt of 1857 was considered as first war of independence.

27
 Interesting points
· Taiping Rebellion: While the revolt was spreading in India in 1857, a massive popular
uprising was raging in the southern parts of China. It had started in 1850 and could be
suppressed only by the mid-1860s.
Ø Thousands of labouring, poor people were led by Hong Xiuquan to fight for the
establishment of the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace. This was known as the Taiping
Rebellion.
Ø Hong Xiuquan was a convert to Christianity and was against the traditional religions
practised in China such as Confucianism and Buddhism.
Ø The rebels of Taiping wanted to establish a kingdom where a form of Christianity was
practised, where no one held any private property, where there was no difference
between social classes and between men and women, where consumption of opium,
tobacco, alcohol, and activities like gambling, prostitution, slavery, were prohibited.
Ø The British and French armed forces operating in China helped the emperor of the Qing
dynasty to put down the Taiping Rebellion.
· Majha Pravaas: The book Majha Pravaas, was written by Vishnubhatt Godse, a Brahman
from a village in Maharashtra. It discussed the details of sepoys plan in 1857.
· From Sepoy to Subedar: It was written by Subedar Sitaram Pande in Awadhi and Norgate
translated it into English. Sitaram Pande was recruited in 1812 as a sepoy in the Bengal
Native Army. It provides the details about the British plan to deal with sepoys.

WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

28
 WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS
6 AND FACTORY OWNERS
Textiles and iron and steel industries were crucial for the industrial revolution in the modern world.
Mechanised production of cotton textiles made Britain the foremost industrial nation in the nineteenth
century.
When British iron and steel industry started growing from the 1850s, Britain came to be known as the
“workshop of the world”.
The industrialisation of Britain had a close connection with the conquest and colonisation of India.

Indian Textiles and the World Market:

· Around 1750, before the British conquered Bengal, India was by far the world's largest producer of
cotton textiles. Indian textiles had long been renowned both for their fine quality and exquisite
craftsmanship.
· They were extensively traded in Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra and Penang) and West and Central
Asia. From the sixteenth century European trading companies began buying Indian textiles for sale in
Europe.
· European traders first encountered fine cotton cloth from India carried by Arab merchants in Mosul in
present-day Iraq. So they began referring to all finely woven textiles as “muslin” – a word that
acquired wide currency.
· When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices they landed in Calicut on the Kerala
coast in south-west India.
· The cotton textiles which they took back to Europe, along with the spices, came to be called “calico”
(derived from Calicut), and subsequently calico became the general name for all cotton textiles.
· Printed cotton cloths called chintz, cossaes (or khassa) and bandanna were in great demand.
English term chintz comes from Hindi word chhint, a cloth with small and colourful flowery designs.
· From the 1680s there started a craze for printed Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe mainly
WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

for their exquisite floral designs, fine texture and relative cheapness. Rich people of England
including the Queen herself wore clothes of Indian fabric.
· Similarly, the word bandanna now refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or
head. Originally, the term derived from the word “bandhna” (Hindi for tying), and referred to a variety
of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying.
· Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore cloths also were in demand.

Additional Information:
· Patola was woven in Surat, Ahmedabad and Patan. Highly valued in Indonesia, it became part of the
local weaving tradition there.

Fig 6.1: Patola weave, mid-nineteenth century

29
· Jamdani is a fine muslin on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom, typically in grey and
white. Often a mixture of cotton and gold thread was used. The most important centres of jamdani
weaving were Dacca in Bengal and Lucknow in the United Provinces.

Fig 6.2: Jamdani weave, early twentieth century

· Chintz produced in Masulipatnam, Andhra Pradesh. Chintz was produced for export to Iran and
Europe.

WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

Fig 6.3: Chintz Printed design

· Bandanna patterns were mostly produced in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Odhni, is one type of Bandana
Pattern cloths.

Fig 6.4: Bandanna design, early twentieth century

30
 Indian textiles in European markets:
· Calico Act: By the early eighteenth century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk
makers in England began protesting against the import of Indian cotton textiles.
Ø In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed cotton textiles –
chintz – in England. Interestingly, this Act was known as the Calico Act.
· Development of Calico Industry in Europe: At this time textile industries had just begun to develop in
England. Unable to compete with Indian textiles, English producers wanted a secure market within
the country by preventing the entry of Indian textiles.
Ø The first to grow under government protection was the calico printing industry. Indian designs
were now imitated and printed in England on white muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth.
· Technological innovation in England: Competition with Indian textiles also led to a search for
technological innovation in England.
Ø In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the
traditional spindles.
Ø The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786 revolutionised cotton textile
weaving. Cloth could now be woven in immense quantities and cheaply too.
· European trading companies – the Dutch, the French and the English – made enormous profits out of
this flourishing trade. These companies purchased cotton and silk textiles in India by importing
silver.
· When the English East India Company gained political power in Bengal, it no longer had to import
precious metal to buy Indian goods. Instead, they collected revenues from peasants and zamindars in
WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

India, and used this revenue to buy Indian textiles.

Textile production In India:

· Textile production was concentrated in four regions in the early nineteenth century.
· Bengal was one of the most important centres. Located along the numerous rivers in the delta,
the production centres in Bengal could easily transport goods to distant places.
· Dacca in Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh) was concentrated the foremost textile centre in the
eighteenth century. It was famous for its mulmul and jamdani weaving.
· A second cluster of cotton weaving centres was along the Coromandel coast stretching from
Madras to northern Andhra Pradesh.
· On the western coast there were important weaving centres in Gujarat.

31
Weavers:
· Weavers often belonged to communities that specialised in weaving. Their skills were passed on from
one generation to the next.
· The tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India, sale and kaikollar and
devangs of south India are some of the communities famous for weaving.
· The first stage of production was spinning – a work done mostly by women. The charkha and the
takli were household spinning instruments.
· The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the takli. When the spinning was over the thread
was woven into cloth by the weaver. In most communities weaving was a task done by men.
· For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez.
· For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars.
· Handloom weaving and the occupations associated with it provided livelihood for millions of Indians.

The decline of Indian textiles:

The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India in several ways:
· Competition with British textiles: Indian textiles now had to compete with British textiles in the
European and American markets.
Ø By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English made cotton textiles successfully ousted
Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and Europe
Ø English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents no longer gave
out advances to weavers to secure supplies.

WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

· High duties on Indian Textiles: Exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since
very high duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.
· Britain Captured Indian Market: By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. In fact, by
the 1880s two-thirds of all the cotton clothes worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in
Britain.

Impact of decline of Indian textiles:

· Thousands of weavers in India were now thrown out of employment. Bengal weavers were the worst hit.
· This affected not only specialist weavers but also spinners. Thousands of rural women who made a
living by spinning cotton thread were rendered jobless.

Reasons for Handloom weaving not dying completely:

· Some types of cloths could not be supplied by machines. Saris with intricate borders or cloths with
traditional woven patterns had a wide demand not only amongst the rich but also amongst the middle
classes.

32
 · Nor did the textile manufacturers in Britain produce the very coarse cloths used by the poor people in
India.

New Handloom centres:

· Sholapur in western India and Madura in South India emerged as important new centres of weaving
in the late nineteenth century.
Efforts of Revival of Handloom Industry:
· During the national movement, Mahatma Gandhi urged people to boycott imported textiles and use
hand-spun and handwoven cloth.
· Khadi gradually became a symbol of nationalism. The charkha came to represent India, and it was put
at the centre of the tricolour flag of the Indian National Congress adopted in 1931.
· The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory production in India, therefore, was during the
First World War when textile imports from Britain declined and Indian factories were called upon to
produce cloth for military supplies.

New Job pattern for weavers:

· Many weavers became agricultural labourers.
· Some migrated to cities in search of work, and yet others went out of the country to work in
plantations in Africa and South America.
· Some of these handloom weavers also found work in the new cotton mills that were established in
Bombay (now Mumbai), Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur.
WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

Cotton mills:
· The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854.
· From the early nineteenth century, Bombay had grown as an important port for the export of raw
cotton from India to England and China.
· It was close to the vast black soil tract of western India where cotton was grown. When the cotton
textile mills came up they could get supplies of raw material with ease.
· By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay. Many of these were established by Parsi and
Gujarati businessmen who had made their money through trade with China
· The first mill in Ahmedabad was started in 1861.
· A year later a mill was established in Kanpur, in the United Provinces.
· Growth of cotton mills led to a demand for labour. Thousands of poor peasants, artisans and
agricultural labourers moved to the cities to work in the mills.

33
Wootz Steel:
· Wootz steel was produced all over south India.
· Wootz steel when made into swords produced a very sharp edge with a flowing water pattern. This
pattern came from very small carbon crystals embedded in the iron.
· Francis Buchanan who toured through Mysore in 1800, a year after Tipu Sultan's death, has left us an
account of the technique by which Wootz steel was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces
in Mysore.
· In these furnaces, iron was mixed with charcoal and put inside small clay pots. Through an intricate
control of temperatures the smelters produced steel ingots that were used for sword making not just
in India but in West and Central Asia too.
· Wootz is an anglicised version of the Kannada word ukku, Telugu hukku and Tamil and Malayalam
urukku – meaning steel.
· Tipu Sultan's legendary swords are now part of valuable collections in museums in England was made
up of Wootz steel.
· Indian Wootz steel fascinated European scientists. Michael Faraday, the legendary scientist and
discoverer of electricity and electromagnetism, spent four years studying the properties of Indian
Wootz (1818-22).
· The Wootz steel making process, which was so widely known in south India, was completely lost by
the mid-nineteenth century.
· The swords and armour making industry died with the conquest of India by the British and imports
of iron and steel from England displaced the iron and steel produced by craftspeople in India.

WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

· When the colonial government prevented people from entering the reserved forests, led to decline in
the craft of iron smelting.

Iron and steel factories come up in India:

· The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) that came up began producing steel in 1912. It was set up in
the industrial township – Jamshedpur which is located on the banks of the river Subarnarekha.
· Expansion of the railways in India had provided a huge market for rails that Britain produced. In 1914
the First World War broke out.
· Steel produced in Britain now had to meet the demands of war in Europe. So imports of British steel
into India declined dramatically and the Indian Railways turned to TISCO for supply of rails.
· TISCO had to produce shells and carriage wheels for the war. By 1919 the colonial government was
buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO.
· Over time TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.

34
 Interesting points
· Early years of industrialisation in Japan: The history of industrialisation of Japan in the late
nineteenth century presents a contrast to that of India. The colonial state in India, keen to
expand the market for British goods, was unwilling to support Indian industrialists.
Ø In Japan, the state encouraged the growth of industries. The Meiji regime, which assumed
power in Japan in 1868, believed that Japan needed to industrialise in order to resist
Western domination.
Ø Measures to help industrialisation: Postal services, telegraph, railways, steam powered
shipping were developed.
o The most advanced technology from the West was imported and adapted to the needs
of Japan.
o Foreign experts were brought to train Japanese professionals.
o Industrialists were provided with generous loans for investment by banks set up the
government.
o Large industries were first started by the government and then sold off at cheap rates
to business families.
Ø In India colonial domination created barriers to industrialisation. In Japan the fear of foreign
conquest spurred industrialisation. But this also meant that the Japanese industrial
development from the beginning was linked to military needs.
· Spinning Jenny is a machine by which a single worker could operate several spindles on to
which thread was spun. When the wheel was turned all the spindles rotated.
· Aurang is a Persian term for a warehouse – a place where goods are collected before being
WEAVERS, IRON SMELTERS AND FACTORY OWNERS

sold; also refers to a workshop.

· Samachar Darpan was a Bengali Newspaper.
· Smelting is the process of obtaining a metal from rock (or soil) by heating it to a very high
temperature, or of melting objects made from metal in order to use the metal to make
something new.

35
 CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”,
7 EDUCATING THE NATION
The British in India wanted not only territorial conquest and control over revenues. They also felt that they
had a cultural mission: they had to “civilise the natives”, change their customs and values.

British Policies about Education

Tradition of Orientalism:
· Role Asiatic Society of Bengal: William Jones was appointment as a junior judge at the Supreme
Court that the Company had set up. In addition to being an expert in law, Jones was a linguist.
Ø Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were working on ancient
Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into
English.
Ø Together with them, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and started a journal called
Asiatick Researches.
Ø Jones and Colebrooke came to represent a particular attitude towards India. They shared a deep
respect for ancient cultures, both of India and the West. Indian civilisation, they felt, had attained
its glory in the ancient past, but had subsequently declined.
Ø It helped the British learn from Indian culture, but it would also help Indians rediscover their
own heritage, and understand the lost glories of their past.
· Development of Vernacular Education:
Ø Influenced by Asiatic society' ideas, many Company officials argued that the British ought to
promote Indian rather than Western learning.
Ø They felt that institutions should be set up to encourage the study of ancient Indian texts and
teach Sanskrit and Persian literature and poetry.

CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”, EDUCATING THE NATION

o With this object in view a madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of
Arabic, Persian and Islamic law.
o The Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient
Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the country.
· Criticism of the Orientalist vision of learning:
Ø Grave errors of the East: Many British officials began to criticise the Orientalist vision of learning
because they felt that knowledge of the East was full of errors and unscientific thought; Eastern
literature was non-serious and light-hearted.
Ø James Mill' Thought: James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists.
o The aim of education ought to be to teach what was useful and practical.
o So, Indians should be made familiar with the scientific and technical advances that the West
had made, rather than with the poetry and sacred literature of the Orient.
Ø Macaulay's Minutes: Thomas Babington Macaulay saw India as an uncivilised country that
needed to be civilised.

36
 o No branch of Eastern knowledge, according to him could be compared to what England had
produced.
o He urged that the British government in India stop wasting public money in promoting
Oriental learning, for it was of no practical use.
o With great energy and passion, Macaulay emphasised the need to teach the English
language.
Ø English Education Act of 1835: The decision was to make English the medium of instruction for
higher education, and to stop the promotion of Oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and
Benaras Sanskrit College.
o These institutions were seen as “temples of darkness that were falling of themselves into
decay”.
o English textbooks now began to be produced for schools.

Charles Wood's Despatch:

· In 1854, the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to
the Governor-General in India. Issued by Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the
Company, it has come to be known as Wood's Despatch.
· It emphasised on the practical benefits of a system of European learning, as opposed to Oriental
knowledge.
· One of the practical uses the Despatch pointed to was economic. European learning would enable
Indians to recognise the advantages that flow from the expansion of trade and commerce, and
make them see the importance of developing the resources of the country.
CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”, EDUCATING THE NATION

· Introducing them to European ways of life, would change their tastes and desires, and create a
demand for British goods, for Indians would begin to appreciate and buy things that were produced
in Europe.
· Wood's Despatch also argued that European learning would improve the moral character of
Indians. It would make them truthful and honest, and thus supply the Company with civil servants
who could be trusted and depended upon. It could develop the skills required for administration.
· Measures taken after Wood's Despatch:
Ø Education departments of the government were set up to extend control over all matters
regarding education.
Ø Steps were taken to establish a system of university education. Universities were being
established in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.
Ø Attempts were also made to bring about changes within the system of school education.

37
 Demand for moral education:
· The argument for practical education was strongly criticised by the Christian missionaries in
India in the nineteenth century.
· The missionaries felt that education should attempt to improve the moral character of the
people, and morality could be improved only through Christian education.
· Until 1813, the East India Company was opposed to missionary activities in India. It feared
that missionary activities would provoke reaction amongst the local population and make them
suspicious of British presence in India.
· Unable to establish an institution within British-controlled territories, the missionaries set up a
mission at Serampore in an area under the control of the Danish East India Company. William
Carey was a Scottish missionary who helped establish the Serampore Mission.
· A printing press was set up in 1800 and a college established in 1818.
· Over the nineteenth century, missionary schools were set up all over India.
· After 1857, however, the British government in India was reluctant to directly support
missionary education.
· There was a feeling that any strong attack on local customs, practices, beliefs and religious
ideas might enrage “native” opinion.
· A second cluster of cotton weaving centres was along the Coromandel coast stretching from
Madras to northern Andhra Pradesh. On the western coast there were important weaving

CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”, EDUCATING THE NATION

centres in Gujarat.

The report of William Adam:

In the 1830s, William Adam, a Scottish missionary, toured the districts of Bengal and Bihar. He prepared
a report on the progress of education in vernacular schools.

Findings of Adam's Report:

· Chain of Small Institutions: Adam found that there were over 1 lakh pathshalas in Bengal and
Bihar. These were small institutions with no more than 20 students each.
Ø The total number of children being taught in these pathshalas was considerable – over 20 lakh.
Ø These institutions were set up by wealthy people, or the local community. At times they were
started by a teacher (guru).

38
 · Flexible system of Education: The system of education was flexible. There were no fixed fee, no
printed books, no separate school building, no system of separate classes, no annual
examinations, and no regular time-table.
Ø Adam discovered that this flexible system was suited to local needs. For instance, classes were
not held during harvest time when rural children often worked in the fields.
Ø The pathshala started once again when the crops had been cut and stored. This meant that even
children of peasant families could study.
· Fee Structure: Fee depended on the income of parents: The rich had to pay more than the poor.
· Teaching Methods: Teaching was oral, and the guru decided what to teach, in accordance with the
needs of the students. The guru interacted separately with groups of children with different levels
of learning.

Improvement in the system of vernacular education:

Up to the mid-nineteenth century, the Company was concerned primarily with higher education. So it
allowed the local pathshalas to function without much interference.
After 1854 the Company decided to improve the system of vernacular education.
It felt that this could be done by introducing order within the system, imposing routines, establishing
rules, ensuring regular inspections.
· Appointment of government pandits: It appointed a number of government pandits, each in charge
of looking after four to five schools.
Ø The task of the pandit was to visit the pathshalas and try and improve the standard of teaching.
· Regular timetable: Each guru was asked to submit periodic reports and take classes according to a
regular timetable.
· Textbook and Test Approach: Teaching was now to be based on textbooks and learning was to be
tested through a system of annual examination.
CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”, EDUCATING THE NATION

· Regular fee Structure: Students were asked to pay a regular fee, attend regular classes, sit on fixed
seats, and obey the new rules of discipline.
· System of Grants: Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through government
grants. Those who were unwilling to work within the new system received no government
support.
· Consequences of New Rules:
Ø Over time gurus who wanted to retain their independence found it difficult to compete with the
government aided and regulated pathshalas.
Ø The discipline of the new system demanded regular attendance, even during harvest time when
children of poor families had to work in the fields.
Ø Inability to attend school came to be seen as indiscipline, as evidence of the lack of desire to learn.

The Agenda for a National Education:

· Impressed with the developments in Europe, some Indians felt that Western education would help
modernise India. They urged the British to open more schools, colleges and universities, and
spend more money on education.

39
 · There were other Indians, however, who reacted against Western education. Mahatma Gandhi
and Rabindranath Tagore were two such individuals.

Mahatma Gandhi's View on Education:

· Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of
Indians.
· It made them see Western civilisation as superior, and destroyed the pride they had in their own
culture.
· There was poison in this education, said Mahatma Gandhi, it was sinful, it enslaved Indians, it cast
an evil spell on them.
· Charmed by the West, appreciating everything that came from the West, Indians educated in these
institutions began admiring British rule.
· Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education that could help Indians recover their sense of dignity and
self-respect.
· During the national movement he urged students to leave educational institutions in order to show
to the British that Indians were no longer willing to be enslaved.
· Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching.
· Education in English crippled Indians, distanced them from their own social surroundings, and
made them “strangers in their own lands”.
· Western education, Mahatma Gandhi said, focused on reading and writing rather than oral
knowledge; it valued textbooks rather than lived experience and practical knowledge.
· He argued that education ought to develop a person's mind and soul.

CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”, EDUCATING THE NATION

· Literacy – or simply learning to read and write – by itself did not count as education.
· People had to work with their hands, learn a craft, and know how different things operated. This
would develop their mind and their capacity to understand.

Tagore's View on Education:

· Rabindranath Tagore started the Santiniketan in 1901.
· He wanted to set up a school where the child was happy, where she could be free and creative,
where she was able to explore her own thoughts and desires.
· Tagore felt that childhood ought to be a time of self-learning, outside the rigid and restricting
discipline of the schooling system set up by the British.
· Teachers had to be imaginative, understand the child, and help the child develop her curiosity.
· According to Tagore, the existing schools killed the natural desire of the child to be creative, her
sense of wonder.
· Tagore was of the view that creative learning could be encouraged only within a natural

40
 environment. So he chose to set up his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta, in a rural setting.
· He saw it as an abode of peace (santiniketan), where living in harmony with nature, children could
cultivate their natural creativity.

Comparative analysis of Tagore and Gandhi Ji's views on Education:

· In many senses Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi thought about education in similar ways. There were,
however, differences too.
· Gandhiji was highly critical of Western civilisation and its worship of machines and technology.
· Tagore wanted to combine elements of modern Western civilisation with what he saw as the best
within Indian tradition. He emphasised the need to teach science and technology at Santiniketan,
along with art, music and dance.

Aurobindo Ghose's view about education:

· In a speech delivered on January 15, 1908 in Bombay, Aurobindo Ghose stated that the goal of
national education was to awaken the spirit of nationality among the students.
· This required a contemplation of the heroic deeds of our ancestors.
· The education should be imparted in the vernacular so as to reach the largest number of people.
· Aurobindo Ghose emphasised that although the students should remain connected to their own
roots, they should also take the fullest advantage of modern scientific discoveries and
Western experiments in popular governments.
· The students should also learn some useful crafts so that they could be able to find some
CIVILISING THE “NATIVE”, EDUCATING THE NATION

moderately remunerative employment after leaving their schools.

Interesting points
· Henry Thomas Colebrooke was a scholar of Sanskrit and ancient sacred writings of Hinduism.
· Madrasa is an Arabic word for a place of learning; any type of school or college.
· Orientalists are those with a scholarly knowledge of the language and culture of Asia.
· Munshi is a person who can read, write and teach Persian.
· Vernacular is a term generally used to refer to a local language or dialect as distinct from what is
seen as the standard language.
Ø In colonial countries like India, the British used the term to mark the difference between the
local languages of everyday use and English – the language of the imperial masters.

41
 WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM
8
Two hundred years ago, the Indian society was full of evil practices and social dogmas. Over the time, they
became the norms of society. Over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many of these norms and
perceptions slowly changed due to the large scale social reforms in various parts of the country.
From the early nineteenth century, we find debates and discussions about social customs and practices
taking on a new character. One important reason for this was the development of new forms of
communication. For the first time, books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets were printed.

Problems of Indian Society:

· Child Marriage: Most children were married off at an early age.
· Polygamy: Both Hindu and Muslim men could marry more than one wife.
· Practice of Sati: In some parts of the country, widows were praised if they chose death by burning
themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands. Women who died in this manner, whether willingly
or otherwise, were called “sati”, meaning virtuous women.
· Limited rights of women: Women's rights to property were also restricted.
· Women Illiteracy: Most women had virtually no access to education. In many parts of the country
people believed that if a woman was educated, she would become a widow.
· Caste hierarchy: Brahmans and Kshatriyas considered themselves as “upper castes”.
Ø Traders and moneylenders (often referred to as Vaishyas) were placed after them.
Ø Then came peasants, and artisans such as weavers and potters (referred to as Shudras).
Ø At the lowest rung were those who laboured to keep cities and villages clean or worked at jobs
that upper castes considered “polluting”, that is, it could lead to the loss of caste status.
· Untouchability: The upper castes also treated many of these groups at the bottom as “untouchable”.
Ø They were not allowed to enter temples, draw water from the wells used by the upper castes, or
bathe in ponds where upper castes bathed. They were seen as inferior human beings.

Raja Rammohun Roy and Brahmo Samaj:

· Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833) founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later
known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta.
· Rammohun Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of Western education in the country and bring
about greater freedom and equality for women.
WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM
· He wrote about the way women were forced to bear the burden of domestic work, confined to the
home and the kitchen, and not allowed to move out and become educated.
· Rammohun Roy was particularly moved by the problems widows faced in their lives. He began a
campaign against the practice of sati.
· Rammohun Roy was well versed in Sanskrit, Persian and several other Indian and Europeon
languages. He tried to show through his writings that the practice of widow burning had no sanction in
ancient texts. In 1829, sati was banned.
· Rammohun Roy translated an old Buddhist text that was critical of caste.

42
 The Brahmo Samaj:
· The Brahmo Samaj, formed in 1830, prohibited all forms of idolatry and sacrifice, believed in the
Upanishads, and forbade its members from criticising other religious practices.
· It critically drew upon the ideals of religions – especially of Hinduism and Christianity – looking at
their negative and positive dimensions.
· Keshub Chunder Sen was one of the main leaders of the Brahmo Samaj.
· A second cluster of cotton weaving centres was along the Coromandel coast stretching from
Madras to northern Andhra Pradesh. On the western coast there were important weaving
centres in Gujarat.

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar:
· Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry.
· His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow
remarriage.
· Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls.

Veerasalingam Pantulu:
· In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an
association for widow remarriage.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj:

· In the north, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the reform association called Arya Samaj,
supported widow remarriage.
· Dayanand founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, an organisation that attempted to reform Hinduism.
· Schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab.

Mumtaz Ali:
WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM

· In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic. They
were taught by women who came home to teach.
· Some reformers such as Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted verses from the Koran to argue for women's
education.
· The first Urdu novels began to be written from the late nineteenth century.

Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain:

· Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.

43
 · She was a fearless critic of conservative ideas, arguing that religious leaders of every faith accorded
an inferior place to women.

Tarabai Shinde:
· Tarabai Shinde, a woman educated at home at Poona, published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A
Comparison between Women and Men), criticising the social differences between men and
women.

Pandita Ramabai:
· Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and
wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women.
· She founded a widows' home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had been treated badly by
their husbands' relatives. Here women were trained so that they could support themselves
economically.

Ghasidas:
· The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas who worked among the
leatherworkers and organised a movement to improve their social status.

Haridas Thakur:
· In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur's Matua sect worked among Chandala cultivators. Haridas
questioned Brahmanical texts that supported the caste system.

Shri Narayana Guru:

· In Kerala, a guru from Ezhava caste, Shri Narayana Guru, proclaimed the ideals of unity for his people.
He argued against treating people unequally on the basis of caste differences.
· According to him, all humankind belonged to the same caste.
· One of his famous statements was: “oru jati, oru matam, oru daivam manushyanu” (one caste, one
religion, one god for humankind).

Jyotirao Phule: WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM

· One of the most vocal amongst the “low-caste” leaders was Jyotirao Phule. Born in 1827, he studied
in schools set up by Christian missionaries.
· He raised his voice against the injustices of caste society. He set out to attack the Brahmans' claim
that they were superior to others, since they were Aryans.
· Phule argued that the Aryans were foreigners, who came from outside the subcontinent, and
defeated and subjugated the Indian people.
· As the Aryans established their dominance, they began looking at the defeated population as inferior,
as low caste people.

44
 · According to Phule, the “upper” castes had no right to their land and power: in reality, the land
belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes.
· He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to
challenge caste discrimination.
· The Satyashodhak Samaj, an association Phule founded, propagated caste equality.
· In 1873, Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri, meaning slavery. Phule dedicated his book to all
those Americans who had fought to free slaves, thus establishing a link between the conditions of
the “lower” castes in India and the black slaves in America.
· Phule extended his criticism of the caste system to argue against all forms of inequality. He was
concerned about the plight of “upper”-caste women, the miseries of the labourer, and the
humiliation of the “low” castes.

Dr B.R. Ambedkar:
· Ambedkar was born into a Mahar family. As a child he experienced what caste prejudice meant in
everyday life.
· In school he was forced to sit outside the classroom on the ground, and was not allowed to drink
water from taps that upper -caste children used.
· After finishing school, he got a fellowship to go to the US for higher studies.
· On his return to India in 1919, he wrote extensively about “upper”-caste power in contemporary
society.
· In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers
participated. Brahman priests were outraged when the Dalits used water from the temple tank.
· Ambedkar led three such movements for temple entry between 1927 and 1935. His aim was to
make everyone see the power of caste prejudices within society.

E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker:

· E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, as he was called, came from a middle-class family.
· He had been an ascetic in his early life and had studied Sanskrit scriptures carefully.
· Later, he became a member of the Congress, only to leave it in disgust when he found that at a feast
organised by nationalists, seating arrangements followed caste distinctions – that is, the lower castes
WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM

were made to sit at a distance from the upper castes.

· Convinced that untouchables had to fight for their dignity, Periyar founded the Self Respect
Movement.
· He argued that untouchables were the true upholders of an original Tamil and Dravidian culture
which had been subjugated by Brahmans.
· He felt that all religious authorities saw social divisions and inequality as God-given.
· Untouchables had to free themselves, therefore, from all religions in order to achieve social equality.
· Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures, especially the Codes of Manu, the ancient
lawgiver, and the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana.

45
 · He said that these texts had been used to establish the authority of Brahmans over lower castes and
the domination of men over women.

Derozio and Young Bengal Henry:

· Louis Vivian Derozio, a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta, in the 1820s, promoted radical ideas and
encouraged his pupils to question all authority.
· Referred to as the Young Bengal Movement, his students attacked tradition and custom, demanded
education for women and campaigned for the freedom of thought and expression.

The Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda:

· Named after Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda's guru, the Ramakrishna Mission
stressed the ideal of salvation through social service and selfless action.
· Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), whose original name was Narendra Nath Dutta, combined the
simple teachings of Sri Ramakrishna with his well-founded modern outlook and spread them all over
the world.
· He participated in the World Parliament of Religions at Chicago in 1893.

The Prarthana Samaj:

· Established in 1867 at Bombay, the Prarthana Samaj sought to remove caste restrictions, abolish
child marriage, encourage the education of women, and end the ban on widow remarriage.
· Its religious meetings drew upon Hindu, Buddhist and Christian texts.
· The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti that believed in spiritual equality of all
castes.

The Veda Samaj:

· Established in Madras (Chennai) in 1864, the Veda Samaj was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj.
· It worked to abolish caste distinctions and promote widow remarriage and women's education.
· Its members believed in one God. They condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox
Hinduism.

WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM

Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement:
· The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, founded by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875 at Aligarh, later
became the Aligarh Muslim University.
· The institution offered modern education, including Western science, to Muslims. The Aligarh
Movement, as it was known, had an enormous impact in the area of educational reform.

The Singh Sabha Movement:

· Reform organisations of the Sikhs, the first Singh Sabhas were formed at Amritsar in 1873 and at
Lahore in 1879.

46
 · The Sabhas sought to rid Sikhism of superstitions, caste distinctions and practices seen by them as
non-Sikh.
· They promoted education among the Sikhs, often combining modern instruction with Sikh teachings.

Interesting points
· Rashsundari Debi: She was a Bengali woman who is identified as the author of first full-
fledged autobiography in modern Bengali literature. She is among the earliest woman
writers in Bengali literature.
· In the twentieth century, leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose lent
their support to demands for greater equality and freedom for women. Nationalist leaders
promised that there would be full suffrage for all men and women after Independence.
· Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929: According to the Act no man below the age of 18 and
woman below the age of 16 could marry. Subsequently these limits were raised to 21 for
men and 18 for women.
· In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of
caste.
· Madigas were an important untouchable caste of present-day Andhra Pradesh. They
were experts at cleaning hides, tanning them for use, and sewing sandals.
· Sanatan Dharma Sabhas and the Bharat Dharma Mahamandal in the north, and
associations like the Brahman Sabha in Bengal were orthodox Hindu society.
Ø The object of these associations was to uphold caste distinctions as a cornerstone of
Hinduism, and show how this was sanctified by scriptures.
· Khalsa College, Amritsar, established in 1892 by the leaders of the Singh Sabha
movement.
WOMEN, CASTE AND REFORM

47
 THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL
9 MOVEMENT: 1870s—1947
Consciousness about the feelings of Nationalism began to be clearly stated by the political associations
formed after 1850, especially those that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s.
Most of these were led by English-educated professionals such as lawyers. The more important ones were
the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency
Association, and of course the Indian National Congress.
· Many of these associations functioned in specific parts of the country, their goals were stated as the
goals of all the people of India, not those of any one region, community or class.
· They worked with the idea that the people should be sovereign – a modern consciousness and a key
feature of nationalism.

Dissatisfaction with British rule:

The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the 1870s and 1880s.
· Arms Act 1878: The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms.
· Vernacular Press Act 1878: Vernacular Press Act was enacted in an effort to silence those who were
critical of the government.
Ø The Act allowed the government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing
presses if the newspapers published anything that was found “objectionable”.
· Ilbert Bill: In 1883, there was a furore over the attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill.
Ø The bill provided for the trial of British or European persons by Indians, and sought equality
between British and Indian judges in the country.
Ø But when white opposition forced the government to withdraw the bill, Indians were enraged.

THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

The event highlighted the racial attitudes of the British in India.
Ø The need for an all-India organisation of educated Indians had been felt since 1880, but the Ilbert
Bill controversy deepened this desire.

Indian National Congress:

· The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at
Bombay in December 1885.
· The early leadership – Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji,
Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, among others – was largely from
Bombay and Calcutta.
· Naoroji, a businessman and publicist settled in London, and for a time member of the British
Parliament, guided the younger nationalists.
· A retired British official, A.O. Hume, also played a part in bringing Indians from the various regions
together.

“Moderate” Phase of Congress:

· Congress in the first twenty years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods.
· During this period it demanded a greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration.

48
 · It wanted the Legislative Councils to be made more representative, given more power, and
introduced in provinces where none existed.
· It demanded that Indians be placed in high positions in the government. For this purpose it called for
civil service examinations to be held in India as well, not just in London.
· The demand for Indianisation of the administration was part of a movement against racisim, since
most important jobs at the time were monopolised by white officials, and the British generally
assumed that Indians could not be given positions of responsibility.
· Since British officers were sending a major part of their large salaries home, Indianisation, it was
hoped, would also reduce the drain of wealth to England.
· Other demands included the separation of the judiciary from the executive, the repeal of the Arms
Act and the freedom of speech and expression.
· The early Congress also raised a number of economic issues. It declared that British rule had led to
poverty and famines: increase in the land revenue had impoverished peasants and zamindars, and
exports of grains to Europe had created food shortages.
· The Congress demanded reduction of revenue, cut in military expenditure, and more funds for
irrigation.
· It passed many resolutions on the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad, and the sufferings
of forest dwellers – caused by an interfering forest administration.
· The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule.
They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed how British rule was leading to the
economic ruin of the country.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

· They criticised British rule in their speeches and sent representatives to different parts of the country
to mobilise public opinion.
· They felt that the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and justice, and so they would accept the
just demands of Indians. They make the government aware of the feelings of Indians.

“Radical” Phase of Congress:

· By the 1890s many Indians began to raise questions about the political style of the Congress.
· In Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala
Lajpat Rai were beginning to explore more radical objectives and methods.
· They criticised the Moderates for their “politics of prayers” and emphasised the importance of self-
reliance and constructive work.
· They argued that people must rely on their own strength, not on the “good” intentions of the
government; people must fight for swaraj.
· Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”

Partition of Bengal:
· In 1905, Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal. At that time Bengal was the biggest province of British
India and included Bihar and parts of Orissa.

49
 · The British argued for dividing Bengal for reasons of administrative convenience. It was closely tied to
the interests of British officials and businessmen.
· Instead of removing the non-Bengali areas from the province, the government separated East Bengal
and merged it with Assam.
· Perhaps the main British motives were to curtail the influence of Bengali politicians and to split the
Bengali people.
· The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India. All sections of the Congress – the Moderates
and the Radicals opposed it.
· Large public meetings and demonstrations were organised and novel methods of mass protest
developed.
· The struggle that unfolded came to be known as the Swadeshi movement, strongest in Bengal but
with echoes elsewhere too – in deltaic Andhra for instance, it was known as the Vandemataram
Movement.

Swadeshi Movement:
· The Swadeshi movement sought to oppose British rule and encourage the ideas of self-help,
swadeshi enterprise, national education, and use of Indian languages.
· To fight for swaraj, the radicals advocated mass mobilisation and boycott of British institutions and
goods.
· Some individuals also began to suggest that “revolutionary violence” would be necessary to
overthrow British rule.

THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

All India Muslim League:
· A group of Muslim landlords and nawabs formed the All India Muslim League at Dacca in 1906.
· The League supported the partition of Bengal.
· It desired separate electorates for Muslims, a demand conceded by the government in 1909.
· Some seats in the councils were now reserved for Muslims who would be elected by Muslim voters.
This tempted politicians to gather a following by distributing favours to their own religious groups.

Surat Split 1907:

· The Congress split in 1907.
· The Moderates were opposed to the use of boycott. They felt that it involved the use of force.
· After the split, the Congress came to be dominated by the Moderates with Tilak's followers
functioning from outside.

Lucknow Pact:
· The two groups of congress reunited in December 1915.
· The Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact and decided to work
together for representative government in the country.

50
 The Growth of Mass Nationalism:
· After 1919 the struggle against British rule gradually became a mass movement, involving peasants,
tribals, students and women in large numbers and occasionally factory workers as well.
· Certain business groups too began to actively support the Congress in the 1920s.
· Factors that led to growth of Mass Movement:
Ø The First World War altered the economic and political situation in India: It led to a huge rise in
the defence expenditure of the Government of India.
o The government in turn increased taxes on individual incomes and business profits.
o Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a sharp rise in prices
which created great difficulties for the common people.
o Business groups reaped fabulous profits from the war. The war created a demand for industrial
goods ( jute bags, cloth, rails) and caused a decline of imports from other countries into India.
o So Indian industries expanded during the war, and Indian business groups began to demand
greater opportunities for development.
o The war also leads the British to expand their army. Villages were pressurised to supply
soldiers for an alien cause. A large number of soldiers were sent to serve abroad.
o Many returned after the war with an understanding of the ways in which imperialist powers
were exploiting the peoples of Asia and Africa and with a desire to oppose colonial rule in India.
Ø In 1917 there was a revolution in Russia. News about peasants' and workers' struggles and ideas
of socialism circulated widely, inspired the Indian nationalists.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

The advent of Mahatma Gandhi:

· Gandhiji arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa.
· Having led Indians in that country in non-violent marches against racist restrictions, he was already a
respected leader, known internationally.
· His South African campaigns had brought him in contact with various types of Indians: Hindus,
Muslims, Parsis and Christians; Gujaratis, Tamils and north Indians; and upper-class merchants,
lawyers and workers.
· Mahatma Gandhi spent his first year in India travelling throughout the country, understanding the
people, their needs and the overall situation.
· His earliest interventions were in local movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad where he
came into contact with Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel.
· In Ahmedabad, he led a successful millworkers' strike in 1918.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha:

· In 1919 Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act that the British had just passed.
· The Act curbed fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and strengthened police
powers.

51
 · Mahatma Gandhi, Mohammad Ali Jinnah and others felt that the government had no right to restrict
people's basic freedoms.
· They criticised the Act as “devilish” and tyrannical.
· Gandhiji asked the Indian people to observe 6 April 1919 as a day of non-violent opposition to this
Act, as a day of “humiliation and prayer” and hartal (strike).
· Satyagraha Sabhas were set up to launch the movement.
· The Rowlatt Satyagraha turned out to be the first all-India struggle against the British government
although it was largely restricted to cities.
· In April 1919 there were a number of demonstrations and hartals in the country and the government
used brutal measures to suppress them.
· The Jallianwala Bagh atrocities, inflicted by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (13 April),
were a part of this repression.
· On learning about the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore expressed the pain and anger of the country
by renouncing his knighthood.
· During the Rowlatt Satyagraha the participants tried to ensure that Hindus and Muslims were united
in the fight against British rule.
· This was also the call of Mahatma Gandhi who always saw India as a land of all the people who lived
in the country – Hindus, Muslims and those of other religions.

Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement:

· In 1920 the British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa. Indian Muslims were keen

THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

that the Khalifa be allowed to retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman
Empire.
· The leaders of the Khilafat agitation, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, now wished to initiate a full-
fledged Non-Cooperation Movement.
· Gandhiji supported their call and urged the Congress to campaign against “Punjab wrongs”
(Jallianwala massacre), the Khilafat wrong and demand swaraj.
· The Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum through 1921-22.
· Thousands of students left government controlled schools and colleges.
· Many lawyers such as Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up their
practices.
· British titles were surrendered and legislatures boycotted.
· People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth. The imports of foreign cloth fell drastically between 1920
and 1922.
· In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised nonviolent campaigns against the high land revenue
demand of the British.
· In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed.
· In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged a number of “forest
satyagrahas”, sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing fee.

52
 Ø They believed that Gandhiji would get their taxes reduced and have the forest regulations
abolished. In many forest villages, peasants proclaimed swaraj and believed that “Gandhi Raj” was
about to be established.
· In Sind (now in Pakistan), Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call.
· In Bengal too, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous communal unity and strength to
the national movement.
· In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants – supported by the
British – from their gurdwaras. This movement got closely identified with the Non-Cooperation
Movement.
· In Assam, tea garden labourers, shouting “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”, demanded a big increase in their
wages. They left the British-owned plantations amidst declarations that they were following
Gandhiji's wish. in the Assamese Vaishnava songs of the period the reference to Krishna was
substituted by “Gandhi Raja”.

Chauri Chaura Incident:

· Mahatma Gandhi was against violent movements.
· He abruptly called off the Non-Cooperation Movement when in February 1922 a crowd of peasants
set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura.
· Twenty two policemen were killed on that day. The peasants were provoked because the police had
fired on their peaceful demonstration.
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

Major events of 1920s:

· Constructive work phase: Once the Non-Cooperation movement was over, Gandhiji's followers
stressed that the Congress must undertake constructive work in the rural areas.
Ø Through sincere social work in villages in the mid-1920s, the Gandhians were able to extend their
support base. This proved to be very useful in launching the Civil Disobedience movement in
1930.
· Swarajist: Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru argued that the party should fight elections to the
councils and enter them in order to influence government policies.
· Two important developments of the mid-1920s were the formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (RSS), a Hindu organisation, and the Communist Party of India. These parties have held very
different ideas about the kind of country India should be.
· Revolutionary Phase: The revolutionary nationalist Bhagat Singh too was active in this period.
Ø Revolutionary nationalists such as Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sukhdev and others
wanted to fight against the colonial rule and the rich exploiting classes through a revolution of
workers and peasants.
Ø For this purpose, they founded the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928
at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi.
Ø On 17 December, 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated Saunders, a police officer
who was involved in the lathi-charge that had caused the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

53
 Ø On 8 April, 1929, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly.
Ø The aim, as their leaflet explained, was not to kill but “to make the deaf hear”, and to remind the
foreign government of its callous exploitation.
Ø Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were executed on March 23, 1931. Bhagat Singh's age at that
time was only 23.
· Simon Commission: In 1927 the British government in England decided to send a commission
headed by Lord Simon to decide India's political future.
Ø The Commission had no Indian representative. The decison created an outrage in India. All political
groups decided to boycott the Commission.
Ø When the Commission arrived it was met with demonstrations with banners saying “Simon Go
Back”.
· Purna Swaraj Goal: The decade closed with the Congress resolving to fight for Purna Swaraj
(complete independence) in 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Ø Consequently, “Independence Day” was observed on 26 January 1930 all over the country.

The March to Dandi:

· In 1930, Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law. According to this law, the
state had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt.
· Mahatma Gandhi along with other nationalists reasoned that it was sinful to tax salt since it is such an
essential item of our food.
· The Salt March related the general desire of freedom to a specific grievance shared by everybody, and

THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

thus did not divide the rich and the poor.
· Gandhiji and his followers marched for over 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi
where they broke the government law by gathering natural salt found on the seashore, and boiling sea
water to produce salt (6 April 1930).
· Peasants, tribals and women participated in large numbers. A business federation published a
pamphlet on the salt issue. The government tried to crush the movement through brutal action
against peaceful satyagrahis. Thousands were sent to jail.

Government of India Act of 1935:

· Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy.
· Provincial autonomy is the capacity of the provinces to make relatively independent decisions while
remaining within a federation

Provincial elections in 1937:

· The government announced elections to the provincial legislatures in 1937.
· The Congress formed governments in 7 out of 11 provinces.
· In September 1939, after two years of Congress rule in the provinces, the Second World War broke
out.

54
 · Critical of Hitler, Congress leaders were ready to support the British war effort. But in return they
wanted that India be granted independence after the war.
· The British refused to concede the demand. The Congress ministries resigned in protest.

Bose and the INA:

· Subhash Chandra Bose was a radical nationalist, with socialist leanings.
· Bose did not share Gandhiji's ideal of ahimsa, though he respected him as the “Father of the Nation”.
· In January 1941, he secretly left his Calcutta home, went to Singapore, via Germany, and raised the
Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA).
· To free India from British control, in 1944, the INA tried to enter India through Imphal and Kohima but
the campaign failed.
· The INA members were imprisoned and tried. People across the country, from all walks of life,
participated in the movement against the INA trials.

Quit India Movement:

· Mahatma Gandhi decided to initiate a new phase of movement against the British in the middle of the
Second World War.
· The British must quit India immediately, he told them.
· To the people he said, “do or die” in your effort to fight the British – but you must fight non-violently.
· Gandhiji and other leaders were jailed at once but the movement spread. It specially attracted
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

peasants and the youth who gave up their studies to join it.
· Communications and symbols of state authority were attacked all over the country. In many areas
the people set up their own governments.
· The first response of the British was severe repression. By the end of 1943 over 90,000 people were
arrested, and around 1,000 killed in police firing.
· In many areas orders were given to machine-gun crowds from airplanes. The rebellion, however,
ultimately brought the Raj to its knees.

Towards Independence and Partition:

· In 1940 the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in
the north-western and eastern areas of the country. The resolution did not mention partition or
Pakistan.
· From the late 1930s, the League began viewing the Muslims as a separate “nation” from the Hindus.
In developing this notion it may have been influenced by the history of tension between some Hindu
and Muslim groups in the 1920s and 1930s.
· The provincial elections of 1937 seemed to have convinced the League that Muslims were a
minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. It feared that
Muslims may even go unrepresented.

55
· The Congress's rejection of the League's desire to form a joint Congress-League government in the
United Provinces in 1937 also annoyed the League.
· The Congress's failure to mobilise the Muslim masses in the 1930s allowed the League to widen its
social support. It sought to enlarge its support in the early 1940s when most Congress leaders were
in jail.
· At the end of the war in 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and
themselves for the independence of India.
· The talks failed because the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India's Muslims. The
Congress could not accept this claim since a large number of Muslims still supported it.
· In the Elections to the provinces in 1946, The Congress did well in the “General” constituencies but
the League's success in the seats reserved for Muslims was spectacular. It persisted with its demand
for “Pakistan”.
· Cabinet Mission: In March 1946 the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine
this demand and to suggest a suitable political framework for a free India.
Ø This mission suggested that India should remain united and constitute itself as a loose
confederation with some autonomy for Muslim-majority areas.
Ø But it could not get the Congress and the Muslim League to agree to specific details of the proposal.
Partition now became more or less inevitable.
· Direct Action Day: After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League decided on mass
agitation for winning its Pakistan demand.
Ø It announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”. On this day riots broke out in Calcutta,

THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

lasting several days and resulting in the death of thousands of people.
Ø By March 1947 violence spread to different parts of northern India.
· India got freedom in 1947 but with the cost of Partition. A new country, Pakistan was born.

Interesting points
· Badruddin Tyabji was the President of the Congress in 1887.
· Dadabhai Naoroji's book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India offered a scathing criticism of the
economic impact of British rule.
· Dinshaw Wacha was a moderate leader of Congress.
· Kesari, a Marathi newspaper edited by Tilak, became one of the strongest critics of British rule.
· Lala Lajpat Rai was a nationalist from Punjab. He was one of the leading members of the Radical
group which was critical of the politics of petitions. He was also an active member of the Arya
Samaj.
· In 1895, along with other Indians, Mahatma Gandhi established the Natal Congress in Durban,
South Africa, to fight against racial discrimination.
· Knighthood was an honour granted by the British Crown for exceptional personal achievement or
public service.

56
 · According to Mahatma Gandhi, ahimsa (non-violence) comes to us through doing good
continually without the slightest expectation of return.
· Chitta Ranjan Das was a major figure in the freedom movement. Das was a lawyer from East
Bengal. He was especially active in the Non-Cooperation Movement.
· Ambabai of Karnataka: Ambabai of Karnataka had been married at age twelve. Widowed at
sixteen, she picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops in Udipi. She was arrested, served a sentence
and was rearrested. Between prison terms she made speeches, taught spinning, and organised
prabhat pheris.
· During the Salt Satyagraha, even Mahatma Gandhi was initially opposed to women's
participation. Sarojini Naidu had to persuade him to allow women to join the movement.
· Sarojini Naidu: She was active in the national movement since the early 1920s. Naidu was a
significant leader of the Dandi March. She was the first Indian woman to become President of
the Indian National Congress (1925).
· Veer Lakhan Nayak was a legendary tribal leader who defied the British.
· Baji Mohammad: Baji Mohammad mobilised 20,000 people to join the national struggle. He offered
satyagraha many times over. He participated in protests against the Second World War and in
the Quit India movement, and served long jail terms.
· Maulana Azad: Azad was born in Mecca to a Bengali father and an Arab mother. Well-versed in
many languages, Azad was a scholar of Islam and an exponent of the notion of wahadat-i-deen,
the essential oneness of all religions. An active participant in Gandhian movements and a staunch
advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity, he was opposed to Jinnah's two-nation theory.
· Chakravarti Rajagopalachari: A veteran nationalist and leader of the Salt Satyagraha in the south,
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870S—1947

C. Rajagopalachari, popularly known as Rajaji, served as member of the Interim Government of

1946 and as free India's first Indian Governor-General.
· Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Patel hailed from an impoverished peasant proprietor family of Nadiad,
Gujarat. A foremost organiser of the freedom movement from 1918 onwards, Patel served as
President of the Congress in 1931.
· Mohammad Ali Jinnah: An ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity until 1920, Jinnah played an
important role in the making of the Lucknow Pact. He reorganised the Muslim League after 1934,
and became the major spokesperson for the demand for Pakistan.
· Jawaharlal Nehru: Gandhiji's disciple, a Congress Socialist, and an internationalist, Nehru was a
leading architect of the national movement and of free India's economy and polity.
· Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Also known as Badshah Khan, he was the founder of the Khudai
Khidmatgars, a powerful non-violent movement among the Pathans of his province. Badshah
Khan was strongly opposed to the Partition of India. He criticised his Congress colleagues for
agreeing to the 1947 division.
· In 1957, Ghana, known until then as the Gold Coast, became the first sub-Saharan African
country to gain independence. The freedom movement was led by Kwame Nkrumah's Convention
People's Party through strikes, boycotts and mass rallies. In 1951 this party won a huge electoral
victory.

57
 INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
10
When India became independent in August 1947, it faced a series of very great challenges. The problems
of the refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed immediately. In the longer term, the new
nation had to adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes and expectations of its population.
The new nation had to lift its masses out of poverty by increasing the productivity of agriculture and by
promoting new, job-creating industries.
· Refugees Crisis: When India became independent in August 1947, it faced a series of very great
challenges. As a result of Partition, 8 million refugees had come into the country from what was now
Pakistan. These people had to be found homes and jobs.
· Problem of Princely States: there was the problem of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each
ruled by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be persuaded to join the new nation.

A Constitution is Written:
· The meetings of the “Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but the participants came from
all over India, and from different political parties.
· These discussions resulted in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26
January 1950.
· One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of universal adult franchise. All Indians above the
age of 21 would be allowed to vote in state and national elections.
· A second feature of the Constitution was that it guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation.
· A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered special privileges for the poorest and most
disadvantaged Indians. The practice of untouchability, described as a “slur and a blot” on the “fair
name of India”, was abolished.
Ø After a long debate, the Constituent Assembly also recommended that a certain percentage of
seats in legislatures as well as jobs in government be reserved for members of the lowest castes.
Ø Along with the former Untouchables, the adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted
reservation in seats and jobs.
· The Constitution provides three lists of subjects:
Ø Union List: With subjects such as taxes, defence and foreign affairs, which would be the exclusive
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
responsibility of the Centre;
Ø State List of subjects, such as education and health, which would be taken care of principally by
the states;
Ø Concurrent List, under which subjects such as forests and agriculture were placed, in which the
Centre and the states would have joint responsibility.
· Another major debate in the Constituent Assembly concerned language. A compromise was finally
arrived at: namely, that while Hindi would be the “official language” of India, English would be used
in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another.

58
 Role of B. R. Ambedkar:
· The most important role was played by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who was Chairman of the Drafting
Committee, and under whose supervision the document was finalised.
· Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956), respectfully referred to as Babasaheb, belonged to a Marathi-
speaking dalit family. A lawyer and economist, he is best known as a revered leader of the Dalits
and the father of the Indian Constitution.
· In his final speech to the Constituent Assembly, Dr Ambedkar pointed out that political
democracy had to be accompanied by economic and social democracy.
· A second cluster of cotton weaving centres was along the Coromandel coast stretching from
Madras to northern Andhra Pradesh. On the western coast there were important weaving
centres in Gujarat.

Reorganisation of States:
Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation of
linguistic states. After the Partition, Nehru said, “disruptionist tendencies had come to the fore”; to check
them, the nation had to be strong and united.
· Creation of first Linguistic state: In October of that year, a veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramulu
went on a hunger strike demanding the formation of Andhra state to protect the interests of Telugu
speakers.
Ø On 15 December 1952, fifty-eight days into his fast, Potti Sriramulu died. He protests were so
widespread and intense that the central government was forced to give in to the demand.
Ø On 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra came into being, which subsequently became
Andhra Pradesh.
· A States Reorganisation Commission was set up, which submitted its report in 1956,
recommending the redrawing of district and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of
Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively.
· In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

speakers.
· In 1966, the state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and Haryana, the former for the Punjabi
speakers (who were also mostly Sikhs), the latter for the rest (who spoke not Punjabi but versions of
Haryanvi or Hindi).

Planning for Development:

· Lifting India and Indians out of poverty, and building a modern technical and industrial base were
among the major objectives of the new nation.

59
 · In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies
for economic development.
· There was a broad agreement on what was called a “mixed economy” model. Here, both the State
and the private sector would play important and complementary roles in increasing production and
generating jobs.
· Second Five Year Plan: In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated. This focused strongly on
the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams. These sectors
would be under the control of the State.
· This focus on heavy industry, and the effort at state regulation of the economy was to guide
economic policy for the next few decades.
· Criticism of Second Five Year Plan:
Ø Some felt that it had put inadequate emphasis on agriculture.
Ø Others argued that it had neglected primary education.
Ø Still others believed that it had not taken account of the environmental implications of economic
policies.

The search for an independent foreign policy:

· The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of the Cold War, that is, power rivalries and ideological
conflicts between the USA and the USSR, with both countries creating military alliances.
· This was also the period when colonial empires were collapsing and many countries were attaining
independence.
· Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was also the foreign minister of newly independent India,
developed free India's foreign policy in this context.
· Non-alignment formed the bedrock of this foreign policy. Led by statesmen from Egypt, Yugoslavia,
Indonesia, Ghana and India, the non-aligned movement urged countries not to join either of the two
major alliances.
· By the 1970s, a large number of countries had joined the non-aligned movement.

Interesting points
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
· On 30 January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram
Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji's conviction that Hindus and Muslims
should live together in harmony.
· In United Kingdom and the United States, right to Vote had been granted in stages.
First only men of property had the vote. Then men who were educated were also added
on. Working-class men got the vote only after a long struggle. Finally, after a bitter
struggle of their own, American and British women were granted the vote.

60
 · Bridges and dams became the symbol of development in independent India.
· Gandhi Sagar bandh: This was the first of the four dams built on the Chambal river in
Madhya Pradesh. It was completed in 1960.
· The Bhilai steel plant was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union in 1959.
Located in the backward rural area of Chhattisgarh, it came to be seen as an important sign
of the development of modern India after Independence.
· Krishna Menon led the Indian delegation to the UN between 1952 and 1962 and argued
for a policy of non-alignment.
· Dharavi in Bombay is one of the world's largest slums.
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

61
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
9th Standard
India and the Contemporary World-I
CONTENTS
The French Revolution .................................................................................................................. 1 - 7

Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution ............................................................... 8 - 13

Nazism and the Rise of Hitler ................................................................................................ 14 - 22

 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
1
The French revolution was started in 1789 and ended in 1799. During this revolution, series of events
started by the middle class which shaken the upper classes. The people revolted against the cruel regime of
monarchy. This revolution put forward the ideas of liberty, fraternity, and equality.

French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century:

· Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France in 1774. Louis XVI upon his
accession found an empty treasury because of following reasons:
Ø France's involvement in wars.
Ø Participation in American War of Independence added a billion livres debt to the already tight
financial situation.
· To overcome the challenging financial situation; Louis XVI planned to impose more taxes to meet the
expenses of the state.
· This step generated anger and protest against the system of privileges present in the French Society
which eventually led to the outbreak of French revolution.

French Society during the Late Eighteenth Century:

● During the late eighteenth century, the French society was divided into three estates: Clergy (the first
estate), Nobility (the second estate) and Commoners (the third estate).
● The society of estates was part of the feudal system that dated back to the middle ages.
● The members of the first two estates i.e., the clergy and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by
birth. For example, Exemption from paying taxes to the state.
● Third estate of society which consisted of peasants, artisans, court officials and lawyers paid taxes.
● Peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population. However, only a small number of them owned
the land they cultivated.
● About 60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third
estate. The Church levied direct taxes on peasants such as tithes, taille and indirect taxes on articles of
everyday consumption like salt or tobacco.

Related Key Terms:

Tithes: A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

●
● Taille: Tax to be paid directly to the state.
● Livre: Unit of currency in France, discontinued in 1794.
Clergy: Group of persons invested with special functions in the church.

The Struggle to Survive:

● The subsistence crisis in France traces its genesis in the rise in population from about 23 million in
1715 to 28 million in 1789.

1
 ● The rise in population led to demand for food grains. But the production of food grains could not keep
pace with the demand and as a result price of staple items rose rapidly.
● Most workers were employed as laborer's in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages
did not keep pace with the rise in prices. Moreover, the gap between rich and poor widened.
● Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.
● Thus, the rise in population, meagre wages, natural calamities led to a subsistence crisis.

Subsistence Crisis: An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges:

● The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class who
earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods such as
woollen and silk textiles.
● In the third estate, people such as lawyers or administrative officials who were educated and believed
that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person's social position must depend
on his merit.
● These ideas envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were
put forward by many philosophers.

The Outbreak of the Revolution:

● In the backdrop of the deteriorating financial situation of the state; Louis XVI called an assembly of the
Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes on 5 May 1789.
● In Estates General the first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, while the third estate
was represented by its more prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans, and women
were denied entry to the assembly.
● Members of the third estate demanded that voting should be conducted by the assembly as a whole
where each member would have one vote unlike on the earlier pattern where each estate had one
vote. However, the king rejected this proposal.
● On 20th June, the representatives of the third estate led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès assembled in THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
the grounds of Versailles and declared themselves a National Assembly. They swore not to disperse
till they had drafted a constitution for France.
● Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his
powers would from now on be checked by a constitution.
● On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of
obligations and taxes.

2
 Mirabeau:
● He was born in a noble family but acted as a crusader against feudal privilege of society.
● He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.
Abbe Sieyes:
● Originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called 'What is the Third Estate'?
Estates General:
● The Estates General was a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:

● France became a constitutional monarchy in 1791 which transferred the powers of monarchs to
different institutions – the legislature, executive and judiciary.
● The National Assembly was indirectly elected; citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn
chose the Assembly.
● Voting Rights:
Ø Not all citizens had the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at
least 3 days of a laborer's wage were given the status of active citizens i.e., entitled to vote.
Ø The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens.
● The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right
to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as 'natural and
inalienable' rights.

Constitutional Monarchy: It is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises authority in

accordance with a written or unwritten constitution.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Fig 1.1: The political system under the Constitution of 1791

3
France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic:
· Louis XI entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia in a bid to restore his powers which
were undermined with the enforcement of the constitution.
· However, before the negotiations could materialize the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to
declare war against Prussia and Austria.
Ø People joined war voluntarily; they saw this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all
over Europe. Among the patriotic songs they sang was the Marseillaise, composed by the poet
Roget de L'Isle.
● The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. Political clubs such as
Jacobins became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies
and plan their own forms of action.
● Jacobins stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king's guards and held the king himself as
hostage for several hours.
● Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held.
● From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote.
● The newly elected assembly was called the Convention.
● On 21st September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
● On 21 January 1793 Louis XVI was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde on the charge of
treason.

The Marseillaise:
● The Marseillaise was a patriotic song sung by people during the war against Prussia.
● It was composed by the poet Roget de L'Isle.
● It is now the national anthem of France.
Jacobin Club:
· Jacobin Club was a political club in France that started during the French Revolution.
● The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society.
Ø They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watchmakers,
printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
● Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.
Members of the Jacobin Club known as San-culottes.

The Reign of Terror:

● Robespierre government's tenure from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror.
● Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.
○ He executed – ex-nobles, clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party
who did not agree with his method.

4
 ● His government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices.
● Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and address. Instead of the
traditional Monsieur (Sir) and Madame (Madam) all French men and women were henceforth Citoyen
and Citoyenne (Citizen).
● Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand
moderation. Later, he was convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the
guillotine.

A Directory Rules France:

● A new constitution was introduced after the fall of Robespierre government which denied the vote to
non-propertied sections of society.
● It provided for two elected legislative councils.
● A Directory was appointed with an executive made up of five members.
Ø This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under
the Jacobins.
● However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them.
● The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon
Bonaparte.

Women Participation in Revolution:

· Women were active participants in the events which brought about so many important changes in
French society.
● However, Women were deprived of political rights as men; the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to
passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political
office.
● In order to discuss and voice their interest's women started their own political clubs. For Example: The
Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous of them.
● In early years; the revolutionary government led by Robespierre introduced laws that helped improve
the lives of women. For Example:
Ø Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
Ø Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law. Divorce was
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

made legal and could be applied for by both women and men.
● However, during the Reign of Terror, the government issued laws ordering closure of women's clubs
and banning their political activities.
● Women's movements for voting rights and equal wages continued through the next two hundred
years in many countries of the world. In 1946, women in France won the right to vote after a long
struggle.

5
 Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793):
● Olympe de Gouges protested against the Constitution and the Declaration of Rights of Man and
Citizen as it excluded women from basic rights.
● In 1791, she wrote a Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen, in which she addressed the
Queen and to the members of the National Assembly, demanding equal rights for women.
● In 1793, Olympe de Gouges criticized the Jacobin government for forcibly closing down women's
clubs.
She was tried by the National Convention which charged her with treason. Soon after this she
was executed.

The Abolition of Slavery:

● The French colonies in the Caribbean – Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo – were important
suppliers of commodities such as tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee.
● The slave trade began in began in the seventeenth century between Europe, Africa and the
Americas to cater the needs of plantation in these colonies.
● The National Assembly held long debates about whether the rights of man should be extended to all
French subjects including those in the colonies. But it did not pass any laws, fearing opposition from
businessmen whose incomes depended on the slave trade.
● In 1794, the Convention legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas possessions.
● However, this turned out to be a short-term measure.
Ø Ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery.
● Slavery was finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

Convention: The elected assembly formed in France in 1792 was called Convention. It abolished the
monarchy and declared France a republic.

The Revolution and Everyday Life:

· The years following 1789 in France saw many such changes in the lives of people. The revolutionary
governments passed laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
· In 1789 censorship was abolished.
Ø Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they
travelled rapidly into the countryside.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte:

● In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France.
● Napoleon saw his role as a moderniser of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of
private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system.

6
 ● Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the
Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. He was finally defeated at
Waterloo in 1815.

Conclusion:
● The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution.
These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the nineteenth century, where feudal systems
were abolished.
● Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a
sovereign nation state.
● Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming
from revolutionary France.

Some Important Dates:

● 1774: Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within society
of the Old Regime.
● 1789: Convocation of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed,
peasants' revolt in the countryside.
● 1791: A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all human
beings.
● 1792-93: France becomes a republic, the king is beheaded. Overthrow of the Jacobin republic, a
Directory rules France.
● 1804: Napoleon became emperor of France, annexing large parts of Europe.
● 1815: Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

7
 SOCIALISM IN EUROPE
2 AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The Age of Social Change:
· After the French revolution, the ideas of freedom and equality spread across Europe and Asia.
· These ideas acted as a vehicle of societal change in a society which was broadly divided - into estates
and orders.
· Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation of society.
o Conservatives' wanted change but with reluctance, Liberals wanted a gradual restructuring of
society while 'radicals' planned to alter the society radically.
o Such differing ideas about societal change clashed during the social and political turmoil that
followed the French Revolution.
· In India, Raja Rammohan Roy and Derozio were influenced by the ideals of French Revolution.

Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives

Liberals:
· Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions.
· Liberals opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
· They advocated the rights of individuals against governments.
· They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, with an independent judiciary.
· They did not believe in universal adult franchise.
o They felt men of property should have the vote.
o They also did not support the right to vote for women.

SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Radicals:
· They wanted a nation in which the government was based on the majority of a country's population.
· They supported women's suffrage movements.
· They opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners.
· They were not against the existence of private property but disliked concentration of property in the
hands of a few.

Conservatives:
· They were opposed to radicals and liberals.
· They believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about through a slow
process.

Universal Adult Franchise: Right of every citizen to vote.

Industrial Society and Social Change:

· The ideas of freedom and equality acted as precursors to social and economic changes in society.
· New cities came up and new industrialised regions developed, railways expanded, and the Industrial
Revolution occurred.

8
 · Industrialisation brought men, women and children to factories. Work hours were often long, and
wages were poor. Unemployment was common, particularly during times of low demand for industrial
goods.
o Liberals and radicals searched for solutions to these issues.
· Almost all industries were the property of individuals. Liberals and radicals themselves were often
property owners and employers.
· In France, Italy, Germany and Russia, people became revolutionaries and worked to overthrow existing
monarchs. Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create 'nations' where all citizens would have
equal rights.
· After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, conspired with others to achieve this in Italy.
Nationalists elsewhere – including India – read his writings.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe:

· Socialists saw private property as the root cause of all social ills. They advocated that society as a
whole rather than single individuals should control property, which would promote collective social
interests.
· Socialists had different visions of the future.
Ø Some socialists such as Robert Owen believed in promoting the cooperatives at individual level
while Other socialists, such as Louis Blanc advocated that governments should encourage
cooperatives.
· Marx's Views on Industrial Society:
SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Ø Marx argued that industrial society was 'capitalist'.

o Capitalists owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists was produced by
workers.
· The conditions of workers could not improve as long as this profit was accumulated by private
capitalists.
· Marx advocated a socialist society where all property was socially controlled which would
emancipate workers from exploitation.
· He envisioned communist society as the natural society of the future.

Support for Socialism:

· By the 1870s, socialist ideas spread through Europe. To coordinate their efforts, socialists formed an
international body – namely, the Second International.
· Workers in England and Germany began forming associations to fight for better living and working
conditions.
· In Germany, these associations worked closely with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and helped it
win parliamentary seats.
· By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed a Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in
France.

9
 · However, till 1914, socialists never succeeded in forming a government in Europe. Represented by
strong figures in parliamentary politics, their ideas did shape legislation.

Cooperatives: These were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided
the profits according to the work done by members.
Suffragette Movement: A movement to give women the right to vote.

The Russian Revolution:

Socialists took over the government in Russia through the October Revolution of 1917. The fall of monarchy
in February 1917 and the events of October are normally called the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914:

· During the Tsar Nicholas II regime in 1914, the Russian empire stretched to the Pacific and comprised
today's Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.
· It also included current-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine and Belarus.
· In Russian empire the majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity besides Catholics,
Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists.

Economy and Society:

· At the beginning of the twentieth century, about 85 percent of the Russian empire's population earned
their living from agriculture.

SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

· In the empire, cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs and Russia was a
major exporter of grain.
· In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. Frequently, they refused to pay
rent and even murdered landlords.
· Russian peasants pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir) divided it according
to the needs of individual families.
· Industry:
Ø Industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were St Petersburg and Moscow.
Ø Many factories were set up in the 1890s, when Russia's railway network was extended, and foreign
investment in industry increased. Coal production doubled and iron and steel output quadrupled.
Ø Most industry was the private property of industrialists. Government supervised large factories to
ensure minimum wages and limited hours of work.
· Workers were a divided social group. Some had strong links with the villages from which they came.
Others had settled in cities permanently.
· Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than men.
· These strikes took place frequently in the textile industry during 1896-1897, and in the metal industry
during 1902.
· Nobles got their power and position through their services to the Tsar, not through local popularity.

10
 Political Parties in Russia
· The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party:
· It was founded in 1898 inspired by Marx's ideas.
· However, because of government policing, it had to operate as an illegal organisation.
· It set up a newspaper, mobilised workers and organised strikes.
· The party was divided over the strategy of organisation.
Ø The Bolshevik group was led by Vladimir Lenin. He thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist
Russia the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members.
Ø Others (Mensheviks) thought that the party should be open to all (as in Germany).
· Socialist Revolutionary Party:
Ø It was founded in 1900 struggled for peasants' rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles
be transferred to peasants.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

· Bloody Sunday:
Ø It was a massacre that took place on 22nd January 1905 in St Petersburg, wherein over 100
workers were killed and about 300 wounded when they took out a procession to present an appeal
to Tsar.
Ø This procession was taken out to demand a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an
increase in wages and improvement in working conditions.
Ø This was done because the prices of essential goods rose so fast that real wages were declined by
SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

20%. It was named Bloody Sunday since it took place on Sunday.

· Duma:
Ø Duma was an elected consultative Parliament formed in Russia during the 1905 Revolution.
Ø However, The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second Duma
within three months.
Ø He did not want any questioning of his authority or any reduction in his power.
Ø He changed the voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals
and revolutionaries were kept out.

The First World War and the Russian Empire:

· In 1914, the first world war broke out between two European alliances – Germany, Austria and Turkey
(the Central powers) and France, Britain and Russia (later Italy and Romania).
· In Russia, the war was initially popular, and people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II.
· However, as the war continued and the Tsar approach not to consult the main parties in the Duma led
to the support wore thin.
· The Tsarina Alexandra's German origins and poor advisers, especially a monk called Rasputin,
made the autocracy unpopular.

11
Impact on Industry:
· Russian industries were already fewer in number, further during the war Russia was cut off from other
suppliers of industrial goods due to German control of Baltic sea.
· Industrial equipment disintegrated more rapidly in Russia than elsewhere in Europe. By 1916, railway
lines began to break down.
· Able-bodied men were called up to the war. Consequently, there were labour shortages and small
workshops producing essentials were shut down.

The February Revolution in Petrograd:

Social Conditions: Petrograd

· The winter of 1917 witnessed the exceptional frost which made the conditions in the capital,
Petrograd grim.
· The layout of the city was designed in a manner that highlighted the divisions among its people.
· The workers' quarters and factories were located on the right bank of the River Neva while on the
left bank were the Winter Palace, and official buildings.
· In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the workers' quarters.

Formation of Petrograd Soviet:

· On 22 February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank of river Neva. The next day, workers
in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy.
· Workers surrounded official buildings and the fashionable quarters which led to the government

SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

announcement of curfew.
· On 25 February, the government suspended the Duma.
· On the 27th of February the Police Headquarters were ransacked. The cavalry was called to control the
protestors who were protesting in hope of getting their demands meet i.e., Bread, better wages,
working hours.
· However, the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators instead three regiments mutinied and joined
striking workers.
· Later, Soldiers and striking workers assembled to form 'soviet' or 'council' in the same building where
the Duma met. This was Known as the Petrograd Soviet.

Functioning of Provisional Government:

· After formation of Petrograd Soviet, Tsar abdicated on 2 March.
· Soviet and Duma Leaders formed Provisional Government to run the country. From now onwards
Russia's future would be decided by a constituent assembly, elected on the basis of universal adult
suffrage.
· Army officials, landowners and industrialists were influential in the Provisional Government.
Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
· 'Soviets', like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common system of election

12
 was followed.
· In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile.
Ø He put forward three demands- known as Lenin's 'April Theses.
o First World War to be brought to close.
o Transfer of Land to the peasants.
o Nationalisation of Banks.
· Through the summer the workers' movement spread. In industrial areas, factory committees were
formed which began questioning the way industrialists ran their factories.
· In June, about 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All-Russian Congress of Soviets. As the
Provisional Government saw its power reduce and Bolshevik influence grow, it decided to take stern
measures against the spreading discontent. It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and began
arresting leaders. Popular demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were sternly
repressed.

Vladimir Lenin:
· In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile.
· He had opposed the war since 1914. He felt it was time for soviets to take power from Provisional
government.
SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

13
 NAZISM AND THE RISE
3 OF HITLER
Nazism is also known as National Socialism, a political ideology propagated by Nazi party in Germany. It
was started by Adolf Hitler in 1920s and lasted till the end of the World War II in 1945.

Birth of the Weimar Republic:

· Germany fought the First World War (1914-1918) alongside Austria and against the Allies (England,
France, and Russia).
· Germany made initial gains by occupying France and Belgium. However, the Allies, strengthened by
the US entry in 1917, defeated Imperial Germany.
· This defeat led to the abdication of the emperor from throne and presented an opportunity before
parliamentary parties to recast German polity.
· A National Assembly was convened at Weimar which established a democratic constitution with a
federal structure.
· Deputies were now elected to the German Parliament or Reichstag, based on equal and universal
votes cast by all adults including women.
· However, people did not receive well the birth of new republic due to imposition of Treaty of Versailles
upon Germany by allies. As many Germans believed that new Weimar Republic was responsible for
not only the defeat in the war but the disgrace at Versailles.

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

Fig 3.1: Germany after the Versailles Treaty

The Treaty of Versailles:

· It is a peace agreement signed between Germany and the victorious Allied Powers in 1919 at the
Palace of Versailles in Paris.
· The treaty ended the state of war that had existed between Germany and the Allies from 1914 and
brought World War I to an end.

14
 Impact of Treaty of Versailles in Germany:
· Germany lost its overseas colonies, a tenth of its population, 13 per cent of its territories, 75 per cent of
its iron and 26 per cent of its coal to France, Poland, Denmark, and Lithuania.
· Germany was demilitarised to weaken its power by the allied powers.
· The War Guilt Clause held Germany responsible for the war and damages which the Allied countries
suffered.
· Germany was forced to pay compensation amounting to £6 billion.

The Effects of the War:

· The war had a devastating impact on the entire continent both psychologically and financially.
· From a continent of creditors, Europe turned into one of debtors and unfortunately, the infant
Weimar Republic was being made to pay for the sins of the old empire.
· The republic carried the burden of war guilt and national humiliation. It was financially crippled by
being forced to pay compensation.
· Those who supported the Weimar Republic, mainly Socialists, Catholics, and Democrats, became easy
targets of attack in the conservative nationalist circles. They were mockingly called the 'November
criminals'.
· In public life, soldiers came to be placed above civilians. Politicians and publicists laid great stress on
the need for men to be aggressive, strong, and masculine.
· Aggressive war propaganda and national honour occupied centre stage in the public sphere, while
popular support grew for conservative dictatorships.

Political Radicalism and Economic Crises:

· There was a revolutionary uprising of the Spartacist League in Germany on the pattern of the
Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
· It opposed the Weimar republic and demanded Soviet-style governance.
· The Weimar Republic crushed the uprising with the help of a war veterans organisation called Free
Corps. The anguished Spartacists later founded the Communist Party of Germany.
· Political radicalisation was only heightened by the economic crisis of 1923. Germany had fought the
NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

war largely on loans and had to pay war reparations in gold. This depleted gold reserves at a time
resources were scarce.
· In 1923 Germany refused to pay, and the French occupied its leading industrial area, Ruhr, to claim
their coal.
· Germany retaliated with passive resistance and printed paper currency recklessly. With too much
printed money in circulation, the value of the German mark fell.
· As the value of the mark collapsed, prices of goods soared. This crisis came to be known as
hyperinflation, a situation when prices rise phenomenally high.
· Eventually, the Americans intervened and bailed Germany out of the crisis by introducing the Dawes
Plan, which reworked the terms of reparation to ease the financial burden on Germans.

15
The Years of Depression:
· German investments and industrial recovery were totally dependent on short-term loans, largely
from the USA. This support was withdrawn when the Wall Street Exchange crashed in 1929. Fearing
a fall in prices, people made frantic efforts to sell their shares.
· This was the start of the Great Economic Depression. Over the next three years, between 1929 and
1932, the national income of the USA fell by half.
· Factories shut down, exports fell, farmers were badly hit, and speculators withdrew their money from
the market. The effects of this recession in the US economy were felt worldwide.

Impact of Great Depression on Germany:

· The German economy was the worst hit by the economic crisis.
· By 1932, industrial production was reduced to 40 per cent of the 1929 level. Workers lost their jobs or
were paid reduced wages. The number of unemployed touched an unprecedented 6 million.
· As jobs disappeared, the unemployed youth took to criminal activities and total despair became
commonplace.
· The middle classes, especially salaried employees and pensioners saw their savings diminish when
the currency lost its value.
· Big as well as small businesses, the self-employed and retailers suffered as their businesses got
ruined. Moreover, the large mass of peasantry was affected by a sharp fall in agricultural prices.

Political Situation in Germany during Great Depression:

· In years of Great Depression, the Weimar Republic was becoming politically fragile.
· Due to proportional representation, it became near impossible task to achieve majority in parliament
which led to a rule by coalitions. Within its short life, the Weimar Republic saw twenty different
cabinets lasting on an average 239 days.
· Liberal use of Article 48: The President under Article 48 had the powers to impose emergency,
suspend civil rights and rule by decree.
· People lost confidence in the democratic parliamentary system, which seemed to offer no solution.

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

Hitler's Rise to Power:
· Hitler was born in 1889 in Austria. During the first world war he enrolled in the army and acted as
messenger in the front. He became a corporal and earned medals for his bravery.
· Hitler rise came in the backdrop of crisis created by signing of humiliating Treaty of Versailles after
end of first world war.
· In 1919, he joined a small group called the 'German Workers Party' and subsequently took over the
organisation and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers' Party. This party came to be
known as the Nazi Party.
· The Nazis could not effectively mobilize popular support till the early 1930s. It was during the great
depression; Nazism became a mass movement.

16
 · In 1928, the Nazi Party got very less percentage of votes in the Reichstag – the German parliament and
by 1932, it had become the largest party.
· He promised to build a strong nation, undo the injustice of the Versailles Treaty, and restore the dignity
of the German people.
· Hitler devised a new style of politics. He understood the significance of rituals and spectacle in mass
mobilisation. Nazis held massive rallies and public meetings to demonstrate the support for Hitler and
instil a sense of unity among the people.
· Nazi propaganda skilfully projected Hitler as a messiah, a saviour, as someone who had arrived to
deliver people from their distress.

The Destruction of Democracy:

· Hitler, after having acquired Chancellorship in the Cabinet (German Parliament), set out to dismantle
the structures of democratic rule.
· A mysterious fire that broke out in the German Parliament building which facilitated his move. By using
the Fire Decree of 28 February 1933, he indefinitely suspended civic rights like freedom of speech,
press and assembly that had been guaranteed by the Weimar constitution.
· Hitler in his pursuit to finish dissent prosecuted his archrivals- communists into concentration camps.
Ø Concentration camp: A camp where people were isolated and detained without due process of
law.
· In March 1933, the Enabling Act was passed which established dictatorship in Germany. This act
gave Hitler all powers to sideline the parliament and establish rule by decree.
· All political parties were banned except for the Nazi Party and its affiliates. The state established
complete control over the economy, media, army, and judiciary.
· Special surveillance and security forces such as Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (the protection
squads), criminal police and the Security Service (SD) were given unbridled powers.
· People could now be detained, rounded up and sent to concentration camps, deported at will or
arrested without any legal procedures.
· This led to the destruction of democracy.
NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

Reconstruction of Economy:
· Hitler assigned the responsibility of economic recovery to the economist Hjalmar Schacht who aimed
at full production and full employment through a state-funded work-creation programme.
· Hitler pulled out of League of Nations in 1933, reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and integrated
Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan, One people, One empire, and One leader.

Expansion of Nazi Power in Europe:

· In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France and England.
· In 1940, a Tripartite Pact was signed between Germany, Italy, and Japan.

17
 · Puppet regimes, supportive of Nazi Germany, were installed in a large part of Europe. By the end of
1940, Hitler was at the pinnacle of his power.
· Hitler attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941 in pursuit of achieving his long-term aim of conquering
Europe. In this historic blunder Hitler exposed the German western front to British aerial bombing and
the eastern front to the powerful Soviet armies.
· The Soviet Red Army inflicted a crushing and humiliating defeat on Germany at Stalingrad.

Fig 3.2: Expansion of Nazi in Europe

The Nazi Worldview:

· Basically, Nazi's ideology reflects the world view of Hitler. According to this there was no equality
between people, but only a racial hierarchy.
· It perceived Nordic German Aryans at the top, while Jews were located at the lowest rung in society.

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

Jews were considered to be the archenemies of the Aryans.
· Darwin's idea of survival of fittest was distorted by Nazi followers to justify imperial rule over
conquered peoples.
Ø Nazism advocated the strongest race would survive, and the weak ones would perish. The Aryan
race was the finest. It had to retain its purity, become stronger and dominate the world.

Nordic German Aryans: A Branch of Aryans which lived in north European countries and had
German or related origin.

18
 Concept of Lebensraum or living space:
· This concept is related to geopolitical world view of Hitler.
· According to this view the new territories had to be acquired for settlement which would enhance the
area of the mother country, while enabling the settlers on new lands to retain an intimate link with the
place of their origin.
· It would also enhance the material resources and power of the German nation.
· Using this concept, Hitler wanted to extend German boundaries so that all Germans geographically
gets settled in one place.
· Poland became the laboratory for this experimentation.

Establishment of the Racial State:

· After acquiring power, Nazis pursued their agenda to establish a society of 'pure and healthy Nordic
Aryans'.
· Nordic Aryans were considered to be 'desirable'. This meant that even those Germans who were
impure or abnormal had no right to exist.
· Jews, Gypsies, Blacks living in Germany were considered as racial 'inferiors' who threatened the
biological purity of the 'superior Aryan' race. They were widely persecuted.
· Condition of Jews:
Ø Jews remained the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. Nazi hatred of Jews had a precursor in the
traditional Christian hostility towards Jews. They had been stereotyped as killers of Christ and
usurers.
Ø They lived in separately marked areas called ghettos. They were often persecuted through periodic
organised violence, and expulsion from the land.
Ø From 1933 to 1938 the Nazis terrorised, pauperised, and segregated the Jews, compelling them to
leave the country. The next phase, 1939-1945, aimed at concentrating them in certain areas and
eventually killing them in gas chambers in Poland.
NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

The Racial Utopia:

· Under the shadow of war, the Nazis proceeded to realise their murderous, racial ideal. Genocide and
war became two sides of the same coin. Occupied Poland was divided up.
· Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind to be occupied by ethnic Germans
brought in from occupied Europe.
· Members of the Polish intelligentsia were murdered in large numbers to keep the entire people
intellectually and spiritually servile. Polish children who looked like Aryans were forcibly snatched from
their mothers and examined by 'race experts' if they were fit enough to be raised in German families.

19
 Nazis executed Jews with these three Steps:
· Exclusion (1933-1939): The Following steps were taken to exclude Jews from mainstream
society.
Ø Implementation of The Nuremberg Laws of citizenship of September 1935.
Ø Jewish businesses were boycotted.
Ø Jews were expelled from government services.
Ø Their properties were either confiscated or compelled to sell forcibly.
· Ghettoisation (1940 – 1944):
Ø From September 1941, all Jews had to wear a yellow Star of David on their breasts. This
identity mark was stamped on their passport, all legal documents, and houses.
Ø They were kept in Jewish houses in Germany, and in ghettos like Lodz and Warsaw in the east.
These became sites of extreme misery and poverty. Jews had to surrender all their wealth
before they entered a ghetto.
Ø The ghettos became example of hunger, starvation, and disease due to deprivation and poor
hygiene.
· Annihilation 1941 onwards:
Ø In this phase, Jews from Jewish houses, concentration camps and ghettos from different parts
of Europe were brought to death factories by goods trains.
Ø Mass killings took place within minutes with scientific precision.

Youth in Nazi Germany:

· Hitler felt that a strong Nazi society could be established only by teaching children Nazi ideology. This
required a control over the child both inside and outside school.

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

· All schools were 'cleansed' and 'purified'. This meant that teachers who were Jews or seen as
'politically unreliable' were dismissed.
· Segregation of Children into Germans and Jews was done. They could not sit together or play together.
· Subsequently, 'undesirable children' – Jews, the physically handicapped, Gypsies – were thrown out of
schools.
· Good German' children were subjected to a process of Nazi schooling, a prolonged period of
ideological training. School textbooks were rewritten. Racial science was introduced to justify Nazi
ideas of race.
· Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, hate Jews, and worship Hitler.
· Youth organisations were made responsible for educating German youth in the 'the spirit of National

20
 Socialism'. Ten-year-olds had to enter Jungvolk.
· It was made mandatory for all boys to join the Nazi youth organisation “Hitler Youth”, where they
learnt to worship war, glorify aggression and violence, condemn democracy, and hate Jews,
communists.

Jungvolk: Nazi youth groups for children below 14 years of age.

The Nazi Cult of Motherhood:
· Nazi ideology glorified woman as mothers, it propagated the view that women were radically
different from men.
· In Nazi Germany, Women who bore racially undesirable children were punished and those who
produced racially desirable children were awarded.
Ø For example: They were given favoured treatment in hospitals and were also entitled to
concessions in shops and on theatre tickets and railway fares.
· To encourage women to produce many children, Honour Crosses were awarded. A bronze cross was
given for four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more.
· All 'Aryan' women who deviated from the prescribed code of conduct were publicly condemned, and
severely punished. Those who maintained contact with Jews, Poles and Russians were paraded
through the town with shaved heads.

The Art of Propaganda:

· To disseminate and win support to the Nazi ideology, the Nazi regime used media with great effect.
· Nazi ideas were spread through visual images, films, radio, posters, catchy slogans, and leaflets. In
posters, groups identified as the 'enemies' of Germans were stereotyped, mocked, abused and
described as evil.
· Socialists and liberals were labelled as malicious foreign agents.
· Creating Stereotype for Jews:
Ø To spread hatred against Jews movies were made. For Example, the Eternal Jew.
Ø Jews were shown with flowing beards wearing kaftans, whereas in reality it was difficult to
NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

distinguish German Jews by their outward appearance because they were a highly assimilated
community.
Ø They were referred to as vermin, rats, and pests.

Ordinary People and the Crimes Against Humanity:

· Ordinary People were indoctrinated through Nazi propaganda, they thought that Nazism would bring
prosperity to Germans. They felt that hatred towards Jews, but not every German was Nazi.
· Many organised active resistance to Nazism, braving police repression and death. Most Germans,
however, were passive onlookers and apathetic witnesses.
· Charlotte Beradt wrote an account of Jews condition in book 'In the Third Reich of Dreams'.

21
 Ø She describes the agony which Jews faced due to stereotyping done by Nazi Press in her book.

Knowledge about the Holocaust:

· The world remained in oblivion about the atrocities committed on Jews till the end of world war. Nazi
killed Jews at large scale often known as – Holocaust.
· Nazi leadership left no stone unturned to ensure that all incriminating evidence never catch the
attention of world community. They distributed Petrol to their functionaries to burn the documents,
diary accounts recovered from inhabitants of camps.

Yet the history and the memory of the Holocaust live on in memoirs, fiction, documentaries, poetry,
memorials, and museums in many parts of the world today. These are a tribute to those who resisted it, an
embarrassing reminder to those who collaborated, and a warning to those who watched in silence.

Some Important Dates:

· August 1, 1914: First World War begins.
· November 9, 1918: Germany capitulates, ending the war.
· November 9, 1918: Proclamation of the Weimar Republic.
· June 28, 1919: Treaty of Versailles.
· January 30, 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.
· September 1, 1939: Germany invades Poland. Beginning of the Second World War.
· June 22, 1941: Germany invades the USSR.
· June 23,1941: Mass murder of the Jews begins.
· December 8, 1941: The United States joins Second World War.
· January 27, 1945: Soviet troops liberate Auschwitz.
· May 8, 1945: Allied victory in Europe

NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

22
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
10th Standard
India and the Contemporary World- II
CONTENTS
Crafts Heritage ................................................................................................................................ 1 - 8

Nationalism in India ..................................................................................................................... 9 - 15

The Making of a Global World ............................................................................................... 16 - 22

The Age of Industrialisation ................................................................................................... 23 - 25

Everyday Life, Culture and Politics ....................................................................................... 26 - 31

 THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM
1 IN EUROPE
During the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the
political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-
state in the place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe. The first clear expression of nationalism
came with the French Revolution in 1789.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation:

● France was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.
● The French revolution made political and constitutional changes which led to the transfer of
sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.
● The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of
collective identity amongst the French people and thus bolster the feeling of French-nation.
● The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and
shape its destiny.
● The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) were introduced that emphasised
the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
● A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
● The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
● New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
● A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.
● Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures
was adopted.
● Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the
common language of the nation.

The Civil Code of 1804:

THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

● It is also known as the Napoleonic Code.

● It abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right
to property.
● This Code was exported to the regions under French control i.e. the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, in
Italy and Germany.
● Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from
serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and
communication systems were improved.
● Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new
businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.
● Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws,
standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement
and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

1
The Making of Nationalism in Europe:
● Till mid-eighteenth century in Europe there were no 'nation-states'.
● Modern day states such as Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and
cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
● The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, was a patchwork of many different regions
and peoples.
⮚ It included the Alpine regions, the Tyrol, Austria, and the Sudetenland as well as Bohemia, where
the aristocracy was predominantly German speaking.
⮚ It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. The only tie binding
these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class:

● Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class, they were united by a common
way of life that cut across regional divisions.
● They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected
by ties of marriage.
● This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was
made up of the peasantry.
● Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in France and parts
of the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century.
● In its wake, new social groups such as a working-class population, and middle classes made up of
industrialists, businessmen, professionals came to existence.
● It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of
aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

Liberal Nationalism:
● The term 'liberalism' derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.

THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

● For the new middleclass liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the
law.
● In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-
imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
⮚ In 1834, a customs union was formed, which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of
currencies from over thirty to two.
⮚ The creation of railway networks further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to
national unification.
A New Conservatism after 1815:
Collectively, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated Napoleon in 1815. Following this the European
governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believe that traditional institutions of
state and society – like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, could be strengthen by
modernisation.

2
 Treaty of Vienna of 1815:
● In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, met at
Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
● The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
● The treaty was aimed at undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the
Napoleonic wars. It aimed to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and
create a new conservative order in Europe.
● As a result, the Bourbon dynasty deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and
France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
● A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.

About Conservative Regime:

Conservative regimes set up in 1815, were autocratic.
They did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the
legitimacy of autocratic governments.
Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and
songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.

The Revolutionaries:
● The memory of the French Revolution continued to inspire liberals. One of the major issues taken up by
the liberal nationalists, who criticised the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.
● During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal nationalists underground.
● Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

● To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been
established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.
● One of such liberal nationalists was Giuseppe Mazzini, who established Secret societies to train
revolutionaries and spread their ideas.

Giuseppe Mazzini:
● He was Born in Genoa in 1807. He opposed to monarchy and advocated for democratic
republics.
● He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
● He founded two underground societies: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in
Berne, whose members were from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.

3
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power in Europe; liberal nationalists belonging to the
educated middle-class elite, such as professors, schoolteachers led the revolution against these regimes.
July Revolution:
● The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
● The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were
now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe
at its head.
● The July revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the
United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Greek war of independence:

● Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
● The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst
the Greeks which began in 1821.
● Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile.
● Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to
support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
● The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever
in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling:

The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture
played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express
and shape nationalist feelings.

THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Romanticism:
● Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop nationalist sentiment.
● Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused
instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
● Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis
of a nation.
● The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an
ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were
mostly illiterate.

4
 Growth of Romanticism in Poland:
● Poland, which had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by the Great Powers –
Russia, Prussia and Austria.
● Although Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive
through music and language.
● Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music,
turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
● Russia occupied Poland, as a result, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the
Russian language was imposed everywhere. After a fierce struggle against Russian dominance
clergy in Poland began to use polish language as a weapon of national resistance.

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803):

● A German Philosopher who popularised the idea of Romanticism in Germany.
● He claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das
volk.
It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist)
was to be popularised.

Socio- Economic Conditions of Europe during 1830s:

● The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The first half of the nineteenth century
saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe. In most countries there were more seekers of
jobs than employment.
● Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small producers in
towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from
THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.

● In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the
burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to
widespread pauperism in town and country.

The Making of Germany and Italy

Unification of Germany:
● Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who in 1848 tried to unite the
different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
● However, the initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy
and the military.
● Otto von Bismarck was the architect of unification of Germany. He carried out unification with the
help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

5
 ● He led three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France which ended in Prussian
victory and completed the process of unification.
● In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at
Versailles.

Unification of Italy:
● Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.
● During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one,
Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
● The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions
were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
● During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini tried to unite Italian Republic, however he failed in his attempt.
Now the onus lies on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian
states through war.
● Later, Chief Minister Cavour through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France ensured the victory of
Sardinia-Piedmont over the Austrian forces in 1859.
● In 1860, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi marched into
South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
● They succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants and drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861
Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain:

● In Britain, the formation of nation- state is a different process from Europe where revolution marked
the rise of nation-state, unlike there in Britain it is a long drawn-out process.
● British-isles were ethnic- English, Welsh, scot or Irish. All these groups had their own culture and
political aspirations.
● As the economic status of English grew, the English parliament began to wield its authority and

THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

coerced other identities to form nation-state.
● The act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in formation of UK, this act not only
systemically suppressed institutions of Scotland but dampen the spirit of Scotland Culture.
● On the other hand, Ireland was divided deeply on the lines of Catholics and Protestants. The English
helped Protestants to establish their rule over largely catholic country.
● Catholics revolt were suppressed, and Ireland was formally incorporated into United Kingdom in
1801.
● A new British nation was forged through propagation of English symbols such as British flag and use
of English language.

Visualising the Nation:

● Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries personified a nation in the form of person. They
tried to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.

6
 ● These artists portrayed female figures as nation.
● Artists personified France as Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a
people's nation.
⮚ Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour,
the cockade.
⮚ Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of
unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
● In Germany, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania
wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Allegory: When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is expressed through a
person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and another symbolic.

Nationalism and Imperialism:

● Many countries in the world which had been colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth
century began to oppose imperial domination.
● The anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they all
struggled to form independent nation-states.
● They were inspired by a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism.
European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own
specific variety of nationalism.

Political Situation in Balkan Region:

● The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania,
Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and
THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.

● Ottoman Empire controlled a large part of the Balkans but the spread of the ideas of romantic
nationalism in the Balkans together and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region
very explosive.
● One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from Ottoman empire control and declared
independence.
● The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used
history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by
foreign powers.

Role of European Powers in Balkan Region:

● The Balkan region became the scene of big power rivalry. There was intense rivalry among the
European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.

7
● Each power such as Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary was keen on countering the hold of
other powers over the Balkans and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars
in the region and finally the First World War.

THE RAISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

8
 NATIONALISM IN INDIA
2
In India, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement. People
began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.
The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups
together. But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experiences were varied,
and their notions of freedom were not always the same.

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

Socio- Economic Condition of India during First World War:
● The war led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and
increasing taxes.
● Customs duties were raised, and income tax introduced.
● During the war years between 1913 and 1918, prices got doubled, leading to extreme hardship for
the common people.
● Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused
widespread anger.
● Crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by an
influenza epidemic.

The Idea of Satyagraha:

● Upon Mahatma Gandhi's return to India in 1915 from South Africa, the idea of satyagraha gained
momentum. He successfully used the technique of Satyagraha in South Africa against the racist
regime.
● Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
● It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not
necessary to fight the oppressor.
● Without seeking vengeance, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence. This could be
done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor.
● Examples:
⮚ Champaran Satyagraha: In 1917, Gandhi Ji travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the
peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
⮚ Kheda Satyagraha: It was organised to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat
whose crop got failed due to drought.
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

The Rowlatt Act:

● This Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention
of political prisoners without trial for two years.
● It had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of
the Indian members.

9
 ● Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start
with a hartal on 6th April.
● Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed
down.
● To clamp down the situation, few local leaders were picked up by the British official from Amritsar.
● On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks on
banks, post offices and railway stations. Martial law was also imposed, and General Dyer took
command.
● On 13 April 1919, the Jallianwala Bagh incident took place. A large crowd gathered in the enclosed
ground of Jallianwala Bagh to protest the government's new repressive measures.
● Crowd was not aware about the martial law that had been imposed in area. General Dyer took the
command of area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.
● His objective was to 'produce a moral effect', to create in the minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror
and awe.
● Indian's Response: Crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes
with the police and attacks on government buildings.
● Government's Response: The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and
terrorise people.

The Khilafat Issue:

● In First world war, the Ottoman Turkey got defeated. It was anticipated that a harsh peace treaty was
going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor – the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa).
● To defend the Khalifa's temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March
1919.
● Muslim leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma
Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue.
● Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national
movement.
● At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhiji put forward a plan to launch a
non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

Prelude to Non-Cooperation Movement:

● In Hind Swaraj (1909), Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established in India with the
cooperation of India and survived only because of this cooperation.
● If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would
come.

10
 Differing Strands within the Movement:
The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921. The underlying spirit of movement was
'Swaraj'. However, the term Swaraj was interpreted in different manner by different groups of people. They
interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways, imagining it to be a time when all suffering and all troubles
would be over.

The Movement in the Towns:

● Middle class enthusiastically participated in Non-cooperation Movement.
● Students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and
lawyers gave up their legal practices.
● The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.
⮚ The Justice Party, the party of the non-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of
gaining some power – something that usually only Brahmans had access to.
● Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.
● However, soon this movement gradually slowdown in cities due to following reasons:
⮚ Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not
afford to buy it.
⮚ For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could
be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So, students and teachers began
trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside:

The Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside. It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants
and tribal.

● Awadh Region:
⮚ In Awadh region, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi.
⮚ The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from peasants
exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses.
⮚ Peasants had to do beggar and work at landlords' farms without any payment.
⮚ In many places nai – dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the
services of even barbers and washermen.
⮚ Jawaharlal Nehru set up the Oudh Kisan Sabha to understand the grievances of peasants.
⮚ As the movement spread in 1921, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.

● Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh:
⮚ In forest region of Gudem Hills, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing
people from entering the forests to graze their cattle which enraged the people.
⮚ The hill people revolted under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju. Although he was inspired by
Gandhi's Non- Cooperation. But at the same time, he asserted that India could be liberated only
using force, not non-violence.

11
 ⮚ The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials, and carried on guerrilla
warfare for achieving swaraj.
⮚ Raju was captured and executed in 1924, and over time became a folk hero.

Swaraj in the Plantations:

● Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea
gardens without permission.
● For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined
space in which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had
come.
● When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left
the plantations, and headed home.
● They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming, and everyone would be given land in their own village.
● They raised the slogan 'Swatantra Bharat' during their agitation.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922):

● Chauri Chaura is a village in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. At Chauri- Chaura a peaceful demonstration
in a bazaar turned into a violent clash with the police.
● Hearing of the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt to the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Towards Civil Disobedience:

After, withdrawal of Non-cooperation movement, within congress few leaders felt that it was the time to
enter provincial councils through elections under the aegis of Government of India Act 1919. In this pursuit
C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within Congress. However, the leaders such as
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation aimed at gaining full
independence.

Arrival of Simon Commission:

● Tory government in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon to review the
functioning of the Government of India Act 1919 and suggest changes which suit the Indian-Politico
System.
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

● Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan 'Go back Simon'.
● Simon Commission was boycotted as it did not contain any Indian member.
● During protests against Simon Commission, Lala Lajpat Rai died due to Lathi blows of police.

Purna Swaraj:
● In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the
demand of 'Purna Swaraj' or full independence for India.

12
 ● It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people
were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement:

● The civil disobedience movement began with Gandhi's salt march along with his 78 followers to a
coastal town known as Dandi in Gujarat.
● On 6 April, 1930 he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling
sea water.
● Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt law, manufactured salt, and demonstrated in
front of government salt factories.
● As the movement spread, foreign cloth was boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants
refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes, village officials resigned, and in many places forest
people violated forest laws – going into Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.
● Government's Response:
⮚ The colonial government responded with a policy of brutal repression and arrest of the Congress
leaders one by one. This led to violent clashes in many palaces.
⮚ For Example: Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested in April
1930, at Peshawar.
⮚ Satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000 people were
arrested.
● Gandhi-Irwin Pact:
⮚ Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement and entered a pact with Lord
Irwin on 5 March 1931.
⮚ By the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Round Table Conference and the
government agreed to release the political prisoners.

Participation of Various Groups in the Civil Disobedience Movement

● Rich Peasant Communities:
⮚ The Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were rich peasants, active in the movement.
⮚ Being producers of commercial crops, they were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling
prices. Their cash income due to great depression disappeared they found it impossible to pay the
government's revenue demand.
⮚ For them, the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. But they were deeply
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

disappointed when the movement was called off in 1931 without the revenue rates being revised.
● Poor Peasantry:
⮚ The poorer peasantry was not just interested in the lowering of the revenue demand unlike rich
peasants.
⮚ Many of them were small tenants cultivating land they had rented from landlords.
⮚ As the Depression continued and cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay
their rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted.

13
 ● Business classes:
⮚ Business classes were against colonial policies that restricted business activities.
⮚ They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange
ratio that would discourage imports.
⮚ To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in
1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
⮚ Prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla supported the Civil
Disobedience Movement through financial assistance.
● Industrial working classes:
⮚ The industrial working classes did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement in large
numbers, except in the Nagpur region.
⮚ There were strikes by railway workers in 1930 and dockworkers in 1932. In 1930 thousands of
workers in Chotanagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in protest rallies and boycott
campaigns.
⮚ But the Congress was reluctant to include workers' demands as part of its programme of struggle. It
felt that this would alienate industrialists and divide the antiimperial forces.
● Women:
⮚ Women participated in civil disobedience movement in large numbers.
⮚ During Gandhiji's salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to him. They
participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.
⮚ In urban areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas they came from rich
peasant households.
● The Limits of Civil Disobedience:
⮚ Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement was limited, particularly in the Maharashtra
and Nagpur region. As the Congress had ignored the Dalits, for fear of offending the sanatanis, the
conservative high-caste Hindus.
⮚ Muslim political organisations were also lukewarm in their response to the Civil Disobedience
Movement. After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of
Muslims felt alienated from the Congress.

The Sense of Collective Belonging:

The Sense of Collective Belonging to a nation in people comes when people begin to believe that they are all
part of the same nation. This sense of collective belonging comes when they discover some unity that binds
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

them together and partly through the experience of united struggles.

Contribution of People in growth of Nationalism:

● Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay:
⮚ It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be
visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. The image was first created by Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay.

14
 ⮚ He wrote 'Vande Mataram' as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Ananda
math and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal.
● Abanindranath Tagore:
⮚ Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat
Mata. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine
and spiritual.
● Natesa Sastri:
⮚ In Madras, he published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of
Southern India.
⮚ He believed that folklore was national literature; it was 'the most trustworthy manifestation of
people's real thoughts and characteristics.
● Mahatma Gandhi:
⮚ Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green, and white) and had a
spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.
⮚ Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.
● Interpretation of History & Nationalism:
⮚ Through their Historical prism, the British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of
governing themselves.
⮚ However, history was reinterpreted by Indians. The achievements in ancient times when art and
architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade
had flourished instil a sense of pride.
NATIONALISM IN INDIA

15
 THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL
3 WORLD
The Pre-modern world:
● Globalisation' is not a recent phenomenon which has emerged in last 50 years rather it has a long
history.
● From ancient times, travellers, traders, priests and pilgrims travelled vast distances for knowledge,
opportunity and spiritual fulfilment, or to escape persecution. They carried goods, money, values, skills,
ideas, inventions, and even germs and diseases.
● For Example: As early as 3000 BCE an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley civilisations with
present-day West Asia.

Silk Routes Link the World:

● The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant
parts of the world.
● Historians have identified several silk routes, over land and by sea, knitting together vast regions of
Asia, and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa. They are known to have existed since before
the Christian Era and thrived almost till the fifteenth century.
● Through these silk routes not only trade and cultural exchange took place between various parts of
world but various Christian missionaries, Muslim preachers spread the message of their religion.

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

● Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange. Traders and travellers introduced new
crops to the lands they travelled.
● For Example:
⮚ It is believed that noodles travelled west from China to become spaghetti or perhaps Arab traders
took pasta to fifth-century Sicily, an island now in Italy.
⮚ Foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes were not
known to our ancestors until about five centuries ago. These foods were only introduced in Europe
and Asia after Christopher Columbus discovered Americas.
● Potato became an important part of diet of Europe's poor in Ireland however when a disease
destroyed the potato crop in the mid-1840s, hundreds of thousands died of starvation.

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

Reasons for People Migration:
● Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe. Cities were crowded and
deadly diseases were widespread.
● Religious conflicts were common, and religious dissenters were persecuted. Therefore, people fled to
Europe for America.
Role of Disease in Conquest:
● The Spanish colonised America not by a conventional military weapon rather it was the germs such as
those of smallpox that they carried on their person.
● Because of their long isolation, America's original inhabitants had no immunity against these diseases
that came from Europe.

16
 New Trade Routes & Trade:
● The pre-modern world shrank greatly in the sixteenth century after European sailors found a sea route
to Asia and reached America through western ocean.
● The Indian Ocean had known a bustling trade, with goods, people, knowledge, customs, etc. criss-
crossing its waters. However, the entry of the Europeans helped expand or redirect some of these
flows towards Europe.

The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914):

● In the nineteenth century's world, Economic, political, social, cultural and technological factors
interacted in complex ways to transform societies and reshape external relations.
● To understand the World Economy in nineteenth century's, Economists identify three types of
movement or 'flows' within international economic exchanges:
⮚ The first is the flow of trade which in the nineteenth century refer red largely to trade in goods (e.g.,
cloth or wheat).
⮚ The second is the flow of labour – the migration of people in search of employment.
⮚ The third is the movement of capital for short-term or long-term investments over long
distances.

Corn Laws:
● The Corn Laws were tariffs and trade restrictions on imported food and grain ("corn") enforced in
the United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846.
● They were designed to keep grain prices high to favour domestic producers and represented British
mercantilism.
● Population growth from the late eighteenth century had increased the demand for food grains in
Britain as a result the price of agricultural products went up.
● Unhappy with high food prices, industrialists and urban dwellers forced the abolition of the Corn Laws.
After the Corn Laws were scrapped, food could be imported into Britain more cheaply than it could be
produced within the country.
THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

Role of Technology in making of a Global Agricultural Economy:

● The railways, steamships, the telegraph were important inventions that transformed the nineteenth-
century world.
● Railways linked the agricultural regions to the ports. New harbours were build and old ones expanded
to ship the new cargoes.
● Till the 1870s, animals were shipped live from America to Europe and then slaughtered when they
arrived there. During voyage many animals fell ill or became unfit to eat.
● Meat was hence an expensive luxury beyond the reach of the European poor. But with the introduction
of Refrigerated ship it was possible to carry perishable foods over long distances which lowered the
meat prices.

17
Late nineteenth-century Colonialism:
● Markets flourished and trade increased in the late nineteenth century, it is important to realise that
there was a darker side to this process. In many parts of the world, the expansion of trade and a closer
relationship with the world economy also meant a loss of freedoms and livelihood.
● Late nineteenth-century European conquests produced many painful economic, social and ecological
changes through which the colonised societies were brought into the world economy.
● Rival European powers in Africa drew up the borders demarcating their respective territories. In 1885
the big European powers met in Berlin to complete the carving up of Africa between them.
● Britain and France made vast additions to their overseas territories in the late nineteenth century.
Belgium and Germany became new colonial powers. The US also became a colonial power in the late
1890s by taking over some colonies earlier held by Spain.

Impact of European Colonialism on Colonised Societies:

● Shift to Labour Pattern: Traditionally, in Africa people were involved in agriculture due to vast
resources of land and minerals but Europeans forced them to work on wages in their plantations.
● Arrival of Diseases: Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague arrived in Africa in the late 1880s which killed 90
per cent of cattle. It was carried by infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers
invading Eritrea in East Africa.

Indentured Labour Migration from India:

● In the nineteenth century, hundreds of thousands of Indian and Chinese labourers went to work on
plantations, in mines, and in road and railway construction projects around the world.
● Most Indian indentured workers came from the present-day regions of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu. In the mid-nineteenth century these regions
experienced many changes – cottage industries declined, land rents rose, lands were cleared for mines
and plantations.
● All this affected the lives of the poor: they failed to pay their rents, became deeply indebted and were
forced to migrate in search of work.

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

● The main destinations of Indian indentured migrants were the Caribbean islands (mainly Trinidad,
Guyana and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji. Closer home, Tamil migrants went to Ceylon and Malay).
● Nineteenth-century indenture has been described as a 'new system of slavery'. Plantation workers
were working living in harsh conditions and have few legal rights.

Survival of Indentured Labour in harsh Conditions:

● Indentured labour working in harsh conditions developed new forms of individual and collective self-
expression, blending different cultural forms.
● In Trinidad the annual Muharram procession was transformed into a riotous carnival called 'Hosay' (for
Imam Hussain) in which workers of all races and religions joined.

18
 ● The protest religion of Rastafarianism (made famous by the Jamaican reggae star Bob Marley) is an
expression that reflect social and cultural links with Indian migrants to the Caribbean.
● 'Chutney music', popular in Trinidad and Guyana, is another creative contemporary expression of the
post-indenture experience.

Indentured Labour: A bonded labourer under contract to work for an employer for a specific amount
of time, to pay off his passage to a new country or home.

Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System:

● Historically, fine cottons produced in India were exported to Europe. With industrialisation, British
cotton manufacture began to expand, and industrialists pressurised the government to restrict cotton
imports and protect local industries.
● Tariffs were imposed on cloth imports into Britain. Consequently, the inflow of fine Indian cotton began
to decline.
● Indian textiles now faced stiff competition in other international markets. Exports from India, saw a
steady decline of the share of cotton textiles: from some 30 per cent around 1800 to 15 per cent by
1815.
● However, export of raw materials increased fast. Between 1812 and 1871, the share of raw cotton
exports rose from 5 per cent to 35 percent.

Britain: Multilateral Settlement System:

● Britain grew opium in India and exported it to China and, with the money earned through this sale, it
financed its tea and other imports from China.
● British had a trade surplus with India owing to higher exports to India.
● Britain used this surplus to balance its trade deficits with other countries – that is, with countries from
which Britain was importing more than it was selling to.
● This gave rise to a multilateral settlement system which allows one country's deficit with another
country to be settled by its surplus with a third country.
THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

The Inter-war economy:

The First World War (1914-18) was mainly fought in Europe. But its impact was felt around the world.
During this period the world experienced widespread economic and political instability.

Wartime Transformations:
● The First World War was fought between the Allies – Britain, France and Russia (later joined by the
US); and the Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey.
● The war saw the participation of leading industrial nations. During the war, industries were
restructured to produce war-related goods.

19
 ● Entire societies got reorganised for war – as men went to battle, women stepped in to undertake jobs
that earlier only men were expected to do.
● Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks. Thus, the war transformed the US from being
an international debtor to an international creditor.

Post-war Recovery
Economic Position of Britain after war:
● During pre-war period, Britain was the world's leading economy. However, after war Britain was
burdened with huge external debts as it took loans from US to finance war time expenditures.
● It found difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance in the Indian market, and to compete with
Japan internationally.
● The war had led to an economic boom, that is, to a large increase in demand, production and
employment.
● When the war boom ended, production contracted and unemployment increased.

Rise of Mass Production and Consumption:

● Post war US economy resumed its strong growth in the early 1920s. In 1920s US economy was
characterised by mass production. Henry Ford, a well-known pioneer of mass production used
assembly line method to increase output.
● The T Model Ford was the world's first mass-produced car. Mass production lowered costs and
prices of engineered goods. Due to rise in wages more workers could now afford to purchase durable
consumer goods such as car.
● In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world and became the largest overseas
lender. US imports and capital exports also boosted European recovery and world trade and income
growth over the next six years.

The Great Depression:

● The Great Depression began around 1929 and lasted till the mid1930s.
● During this period most parts of the world experienced catastrophic declines in production,

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

employment, incomes and trade.
● In general, agricultural regions and communities were the worst affected. This was because the fall in
agricultural prices was greater and more prolonged than that in the prices of industrial goods.

Factors:
● Speculation on borrowed money, which led to the collapse of American Share Market.
● Rapid selling created further fall.
● Failure of banks to provide credit to agriculture and industries.
● Economic inactivity due to First World War.
● The US attempt to protect its economy in the depression by doubling import duties also dealt another
severe blow to world trade.

20
 India and the Great Depression:
● India's exports and imports nearly halved between 1928 and 1934. As international prices crashed,
prices in India also plunged. Between 1928 and 1934, wheat prices in India fell by 50 percent.
● Agricultural prices fell sharply but the colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands which
adversely impacted peasants and farmers.
● In these depression years, India became an exporter of precious metals, notably gold.
● In urban areas middle-class salaried employees found themselves better off due to falling prices.
● Industrial investment also grew as the government extended tariff protection to industries, under the
pressure of nationalist opinion.

Rebuilding a World Economy:

● The Second World War was fought between the Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and
Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the US).
● Vast parts of Europe and Asia were devastated, and several cities were destroyed by aerial
bombardment or relentless artillery attacks. The war caused an immense amount of economic
devastation and social disruption.
● Two crucial influences shaped post-war reconstruction. The first was the US's emergence as the
dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world and the second was the
dominance of the Soviet Union.

Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions:

● The main aim of the post-war international economic system was to preserve economic stability and
full employment in the industrial world.
● Its framework was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in
July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.
THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

Bretton Woods System:

● The post-war international economic system is also often described as the Bretton Woods system.
● This system consists of International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. Both these
institutions are known as the Bretton Woods twins.
● IMF dealt with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations while the World Bank was set up
to finance post war reconstruction.
● It was based on fixed exchange rates. In this system, national currencies, for example the Indian rupee,
were pegged to the dollar at a fixed exchange rate.
● Decision-making in these institutions is controlled by the Western industrial powers. The US has an
effective right of veto over key IMF and World Bank decisions.

21
Performance of The Bretton Woods system: The Early Post-war Years
● The Bretton Woods system inaugurated an era of unprecedented growth of trade and incomes for the
Western industrial nations and Japan.
● World trade grew annually at over 8 per cent between 1950 and 1970 and incomes at nearly 5 per
cent. The growth was also mostly stable, without large fluctuations.

G-77 & New International Economic Order (NIEO):

● Faster economic growth of western countries did not percolate to the third world countries.
● In an attempt to increase their bargaining power at World level, these countries constituted them into a
group known as - the Group of 77 or G-77 to demand a New International Economic Order (NIEO).
● Through NIEO, these countries aimed a system which would give them control over their natural
resources, more development assistance, fair prices for raw material and better access for their
manufactured goods in the developed countries, market.

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

22
 THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION
4
Before the Industrial Revolution:
The history of Industrialisation is often linked with setting up of modern-day factories in eighteenth century
in Britain. However, there was large-scale industrial production for international market which was not
based on factories.

Proto Industrialisation:
● In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from the towns in Europe supplied money to
peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international market.
● These peasants, artisans produced hand made goods to cater the need of international market. This
phase of industrialisation as

The Coming Up of the Factory:

● The earliest factories in England came up by the 1730s. But it was only in the late eighteenth century
that the number of factories multiplied.
● A series of inventions in the eighteenth century increased the efficacy of each step of the production
process (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling).
● For Example: Britain was importing 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton to feed its cotton industry. By
1787 this import soared to 22 million pounds. This increase was linked to a number of changes within
the process of production.

The Pace of Industrial Change:

In England the industrial change was not on expected pace due to following reasons:
● Cotton and iron and steel industry were the leading sector while other industries could not catch the
pace.
● New industries could not easily displace traditional industries.
● New technology was expensive and merchants and industrialists were cautious about using it.

Hand Labour and Steam Power:

● In Victorian Britain, there was no shortage of hand labour as poor peasants moved to cities in large
THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION

numbers in search of jobs.

● Industrialists in Britain were keen to employ labour in factories for following reasons:
⮚ Due to plenty of labour available, there were low wages.
⮚ Large capital investment was needed in machines.
⮚ In factories such as breweries only seasonal demand of labour was there.
● However, in countries such as US in nineteenth- century industrialists were keen on using mechanical
power due to shortage of human labour.

Life of the Workers and Introduction of Spinning Jenny:

● Life of workers in Britain was grim, workers find jobs in market on the basis of their social connections.

23
 ● The incomes of workers fluctuated due to seasonal nature of work.
● The Spinning Jenny was introduced in the woollen industry, women who survived on hand spinning
began attacking it.

Spinning Jenny:
● Devised by James Hargreaves in 1764, this machine speeded up the spinning process and
reduced labour demand.
● By turning one single wheel a worker could set in motion number of spindles and spin several
threads at the same time.

Industrialisation in the Colonies

Advent of Colonialism and Indian Textiles:
● Before, the onset of machine industries International market in textiles was dominated by silk and
cotton goods of India. A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this network of
export trade-financing production, carrying goods and supplying exporters.
● Surat and Hooghly were traditional trade centres, however with the emergence of European
Companies new trade centre such as Bombay and Calcutta grew.
● Many of the old trading houses collapsed, and those who survived had to now operate within a
network shaped by European trading companies.

Steps taken by East India Company to Monopolise Trade:

As the East India Company established political power, it took the following steps to monopolize trade over
its other European competitors:
● It appointed a paid servant called the Gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine
the quality of cloth.
● It prevented Company weavers from dealing with other buyers through the system of advance.

Impact of British Cotton Industries on India:

THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION

● Industrial groups in England worried by the influx of imports from India pressured government to
impose import duties on cotton products from India.
● This strategy promoted the market of Manchester goods in Britain without competition from outside.
● Subsequently, the export market of Indian cotton products declined and Indian local markets were
flooded with Manchester imports.

Factories Coming up:

● The first cotton mill in Bombay came up in 1854. In Bengal, the first being set up in 1855.
● In north India, the Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur in the 1860s, and a year later the first cotton mill of
Ahmedabad was set up.

24
 ● By 1874, the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.

Contribution of Early Entrepreneurs in Industrial Development:

● In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore set up six joint-stock companies in the 1830s and 1840s.
● In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata who built huge industrial
empires in India.
● Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari businessman who set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917.

Impact of Swadeshi Movement on Industries:

● In the beginning of 20th century, the swadeshi movement gathered momentum, nationalists mobilised
people to boycott foreign cloth.
● Industrial groups organised themselves to protect their collective interests, pressurising the
government to increase tariff protection and grant other concessions.

Impact of First World War on Industries in India:

● Manchester imports into India declined as British mills were busy with war production to meet the
needs of the army. Suddenly, it led to creation of vast home market to supply goods.
● Indian factories supplied war needs such as jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots.
● Local industrialists gradually consolidated their position, substituting foreign manufactures and
capturing the home market.

Use of Technology and Handlooms:

● By the second decade of the twentieth century weavers started using looms with a fly shuttle.
● This increased productivity per worker, speeded up production and reduced labour demand.
● By 1941, over 35 per cent of handlooms in India were fitted with fly shuttles.

Market for Goods:

British manufacturers used advertisement to shape a new consumer culture which created the demands of
their products in market.
THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION

Use of Symbols in Advertisement:

● MADE IN MANCHESTER' label was used by British manufacturers in India to promote their product.
This label was promoted as hallmark of quality.
● Images of Indian gods and goddesses such as Krishna or Saraswati was used by the manufacturers so
that a product from a foreign land appear somewhat familiar to Indian people.

25
 EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE
5 AND POLITICS
Print, Culture and the Modern World:
The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. This was a system of hand
printing.

Print Culture in China:

● From AD 594 onwards, books in China were printed by rubbing paper.
● The imperial state in China was the major producer of printed material. Print material was in great
demand in china as state conducted civil services examination for which textbooks were printed in
large numbers.
● By the seventeenth century, the uses of print diversified. Reading increasingly became a leisure
activity. The new readership preferred fictional narratives, poetry.
● Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported in the late nineteenth century
as Western powers established their outposts in China.
● Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture. From hand printing there was now a gradual shift to
mechanical printing.

Print in Japan:
● Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan around AD 768-
770.
● The oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868, is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra.
● In medieval Japan, poets and prose writers were regularly published, and books were cheap and
abundant.
● In the late eighteenth century, in the urban circles at Edo (now, Tokyo), illustrated collections of
paintings depicted an elegant urban culture, involving artists, courtesans, and teahouse gatherings.

Print Comes to Europe:

● In the eleventh century, Chinese paper reached Europe via the silk route.

EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

● In 1295, Marco Polo introduced the technology of woodblock printing in Italy after his exploration in
China. Soon the wood block printing spread to other parts of Europe.
● Luxury editions were still handwritten on very expensive vellum, meant for aristocratic class.
● Gradually, the demand for books increased, booksellers all over Europe began exporting books to
many different countries.
● By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were being widely used in Europe to print textiles, playing
cards, and religious pictures with simple, brief texts.

Gutenberg and the Printing Press:

● Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large agricultural estate. From his childhood
he had seen wine and olive presses.
● In 1448, the Gutenberg Press was established by him. The first book he printed was the Bible. About
180 copies were printed in 3 years.

26
 ● Although these books were printed, a unique touch remained borders were illuminated by hand with
foliage and other patterns.

The Print Revolution and Its Impact:

This shift from hand printing to mechanical printing is known as the print revolution. It was a new way of
producing books. Printing revolution ensured the reach of ancient and medieval texts to a broader audience.

Impact of Printing Books:

● Printing reduced the cost of books.
● The time and labour required to produce each book came down, and multiple copies could be
produced with greater ease.
● Printed Books increased the readership in the market.
● Access to books created a new culture of reading.
● Earlier, reading was restricted to the elites. Printed material helped to reach the content to illiterate
section of society through recitals in taverns and public gatherings.

Taverns: Places where people gathered to drink alcohol, to be served food, and to meet friends and
exchange news.

Religious Debates and the Fear of Print:

● Print created the possibility of wide circulation of ideas and introduced a new world of debate and
discussion.
● Even those who disagreed with established authorities could now print and circulate their idea.
● In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote Ninety Five Theses, criticising many of the
practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church.
● Luther's writings were reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This leads to a division within the
Church and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

The Reading Mania:

● In seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries, churches of different denominations set up schools in
villages for imparting education to peasants and artisans.
● As a result, by the end of the eighteenth century, in some parts of Europe literacy rates were as high as
60 to 80 per cent.

Measures Which made literature popular:

● New forms of popular literature appeared in print, targeting new audiences. Booksellers employed
pedlars who roamed around villages, carrying little books for sale.
● There were almanacs or ritual calendars, along with ballads and folktales.
● In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlars known as chapmen, who sold books which
a poor could buy.

27
 ● In France, were the “Biliotheque Bleue”, which were low-priced small books printed on poor quality
paper, bound in cheap blue covers.

Books as Vehicles of Change:

● By the mid-eighteenth century, there was a common conviction that books were a means of spreading
progress and enlightenment.
● Many believed that books could change the world, liberate society from despotism and tyranny, and
herald a time when reason and intellect would rule.
● For Example: Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century proclaimed that: 'The
printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep
despotism away.'

Print Culture and the French Revolution:

Many Historians are of the view that the French Revolution has its genesis in print culture due to following
reasons:
● Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Rousseau. Collectively,
their writings provided a critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism.
● Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate which recognised the need to question existing
ideas and beliefs.
● By the 1780s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty and criticised their morality.
● Cartoons and caricatures typically suggested that the monarchy remained absorbed only in sensual
pleasures while the common people suffered immense hardships.

The Nineteenth Century:

The nineteenth century saw massive improvement in mass literacy in Europe, bringing in large numbers of
new readers among children, women and workers.

EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

Children:
● Children became an important category of readers, as primary education became compulsory from
the late nineteenth century.
● A children's press, devoted to literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
● The Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants
which were published in 1812.

Women:
● Women became important readers as well as writers.
● Penny magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper behaviour and
housekeeping.
● Famous Women Novelists: Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot.

28
 Workers:
● In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England became instruments for educating white-collar
workers, artisans and lower-middle-class people.
● Political tracts and autobiographies were written by workers from the mid-nineteenth century after
the working day was gradually shortened.

Innovation in Press:
● By the late eighteenth century, the press came to be made out of metal.
● Power-driven Cylindrical Press: Richard M. Hoe developed this press in mid- nineteenth century. This
Press was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour.
● Offset Press: In the late nineteenth century, the offset press was developed which could print up to six
colours at a time.
● Electrically Operated Presses accelerated printing operations from the turn of the twentieth century.
● Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels and
photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
● Printers and publishers continuously developed new strategies to sell their product.
⮚ In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.

India and the World of Print:

● Before the age of print, in India there was old tradition of handwritten manuscripts in Sanskrit,
Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages.
● Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
● Manuscripts were highly expensive and fragile. They could not be read easily because they were
written in different styles.

Evolution of Print in India:

EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

● The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century.
● Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts.
● From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine. It
published gossip about the East India Company's senior officials in India.

Religious Reform and Public Debates:

● From the early nineteenth century, there were intense debates around religious issues. These debates
were carried out in public and in print.
● Printed tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the
debate.
● Matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood, idolatry were debated
between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy.
● To reach a wider audience, the ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.

29
 ● Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned
the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinions.
● The ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties.
● They feared that colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To
counter this, they used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translations of holy
scriptures.

New Forms of Publication:

● Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing. By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual
culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an increasing number of printing presses, visual
images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies.
● Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass circulation. By the 1870s, caricatures and
cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues.

Women and Print:

● Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home and sent them to schools after
the mid-nineteenth century.
● However, Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that
educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
● In East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi wrote her autobiography Amar
Jiban which was published in 1876.
● Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women – about how women were
imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labour.
● In the 1880s, in present-day Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with
passionate anger about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows.
● In Punjab folk literature was widely printed from the early twentieth century. Ram Chaddha published

EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

the fast-selling Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives.

Print and the Poor People:

● Public libraries were set up by rich local patrons from the early twentieth century for poor people so
that they could get the access to books.
● From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to be written about in many
printed tracts and essays. Jyotiba Phule wrote about the injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri
(1871).
● Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to show
the links between caste and class exploitation.
● Sacchi Kavitayan a collection written by Kanpur millworker under the name of Sudarshan Chakr were
published.

30
 Print and Censorship:
● Before 1798, the English East India Company was not enthused about the local press in India rather it
was concerned about the publications of its own employees who were critical of Company misrule.
● The Company was worried that such criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade
monopoly in India.
● By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed regulations to control press freedom and the
Company began encouraging publication of newspapers that would celebrate British rule.
● After the revolt of 1857, the British government took measures to check the growth of vernacular
newspapers due to their nationalist fervour.
● In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed. It provided the government with extensive rights to
censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
● Balgangadhar Tilak edited Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread
protests all over India.
EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

31
NCERT NOTES
FOR WORLD HISTORY
11th Standard
CONTENTS
From the Beginning of Time ........................................................................................................ 1 - 3

Writing and City Life ...................................................................................................................... 4 - 7

An Empire Across Three Continents ...................................................................................... 8 - 11

The Central Islamic Lands ....................................................................................................... 11 - 15

Nomadic Empires ....................................................................................................................... 16 - 19

The Three Orders ....................................................................................................................... 20 - 24

Changing Cultural Traditions ................................................................................................. 25 - 29

Confrontation of Cultures ........................................................................................................ 30 - 34

Towards Modernisation ........................................................................................................... 35 - 38

Displacing Indigenous Peoples ............................................................................................. 39 - 42

 FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME
1
It was 5.6 million years ago, the first humanlike creatures appeared on the earth's surface. After this, several
forms of humans emerged and then became extinct. Human beings resembling us originated about 160,000
years ago.

The Story of Human Evolution

The Precursors of Modern Human Beings:
· By about 24 million years ago (mya), humans emerged a subgroup amongst primates, called
hominoids. This included apes. And, much later, about 5.6 mya, the evidence of the first hominids was
found.
· Hominids have evolved from hominoids and share certain common features, there are major
differences as well.
Ø Hominoids have a smaller brain than hominids.
Ø Hominoids are quadrupeds, walking on all fours, but with flexible forelimbs.
Ø Hominids have an upright posture and bipedal locomotion (walking on two feet).
Ø There are also marked differences in the hand, which enables the making and use of tools.
· Around 2.5 mya, with the onset of a phase of glaciation (or an Ice Age), large parts of the earth were
covered with snow and there were also major changes in climate and vegetation.
Ø Due to the reduction in temperatures as well as rainfall, grassland areas expanded at the expense
of forests, leading to the gradual extinction of the early forms of Australopithecus (that were
adapted to forests) and the replacement by species that were better adapted to the drier conditions.
Ø Among these were the earliest representatives of the genus Homo.

Fig 1.1: Peopling of the World

Modern Human Beings:

· Some of the earliest evidence for Homo sapiens has been found in different parts of Africa.
· Two totally divergent views have been expounded, one advocating the regional continuity model
(with multiple regions of origin), the other the replacement model (with a single origin in Africa).

1
 Fig 1.2: Replacement and regional community model

Early Humans
Ways of Obtaining Food:
· Early humans would have obtained food through number of ways, such as gathering, hunting,
scavenging and fishing.
· From about 35,000 years ago, there is evidence of planned hunting from some European sites.
· Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites.

From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites:

· Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open air sites began to be used. Evidence for this
comes from sites in Europe.
· Example: In the Lazaret cave in southern France, a shelter was built against the cave wall. Inside
which two hearths and evidence of different food source were found.

Making Tools:
· The use and making of tools are not confined to humans. Birds are known to make objects to assist
them with feeding, hygiene and social encounters, and while foraging for food some chimpanzees use
tools that they have made.
· The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and Kenya.
· It is possible that stone tool makers were both women and men
· The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about 21,000 years ago.

Modes of Communication
Language and Art:
· There are several views on language development:
Ø Hominid language involved gestures or hand movements.
Ø Spoken language was preceded by vocal but non-verbal communication such as singing or
humming.
Ø Human speech probably began with calls like the ones that have been observed among primates.

2
 · Language may have developed as early as 2 mya. The evolution of the vocal tract was equally
important. This occurred around 200,000 years ago. It is more specifically associated with modern
humans.
· Another suggestion is that language developed around the same time as art, that is, around 40,000-
35,000 years ago. The development of spoken language has been seen as closely connected with art,
since both are media for communication.

Timeline 1 (mya):
· 36-24 mya: Primates; Monkeys in Asia and Africa.
· 24 mya: (Superfamily) Hominoids; Gibbons, Asian orang-utan and African apes (gorilla, chimpanzee
and bonobo or 'pygmy' chimpanzee).
· 6.4 mya: Branching out of hominoids and hominids.
· 5.6 mya: Australopithecus.
· 2.6-2.5: Earliest stone tools.
· 2.5-2.0: Cooling and drying of Africa, resulting in decrease in woodlands and increase in grasslands.
· 2.5-2.0 mya: Homo
· 2.2 mya: Homo habilis.
· 1.8 mya: Homo erectus.
· 1.3 mya: Extinction of Australopithecus.
· 0.8 mya: 'Archaic' sapiens, Homo heidelbergensis.
· 0.19-0.16 mya: Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans).

Timeline 2 (Years ago):

· Earliest evidence of burials: 300,000
· Extinction of Homo erectus: 200,000
· Development of voice box: 200,000
· Archaic Homo sapiens skull in the Narmada valley, India: 200,000-130,000
· Emergence of modern humans: 195,000-160,000
· Emergence of Neanderthals: 130,000
· Earliest evidence of hearths: 125,000
· Extinction of Neanderthals: 35,000
· Earliest evidence of figurines made of fired clay: 27,000
· Invention of sewing needles: 21,000

3
 WRITING AND CITY LIFE
2
Mesopotamia is the land between the Euphrates and the Tigris river, that is now part of the Republic of Iraq.
Mesopotamian civilisation is known for its prosperity, city life, voluminous and rich literature and its
mathematics and astronomy.

Mesopotamia's writing system and literature spread to the eastern Mediterranean, northern Syria, and
Turkey after 2000 BCE, so that the kingdoms of that entire region were writing to one another, and to the
Pharaoh of Egypt, in the language and script of Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamia and its Geography:

· Mesopotamia was the ancient name for what is now Iraq, which is a land of diverse environments.
· In the north-east lie green, undulating plains, gradually rising to tree-covered mountain ranges with
clear streams and wildflowers, with enough rainfall to grow crops. In that region, agriculture began
between 7000 and 6000 BCE.
Ø In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a Steppe, where animal herding offers people a better
livelihood than agriculture.
Ø To the east, tributaries of the Tigris provide routes of communication.
Ø The south is a desert, and this is where the first cities and writing emerged.
· Euphrates and Tigris act as a source of irrigation.
· Of all ancient systems, it was the agriculture of southern Mesopotamia that was the most productive.

The Significance of Urbanism:

· Urban centres involve in various economic activities such as food production, trade, manufactures
and services.
· City people, thus, cease to be self-sufficient and depend on the products or services of other people.
· The division of labour is a mark of urban life. For instance, the carver of as tone seal requires bronze
tools that he himself cannot make, and coloured stones for the seals that he does not know where to
get. He depends on others for his needs.
· There must be a social organisation in Cities. Fuel, metal, various stones, wood, etc., come from many
different places for city manufacturers. Thus, organised trade, storage, deliveries of grain and other
food items from the village to the city were controlled and supervised by the rulers.

Movement of Goods into Cities:

· Mesopotamia had rich food resources, however, it lacked supply of raw materials and mineral
resources.
· The ancient Mesopotamians could have traded their abundant textiles and agricultural produce for
wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell and various stones from Turkey and Iran, or across the Gulf.
· The canals and natural channels of ancient Mesopotamia were important routes of goods transport
between large and small settlements.

4
The Development of Writing:
· All societies have languages in which spoken sounds convey certain meanings. This is verbal
communication. Writings too is verbal communication but in a different way.
· The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and
numbers. There were about 5,000 lists of oxen, fish, bread loaves, etc.
· Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.
· When a transaction was completed the tablet was thrown away, so each transaction, however minor,
required a separate written tablet.
· By 2600 BCE writing was used for making dictionaries, recording land transfers, narrating the
deeds of kings, and announcing any change in the laws of the land.
· Sumerian, the earliest known language of Mesopotamia which was gradually replaced after 2400 BCE
by the Akkadian language.

The System of Writing:

· The signs that a Mesopotamian scribe had to learn ran into hundreds, and he had to handle a wet
tablet and get it written before it dried.
· Writing was a skilled craft but, more important, it was an enormous intellectual achievement,
conveying in visual form the system of sounds of a particular language.

Literacy:
· Very few Mesopotamians could read and write.
· There were hundreds of signs to learn, many of these were complex.
· There writing reflected the mode of speaking.

The Uses of Writing:

· The connection between city life, trade and writing is brought out in a Sumerian epic poem about
Enmerkar, one of the rulers of Uruk.
· It can be inferred from the epic that in Mesopotamian understanding it was kingship that organised
trade and writing.
· Besides being a means of storing information and of sending messages, writing was seen as a sign of
the superiority of Mesopotamian urban culture.

Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia: Temples and Kings

· From 5000 BCE, settlements had begun to develop in southern Mesopotamia. These were of various
kinds:
Ø That gradually developed around temples.
Ø That developed as centres of trade.
Ø Imperial cities.
· Early settlers began to build and rebuild temples at selected spots in their villages.

5
 · The god was the focus of worship, people offered grain, curd and fish and god was also considered the
owner of the agricultural fields, the fisheries, and the herds of the local community.
· The temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution.
· Chiefs who became victorious in wars offered precious booty to the gods and renovated the
community's temples.
· Enmerkar, ruler of Uruk, got legitimacy in the community through this way.

Life in the City:

· A ruling elite had emerged, and small section of society had a major share of the wealth, enormous
riches buried with some kings and queens at Ur was found.
· In Mesopotamian society, nuclear family was the norm, and the father was the head of the family.
· In Ur, narrow winding streets and the irregular shapes of house plots indicate an absence of town
planning. There was no street drain, as found in Mohenjo-daro.
· There was a town cemetery at Ur in which the graves of royalty and commoners have been found.

A Trading Town in a Pastoral Zone:

· After 2000 BCE the royal capital of Mari flourished.
· Some communities in the kingdom of Mari had both farmers and pastoralists, but most of its territory
was used for pasturing sheep and goats.
· Located on the Euphrates in a prime position for trade between the south and the mineral-rich uplands
of Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, Mari is a good example of an urban centre prospering on trade.
· As bronze was the main industrial material for tools and weapons, this trade was of great importance.

The Legacy of Writing:

· Greatest legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and
mathematics.
· Tablets dating around 1800 BCE show multiplication and division tables, square- and square-root
tables, and tables of compound interest.
· The Mesopotamians worked on
Ø The division of the year into 12 months according to the revolution of the moon around the earth.
Ø The division of the month into four weeks.
Ø The day into 24 hours and the hour into 60 minutes.

Timeline:
· 7000-6000 BCE: Beginning of agriculture in the northern Mesopotamian plains.
· 5000 BCE: Earliest temples in southern Mesopotamia built.
· 3200 BCE: First writing in Mesopotamia.
· 3000 BCE: Uruk develops into a huge city, increasing use of bronze tools.
· 2700-2500 BCE: Early kings, including, possibly, the legendary ruler Gilgamesh.

6
· 2600 BCE: Development of the cuneiform script.
· 2400 BCE: Replacement of Sumerian by Akkadian.
· 2370 BCE: Sargon, king of Akkad.
· 2000 BCE: Spread of cuneiform writing to Syria, Turkey and Egypt; Mari and Babylon emerge as
important urban centres.
· 1800 BCE: Mathematical texts composed; Sumerian no longer spoken.
· 1100 BCE: Establishment of the Assyrian kingdom.
· 1000 BCE: Use of iron.
· 720-610: BCE Assyrian empire.
· 668-627: BCE Rule of Assurbanipal.
· 331 BCE: Alexander conquers Bablyon.
· 1st century CE: Akkadian and cuneiform remain in use.
· 1850s: Decipherment of the cuneiform script.

7
 AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE CONTINENTS
3
Two powerful empires ruled over most of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. The two empires were
those of Rome and Iran. Rome dominated the Mediterranean and all the regions around that sea in both
directions, north and south.

The Early Empire:

· The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, 'early' and 'late', divided by the third
century as a sort of historical watershed between them.
· The Roman Empire was a mosaic of territories and cultures that were chiefly bound together by a
common system of government.
· Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for the purposes of administration Latin and Greek
were the most widely used.
· The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the 'Principate'.
Ø Augustus was the sole ruler and the only real source of authority.
Ø He was called the 'leading citizen' to pacify the Senate, the body which had controlled Rome when
it was a republic.
· Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution was the Army.
Ø Romans had a paid professional army where soldiers had to put in a minimum of 25 years of service.
Ø The army was the largest single organised body in the empire.
Ø The Senate hated and feared the army, because it was a source of unpredictable violence.
Ø At its peak in the second century, the Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to the borders of
Armenia, and from the Sahara to the Euphrates.

The Third-Century Crisis:

· From the 230s, the empire found itself fighting on several fronts simultaneously.
· In Iran, a new and more aggressive dynasty, the 'Sasanians', rapidly expanded.
· In a famous rock inscription cut in three languages, Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had
annihilated a Roman army and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
· A whole series of Germanic tribes or tribal confederacies forced the Romans to abandon much of the
territory beyond the Danube.

Gender, Literacy, Culture:

· Gender: By the late Republic (the first century BCE), the typical form of marriage was one where the
wife did not transfer to her husband's authority but retained full rights in the property of her natal
family.
Ø Roman women enjoyed considerable legal rights in owning and managing property.
· Literacy: Rates of casual literacy varied greatly between different parts of the empire.
Ø Literacy was more widespread among certain categories such as soldiers, army officers and estate
managers in Egypt.

8
 Ø In Pompeii, there is strong evidence of widespread casual literacy. Walls on the main streets of
Pompeii often carried advertisements and graffitiing.
· Cultural Diversity: It was reflected in many ways and at many levels:
Ø In the vast diversity of religious cults and local deities.
Ø The plurality of languages that were spoken.
Ø The styles of dress and costume, the food people ate, their forms of social organisation (tribal/non-
tribal), even their patterns of settlement.

Economic Expansion:
· The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive
oil factories, etc.
· Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called 'Amphorae'.
· Spanish olive oil was a vast commercial enterprise that reached its peak in the years 140-160, mainly
carried in a container called Dressel 20.
· The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility.
· Campania in Italy, Sicily, the Fayum in Egypt, Galilee, Byzacium (Tunisia), southern Gaul (called Gallia
Narbonensis), and Baetica (southern Spain) were among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts
of the empire.

Controlling Workers:
· Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world. The upper class was often brutal towards
slaves, whereas ordinary people showed compassion.
· Unlike hired workers, slaves had to be fed and maintained throughout the year, which increased the
cost of holding this kind of labour.
· The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labour and to make
supervision of labours easier, workers were sometimes grouped into gangs or smaller teams.
· A law of 398 referred to workers being branded so they could be recognised if and when they run
away and try to hide.
· Parents sometimes sold their children into servitude for periods of 25 years.

Social Hierarchies:
· The leading social groups of the early empire as follows:
Ø Senators;
Ø leading members of the equestrian class;
Ø the respectable section of the people, those attached to the great houses;
Ø the unkempt lower class (plebs sordida), addicted to the circus and theatrical displays; and
Ø the slaves.
· By the late empire, early part of the fourth century, the first two groups had merged into a unified and
expanded aristocracy

9
 · Roman aristocracy was enormously wealthy but, in many ways, less powerful than the purely military
elites.
· The 'middle' class consisted of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy and army
and also the more prosperous merchants and farmers.
· The lower classes known collectively as Humiliores, comprised a rural labour force of which many
were employed on the large estates, workers in industrial and mining establishments and migrant
workers.
· Thousands of slaves were found all over the western empire.
· The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was an affluent group because it
drew the bulk of its salary in gold.

Late Antiquity:
· Constantine's chief innovations were in the monetary sphere, where he introduced a new
denomination, the solidus, a coin of 4½ gm of pure gold that outlasted the Roman Empire.
· Solidi were minted on a very large scale and their circulation ran into millions.
· Records show considerable investment in rural establishments, including industrial installations like
oil presses, glass factories, screw presses and multiple water-mills.

10
 THE CENTRAL ISLAMIC LANDS
4
There are over 1 billion Muslims living in all parts of the world. They are citizens of different nations, speak
different languages, and dress differently. The processes by which they became Muslims were varied, the
Islamic community has its roots in a more unified past which unfolded roughly 1,400 years ago in the
Arabian peninsula.

The Rise of Islam in Arabia: Faith, Community and Politics:

· During 612-32, Prophet Muhammad, an Arab, preached the worship of a single God, Allah, and the
membership of a single community of believers (umma). This was the origin of Islam.
· Arabs were divided into tribes, each led by a chief and each tribe had its own god or goddess, who was
worshipped as an idol, however, many tribes were nomadic (Bedouins).
· Muhammad's own tribe, Quraysh, lived in Mecca and controlled the main shrine there, a cube-like
structure called Kaba, in which idols were placed. Kaba was considered holy by other tribes as well.
· Around 612, Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger of God who had been commanded to
preach that Allah alone should be worshipped.
· Muhammad's message particularly appealed to those who were mistreated and were looking for a
new community identity.
· The Muslims opposition from Meccans who took offence to the rejection of their deities and found the
new religion a threat to the status and prosperity of Mecca, but soon Muhammad conquered Mecca
with the help of his followers.
· Muhammad insisted on conversion as the sole criterion for membership of the community.
· Many tribes, for example, Bedouins, joined the community by converting to Islam.

The Caliphate: Expansion, Civil Wars and Sect Formation:

· After Muhammad's death in 632 and institution of caliphate was established, in which the leader of the
community became the deputy (khalifa) of the Prophet.
· The twin objectives of the caliphate were to retain control over the tribes trying to break away from the
Umma and to raise resources for the state.
· The first caliph, Abu Bakr, suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns.
· The second caliph, Umar, shaped the umma's policy of expansion of power.
Ø Through his raids and expansionist policies the Arabs brought Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt under the
control of Medina.
· Third caliph, Uthman, launched further campaigns to extend the control to Central Asia.
· The caliphs imposed a new administrative structure headed by governors (amirs) and tribal chieftains
(ashraf).
· Ali became the fourth caliph and rift among the Muslims deepened after he fought two wars against
the Meccan aristocracy.
Ø He defeated an army led by Muhammad's wife, Aisha (Battle of the Camel, 657).
Ø After his death, his followers paid allegiance to his son, Hussain, and his descendants.

11
 · Muawiya, Governor of Syria, made himself the next caliph in 661, found the Umayyad dynasty which
lasted till 750.

The Umayyads and the Centralisation of Polity:

· The first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya, moved his capital to Damascus and adopted the court
ceremonies and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire.
· He also introduced hereditary succession. This allowed the Umayyads to retain power for 90 years and
the Abbasids, for two centuries.
· There were Christian advisers Zoroastrian scribes and bureaucrats in the administration, however,
Islam continued to provide legitimacy to their rule.
· During the reign of Abd al-Malik (685-705) Arabic became the language of administration and Islamic
coins were introduced.

The Abbasid Revolution:

· The Abbasids portrayed the Umayyad regime as evil and promised a restoration of the original Islam of
the Prophet.
· The Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, the Prophet's uncle, mustered the support of the various
dissident groups and legitimised their bid for power.
· They promised that a messiah from the family of the Prophet would liberate them from the oppressive
Umayyad regime.
· Under Abbasid rule, Arab influence declined, while the importance of Iranian culture increased. They
established their capital at Baghdad.
· The army and bureaucracy were reorganised on a non-tribal basis to ensure greater participation by
Iraq and Khurasan.

Break-up of the Caliphate and the Rise of Sultanates:

· In 810, a civil war broke out between supporters of Amin and Mamun, sons of the caliph Harun al-
Rashid, which created a new power bloc of Turkish slave officers (mamluk).
· A number of minor dynasties arose, such as the Tahirids and Samanids in Khurasan and Transoxiana
and the Tulunids in Egypt and Syria.
· In 945, the Buyids, a Shiite clan from the Caspian region of Iran (Daylam), captured Baghdad, they
assumed various titles, including shahanshah, but not that of caliph.
· The Fatimids belonged to the Ismaili subsect of Shiism and claimed to be descended from the
Prophet's daughter, Fatima, and hence, the sole rightful rulers of Islam.
· A third ethnic group was added to the Arabs and Iranians, with the rise of the Turkish sultanates, they
were nomadic tribes from the Central Asian steppes who converted to Islam.
· The Ghaznavid sultanate was established by Alptegin and consolidated by Mahmud of Ghazni. Like
the Buyids, the Ghaznavids were a military dynasty with a professional army of Turks and Indians.

12
 · The Saljuq Turks entered Turan as soldiers in the armies of the Samanids and Qarakhanids,
establishing themselves as a powerful group. In, 1055, they restored Baghdad to Sunni rule.

The Crusades:
· The crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims for securing control of
holy sites considered sacred by both.
· In the First crusade soldiers from France and Italy claimed Jerusalem.
Ø Their victory was accompanied by the slaughter of Muslims and Jews in the city.
Ø The Franks established four crusader states in the region of Syria-Palestine.
Ø These territories were known as Outremer (the land overseas) and later crusades were directed at
its defence and expansion.
· The Outremer survived well for some time, but when the Turks captured Edessa, an appeal was made
by the Pope for a Second crusade.
Ø A combined German and French army made an attempt to capture Damascus but were defeated.
Ø Salah al-Din (Saladin) created an Egypto-Syrian empire and gave the call for jihad or holy war
against the Christians and regained Jerusalem.
Ø Salah al-Din's treatment of the Christian population was humane, in contrast to the way in which
Christians had dealt with Muslims and Jews.
Ø A number of churches were turned into mosques and Jerusalem became a Muslim city.
· Loss of Jerusalem prompted another crusade but the Mamluks, the rulers of Egypt, finally drove the
crusading Christians from all of Palestine in 1291.

Economy: Agriculture, Urbanisation and Commerce

· Agriculture was the principal occupation of the settled populations in the newly conquered territories.
· Land was owned by big and small peasants and, in some cases, by the state.
· The state had overall control of agricultural lands, deriving the bulk of its income from land revenue.
Ø owners were subject to a tax (kharaj), which varied from half to a fifth of the produce
Ø On land held or cultivated by Muslims, the tax levied was one-tenth (ushr) of the produce.
Ø From the tenth century onwards, the state authorised its officials to claim their salaries from
agricultural revenues from territories, called iqtas
· State supported irrigation systems, the construction of dams and canals, and the digging of wells.
· Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who brought land under cultivation.
· Many new crops such as cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach and brinjals were grown and
even exported to Europe.
· Urbanization: At the heart of the city were two building complexes radiating cultural and economic
power:
Ø the congregational mosque (masjid al-jami),
Ø the central marketplace (suq), with shops in a row, merchants' lodgings (fanduq) and the office of
the money-changer.

13
 · The cities were homes to administrators, scholars and merchants who lived close to the centre.
· Ordinary citizens and soldiers had their living quarters in the outer circle.
· Commerce: Geography favoured the Muslim empire, which spread between the trading zones of the
Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean.
· For five centuries, Arab and Iranian traders monopolised the maritime trade between China, India and
Europe.
· This trade passed through two major routes, namely, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
· Coins of gold, silver and copper (fulus) were minted and circulated, to pay for goods and services.
· Gold came from Africa (Sudan), silver from Central Asia (Zarafshan valley) and precious metals and
coins came from Europe.
· Muslim world of medieval developed superior methods of payment and business organisation. Letters
of credit (sakk) and bills of exchange (suftaja) were used by merchants and bankers to transfer money
from one place or individual to another.
· The use of commercial papers freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere.
· The caliph too used the sakk to pay salaries or reward poets and minstrels.

Learning and Culture:

· For religious scholars (ulama), knowledge (ilm) derived from the Quran and the model behaviour of the
Prophet (sunna) was the only way to know the will of God.
· Differences in the interpretation of the sources and methods of jurisprudence led to the formation of
four schools of law. These were the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii and Hanbali schools, each named after a
leading jurist (faqih).
· The sharia provided guidance on all possible legal issues within Sunni society, though it was more
precise on questions of personal status like marriage, divorce and inheritance.
· Sufis: A group of religious-minded people in medieval Islam.
· They sought a deeper and more personal knowledge of God through asceticism (rahbaniya) and
mysticism.
· Sufism is open to all regardless of religious affiliation, status and gender.
· Books and Scholars: The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs commissioned the translation of Greek and
Syriac books into Arabic by Christian scholars.
· Indian works on astronomy, mathematics and medicine were also translated into Arabic.
· Scholars with a theological bent of mind, such as the group known as Mutazila, used Greek logic and
methods of reasoning (kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs.
· Poetry: Poets of Persian origin revitalised and reinvented Arabic poetry and challenged the cultural
hegemony of the Arabs.
· Abu Nuwas, broke new ground by composing classical poetry on themes such as wine and male love
with the intention of celebrating pleasures forbidden by Islam.
· Poets were attracted by the brilliance of the imperial court. Rulers, too, realised the importance of
patronising arts and learning for enhancing their prestige.

14
 · Firdausi took 30 years to complete the Shahnama (Book of Kings), an epic of 50,000 couplets,
considered a masterpiece of Islamic literature.
· History Writing: For rulers and officials, history provided a good record of the glories and
achievements of a dynasty as well as examples of the techniques of administration.
· Books were written in Persian about dynasties, cities or regions to explore the unity and variety of the
world of Islam.
· Architecture: By the tenth century Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central Asia showed the
same basic design – arches, domes, minarets and open courtyards.
· The same pattern of construction also appeared in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces.
· The Umayyads built 'desert palaces' in oases, which served as luxurious residences and retreats for
hunting and pleasure.
· The Abbasids built a new imperial city in Samarra amidst gardens and running waters which is
mentioned in the stories and legends revolving round Harun al-Rashid.

Timeline:
· 595: Muhammad marries Khadija, a wealthy Meccan trader who later supports Islam.
· 610-12: Muhammad has first revelation; first public preaching of Islam (612).
· 621: First agreement at Aqaba with Medinan converts.
· 622: Migration from Mecca to Medina. Arab tribes of Medina (ansar) shelter Meccan migrants
(muhajir).
· 632-61: Early caliphate; conquests of Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt; civil wars.
· 661-750: Umayyad rule; Damascus becomes the capital.
· 750-945: Abbasid rule; Baghdad becomes the capital.
· 945: Buyids capture Baghdad; literary and cultural efflorescence.
· 1063-92: Rule of Nizamul mulk, the powerful Saljuq wazir who established a string of madrasas called
Nizamiyya; killed by Hashishayn (Assassins).
· 1095-1291: Crusades; contacts between Muslims and Christians.
· 1111: Death of Ghazali, influential Iranian scholar who opposed rationalism.
· 1258: Mongols capture Baghdad.

15
 NOMADIC EMPIRES
5
In early 13th century, a new political power (Genghis khan) emerged from steppes of Central Asia, posed
threat to empires of Euro-Asian continent. Genghis Khan (d. 1227) by uniting the Mongol people, had a
mandate from God to rule the world. He and his descendants created the largest empire the world had ever
seen.

Social and Political Background of Mongols:

· About Mongols: The Mongols were a diverse body of people, linked by similarities of language to the
Tatars, Khitan and Manchus to the east, and the Turkic tribes to the west, nomadised in the steppes of
Central Asia.
Ø Two groups, Pastoralist and Hunter-gatherers: Some of the Mongols were pastoralists while
others were hunter-gatherers. They travelled with their herds from their winter to summer pasture
lands. The hunter-gatherers resided to the north of the pastoralists in the Siberian forests.
· No Agriculture and No cities: Agriculture was possible in the pastoral regions during short parts of the
year, but the Mongols did not take to farming. Neither the pastoral nor the hunting-gathering
economies could sustain dense population settlements and as a result the region possessed no cities.
· Genghis Khan and Uniting Factor: Ethnic and language ties united the Mongol people, but the scarce
resources meant that their society was divided into patrilineal lineages. Genghis Khan's political
system was far more durable and stable enough to counter larger armies with superior equipment in
China, Iran and eastern Europe.
· Relation with other economies of the time: The Mongols administered complex agrarian economies
and urban settlements, sedentary societies, that were quite distant from their own social experience
and habitat.
· The trade and the conflict: The scant resources of the steppe lands drove Mongols and other Central
Asian nomads to trade and barter with their sedentary neighbours, in China but Commerce was not
without its tensions, especially as the two groups unhesitatingly applied military pressure and wars for
profit.
· Wars and Great wall of China: These frontier wars were more debilitating to settled societies. They
dislocated agriculture and plundered cities. Nomads, on the other hand, could retreat away from the
zone of conflict.
Ø Thus, China suffered extensively from nomad intrusion and different regimes. This led to the built
fortification. These fortifications started to be integrated into a common defensive outwork known
today as the 'Great Wall of China'.

The Career of Genghis Khan:

· Temujin: Genghis Khan (named Temujin), son of Yesugei, the chieftain of the Kiyat, a group of families
related to the Borjigid clan; born around 1162 near the Onon river in the north of present-day
Mongolia. His mother, Oelun-eke, raised Temujin, his brothers and step-brothers in great hardship.
· Early years and Allies: During these years of hardship, he also managed to make important friends.
Ø The young Boghurchu was his first ally and remained a trusted friend.

16
 Ø Jamuqa, his bloodbrother (anda), was another.
Ø Temujin also restored old alliances with the ruler of the Kereyits, Tughril/Ong Khan, his father's old
blood-brother.

· Making of Qu'an/ Universal Khan: Temujin remained an ally of Ong Khan and used the alliance to
defeat powerful adversaries like Jamuqa.
Ø The final defeat of the Naiman people and the powerful Jamuqa in 1206, left Temujin as the
dominant personality in the politics of the steppe lands, a position that was recognised at an
assembly of Mongol chieftains (quriltai).
Ø He was proclaimed the 'Great Khan of the Mongols' (Qa'an) with the title Genghis Khan, the
'Oceanic Khan' or 'Universal Ruler.

· Organisation of Mongols into disciplined military force: Just before the quriltai of 1206, Genghis
Khan had reorganised the Mongol people into a more effective, disciplined military force.

· Genghis khan and wars: The first of his concerns was to conquer China.
Ø China: China was divided at this time into three realms: the Hsi Hsia people of Tibetan origin in the
north-western provinces; the Jurchen whose Chin dynasty ruled north China from Peking; the Sung
dynasty who controlled south China.
Ø Defeat of Qara Khita, Transoxiana and Khwarazm: After the defeat in 1218 of the Qara Khita who
controlled the Tien Shan mountains north-west of China, Mongol dominions reached the Amu
Darya, and the states of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. Between 1219 and 1221 the great cities –
Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nishapur and Herat – surrendered to the Mongol
forces.
Ø Defeat of Russia: Mongol forces in pursuit of Sultan Muhammad pushed into Azerbaijan, defeated
Russian forces at the Crimea and encircled the Caspian Sea.

· Reason for success of Genghis khan:

Ø Effective Combat strategies: His military achievements were astounding, and they were largely a
result of his ability to innovate and transform different aspects of steppe combat into extremely
effective military strategies.
Ø Exceptional Skills: The horse-riding skills of the Mongols and the Turks provided speed and
mobility to the army. Rapid-shooting archers from horseback were further perfected during regular
hunting expeditions which doubled as field manoeuvres.
Ø Cavalry: The steppe cavalry had always travelled light and moved quickly, but now it brought all its
knowledge of the terrain and the weather to do the unimaginable.
Ø Innovation: His engineers prepared light and portable equipment, which was used against
opponents with devastating effect during siege.

17
The Mongols after Genghis Khan:
Mongol expansion after Genghis Khan's death can be divided into two distinct phases. From 1236-42, when
the major gains were in the Russian steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland and Hungary. From 1255- 1300, led to
the conquest of all of China (1279), Iran, Iraq and Syria.
· Defeat by Egyptian: After the 1260s the original impetus of campaigns could not be sustained in the
West. Their retreat from the Hungarian steppes and defeat at the hands of the Egyptian forces
signalled the emergence of new political trends.
· Reason for Defeat:
Ø Internal politics of succession: Consequence of the internal politics of succession within the
Mongol family where the descendants of Jochi and Ogodei allied to control the office of the great
Khan.
Ø The compulsion occurred as the Jochi and Ogodei lineages were marginalised by the Toluyid branch
of Genghis Khanid descendants.
Ø Diversion of Attention: During the 1260s, forces and supplies were increasingly diverted into the
heartlands of the Mongol dominion. As a result, the Mongols fielded a small, understaffed force
against the Egyptian military.
Ø Preoccupation with China: The increasing preoccupation with China of the Toluyid family marked
the end of western expansion of the Mongols.

Social, Political and Military Organisation of Mongols:

· Mongols, heterogenous mass of people: The Mongol were unification of different tribes and diverse
people. Their campaigns, introduced new members into Genghis Khan's army, complicating the
composition of this relatively small, undifferentiated body into a heterogeneous mass of people.
· All identities merged into one: Genghis Khan worked to systematically erase the old tribal identities of
the different groups who joined his confederacy. He even divided the old tribal groupings and
distributed their members into new military units.
· Collective decision making: The sense of a dominion shared by the members of the family was
underlined at the assembly of chieftains, quriltais, where all decisions relating to the family or the state
for the forthcoming season , were collectively taken.
· Trade and commerce at its peak: Commerce and travel along the Silk Route reached its peak under the
Mongols, reached beyond china into into Mongolia and to Karakorum.
Ø Travellers were given a pass (paiza in Persian; gerege in Mongolian) for safe conduct. Traders paid
the baj tax for the same purpose.

Conclusion: Situating Genghis Khan and the Mongols in World History

· When we remember Genghis Khan, image of the conqueror, the destroyer of cities, and an individual
who was responsible for the death of thousands of people, appear in our mind.
· And yet, for the Mongols, Genghis Khan was the greatest leader of all time:
Ø He united the Mongol people, freed them from interminable tribal wars and Chinese exploitation.

18
 Ø Brought them prosperity, fashioned a grand transcontinental empire and restored trade routes and
markets that attracted distant travellers like the Venetian Marco Polo.
· Separation of state and religion: Mongols, a diverse body of people belonging to different faiths, they
never let their personal beliefs dictate public policy.
· Theirs was a multi-ethnic, multilingual, multi-religious regime that did not feel threatened by its
pluralistic constitution. This was utterly unusual for the time.

Interesting points

· Tuman: The largest unit of soldiers, approximating 10,000 soldiers (tuman) belonged to f
different tribes and clans.
· Noyan and Anda: Military contingents were required to serve under his four sons and specially
chosen captains of his army units called noyan. Genghis Khan publicly honoured some of loyal
individuals as his 'blood-brothers' (anda).
· Yam and Qubcur tax: Genghis Khan had already fashioned a rapid courier system (Yam) that
connected the distant areas of his regime. For the maintenance of this communication system the
Mongol nomads contributed a tenth of their herd either horses or livestock as provisions. This was
called the Qubcur tax.
· Yasaq: In its earliest formulation the term was written as yasaq which meant 'law', 'decree' or
'order'. Indeed, the few details that we possess about the yasaq concern administrative
regulations. The yasa was in all probability a compilation of the customary traditions. The yasa
served to cohere the Mongol people around a body of shared beliefs.

19
 THE THREE ORDERS
6
After the fall of the Roman Empire, significant socio-economic and political changes occurred in western
Europe. The absence of any unifying political force led to change in social organisation and changed
relationship between Christian priests, landowning nobles and peasants, 'the three order'.

An Introduction to Feudalism:
· The term 'feudalism', derived from the German word 'feud', means 'a piece of land'. It refers to the kind
of society, centred around land ownership, developed in medieval France, and later in England and in
southern Italy.
· In an economic sense, it refers to a kind of agricultural production which is based on the relationship
between lords and peasants. The peasants performed labour services for the lords, who in exchange
provided military protection.

France and England:

· The Franks, a Germanic tribe, gave their name to Gaul, making it 'France'. The French had very strong
links with the Church. The Pope gave King Charlemagne the title of 'Holy Roman Emperor', to ensure
his support.
· Island of England–Scotland, in the 11th century was conquered by a duke from the French province of
Normandy.

The Three Orders:

The three orders of society were work broadly the clergy, the nobility and the peasantry.

The First Order: The Clergy

The Catholic Church, headed by Pope, was a very powerful institution, having its own laws, owned lands
and had the power to levy taxes (tithe). The Christians in Europe were guided by bishops and clerics, who
constituted the first 'order'.
· Tithe: The Church was entitled to a tenth share of whatever the peasants produced from their land
over the course of the year.
· Bishops were the religious nobility who owned vast landed estates.
· The use of the term 'lord' for God was another example of feudal culture. Thus, the religious and the lay
worlds of feudalism shared many customs and symbols like kneeling while praying like a knight taking
vow of loyalty.
· Serfs, the physically challenged and women could not become priests. Men who became priests could
not marry.
· Monks: Some deeply religious people chose to live isolated lives, in contrast to clerics who lived
amongst people. They lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries.
Ø Unlike priesthood, this life was open to both men and women; men became monks and women
nuns.

20
 Ø Monasteries grew to communities often of several hundred, with large buildings and landed
estates, with attached schools or colleges. They contributed to the development of the arts.
Ø From the 13th century, some groups of monks called friars, chose not to be based in a monastery but
to move from place to place, preaching and living on charity.
· The Church and Society: Though Europeans became Christian, they still held on to some of their old
beliefs in magic and folk traditions.
Ø Christmas and Easter became important dates from the fourth century.
o Christ's birth, celebrated on 25 December, replaced an old pre-Roman festival, the date of which
was calculated by the solar calendar.
o Easter marked the crucifixion of Christ and his rising from the dead, replaced an older festival,
dated by lunar calendar.
Ø Overworked peasants welcomed 'holy days'/holidays because they were not expected to work
then but to pray.

The Nobility: The Second Order:

· The nobility had a central role in social process as they controlled land through 'vassalage'. The nobles
were vassals of the king and peasants were vassals of the landowners.
· A nobleman accepted the king as his seigneur (senior) and they made a mutual promise: the
seigneur/lord (one who provided bread) would protect the vassal, who would be loyal to him.
· The noble had absolute control over his property, in perpetuity. He could raise troops called 'feudal
levies'. He was the lord of all the people settled on his vast track of land.
· His private lands were cultivated by peasants, who were also expected to act as foot-soldiers in battle
when required.
· The Manorial Estate: A lord had his own manor(house) having almost everything needed for daily life.
A manorial estate could contain a dozen families to hundreds of villages.
Ø There was a church on the estate and a castle for defence. From the 13th century, castles developed
as centres of political administration and military power under the feudal system.
· The Knights: Frequent local wars led to led to the growing importance of a new section of people for
cavalry, the knights.
Ø The lord gave the knight a piece of land (called 'fief') and promised to protect it.
Ø They were linked to the lords, just as the latter were linked to the king.

The Third Order: Peasants, Free and Unfree

The vast majority of people, namely, those who sustained the first two orders are cultivators. They were of
two kinds: free peasants and serfs.
· Free peasants: They held their farms as tenants of the lord. The men had to render military service.
Ø Peasant families had to set aside certain days of the week, usually three but often more, when they
would go to the lord's estate and work there.
Ø The output from such labour, called labour-rent, would go directly to the lord.

21
 Ø Women and children spun thread, wove cloth, made candles and pressed grapes to prepare wine
for the lord's use.
Ø Taille: This was direct tax that kings sometimes imposed on peasants (the clergy and nobles were
exempted from paying this).

· Serfs: They received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord's permission.
Ø The lord could decide whom a serf should marry, or might give his blessing to the serf's choice, but
on payment of a fee.

England:
The country's name, England, is a variant of 'Angle-land'. The Angles and Saxons, from central Europe, had
settled in England in the sixth century.

Rise of Feudalism in England:

· Feudalism developed in England from the 11th century when William, the Duke of Normandy, crossed
the English Channel with 180 Norman nobles and defeated the Saxon king of England.
· The lords became the chief tenants of the king and were expected to give him military help.
· From this time, France and England were often at war because of disputes over territory and trade and
Anglo-Saxon peasants became tenants of various levels of landholders.

Factors Affecting Social and Economic Relations in England:

The Environment:
· The land available for agriculture was limited due to vast forest cover.
· From 6th to 10th Century, Europe was undergoing an intensely cold climatic spell in this period, which
led to severe and prolonged winters, a shortened growing season for crops, and reduced yields from
agriculture.
· From 11th century, Europe entered a warm phase having profound impact on agriculture.
· Peasants now had a longer growing season and the soil, now less subjected to frost and made
expansion of area under cultivation possible.

Land Use:
· Initially, agricultural technology was very primitive, labour intensive and was unable to fully draw out
the natural productivity of the soil.
· An ineffective method of crop rotation was in use. The land was divided in half, one field was planted in
autumn with winter wheat, while the other field was left fallow.
· With this system, the soil slowly deteriorated, and famines were not uncommon.
· The peasants were forced to bring under cultivation all the land in the manorial estate, and spend
more time doing this than they were legally bound to do.

22
New Agricultural Technology:
· 11th century saw several technological changes. Instead of the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators
began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards.
· The methods of harnessing animals improved from neck harness to shoulder harness.
· There was increased use of wind and water energy for agriculture. More water powered and wind-
powered mills were set up all over Europe.
· The land use switched from a two-field to a three-field system.
Ø In this, peasants could use a field two years out of three if they planted it with one crop in autumn
and a different crop in spring a year and a half later.
Ø It resulted in immediate increase in the amount of food produced.
· Holdings which were smaller could be more efficiently cultivated and reduced the amount of labour
needed.
· Peasants set up small forges and smithies in the villages, where iron-tipped ploughs and horseshoes
were made and repaired cheaply.
· Economic transactions were becoming more and more money based and cultivators were selling their
crops for money (instead of exchanging them for other goods) to traders, who would then take such
goods to be sold in the towns.

A Fourth Order: New Towns and Townspeople

Expansion in agriculture was accompanied by growth in three related areas: population, trade and towns.
From the eleventh century, as agriculture increased and became able to sustain higher levels of population,
towns began to grow again.
· A significant rise in population: Europe's population stood at 62 million around 1200 and 73 million in
1300.
· Development of Towns: This led to the growth of periodic fairs and small marketing centres which
gradually developed town. Many people in towns were free peasants or escaped serfs who provided
unskilled labour.
· Bigger town, 'the fourth order': The bigger towns had populations of about 30,000. They could be
said to have formed a 'fourth' order.
· Making of Guilds: The basis of economic organisation was the guild. Each craft or industry was
organised into a guild, an association which controlled the quality of the product. The 'guild-hall' was a
feature of every town.
· Trade and rise of new merchant class: As the number of towns grew, new trade routes with West Asia
were developing and trade continued to expand. town merchants became rich and powerful, and
rivalled the power of the nobility.
· Cathedral Towns: From the twelfth century, large churches called cathedrals ,were being built in
France as the rich merchants were donating to churches.
Ø Development of towns around cathedrals: As they were being built, the area around the
cathedrals became more populated, and when they were completed they became centres of
pilgrimage. Thus, small towns developed around them.

23
 Ø Use of stained glasses: Stained glass was used for windows. During the day the sunlight would
make them radiant for people inside the cathedral, and after sunset the light of candles would make
them visible to people outside.

The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century:

· The warm summers of the previous 300 years had given way to bitterly cold summers. Seasons for
growing crops were reduced by a month and it became difficult to grow crops on higher ground.
· Intensive ploughing had exhausted the soil despite the practice of the three-field rotation of crops,
because clearance was not accompanied by proper soil conservation.
· The shortage of pasturage reduced the number of cattle. Population growth was outstripping
resources, and the immediate result was famine.
· Trade was hit by a severe shortage of metal money because of a shortfall in the output of silver mines
in Austria and Serbia.
· As trade expanded, along with ships carrying goods from distant countries arriving in European ports,
came rats; carrying the deadly bubonic plague infection (the 'Black Death'). The population of
Europe, 73 million in 1300, stood reduced to 45 million in 1400.
· Depopulation resulted in a major shortage of labour. Serious imbalances were created between
agriculture and manufacture.

Social Unrest:
· The income of lords declined as agricultural prices came down and wages of labourers increased. As a
result, lords tried to give up the money-contracts they had entered into and revive labour-services.
· This violent opposition by peasants, was a sign that peasants were attempting to protect the gains
they had made in previous centuries.
· The peasants ensured that the feudal privileges of earlier days could not be reinvented.

Political Changes:
· By increasing taxes, monarchs got enough revenues to support larger armies and thus defended and
expanded their frontiers and overcame internal resistance to royal authority.
· The nobility managed a tactical shift in order to ensure their survival. From being opponents to the new
regimes, they quickly transformed themselves into loyalists. Royal absolutism has been called a
modified form of feudalism.
· The king was no longer at the apex of a pyramid. He was now at the centre of an elaborate courtier
society and a network of patron–client relationships.
· Patronage became the means of ensuring such cooperation. And patronage could be given or
obtained by means of money. So, non-aristocratic elements like merchants and bankers could gain
access to the court.
· In England, the Anglo-Saxons had a Great Council, which the king had to consult before imposing any
tax. This developed into what was called the Parliament.

24
 CHANGING CULTURAL TRADITIONS
7
th th
From the 14 to the end of the 17 century, towns and urban culture were developed. Towns, par cularly
Florence, Venice and Rome; became centres of art and learning. Along with the inven on of prin ng, a
sense of history also developed in Europe. The church's earth-centric belief was overturned by scien sts
who began to understand the solar system and new geographical knowledge overturned the Europe-centric
view that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the world.

The Revival of Italian Ci es:

A er the fall of the western Roman Empire, there was no unified government and the towns that had been
poli cal and cultural centres in Italy fell into ruin.
· Eastern and Western Europe: While, western Europe was being reshaped by feudal bond, the eastern
Europe was under the Byzan ne Empire, and Islam was crea ng a common civilisa on further west.
· Italian ports revived: With the expansion of trade between the Byzan ne Empire and the Islamic
countries, the ports on the Italian coast revived and played a central role.
· Venice and Genoa: Venice and Genoa were the most vibrant ci es. Here, rich merchants and bankers
ac vely par cipated in governing the city instead of clergy and feudal lords. This helped the idea of
ci zenship to strike root and led to development of 'The City-State'.

Universi es and Humanism:

The earliest universi es of legal studies in Europe had been set up in Italian towns. Now, commerce being
the chief ac vity in the city, a shi in emphasis and there was an increasing demand for lawyers and
notaries.
· Francesco Petrarch and Humanism: He stressed the importance of a close reading of ancient authors
of Greeks and Romans. This was the culture which historians in the 19th century, were to label
'humanism'.
· ‘Humanist’ was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral
philosophy. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion, and emphasised skills
developed by individuals through discussion and debate.
· These revolu onary ideas a racted a en on in many other universi es, par cularly Florence. From
th
15 century, it developed as the most exci ng intellectual city in Italy and as a centre of ar s c
crea vity and 'Renaissance Man'.

The Humanist View of History:

The term 'Middle Ages/Medieval period' was used for the millennium a er the fall of Rome. In the 'Middle
Ages', they argued, the Church had such complete control over men's minds that all the learning of the
Greeks and Romans had been blo ed out.
Periodisa on used by humanists and by later scholars
· 5th–9th century: The Dark Ages.
· 9th–11th century: The Early Middle Ages.
· 11th–14th century: The Late Middle Ages.
· 15th century onwards: The Modern Age.

25
Science and Philosophy: The Arabs' Contribu on
In the fourteenth century, many scholars began to read translated works of Greek writers like Plato and
Aristotle. For this they were indebted not to their own scholars but to Arab translators who had carefully
preserved and translated ancient manuscripts.
· Ptolemy's Almagest, a work on astronomy, carries the Arabic definite ar cle 'al', which brings out the
Arabic connec on.
· Among the Muslim writers who were regarded as men of wisdom in the Italian world were:
Ø Ibn Sina ('Avicenna' in La n, 980-1037), an Arab physician and philosopher of Bukhara in Central
Asia.
Ø Al-Razi ('Rhazes'), author of a medical encyclopaedia.
Ø Ibn Rushd ('Averroes' in La n, 1126-98), an Arab philosopher of Spain, tried to resolve the tension
between philosophical knowledge (faylasuf) and religious beliefs. His method was adopted by
Chris an thinkers.
· Humanist subjects slowly began to be introduced in schools.

Ar sts and Realism:

· Art, architecture and books were wonderfully effec ve in transmi ng humanist ideas. Ar sts were
inspired by studying works of the past.
· Their admira on for the figures of 'perfectly' propor oned men and women sculpted so many
centuries ago, made Italian sculptors want to con nue that tradi on.
· Modern physiology and Ar st: Ar sts' concern to be accurate was helped by the work of scien sts.
Ø To study bone structures, ar sts went to the laboratories of medical schools.
Ø Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian and a professor of medicine at the University of Padua, was
the first to dissect the human body, beginning of modern physiology.
· Painters and Geometry: Painters painted as realis cally as possible. They found that a knowledge of
geometry helped them understand perspec ve, and that by no ng the changing quality of light, their
pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality.
· Thus, anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beau ful, gave a new quality
to Italian art, which was to be called 'realism'.

Architecture:
th
The city of Rome revived in a spectacular way in the 15 century. The ruins in Rome were carefully excavated
by archaeologist, inspired a 'new' style in architecture, which was actually a revival of the imperial Roman
style, now called 'classical'.
· Ar sts and sculptors: Employed by Popes and wealthy merchants, were also to decorate buildings
with pain ngs, sculptures and reliefs. Now, ar sts were known individually, by name, not as members
of a group.

26
 Ø Michelangelo Buonarrot: Immortalised by the ceiling he painted for the Pope in the Sis ne Chapel,
the sculpture called 'The Pieta' and his design of the dome of St Peter's Church, all in Rome.
Ø Filippo Brunelleschi: The architect who designed the spectacular Duomo of Florence.

The First Printed Books:

In the case of the wri en word, what was wri en in Italy travelled to other countries. This was because of
the greatest revolu on of the 16th century, the mastery of the technology of prin ng.
· Earlier, texts existed in a few hand-wri en copies. In 1455, 150 copies of the Bible were printed in the
workshop of Johannnes Gutenberg.
· As printed books became available; Ideas, opinions and informa on moved more widely and more
rapidly than ever before while developing the reading habit among people.
· The spread of humanist culture of Italy more rapidly across the Alps and intellectual movements
limited to par cular regions, owe to circula on of printed books.

A New Concept of Human Beings:

Italians were strongly a racted to material wealth, power and glory, but they were not necessarily
irreligious. There was also a concern at this me with good manners – how one should speak politely and
dress correctly.
· Francesco Barbaro (1390-1454), a humanist from Venice, wrote a pamphlet defending acquisi on of
wealth as a virtue.
· In 'On Pleasure', Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457), who believed that the study of history leads man to strive
for a life of perfec on, cri cised the Chris an injunc on against pleasure.

The Aspira ons of Women:

The new ideal of individuality and ci zenship excluded women. The public role of women was limited, and
they were looked upon as keepers of the households.
· In families of merchants and bankers, wives looked a er the businesses when the male members were
away on work.
· A few women were intellectually very crea ve and sensi ve about the importance of a humanist
educa on.'
Ø Even though the study of le ers promises and offers no reward for women and no dignity', wrote
the Vene an Cassandra Fedele (1465-1558), 'every woman ought to seek and embrace these
studies.'
Ø She was one of many Vene an women writers who cri cised the republic 'for crea ng a highly
limited defini on of freedom that favoured the desires of men over those of women'.
Ø Another remarkable woman was the Marchesa of Mantua, Isabella d'Este. She ruled the state
while her husband was absent, and the court of Mantua, was famed for its intellectual brilliance.

27
Debates within Chris anity:
In the 15th and early 16th centuries, many scholars in universi es in north Europe were a racted to humanist
ideas and focused on classical Greek and Roman texts. But unlike Italy, where professional scholars
dominated the humanist movement, in north Europe humanism a racted many members of the Church.
· Turned to Ancient texts: They called on Chris ans to prac se religion in the way laid down in the
ancient text, discarding unnecessary rituals. Theirs was a radically new view of human beings as free
and ra onal agents.
· Role of Scholars: Chris an humanists like Thomas More (1478-1535) in England and Erasmus (1466-
1536) in Holland felt that the Church had become an ins tu on marked by greed. As a result, in almost
every part of Europe, peasants began to rebel against the taxes imposed by the Church.
· Role of prin ng: Chris ans came to realise from printed transla ons of the Bible in local languages
that their religion did not permit such prac ces.
· Mar n Luther and the Protestant Reforma on: He launched a campaign against the Catholic Church
and argued that a person did not need priests to establish contact with God. The Protestant
reforma on led to the churches in Germany and Switzerland breaking their connec on with the Pope
and the Catholic Church.
Ø In Switzerland, Luther's ideas were popularised by Ulrich Zwingli and later by Jean Calvin.
Ø German reformers, like the Anabap sts, were even more radical: they blended the idea of
salva on with the end of all forms of social oppression.
Ø In France, people started claiming the right of a people to remove an oppressive ruler and to
choose someone of their own liking
Ø The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and began to reform itself from
within
Ø In Spain, Igna us Loyola, in an a empt to combat Protestan sm, set up the Society of Jesus in
1540.

The Copernican Revolu on:

The turning point in European science came with the work of Copernicus (1473-1543), a contemporary of
Mar n Luther. Chris ans had believed that the earth stood at the centre of the universe around which
moved the celes al planets.
· Copernicus Theory and De revolu oibus: Copernicus, afraid of the possible reac on to his theory by
tradi onalist clergymen, asserted in his De revolu onibus (The Rota on) that the planets, including
the earth, rotate around the sun.
· Kepler Theory: It was much later, more than half a century later, the theory of the earth as part of a
sun-centred system was made popular by Kepler's Cosmographical Mystery, which demonstrated
that the planets move around the sun not in circles but in ellipses.
· Contribu on of Galileo and Newton: Galileo confirmed the no on of the dynamic world in his work
The Mo on. This revolu on in science reached its climax with Isaac Newton's theory of gravita on.

28
Reading the Universe:
· The work of these thinkers showed that knowledge, as dis nct from belief, was based on observa on
and experiments. Historians were to label this new approach to the knowledge of man and nature the
Scien fic Revolu on.
· In the minds of scep cs and non-believers and even non-believers, started talking about a distant God
who does not directly regulate the act of living in the material world.
· Scien fic socie es established a new scien fic culture in the public domain. The Paris Academy
established in 1670 and the Royal Society in London for the promo on of natural knowledge.

European 'Renaissance' in the Fourteenth Century:

Renaissance as a period of dynamism and ar s c crea vity, and the middle ages as a period of gloom and
lack of development is an over-simplifica on because many elements associated with the renaissance in
Italy can be traced back to the twel h and thirteenth centuries.
· The archaeological and literary recovery of Roman culture did create a great admira on of that
th
civilisa on. So, it is not true that me before 14 century was that of darkness.
· The technologies and skills in Asia had moved far ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known.
· The Europeans learned not just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, from Arabia, from Iran,
from Central Asia and China.
· These contribu ons were not acknowledged for a long me because when the history of this period
started to be wri en, historians saw it from a Europe-centred viewpoint.
· Separa on of public and private sphere: The individual had a private as well as a public role. He was
not simply a member of one of the 'three orders. The 'public' sphere meant the area of government
and of formal religion; the 'private' sphere included the family and personal religion.

29
 CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES
8
Some Europeans ventured out on unknown oceans in order to find trading routes. The first to do this were
the Spanish and the Portuguese. Christopher Columbus, an Italian, sponsored by the rulers of Spain, sailed
west in 1492. Two types of culture were to be found in the Americas. There were small subsistence
economies as well as powerful monarchical systems based on well-developed agriculture and mining like
Maya and Aztec civilisation.

Communities of the Caribbean and Brazil:

· The Bahamas and the Greater Antilles: The Arawakian Lucayos lived on a cluster of hundreds of
small islands in the Caribbean Sea, today known as the Bahamas. They had been expelled from the
Lesser Antilles by the Caribs, a fierce tribe.
· The Arawaks: They were a people who preferred negotiation to conflict. Skilled boat-builders, they
sailed the open sea in dugout canoes.
· Tupinamba: lived on the east coast of South America, and in villages in the forests (the name 'Brazil' is
derived from the brazilwood tree).
· Social Structure:
Ø They were organised under clan elders, produced food collectively. Polygamy was common.
Ø Shamans played an important role as healers.
Ø They used gold for ornaments but did not attach the value to the metal that the Europeans did.
They were quite happy to exchange gold for glass beads brought by the Europeans.
Ø Within twenty-five years of contact with the Spanish very little remained of the Arawaks or their
way of life.

The State Systems of Central and South America:

In contrast to the Caribbean and Brazil, there were some highly organised states in central America like
Aztecs, Mayas and Incas.

The Aztecs:
The Aztecs had migrated from the north into the central valley of Mexico (named after their god Mexitli).
They expanded their empire by defeating different tribes.

Aztecs Society:
· Structure of society and land Ownership: Aztec society was hierarchical. The empire rested on a rural
base, people cultivating crops for the community as land was not owned individually but by clan.
· The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth. The capital city was Tenochtitlan.
The nobility included those who were nobles by birth, priests, and others who had been awarded the
rank.
· Important Social Groups: Warriors, priests and nobles were the most respected groups but traders
also enjoyed many privileges.

30
 · Chinampas: Since land was limited, they made chinampas, artificial islands, in Lake Mexico, by
weaving huge reed-mats and covering them with mud and plants.
· Education; Calmecac and Tepochcalli: The Aztecs made sure that all children went to school.
Ø Children of the nobility attended the calmecac and were trained to become military and religious
leaders.
Ø All others went to the tepochcalli in their neighbourhood, where they learned history, myths,
religion and ceremonial songs.
· Downfall: In the early 16th century, the Aztec empire was showing signs of strain. This was largely to
do with discontent among recently conquered peoples who were looking for opportunities to break
free from central control.

The Mayas:
The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the 11th and 14th centuries.
· Efficient agricultural production specially that of corn, generated surplus, which helped the ruling
classes to invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics.
· Pictographic script: The Mayas devised a pictographic form of writing that has only been partially
deciphered.

The Incas of Peru:

The largest of the indigenous civilisations in South America was that of the Quechuas or Incas in Peru. In
the twelfth century the first Inca, Manco Capac, established his capital at Cuzco.
· Administration: The empire was highly centralised, with the king representing the highest source of
authority.
Ø The language of court was Quechua, compulsory on all subjects.
Ø Local self-government: Each tribe was ruled independently by a council of elders, with allegiance
to the king.
Ø Pyramid like structure of Authority: The organisation of the Inca empire, with its pyramid-like
structure, meant that if the Inca chief was captured, the chain of command could quickly come
apart.
· Magnificent Builders: Like the Aztecs, the Incas too were magnificent builders. They built roads
through mountains from Ecuador to Chile. Their forts were built of stone slabs that were so perfectly
cut that they did not require mortar.
· Agrarian Economy: The basis of the Inca civilisation was agriculture. To cope with the infertile soil
conditions, they terraced hillsides and developed systems of drainage and irrigation.
· Special feature: They did not develop a system of writing. However, there was an accounting system in
place, the quipu, or cords upon which knots were made to indicate specific mathematical units.
· Similarity with Aztecs:
Ø Society was hierarchical, but there was no private ownership of resources by a few people, as in
Europe.

31
 Ø Though priests and shamans were accorded an exalted status, and large temples were built, in
which gold was used ritually, there was no great value placed on gold or silver.

Voyages of Exploration by Europeans:

The circulation of travel literature and books on cosmography and geography created widespread interest
right through the fifteenth century.
· Pioneers: People from the Iberian Peninsula, the Portuguese and the Spanish, were the pioneers in
the 15th century voyages of exploration. For a long-time these were called 'voyages of discovery'.
· Improvements in ships: By this time many improvements had been made in European sailing ships.
Larger ships were built, to carry a huge quantity of cargo.
· Printing of books: In 1477, Ptolemy's Geography became available in print and thus came to be
widely read. Reading these texts gave Europeans some knowledge of the world, which they
understood to have three continents, namely, Europe, Asia and Africa.

Reason for Spanish and Portuguese rulers funding a maritime quest:

· The European economy went through a decline from the mid-14th to the mid-15th centuries.
· Plague and wars led to depopulation in many parts of Europe and famines.
· After the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453, long-distance trade declined and taxes paid to
Turks increased manyfold.
· The possibility that many more people could be brought into the fold of Christianity made many devout
Christian Europeans ready to face adventure.
· As it happened, the 'Crusades' against the Turks began as a religious war, but they increased Europe's
trade with Asia and created a taste for the products of Asia, especially spices.
· Portugal, which had developed fishing and sailing skills, took the lead. Prince Henry of Portugal
(called the Navigator) organised the coasting of West Africa and attacked Ceuta in 1415.
· In Spain, the memory of the Crusades and the success of the Reconquista fanned private ambitions
and gave rise to contracts known as capitulaciones.

The Atlantic Crossing:

Christopher Columbus, inspired by reading Imago Mundi (a work on astronomy and geography) by Cardinal
Pierre d'Ailly, was a self-taught man who sought adventure. His plans sanctioned by Spanish authorities.
· The expedition that set sail from the port of Palos on 3 August 1492, with a small fleet, consisting of a
small nao called Santa Maria, and two caravels.
· On 12 October 1492, they sighted land; they had reached what Columbus thought was India, but
which was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas.
· They were welcomed by the Arawaks, who were happy to share their food and provisions.
· Columbus's achievement had been to discover the boundaries of what seemed like infinite seas and to
demonstrate that five weeks' sailing with the trade wind took one to the other side of the globe.

32
Spain Establishes an Empire in America:
The initial discovery was typically followed by establishing a small settlement. Columbus expedition were
followed by a sustained and successful exploration of Central and South America.
· Military repression of the Arawaks: Spanish expansion was based on a display of military strength
with the use of gunpowder and of horses.
Ø The greed for gold led to violent incidents provoking local resistance.
Ø The Spanish often tested their swords on the naked flesh of the Arawaks.
Ø To military repression and forced labour was added the ravages of disease, small-pox.
· Within half a century, the Spanish had explored and laid claim to a vast area of the western
hemisphere, from approximately latitudes 40 degrees north to 40 degrees south, without anyone
challenging them.

Cortes and the Aztecs:

· Cortes and Totonacs: Cortes conquered Mexico swiftly and ruthlessly. In 1519, Cortes set sail from
Cuba to Mexico where he made friends with the Totonacs, a group who wanted to secede from Aztec
rule.
· Tlaxcalans and Tenochtitlan: Then Spaniards proceeded to massacre Tlaxcalans cruelly. They
marched to Tenochtitlan, which they reached on 8 November 1519.
· Cortes and Montezuma: The Aztec king, Montezuma, terrified at the aggressiveness of the Spanish,
showered them with gifts. Cortes without any explanation placed the Emperor under house arrest and
to formalise the Emperor's submission to Spain, Cortes installed Christian images in the Aztec temple.
· Uprising: The high-handedness of the Spanish occupation and their incessant demands for gold
provoked a general uprising.
· The conquest of Mexico had taken two years. Cortes became Captain General of New Spain in Mexico
and was showered with honours by Charles V.
· Extension of rule: From Mexico, the Spaniards extended their control over Guatemala, Nicaragua and
Honduras.

Pizarro and the Incas:

· El-dor-ado: Pizarro, in contrast to Cortes, was uneducated and poor when he joined the army. He had
heard stories about the Inca kingdom as a land of silver and gold (El-dor-ado).
· Spanish support: He made repeated attempts to reach it but futile till he met Spanish king. Spanish
king aroused by greed, promised Pizarro the governorship of the Inca lands if he conquered it.
· Pizarro arrived on the scene and captured the king after setting a trap for him. The king offered a
roomful of gold as ransom for his release, the most extravagant ransom recorded in history but Pizarro
did not honour his promise.
· In another five years, the Spanish had located the vast silver mines in Potosi (in Upper Peru, modern
Bolivia) and to work these they made the Inca people into slaves.

33
Cabral and Brazil:
· The Portuguese occupation of Brazil occurred by accident. In 1500, a grand procession of ships set out
from Portugal for India. To avoid stormy seas, a wide loop was made around West Africa, and found to
his surprise that he had reached the coast of present-day Brazil.
· There was one natural resource there which they exploited, timber. The brazilwood tree, after which
the Europeans named the region.
· This trade in timber led to fierce battles between Portuguese and French traders. The Portuguese won
because they decided to 'settle' in/colonise the coast.
· In the 1540s, the Portuguese began to grow sugarcane on large plantations and built mills to extract
sugar, which was then sold in Europe. When the natives refused to do this dreary work, the mill-
owners resorted to kidnapping them to work as slaves.

Conquest, Colonies and the Slave Trade:

· For Europe, the 'discovery' of the Americas had consequences for others. The influx of hundreds of
ships full of gold and silver helped further expansion of international trade and industrialisation.
· But it was not Spain and Portugal that benefited. They did not invest their huge income in further trade
but it was the countries bordering the Atlantic, particularly England, France, Belgiumthat took
advantage of the 'discoveries'. Their merchants formed joint stock companies and sent out trading
expeditions, established colonies.
· Warfare and disease were primarily responsible for 70 million population reduced to 3.5 million. The
enslavement of the population was a sharp reminder of the brutality of the encounter.
· The demand for cheap labour in Brazil and America continued so, the alternative was to turn to Africa.
In 1750, there were individuals who owned as many as a thousand slaves. In 1601, Philip II of Spain
publicly banned forced labour, but made arrangements by a secret decree for its continuation.

Epilogue:
· In 1776 the thirteen North American colonies rebelled against Britain and formed the United States
of America.
· South America today is also called 'Latin America'. This is because Spanish and Portuguese, two of
the main languages of the continent, are part of the Latin family of languages.

34
 TOWARDS MODERNISATION
9
The Industrial Revolution displaced the path of indigenous people towards modernisation. The
transformation of industry and the economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is called the 'first
industrial revolution'. This phase of industrial development in Britain is strongly associated with new
machinery and technologies and prosperity for some but not for millions of poor.

Britain:
Britain was the first country to experience modern industrialisation. In the eighteenth century, England
had been through a major economic change, later described as the 'agricultural revolution'.

Towns, Trade and Finance:

By the eighteenth century, the centre of global trade had shifted from the Mediterranean ports of Italy and
France to the Atlantic ports of Holland and Britain.
· Growth of Towns and London: From the eighteenth century, many towns in Europe were growing in
area and in population.
Ø London also became the centre of a triangular trade network that drew in England, Africa and the
West Indies.
· Trade through navigable rivers: In England the movement of goods between markets was helped by
a good network of rivers, and an indented coastline with sheltered bays.
· Since all the navigable sections of English rivers flow into the sea, cargo on river vessels was easily
transferred to coastal ships called coasters.
· Establishment of Banks, fulfilling financial requirement of credit: The centre of the country's
financial system was the Bank of England. By the 1820s, there were more than 600 banks in the
provinces backing financial requirement of big enterprises.
· A range of technological changes and construction of railways: Technological changes increased
production levels dramatically and a new transport network created by the construction of railways.

Coal and Iron:

Availability of raw material: Staple materials like coal, iron ore, lead, copper and tin for mechanisation,
were plentifully available in England.

Inventions that accelerated Industrial growth:

· The solution to the problem of unusable iron ore and use of charcoal for its extraction was solved by
invention of blast furnace that would use coke, which could generate high temperatures.
· The process was further refined by more inventions like development of wrought-iron (which was
less brittle) from pig-iron.
· Henry Cort (1740-1823) designed the puddling furnace (in which molten iron could be rid of
impurities).
· Darby (1750-91) built the first iron bridge in the world, in Coalbrookdale, spanning the river, Severn.
· Britain was lucky in possessing excellent coking coal and high-grade iron ore in the same basins
resulting in concentration of iron industry.

35
Cotton Spinning and Weaving:
As the East India Company's political control of parts of India was established, it began to import, raw
cotton, which could be spun and woven into cloth in England.
· Establishment of factories: The gap between the speed in spinning raw cotton into yarn or thread, and
of weaving the yarn into fabric closed by shifting the production from homes of spinners and weavers
to factories.
· Maintaining the Monopoly over market: Raw cotton had to be entirely imported and a large part of the
finished cloth was exported. This sustained the process of colonisation so that Britain could retain
control over the sources of raw cotton as well as the markets.

Steam Power
· The realisation that steam could generate tremendous power was decisive to large-scale
industrialisation. Steam power provided pressure at high temperatures that enabled the use of a broad
range of machinery
· This meant that steam power was the only source of energy that was reliable and inexpensive enough
to manufacture machinery itself.
· Steam power was first used in mining industries. The steam engine had been used only in coal mines
until James Watt (1736-1819) developed his machine in 1769.
· After 1800, steam engine technology was further developed with the use of lighter, stronger metals.

Canals and Railways

· As the demand for coal, as industrial energy and for heating and lighting homes in cities, grew
constantly, Canals were built to transport coal to cities in a less expensive manner.
Ø ‘Canal-mania’ (1788 to 1796): The confluence of canals created marketing centres in new towns.
In the period known as the 'canal-mania', from 1788 to 1796, there were another 46 new projects,
and more than 4000 miles of canals were built.
· In 1814, Railways emerged as a new means of transportation that was available throughout the year,
both cheap and fast, to carry passengers and goods.
Ø The invention of the railways took the entire process of industrialisation to a second stage.
Ø The congestion of vessels made movement slow in canals, the railways now appeared as a
convenient alternative.
Ø During the 'little railway mania' of 1833-37, 1400 miles of line was built, and during the bigger
'mania' of 1844-47, another 9,500 miles of line was sanctioned.
Ø Most of England had been connected by railway by 1850.

Changed Lives:
· In these years, it was possible for individuals and e rich individuals who took risks and invested money
in industries in hope of profit.
· Wealth, in the form of goods, incomes, services, knowledge and productive efficiency, did increase
dramatically but at a massive negative human cost.

36
 · This pace of growth in population was not matched with the provision of adequate housing, sanitation
or clean water.
· Newcomer lived in overcrowded slums in the congested central areas of towns near factories, whereas
the rich inhabitants escaped, by shifting to homes in the suburbs.

The Workers:
· More people died, and died at a younger age, in the new industrial cities, than in the villages they had
come from.
· The increase in the population of cities was because of immigrants, rather than by an increase in the
number of children born.
· A survey in 1842 revealed that the average lifespan of workers was lower than that of any other social
group in cities.

Women, Children and Industrialisation:

· The earnings of women and children were necessary to supplement men's meagre wages. As the use
of machinery spread, industrialists preferred to employ women and children who would be less
agitated about their poor working conditions.
· For children of rural poor and women who actively involved in farm work, work in the factories, with
long, unbroken hour was completely different.
· Children were often employed in textile factories because they were small enough to move between
tightly packed machinery. Machinery like the cotton spinning jenny was designed to be used by child
workers.
· The owners of coal mines used children to reach deep coal faces.
· Women may well have gained increased financial independence and self-esteem from their jobs; but
this was more than offset by the humiliating terms of work.

Charles Dickens: In his novel Hard Times, Charles Dickens (1812-70), perhaps the most severe
contemporary critic of the horrors of industrialisation for the poor, wrote a fictional account of an
industrial town he aptly called Coketown.

Protest Movements:
· The early decades of industrialisation coincided with the spread of new political ideas pioneered by the
French Revolution (1789-94).
· As the French revolution gave masses the possibilities of collective mass action, in England, political
protest against the harsh working conditions in factories kept increasing, and the working population
agitated to be given the right to vote.
· Members of Parliament, landowners, manufacturers and professionals; were opposed to giving the
working population the right to vote.
· The introduction of machines in the cotton industry threw thousands of handloom weavers out of
work and into poverty.

37
 · From the 1790s, these weavers began to demand a legal minimum wage, which was refused by
Parliament. When they went on strike, they were dispersed by force.
· In August 1819, 80,000 people gathered peacefully at St Peter's Fields in Manchester to claim
democratic rights – of political organisation, of public meetings, and of the freedom of the press. They
were suppressed brutally in what became known as the Peterloo Massacre.
· After Peterloo, the need to make the House of Commons more representative was recognised by
liberal political groups.

Reforms through Laws:

· It was not until 1833, after intense protest by workers that an Act was passed that permitted children
under nine to be employed only in silk factories, limited the hours of work for older children and
provided a number of factory inspectors to ensure that the Act was enforced.
· Finally, in 1847, after more than 30 years of agitation, the Ten Hours' Bill was passed. But these Acts
applied to the textile industries but not to the mining industry.
· The Mines Commission of 1842, revealed that working conditions in mines had actually become
worse.
· The Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 banned children under ten and women from working
underground, to be enforced by factory inspectors but they were easily bribed by factory managers.

The Debate on the 'Industrial Revolution':

· Industrialisation had actually been too gradual to be considered a 'revolution'. England had changed in
a regional manner, prominently around the cities of London, Manchester, Birmingham or Newcastle,
rather than throughout the country.
· The impressive growth of cotton textiles, based on new machinery, was in an industry that relied on a
non-British raw material, on sales abroad specially in India.
· From the 1760s to 1815, Britain tried to do two things simultaneously, to industrialise and to fight wars
in Europe, North America and India.
· Capital that was borrowed was used to fight the wars rather than invested.
· As much as 35 per cent of the cost of the war was met by taxing people's incomes. Workers were
transferred out of factories and farms to the army.
· Napoleon's policies of blockade, closed the more than half of British exports, to British traders.
· Therefore, the word 'industrial' used with the word 'revolution' is too limited as the fruits of
industrialization gave prominence to two classes: the bourgeoisie and the new class of proletarian
labourers in towns.

38
 DISPLACING INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
10
From the eighteenth century, more areas of South America, Central America, North America, South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand came to be settled by immigrants from Europe. This led to many of the native
peoples being pushed out into other areas and making of colonies.

European Imperialism
After the seventeenth century, prospect of profit drove France, Holland and England began to extend their
trading activities and to establish colonies in America, Africa and Asia.
· South Asia: Trading companies like the East India Company made themselves into political powers,
defeated local rulers and annexed their territories.
· Africa: Europeans traded on the coast, except in South Africa. Only in the late 19th century, they venture
into the interior and reached an agreement to divide up Africa as colonies for themselves.

North America:
The continent of North America extends from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer, from the Pacific to
the Atlantic Ocean. Forty per cent of Canada is covered with forests. Oil, gas and mineral resources.

The Native Peoples:

· The earliest inhabitants of North America came from Asia over 30,000 years ago on a land-bridge
across the Bering Straits, and during the last Ice Age 10,000 years ago they moved further south.
· These peoples lived in bands, ate fish and meat, and cultivated vegetables and maize.
· They did not attempt extensive agriculture and since they did not produce a surplus, they did not
develop kingdoms and empires as in Central and South America.
· An important feature of their tradition was that of making formal alliances and friendships, and
exchanging gifts.

Encounters with Europeans

· In the seventeenth century, the European traders reached the north coast of North America.
· Unlike the Spanish in South America, driven by greed for gold; these adventurers came to trade in fish
and furs.
· In exchange for local products the Europeans gave the natives blankets, iron vessels, guns and alcohol.
· The natives became addicted to alcohol, which suited the Europeans, because it enabled them to
dictate terms of trade.

Mutual Perceptions:
· Western Europeans defined 'civilised' people in terms of literacy. So, to them, the natives of America
appeared 'uncivilised'.
· To some, like the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, such people were to be admired, as they
were untouched by the corruptions of 'civilisation'.

39
 · From the 17th century, there were groups of Europeans who were being persecuted because they were
of a different sect of Christianity (Protestants living in Catholic countries, or Catholics in countries
where Protestantism was the official religion).
· Gradually the Europeans moved further inland, near native villages, cutting down forest to lay out
farms.

USA, Canada and the Natives: The countries that are known as Canada and the United States of America
came into existence at the end of the 18th century.
· Over the next hundred years they extended their control over more territory, to reach their present size.
· USA bought Louisiana from France, Alaska from Russia by war and many more. But it did not occur to
anyone that the consent of natives living in these areas should have been asked.
· Native peoples lose their Land and Changes in the Landscape of America in 19th century:
Ø The Europeans treated the land differently from the natives.
Ø There were waves of immigrants from countries like Germany, Sweden and Italy who had lost their
lands to big farmers, so wanted farms they could own.
Ø They cleared land and developed agriculture, introducing crops (rice and cotton) which could not
grow in Europe and therefore could be sold there for profit.
Ø The climate of the southern region was too hot for Europeans to work outdoors. So, plantation
owners therefore bought slaves in Africa.
Ø In 1861-65, there was a war between the states that wanted to retain slavery and those
supporting abolition. The latter won.
Ø Slavery was abolished, though it was only in the 20th century that the African Americans were able
to win the battle for civil liberties.
Ø As settlement expanded, the natives were induced or forced to move, after signing treaties selling
their land at minimal prices.
Ø Those who took the land occupied by the tribes justified it by saying the natives did not deserve to
occupy land which they did not use to the maximum.
Ø Natives were locked off in small areas called 'reservations', which often was land with which they
had no earlier connection.
Ø The US army crushed a series of rebellions from 1865 to 1890 killing thousands.

The Gold Rush, and the Growth of Industries:

In the 1840s, traces of gold were found in the USA, in California. This led to the 'Gold Rush', when
thousands of eager Europeans hurried to America in the hope of making a quick fortune.
· Gold Rush led to the building of railway lines across the continent, for which thousands of Chinese
workers were recruited.
· The USA's railway was completed by 1870, that of Canada by 1885.
· In North America, industries developed for very different reasons, to manufacture railway equipment
so that rapid transport could link distant places, and to produce machinery which would make large-
scale farming easier.

40
 · In 1860, the USA had been an undeveloped economy. In 1890, it was the leading industrial power in
the world.

Constitutional Rights:
· The 'democratic spirit' which had been the rallying cry of the settlers in their fight for independence in
the 1770s, came to define the identity of the USA against the monarchies.
· Also important to them was that their constitution included the individual's 'right to property', which
the state could not override.
· But both democratic rights and the right to property were only for white men.

The Winds of Change:

· Not till the 1920s did things begin to improve for the native peoples of the USA and Canada.
· Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934: White Americans felt sympathy for the natives who were being
discouraged from the full exercise of their cultures and simultaneously denied the benefits of
citizenship.
Ø This led to a landmark law in the USA, the, which gave natives in reservations the right to buy land
and take loans.
· In 1954, in the 'Declaration of Indian Rights' prepared by them, a number of native peoples accepted
citizenship of the USA but on condition that their reservations would not be taken away and their
traditions would not be interfered with.

Australia:
The 'aborigines' (a general name given to a number of different societies) began to arrive on the continent
over 40,000 years ago (possibly even earlier). They came from New Guinea, which was connected to
Australia by a land-bridge.
· In the late eighteenth century, there were between 350 and 750 native communities in Australia each
with its own language.
· There is another large group of indigenous people living in the north, called the Torres Strait Islanders.
· Australia is sparsely populated, and even now most of the towns are along the coast (where the British
first arrived in 1770) because the central region is arid desert.
· Killing of Captain Cook in Hawaii, was used by colonisers to justify subsequent acts of violence
towards other people.
· Early Settlers: Most of the early settlers were convicts who had been deported from England and,
when their jail term ended, were allowed to live as free people in Australia on condition that they did
not return to Britain.
Ø The British had adopted the same practice in the American colonies as well as in settling Brazil with
Portuguese convicts.

41
Economic Development of Australia
· Vast sheep farms and mining stations were established. These came to form the basis of the country's
prosperity.
· Some natives were employed in farms, under conditions of work so harsh that it was little different
from slavery.
· Later, Chinese immigrants provided cheap labour but notion of dependency on non-whites led the
governments ban Chinese immigrants.
· Non-white policy: Till 1974, such was the popular fear that 'dark' people from South Asia might
migrate to Australia in large numbers that there was a government policy to keep 'non-white' people
out.

The Winds of Change:

From the 1970s, as was happening in North America, there was an eagerness to understand natives not as
anthropological curiosities but as communities with distinct cultures.
· In 1968, people were electrified by a lecture by the anthropologist W.E.H. Stanner, entitled 'The Great
Australian Silence', the silence of historians about the aborigines.
· Henry Reynolds articulated in a powerful book, Why Weren't We Told? This condemned the practice
of writing Australian history as though it had begun with Captain Cook's 'discovery'.
· From 1974, 'multiculturalism' has been official policy in Australia, which gave equal respect to native
cultures and to the different cultures of the immigrants.
· Australia had no treaties with the natives formalising the takeover of land by Europeans. The
government at that time had always termed the land of Australia terra nullius, that is belonging to
nobody.
Ø In 1992 Australian High Court (in the Mabo case) declares that terra nullius was legally invalid and
recognises native claims to land from before 1770.
Ø One important decision had been taken to recognise that the natives had strong historic bonds with
the land which was 'sacred' to them.
· A public apology on 26 May 1999, for the injustice done to children in an attempt to keep 'white' and
'coloured' people apart.

42
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
12th Standard
Themes in Indian History Part- I
CONTENTS
Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation ........................................................ 1 - 10

Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economies (600 BCE- 600 CE) ........ 11 - 18

Kinship, Castle and Class Early Societies (600 BCE-600 CE) ..................................... 19 - 24

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments (600 BCE - 600 CE) ........ 25 - 32
 BRICKS, BEADS & BONES
1 THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
The Indus valley civilization is also called the Harappan culture. Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a
group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found within a specific area and period of time. These
distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades and even baked bricks.

Beginning:
● There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan.
● These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and
crafts.
● Settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no large buildings.
● It appears that there was a break between the Early Harappan and the Harappan civilisation, evident
from large-scale burning at some sites, as well as the abandonment of certain settlements.

Subsistence Strategies:
● Mature Harappan culture developed in some of the areas occupied by the Early Harappan cultures and
shared common subsistence strategies.
● They ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish.
● Their dietary practices have been reconstructed from finds of charred grains and seeds.
⮚ Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame.
⮚ Millets are found from sites in Gujarat.
⮚ Finds of rice are relatively rare.
● Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig and of wild
species such as boar, deer, gharial, fish and fowl.

Agricultural Technologies:
● Seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known and that oxen were used for
ploughing.
● Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).

Fig 1.1: A Terracotta Bull

● Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan) associated with early Harappan levels. They
had two sets of furrows at right angles, suggesting two different crops grown at the same time.
● Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for
agriculture.

1
 ⮚ Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in
Punjab or Sind.
⮚ It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation.
⮚ Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.

Mohenjodaro: A Planned Urban Centre

● The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much larger but
lower, designated as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively.
● Buildings of the citadel were constructed on mud brick platforms and it was walled.
● The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings were built on platforms, which served as
foundations.
● The settlement was first planned and then implemented.
⮚ Bricks were of a standardised ratio, where the length and breadth were four times and twice the
height respectively.
⮚ Such bricks were used at all Harappan settlements.

Fig 1.2: Layout of Mohenjodaro

2
Laying out drains:
● Planned drainage system was one the main features of Harappan cities.
● Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles,
streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.

Domestic Architecture:
● The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings.
⮚ Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.
⮚ The courtyard was probably the centre of activities.
⮚ There are no windows in the walls along the ground level.
⮚ The main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
● Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the
street drains.
● Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
● Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by
passers-by.
● Total number of wells in Mohenjodaro is estimated to be about 700.

The Citadel:
● The Warehouse, a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain, while the upper
portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago and the Great Bath.
● The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
⮚ There were two steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made watertight
by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum.
⮚ There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well.
⮚ Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
● Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor,
with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.
● The uniqueness of the Citadel suggests that it was used for special public purpose.

Tracking Social Differences

Burials:
● The dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was
made, in some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks.
● Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, indicating a belief that these could be used in the
afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.
● In the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone)
bead and hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male.

3
 ● In some instances, the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
● On the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Looking for “luxuries”:

● Objects were luxuries if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated
technologies.
● Little pots of faience (made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired) were
probably considered precious because they were difficult to make.

Fig 1.3: A Faience Pot

● Rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements like
Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in the smaller settlements.
● Gold too was rare and precious, all the gold jewellery found at Harappan sites was recovered from
hoards.

Finding Out About Craft Production:

● Chanhudaro was exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting,
metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
● The variety of materials used to make beads:
⮚ Stones like carnelian (of red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite.
⮚ Metals like copper, bronze and gold.
⮚ Shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
● Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps.
● The shapes were numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented.
● Techniques for making beads differed according to the material.
⮚ Steatite, a soft stone, was easily worked.
⮚ Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with steatite powder, which permitted making a
variety of shapes
● Red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stages
of production.
⮚ Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.
⮚ Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process.
● Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and recently at Dholavira.

4
 ● Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centers for making shell objects, including bangles, ladles
and inlay, which were taken to other settlements.

Identifying centres of production:

● Raw materials such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and
waste material, are some of the best indicators of Craft work.
● For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as
waste at the place of production.
● Larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects, but minuscule bits were usually left in the
work area.
● Apart from speacialised works, craft production was also undertaken in large cities like
Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Strategies for Procuring Materials:

· A variety of materials was used for craft production. While some such as clay were locally available,
many such as stone, timber and metal had to be procured from outside.
● Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting
goods and people across land routes.
● Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also probably used.

Materials from the subcontinent and beyond:

● The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.
⮚ They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available.
⮚ Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone that was
apparently very highly valued.
⮚ Lothal was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan
and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).
● Another strategy was to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper)
and South India (for gold).
⮚ These expeditions established communication with local communities.
⮚ Finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in these areas are indications of such
contact.
⮚ There is evidence in the Khetri area for the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with its distinctive non-
Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects.
⮚ It is possible that the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans.

Contact with distant lands:

● Copper was probably brought from Oman. Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani
copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin.

5
 ● A large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites.
● Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called
Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.

Fig 1.4: A Harappan jar found in Oman

● Mesopotamian texts mention contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain),
Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.
⮚ They mention the products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of
wood.
● It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.
● Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers, ships and boats are depicted on seals.

Fig 1.5: Seal depicting a boat

Seals, Script, Weights

Seals and Sealing:
● Used to facilitate long distance communication.
● Each bag of goods was affixed with some wet clay on which seal was pressed.
● If the bag reached with seal intact, that meant it wasn't tempered.
● Sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.

An Enigmatic Script:
● Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner.

6
 ● The motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
● Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains
undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or a
consonant)
● It has many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400.
● The script was written from right to left.

Weights:
● Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called Chert and
generally cubical, with no markings.
● The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higher
denominations followed the decimal system.
● Smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads.
● Metal scale-pans have also been found.

Ancient Authority:
● There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. For
example, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery seals, weights and
bricks, which were of uniform ratio throughout the region.

Palaces and kings:

● Large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists, but no spectacular
finds were associated with it.
● A stone statue was labelled the “priest-king”. This is because archaeologists were familiar with
Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region.

Fig 1.6: A “Priest-King”

● Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal
status.
● Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro, Harappa and others had separate

7
 rulers.
● However, similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick
size hint towards a single state.

The End of the Civilisation:

● By 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned.
● Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and
western Uttar Pradesh.
● In the few sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE there was a transformation of material
culture, marked by the disappearance of the distinctive artefacts of the civilisation – weights, seals,
special beads. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation also disappeared.
● House construction techniques deteriorated, and large public structures were no longer produced.
● Artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life in what are called “Late Harappan” or “successor
cultures”.
● These changes may have been due to climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, shifting and/or
drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape.

Discovering the Harappan Civilisation

Cunningham's Confusion:
● Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, began archaeological excavations in the mid
nineteenth century, his main interest was in the study of the Early Historic and later periods.
● He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between
the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements.
● A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as
an Early Historic city, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation.
● Harappan artefacts were found fairly often during the nineteenth century but Cunningham did not
realise how old these were.
● Cunningham was given a Harappa seal, but he tried to place it within the time-frame with which he
was familiar because he thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.

A New Old Civilization:

● Importance of the findings was realized when seals were discovered by Daya Ram Sahni in layers that
were definitely much older than Early Historic levels
● Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro, hinting that these sites were part of a single
archaeological culture.
● In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in
the Indus valley.

8
New techniques and Questions:
● An extensive survey in Kutch has revealed a number of Harappan settlements and explorations in
Punjab and Haryana have added to the list of Harappan sites.
● Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and most recently Dholavira have been discovered, explored and
excavated.

Problems of Piecing Together the Past:

● It is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilization, but the material
evidence like pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects etc.

Classifying Finds:
● Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise.
⮚ Archaeologists then classify their finds in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory,
etc.
⮚ The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function, for instance, whether an artefact is a tool
or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
⮚ Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which it
was found was it found in a house, drain, grave or in a kiln
● Sometimes, archaeologists take recourse to indirect evidence. For example, there are traces of cotton
at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including
depictions in sculpture.

Problems of interpretation:
● Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a
religious significance.
⮚ These included terracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-
dresses, regarded as mother goddesses.
⮚ Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with one hand on the knee –
such as the “priest-king” was also similarly classified.
⮚ In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual significance. These include the Great Bath
and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
● Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some
of which seem to depict ritual scenes.
● Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
● Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on seals seem
to be mythical, composite creatures.
● In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by
animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, an early form of one of the major deities of
Hinduism.

9
 Fig 1.7: A 'Proto-Shiva” seat

● Conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.

Timeline: 1: Major Periods in Early Indian Archaeology

● 2 million BP (before present): Lower Palaeolithic
● 80,000: Middle Palaeolithic
● 35,000: Upper Palaeolithic
● 12,000: Mesolithic
● 10,000: Neolithic (early agriculturists and pastoralists)
● 6,000: Chalcolithic (first use of copper)
● 2600 BCE: Harappan civilisation
● 1000 BCE: Early iron, megalithic burials
● 600 BCE-400 CE: Early Historic

Timeline 2: Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

Nineteenth Century:
● 1875: Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal.

Twentieth Century:
● 1921: M.S. Vats begins excavations at Harappa.
● 1925: Excavations begin at Mohenjodaro.
● 1946: R.E.M. Wheeler excavates at Harappa.
● 1955: S.R. Rao begins excavations at Lothal.
● 1960: B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar begin excavations at Kalibangan.
● 1974: M.R. Mughal begins explorations in Bahawalpur.
● 1980: A team of German and Italian archaeologists begins surface explorations at Mohenjodaro.
● 1986: American team begins excavations at Harappa.
● 1990: R.S. Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira.

10
 KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS EARLY STATES
2 AND ECONOMIES (600 BCE- 600 CE)

There were several developments in different parts of the subcontinent during the long span of 1,500 years
following the end of the Harappan civilisation. This was also the period during which the Rigveda was
composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries.

Princep and Piyadassi:

● James Prinsep, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions.
● He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to
behold”; referring to Asoka.

The Earliest States

The Sixteen Mahajanapadas:
● Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen states known as mahajanapadas.
● Although the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and
Avanti occur frequently. Clearly, these were amongst the most important mahajanapadas.
● Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies,
where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.
● Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas.
● In some cases, like the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively
● Each mahajanapada had a capital city, often fortified.
● Sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts known as the
Dharmasutras, which laid down norms for rulers.

First amongst the sixteen: Magadha

● Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in Bihar) became the most powerful
mahajanapada because of the following reasons:
⮚ Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
⮚ Iron mines (in Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
⮚ Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests.
⮚ Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
⮚ Early Buddhist and Jaina writers attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly
ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda.
● Initially, Rajagaha (present day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha, meaning “house of the
king”.
● Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, located amongst hills. In the fourth century BCE, the capital was
shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna, commanding routes of communication along the Ganga.

An Early Empire:
● The growth of Magadha culminated in the Mauryan Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya.

11
Findings about the Mauryas:
● History of Mauryan Empire is reconstructed through various sources:
⮚ Archaeological finds, especially sculpture.
⮚ Contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of
Chandragupta Maurya).
⮚ The Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya,
⮚ Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina, Puranic and Sanskrit literary works.
⮚ Inscriptions of Asoka (272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars.
● Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages on stone surfaces – natural rocks and polished
pillars.

Administering the empire:

● There were five majors political centers in the empire, the capital Pataliputra and the provincial
centers of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvanagiri, all mentioned in the Asokan Inscription.
● It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial
centers.
⮚ These centers were carefully chosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on important long-
distance trade routes.
⮚ Suvarnagiri was possibly important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.

● Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity.
⮚ One looked after the navy,
⮚ Second managed transport and provisions,
⮚ Third was responsible for foot-soldiers,
⮚ Fourth for horses,
⮚ Fifth for chariots,
⮚ Sixth for elephants.

● Asoka also tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, to ensure the well-being of
people. Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of
dhamma.

Importance of the Empire:

● Emergence of the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major landmark.
● Archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone sculpture, were considered to be
examples of the spectacular art typical of empires.
● The message on Asokan inscriptions was very different from that of other rulers, suggesting that
Asoka was more powerful and industrious.

12
New Notions of Kingship
Chiefs and Kings in The South:
● The new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further south, including the chiefdoms of the
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas proved to be stable and prosperous.
● The early Tamil Sangam texts contain poems describing chiefs and the ways in which they acquired
and distributed resources.
● Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas and the Shakas, derived revenues from long-
distance trade.

Divine kings:
● One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities, this strategy was best
exemplified by the Kushanas.
⮚ Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura and
in a shrine in Afghanistan as well.
⮚ This indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike.
⮚ Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who
called themselves “sons of heaven”.

● Larger states, including the Gupta Empire was dependent on samantas, men who maintained
themselves through local resources including control over land.
⮚ They offered homage and provided military support to rulers.
⮚ Powerful samantas could become kings.
● Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions,
including Prashastis, composed in praise of kings.
● Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by
Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta.

A Changing Countryside
Popular Perceptions of Kings:
● Perception of king in the minds of subjects was known through anthologies such as the Jatakas and
the Panchtantra.
● Many of these stories originated as popular oral tales that were later committed to writing.

● Gandatindu Jataka describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king.

⮚ When the king went in disguise to find out what his subjects thought about him, each one of them
cursed him for their miseries, complaining that they were attacked by robbers at night and by tax
collectors during the day.
⮚ To escape from this situation, people abandoned their village and went to live in the forest.

13
Strategies for Increasing Production:
● One such strategy was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys
such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri.
● The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall.
● In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was increased by the introduction of
transplantation.
● Use of irrigation, through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals were introduced.

Differences in rural society:

● There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture stories, especially within
the Buddhist tradition, refer to landless agricultural labourers, small peasants and large landholders.
● The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second and third categories.
● Large landholders and village headman emerged as powerful figures, and often exercised control over
other cultivators.

● Sangam texts mentions different categories of people living in the villages:

⮚ Large landowners or Vellalar.
⮚ Ploughmen or uzhavar.
⮚ Slaves or adimai.

Land Grants and New Rural Elites:

● Grant of land was a common feature, and these were recorded in inscriptions, which either on stone
or copper plates.
● Records which survive are generally about grants to religious institutions or to Brahmanas.
● Most of the inscriptions were in Sanskrit and from seventh century local languages such as Tamil and
Telugu were also used.

● According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to have independent access to
resources such as land.
⮚ However, Prabhavati, daughter of Chandragupta II, had access to land, which she then granted.
⮚ This may have been because she was a queen, and her situation was exceptional.

● One inscription explains that the rural population, the Brahmanas, peasants and others were expected
to provide a part of produce to the king.
● There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated, ranging from small plots to vast stretches
of uncultivated land
● Reasons for land grants vary- to extend agriculture to new areas, to win allies and bring samantas
under control through land grants.

14
Towns and Trade
New Cities:
● All major towns were located along routes of communication.
⮚ Pataliputra was on riverine routes.
⮚ Ujjayini, was along land routes.
⮚ Puhar was near the coast, from where sea routes began.
⮚ Mathura was a bustling centre of commercial, cultural and political activity.

Urban populations: Elites and Craftsperson

● Excavation at places where the kings and elites lived led to recovery of fine pottery bowls and dishes,
with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished Ware, used by rich people, and ornaments,
tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze,
ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
● Votive inscriptions mention the name of the donor and specify his/ her occupation as well.
● They mention the town populace: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths,
blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings.
● Guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers and merchants, are mentioned, as they were
required to meet the growing demands of urban elites.

Trade in the Subcontinent and Beyond:

● From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended in
various directions,
⮚ Overland into Central Asia.
⮚ Overseas from ports into the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the
Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
⮚ Rulers often attempted to control these routes by offering protection for a price.

● Peddlers travelled on foot and merchants travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.
● There were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable Successful merchants,
designated as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, were enormously rich.
● A wide range of goods were transported like salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone,
timber, medicinal plants, etc.
● Spices such as pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire, as were textiles and medicinal
plants.

Coins and kings:

● Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the
earliest to be minted and used.

15
 ● Usually, kings issued coins, but it is likely that merchants, bankers and townspeople also issued some
of these coins.
● The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who
established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent
● The Kushanas, issued the largest hordes of gold coins (first gold coins), which were identical in
weight with those issued by contemporary Roman Emperors and the Parthians of Iran.
● Roman coins found in South India indicates wide network of trade in Southern India.
● Coins were also issued by tribal republics such as the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana.
● Spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers, known for their purity. These coins facilitated
long-distance transactions from which kings also benefited.

Back to Basics: Deciphering Inscriptions

Deciphering Brahmi:
● Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi, the script used in
Asokan inscriptions.
● European scholars aided by Indian pandits compared contemporary Bengali and Devanagari
manuscripts, with the letters of older specimens.
● James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

How Kharosthi was read:

● Indo-Greek coins contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.
● European scholars who could read the former compared the letters.
● For example, symbol for “a” could be found in both scripts for writing names such as Apollodotus.
● When Princep identified the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, it became possible to
read longer inscriptions.

Historical evidence from inscriptions:

● Name of Asoka is not mentioned in the inscription (Source 10), titles adopted by the ruler,
Devanampiya, and Piyadassi are used instead.
● The name of Asoka was mentioned in other inscriptions along with these titles.
● Asokan inscription (Source 11), has been interpreted as reflecting the anguish of the ruler, as well as
marking a change in his attitude towards warfare.
● Asokan inscriptions have been found in present-day Orissa, however, the one depicting his anguish is
missing.

The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence:

● There are technical limitations:
⮚ Letters are very faintly engraved; thus reconstructions are uncertain.

16
 ⮚ Inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.
⮚ It is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of
which may be specific to a particular place or time.
● Several thousand inscriptions have been discovered but not all have been deciphered, published and
translated.
● Many more inscriptions must have existed but didn't survive the ravages of time, only a fraction
remains of what was inscribed.
● Not everything that we consider politically or economically significant was necessarily recorded in
inscriptions, for example, joys and sorrows of daily existence doesn't find mention.

Timeline 1: Major Political and Economic Developments

● 600-500 BCE: Paddy transplantation; urbanisation in the Ganga valley; mahajanapadas; punch-
marked coins.
● 500-400 BCE: Rulers of Magadha consolidate power.
● 327-325 BCE: Invasion of Alexander of Macedon.
● 321 BCE: Accession of Chandragupta Maurya.
● 272/268-231: BCE Reign of Asoka.
● 185 BCE: End of the Mauryan empire.
● 200-100 BCE: Indo-Greek rule in the northwest; Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in South India;
Satavahanas in the Deccan.
● 100 BCE-200 CE: Shaka (peoples from Central Asia) rulers in the northwest; Roman trade; gold
coinage.
● 78 CE: Accession of Kanishka.
● 100-200 CE: Earliest inscriptional evidence of land grants by Satavahana and Shaka rulers.
● 320 CE: Beginning of Gupta rule.
● 335-375 CE: Samudragupta
● 375-415 CE: Chandragupta II; Vakatakas in the Deccan.
● 500-600 CE: Rise of the Chalukyas in Karnataka and of the Pallavas in Tamil Nadu.
● 606-647 CE: Harshavardhana king of Kanauj; Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang comes in search of
Buddhist texts.
● 712: Arabs conquer Sind.

Timeline 2: Major Advances in Epigraphy

Eighteenth century:
● 1784: Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengal).

Nineteenth century:
● 1810s: Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages.

17
 ● 1838: Decipherment of Asokan Brahmi by James Prinsep.
● 1877: Alexander Cunningham publishes a set of Asokan inscriptions.
● 1886: First issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a journal of South Indian inscriptions.
● 1888: First issue of Epigraphia Indica.

Twentieth century:
● 1965-66: D.C. Sircar publishes Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary.

Interesting Points:
● Votive inscriptions record gifts made to religious institutions.
● An Agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, exempted from paying land revenue and other dues
and was often given the right to collect these dues from the local people.
● Most Asokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit language while those in the northwest of the
subcontinent were in Aramaic and Greek.

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 KINSHIP, CASTLE AND CLASS EARLY
3 SOCIETIES (600 BCE-600 CE)
The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata:
● A team was comprised to prepare a critical edition of the Mahabharat. Two things became apparent
after the project:
⮚ There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in
manuscripts found all over the subcontinent.
⮚ There were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been transmitted over
the centuries.
● These variations are reflective of the complex processes that shaped early (and later) social histories
through dialogues between dominant traditions and resilient local ideas and practices.

Kinship and Marriage: Many Rules and Varied Practices

Finding out about families:
● Families are parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term,
kinfolk.
● For early societies, historians can retrieve information about elite families fairly easily, however it is
difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people.

The Ideal of Patriliny:

● Mahabharata is a story about this. It describes a feud over land and power between two groups of
cousins, who belonged to a single ruling family, a lineage dominating one of the janapada, ultimately
leading to a battle.
● Patriliny had existed prior to the Mahabharata, but its central story reinforced the idea that it was
valuable.
● Most ruling dynasties claimed to follow this system, although there were variations in practice:
sometimes there were no sons, sometimes brother succeeded, sometimes other kins claimed the
throne.
● In exceptional circumstances, women exercised power, like Prabhavati Gupta.

Rules of marriage:
● Marrying daughters into families outside the kin was considered desirable.
● This system, called Exogamy, meant that the lives of young girls and women belonging to families that
claimed high status were often carefully regulated to ensure that they were married at the “right” time
and to the “right” person.
● This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana was an important duty of the father.
● Due to emergence of new and complex social life, Brahamanas laid down new codes of social
behaviour known as the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, in Sanskrit.
● These texts recognized 8 types of marriages, while first were acceptable and the rest unacceptable.

19
19
The Gotra of Women:
● Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were
regarded as his descendants.
● Two rules about gotra were important:
⮚ Women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt that of their husband.
⮚ Members of the same gotra could not marry.
● Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous.
⮚ Names of women who married Satavahana rulers indicates that many of them had names derived
from gotras such as Gotama and Vasistha, their father's gotras.
⮚ They didn't adopt names derived from their husband's gotra name as they were required to do
according to the Brahmanical rules.
⮚ Some of these women belonged to the same gotra.

Importance of Mothers':
● Satavahana rulers were identified through Metronymics (names derived from that of the mother).
● Although mothers were important, but succession to the throne was generally patrilineal in
Satvahanas.

Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste

The “Right” Occupation:
● The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also contained rules about the ideal “occupations” of the
four categories or varnas.
⮚ Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices
performed, and give and receive gifts.
⮚ Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get
sacrifices performed, and make gifts.
⮚ The last three “occupations” were also assigned to the Vaishyas, who were in addition expected to
engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade.
⮚ Shudras were assigned only one occupation, that of serving the three “higher” varnas.
● The Brahmanas evolved strategies to enforce these norms. One, as we have just seen, was
⮚ To assert that the varna order was of divine origin.
⮚ Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
⮚ Third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.
⮚ Prescriptions were often reinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata and other texts.

Non-Kshatriya Kings:
● According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling lineages
had different origins.

20
 ● Social background of the Mauryas, has been hotly debated. While later Buddhist texts suggested they
were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical texts described them as being of “low” origin.
● The Shungas and Kanvas, successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas.
● Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the
Brahmanas.
⮚ However, rebuilt of Sudarshana lake by Rudradaman, the best-known Shaka ruler, suggested
that mlechchhas were familiar with Sanskritic traditions.
● Ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana
(eka bamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.
⮚ He also ensured that there was no intermarriage amongst members of the four varnas.
⮚ At the same time, he entered into a marriage alliance with the kin of Rudradaman.

Jatis and Social Mobility:

● In Brahmanical theory, Jati, like varna, was based on birth.
● While the number of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis.
● In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups, for instance, people living in
forests such as the nishadas or which did not fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them
as a Jati.
● Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis or
guilds.

Beyond the four Varnas: Integration

● People who were not influenced by the Brahmanical ideas were often described as odd, uncivilised,
or even animal-like.
● These included forest-dwellers – for whom hunting and gathering remained an important means of
subsistence.
● Categories such as the nishada, to which Ekalavya is supposed to have belonged, are examples of
this.
● People who spoke non-sanskritic languages were labelled as mlechchhas and looked down upon.

Beyond the four Varnas: Subordination and Conflict

● Brahamanas classified certain social categories as “untouchable”.
● Some activities were considered as “polluting”, these included handling corpses and dead animals.
● Those who performed such tasks, designated as chandalas, were placed at the very bottom of the
hierarchy. Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing them was regarded as “polluting”.
● Chandalas had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead and
ornaments of iron.
⮚ They could not walk about in villages and cities at night.

21
 ⮚ They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners.
● Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian wrote that “untouchables” had to sound a clapper in the streets so
that people could avoid seeing them.
● Another Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang, observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live
outside the city.

Beyond Birth: Resources and Status

Gendered access to property:
● Issues of ownership, foregrounded in stories such as the Mahabharata, also figure in the
Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras.
● According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons, with a
special share for the eldest but women could not claim a share of these resources.
● Women were allowed to retain the gifts they received in their marriage as stridhana.
⮚ This could be inherited by their children.
⮚ The Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables,
without the husband's permission.

Varna and Access to Property:

● Apart from gender, other criteria for having access to wealth was Varna.
● The only “occupation” prescribed for Shudras was servitude, while a variety of occupations were listed
for men of the first three varnas, according to which the Brahamanas and the Kshatriyas would be the
wealthiest.
● Kings were depicted as wealthy, priests are also generally shown to be rich, though there are
occasional depictions of the poor Brahmana.
● However, the Buddhists recognized the differences in society, but did not regard these as natural or
inflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.

An alternative social scenario: Sharing wealth

● There were situations where men who were generous were respected and those who simply
accumulated wealth for themselves were despised.
● There were several kingdoms in ancient South India where chiefs were patrons of bards and poets
who sang their praise.
● Poems in the Tamil Sangam anthologies illuminate social and economic relationships, suggesting
that there were differences but those who controlled resources were expected to share them.

Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract

● Buddhists, in a myth found in a text known as the Sutta Pitaka suggested that originally human beings
did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully developed.

22
 ● All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal.
● There was a gradual deterioration of this state as human beings became increasingly greedy,
vindictive and deceitful.
● This led them to think of someone who would lead and guide them and would be known as
Mahasammata, the great elect.
● This suggests that the institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of
payment for services rendered by the king.

Handling Texts: Historians and the Mahabharata

Language and content:
● The Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas or Prashastis.

● Contents of the present text are classified under two broad heads:
⮚ Sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative, and
⮚ Sections that contain prescriptions about social norms, designated as didactic.
⮚ This division is not watertight, the didactic sections include stories, and the narrative often contains
a social message.

● Historians believed the Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic, moving story, and that the didactic
portions were probably added later.
● The text is described as an itihasa within early Sanskrit tradition.

Author(s) and Dates:

● The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally
accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories.
● Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began writing it.
● 200 BCE and 200 CE was the period when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance, and
Krishna was coming to be identified with Vishnu.

The Search for Convergence:

● In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated at a village named Hastinapura in Meerut (Uttar
Pradesh).
● Lal observed that walls of mud and mud-bricks were duly encountered, discovery of mud-plaster with
prominent reed-marks suggested that some of the houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.
● Another instance in the Mahabharata is Draupadi's marriage with the Pandavas, an instance of
polyandry that is central to the narrative.
● Historians suggest that the fact that the author(s) describe a polyandrous union indicates that
polyandry may have been prevalent amongst ruling elites.

23
A Dynamic Text:
● Over the centuries, versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing
process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the texts.
● Several regional stories that circulated amongst certain people found their way into the epic.
● It also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts – plays, dance and other kinds of
narrations.

Timeline 1: Major Textual Traditions:

● 500 BCE: Ashtadhyayi of Panini, a work on Sanskrit grammar.
● 500-200 BCE: Major Dharmasutras (in Sanskrit).
● 500-100 BCE: Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka (in Pali).
● 500 BCE-400 CE: Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit).
● 200 BCE-200 CE: Manusmriti (in Sanskrit); composition Tamil Sangam literature.
● 100 CE: Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas, works on medicine (in Sanskrit).
● 200 CE onwards: Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit).
● 300 CE: Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy (in Sanskrit).
● 300-600 CE: Other Dharmashastras (in Sanskrit).
● 400-500 CE: Sanskrit plays including the works of Kalidasa; works on astronomy and mathematics by
Aryabhata and Varahamihira (in Sanskrit); compilation of Jaina works (in Prakrit).

Timeline 2: Major Landmarks in the Study of the Mahabharata:

Twentieth century
● 1919-66: Preparation and publication of the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata.
● 1973: J.A.B. van Buitenen begins English translation of the Critical Edition; remains incomplete after
his death in 1978.

Interesting Points:
● Sanskrit texts use the term kula to designate families and jnati for the larger network of kinfolk. The
term vamsha is used for lineage.
● The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, contains a list of successive generations of teachers and students,
many of whom were designated by metronymics

24
 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural
4 Developments (600 BCE - 600 CE)
A Glimpse of Sanchi:
● Nineteenth-century Europeans were very interested in the stupa at Sanchi. Both French and the
Englishmen wanted to take away the eastern gateway of Sanchi stupa.
● The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for
the preservation of the ancient site.
● Shahjehan Begum funded a guesthouse for John Williams and also the publication of the volumes
written by him.
● One of the most important Buddhist centres, the discovery of Sanchi has vastly transformed the
understanding of early Buddhism.

The Background: Sacrifices and Debates

The Sacrificial Tradition:
● The Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra and Soma.
● Many of these hymns were chanted when sacrifices were performed, where people prayed for cattle,
sons, good health, long life, etc.
● At first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later (1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were
performed by the heads of households for the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
● More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and
kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the ritual.

New Questions:
● Many ideas found in the Upanishads show that people were curious about the meaning of life, the
possibility of life after death and rebirth.
● People also began speculating on the significance of the sacrificial tradition.

Debates and discussions:

● Buddhist teachers travelled from place to place, trying to convince one another as well as laypersons,
about the validity of their philosophy.
● Debates took place in the kutagarashala, if a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the
followers of the latter also became his disciples.
● Many teachers, including Mahavira and the Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.
● They also emphasized on individual agency, where an individual could strive to attain liberation from
tribulations of worldly existence.

Beyond Worldly Pleasures: The Message of Mahavira

● The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already in existence in north India before the birth of
Vardhamana (Mahavira), in the sixth century BCE.
● According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23 other teachers or tirthankaras.

25
 ● The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water
have life.
⮚ Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects, is central to Jaina
philosophy.
⮚ Principle of ahimsa emphasised within Jainism is an important theme.
⮚ The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
⮚ Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.
⮚ Monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation.
● Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: To abstain from killing, Stealing, Lying, to observe celibacy, and
to abstain from possessing property.

The Spread of Jainism:

● Like the Buddhists, Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages like Prakrit,
Sanskrit and Tamil.
● For centuries, manuscripts of these texts were carefully preserved in libraries attached to temples.
● Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated with religious traditions were produced by devotees
of the Jaina tirthankaras.

The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment:

● According to traditions, Siddhartha, as the Buddha was named at birth, was the son of a chief of the
Sakya clan.
● He was deeply anguished after seeing the miseries in the world.
● Siddhartha explored several paths including bodily mortification which led him to a situation of near
death.
● Then he meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment.
● After this he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.
● For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.

The Teachings of The Buddha:

● The Buddha's teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found in the Sutta Pitaka.
● Some stories describe his miraculous powers, others suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people
through reason and persuasion.
● According to Buddhist philosophy,
⮚ World is transient (anicca) and constantly changing.
⮚ It is also soul less (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
⮚ Sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
● It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence that human
beings can rise above worldly troubles.

26
 ● Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin.
● He advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.
● The Buddha emphasised individual agency as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain
self-realisation and nibbana and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world.

Followers of the Buddha:

● Buddha founded a sangha, an organization of monks who became teachers of dhamma.
● These monks lived simply, possessing only the essential requisites for survival, they lived on alms, they
were known as bhikkhus.

● Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be admitted.
⮚ Ananda, one of the Buddha's dearest disciples, persuaded him to allow women into the sangha.
⮚ Buddha's foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be ordained as a
bhikkhuni.
⮚ Many women became teachers of dhamma and went on to become theris.

● Buddha's followers came from many social groups.

⮚ They included kings, wealthy men and gahapatis.
⮚ Humbler folk: workers, slaves and craftspeople.
⮚ Within the sangha, all were equal, having shed their earlier social identities on becoming bhikkhus
and bhikkhunis.

● The internal functioning of the sangha was through consensus, if that failed, decisions were taken by
a vote on the subject.
● The emphasis placed on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion), drew men and women to
Buddhist teachings.

Stupas:
● Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places associated with the Buddha's
life:
⮚ where he was born (Lumbini),
⮚ where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya),
⮚ where he gave his first sermon (Sarnath) and
⮚ where he attained nibbana (Kusinagara).

Why were stupas built:

● The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with
Buddhism.

27
 ● Since they contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem
of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
● According to Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha's
relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.

How were stupas built:

● Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building and
decorating them.
● Donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas, guilds, such as that of the ivory workers who
financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.
● Donations were made by women and men who mention their names and occupation.
● Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.

The Structure of the Stupa:

● The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of Earth, later called anda.
● It evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was
the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
● Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella.
Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
● The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, which resembled a
wooden fence.
● Later, the mound of the stupas came to be elaborately carved with niches and sculptures as at
Amaravati, and Shahji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).

Fig 4.1: Elevation of The Great Stupa at Sanchi

“Discovering” Stupas: The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi

● In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur, visited Amaravati and collected several sculpture
panels and took them away to Madras (called the Elliot marbles).
● He came to the conclusion that the structure at Amaravati was one of the largest and most
magnificent Buddhist stupas ever built.

28
 ● However, slabs of the structure were either taken to different areas for research or found in the
gardens of British administrators.
● Sanchi stupa survived as scholars understood its importance and value, which was not the case with
Amravati stupa, as it was discovered prior to this knowledge.

Sculpture
Stories in Stone:

Fig 4.2: A part of the Northern Gateway of Sanchi Stupa

● The sculpture in the Fig. 4.2 depicts a rural scene with huts and trees.
● This is a scene from the Vessantara Jataka.
● It is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana and went to live in the
forest with his wife and children.
● Historians often try to understand the meaning of sculpture by comparing it with textual evidence.

Symbols of Worship:
● Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Early sculptors did not show the
Buddha in human form, instead, they showed his presence through symbols.
⮚ The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha.
⮚ The stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana.
⮚ Symbol of the wheel was used frequently. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered
at Sarnath.
● The tree does not stand simply for a tree but symbolises an event in the life of the Buddha.

Popular Traditions:
● Sculpture of “Women at the Gate”:
⮚ It is a sculpture of a beautiful swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree.
⮚ Scholars believe it could be a representation a shalabhanjika.
⮚ This was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit, regarded as an auspicious
symbol.

29
 ⮚ It suggests that people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even
non-Buddhist beliefs and practices.

Fig 4.3: The Woman at the gate

● Some of the finest depictions of animals are found. These animals include elephants, horses, monkeys
and cattle.
⮚ Animals were often used as symbols of human attributes, for example, Elephants were depicted
to signify strength and wisdom.
● Another motif is of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which seem to be sprinkling water
on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration.
⮚ Some historians identify the figure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a
popular goddess, Gajalakshmi.

Fig 4.4: Gajalakshmi

● The serpent, motif is found on several pillars. This motif seems to be derived from popular traditions,
which were not always recorded in texts.

New Religious Traditions

The Development of Mahayana Buddhism:

30
 ● The concept of the Bodhisatta developed.
● They were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts
but used this not to attain nibbana, but to help others.
● The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important part of this tradition.
● This new way of thinking was called Mahayana, Great vehicle and the older tradition as Hinayana or
the lesser vehicle.

The Growth of Puranic Hinduism:

● The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism is noticed in this period.
● In Vaishnavism (Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity) and Shaivism (Shiva was regarded
as the chief god), there was growing emphasis on the worship of a chosen deity.
● In Vaishnavism, cults developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars
were recognised within the tradition.
● Shiva was symbolised by the linga, although he was occasionally represented in human form too.

Building Temples:
● The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway.
● Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were
often decorated with sculpture.
● One of the unique features of early temples was that some temples were hollowed out of huge rocks,
as artificial caves, for example, the Kailashnath Temple.

Timeline 1: Major Religious Developments

● 1500-1000 BCE: Early Vedic traditions
● 1000-500 BCE: Later Vedic traditions
● Sixth century: BCE Early Upanishads; Jainism, Buddhism
● Third century BCE: First stupas.
● Second century BCE onwards: Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
goddess cults
● Third century CE: Earliest temples

Timeline 2: Discovery and Preservation of Early Monuments and Sculpture

Nineteenth century
● 1814: Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
● 1834: Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, by Ram Raja; Cunningham explores the
stupa at Sarnath.
● 1835 -1842: James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites.

31
 ● 1851: Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras.
● 1854: Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes, one of the earliest works on Sanchi.
● 1878: Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni.
● 1880: H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments.
● 1888: Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, giving the government the right to acquire all objects of
archaeological interest.

Twentieth century:
● 1914: John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monuments of Sanchi.
● 1923: John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual.
● 1955: Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone of the National Museum, New Delhi.
● 1989: Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site.

Interesting Point:
● The Therigatha, Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses composed by
bhikkhunis. It provides an insight into women's social and spiritual experiences.

32
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
12th Standard
Themes in Indian History Part- II
CONTENTS
Through the Eyes of Travellers Perception of Society
(Tenth to Seventeenth Century) ................................................................................................. 1 - 5

Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Devotional Texts Eight to Eighteenth Century ......................... 6 - 13

An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara (Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)........................ 14 - 20

Peasants, Zamindars and the State Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire
(Sixteenth-Seventeenth Centuries) ..................................................................................... 21 - 29

Kings and Chronicles The Mughal Courts .......................................................................... 30 - 41

 THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS PERCEPTION
1 OF SOCIETY (TENTH TO SEVENTEENTH CENTURY)

Men and women have travelled for various reasons, many of them try to adapt to a new land, whereas some
note their experiences. Unfortunately, there are practically no accounts of travel left by women, though it is
known where they travelled.

Al-Biruni and The Kitab-Ul-Hind:

● From Khwarizm to the Punjab:
⮚ Al-Biruni was born in 973, in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.
⮚ He was well versed in several languages: Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit.
⮚ Although he did not know Greek, he was familiar with the works of Plato and other Greek
philosophers, having read them in Arabic translations.
⮚ He was brought to Ghazni as a hostage when Khwarizm was invaded by Sultan Mahmud in 1017.
It was here that he developed interest in India.
⮚ Al-Biruni spent years in the company of Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit, and
studying religious and philosophical texts.
⮚ He travelled widely in the Punjab and parts of northern India after Punjab became a part of the
Ghanavid empire.
● The Kitab-ul-Hind:
⮚ Kitab-ul-Hind was written in Arabic.
⮚ It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters.
⮚ Its subjects are religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social
life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
⮚ Al-Biruni, who wrote in Arabic, probably intended his work for people living along the frontiers of
the subcontinent.
⮚ He was familiar with translations and adaptations of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts into Arabic –
these ranged from fables to works on astronomy and medicine.

Ibn Battuta's Rihla:
● Ibn Battuta's book of travels, called Rihla, written in Arabic, provides details about the social and
cultural life in the subcontinent in the fourteenth century.
● Before leaving for India in 1332-22, he travelled to Mecca, Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few
trading ports on the coast of East Africa.
● Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reputation as a generous patron of art lured Ibn Battuta to Delhi, where he
was appointed as Qazi or Judge of Delhi and later sent to China as Sultan's envoy to Mongol ruler.
● He visited Malabar coast through Central India and then to Sri Lanka and Maldives before heading to
China.
● He travelled extensively in China, going as far as Beijing. His account is often compared to Marco Polo,
who also visited China.
● According to him, travelling was insecure. He himself was attacked while travelling from Multan to
Delhi.

1
 ● He also visited North Africa, West Asia and parts of Central Asia (he may even have visited Russia).
● Rulers usually issued instructions for his stories to be recorded.

François Bernier:
● A Frenchman was a doctor, political philosopher and historian.
● He came to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities.
● He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668.
● He was closely associated with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest
son of Emperor Shah Jahan.
● Later as an intellectual and scientist, with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal
court.
● Comparing “East” and “West”:
⮚ He dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the king of France, and many of his other works were
written in the form of letters to influential officials and ministers.
⮚ Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation in comparison to developments in
Europe.
⮚ However, his assessment was not always accurate.
⮚ Bernier's works were published in France in 1670-71 and translated into English, Dutch, German
and Italian within the next five years.
⮚ This was in contrast to the accounts in Arabic and Persian, which circulated as manuscripts and
were generally not published before 1800.

Making sense of an Alien World: Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition:

● Overcoming barriers to understanding: Each traveler adopted distinct strategies to understand what
they observed. Al-Biruni discussed several “barriers” that he felt obstructed understanding.
⮚ First barrier was language. Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and
concepts could not be easily translated from one language into another.
⮚ Second barrier he identified was the difference in religious beliefs and practices.
⮚ Third barrier was the self-absorption and consequent insularity of the local population.
⮚ Al-Biruni depended almost on the works of Brahmanas, often citing passages from the Vedas, the
Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc., to provide an
understanding of Indian society.

● Al-Biruni's description of the caste system: Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for
parallels in other societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised:
⮚ Knights and princes
⮚ Monks, fire-priests and lawyers
⮚ Physicians, astronomers and other scientists
⮚ Peasants and artisans.
 ● He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India.
● In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved of
the notion of pollution.
● He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its
original condition of purity.
● According to him, the conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system was contrary to the
laws of nature.

Ibn-Battuta and The Excitement of The Unfamiliar:

Travels of Ibn-Battuta are documented. Anything that was unfamiliar was particularly highlighted in order to
ensure that the reader was suitably impressed by accounts of distant yet accessible worlds.
● The coconut and the paan: He described the coconut and the paan, two kinds of plant produce that
were completely unfamiliar to his audience.
⮚ Coconut Tree: According to him it was one of the most peculiar trees.
o They look exactly like palm trees.
o The nut of a coconut tree resembles a man's head.
⮚ The Paan: According to him, betel tree was cultivated was exactly like the grape vine. It was grown
only for the sake of its leaves.

● Ibn-Battuta and Indian Cities: Most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets that
were stacked with a wide variety of goods.
⮚ He described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India.
⮚ Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) was no less, and easily rivalled Delhi in size.
⮚ The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural
activities.
⮚ The subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and commerce.
⮚ Indian manufacturers were in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia.

● A unique system of communication: The postal system was so efficient that while it took fifty days to
reach Delhi from Sind, the news reports of spies would reach the Sultan through the postal system in
just five days.
⮚ The postal system was of two kinds.
⮚ The horsepost, called uluq, is run by royal horses stationed at a distance of every four miles.
⮚ The foot-post has three stations per mile; it is called dawa, that is one-third of a mile.

Bernier and the “Degenerate East”:

Bernier's Travels in the Mughal Empire is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and reflection. His
representation of India works on the model of binary opposition, where India is presented as the inverse of
Europe.
 ● The question of land ownership:
⮚ One of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private
property in land in the former.
⮚ He was believer of virtue private property and saw crown ownership of land as being harmful for
both the state and its people.
⮚ Owing to crown ownership of land, landholders could not pass on their land to their children. So,
they were averse to any long-term investment
⮚ It led to the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry and a continuous
decline in the living standards.
● A more complex social reality:
⮚ He felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits
were appropriated by the state.
⮚ Manufactures were in decline everywhere.
⮚ Vast quantities of the world's precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in
exchange for gold and silver.
⮚ Existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange was also
noticed by him.
⮚ Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns”, towns that owed their existence to the imperial
camp.

Women, Slaves, Sati and Labourers:

● Slaves were openly sold in markets and were regularly exchanged as gifts.
● Muhammad bin Tughlaq, informs Ibn Battuta, was so happy with the sermon of a preacher that he
gave him “a hundred thousand tankas (coins) and two hundred slaves”.
● There was considerable differentiation among slaves:
⮚ Some female slaves were experts in music and dance,
⮚ Female slaves were also employed by the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles.
⮚ For carrying women and men on palanquins or dola.
● Price of slaves, particularly female slaves required for domestic labour, was very low, and those who
could afford, kept at least one or two of them.
● In the case of Sati, Bernier noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others
were forced to die.
● Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities.

Timeline: Travellers Who Left Accounts:

● 973-1048: Muhammad ibn Ahmad Abu Raihan al-Biruni (from Uzbekistan)
● 1254-1323: Marco Polo (from Italy)
● 1304-77: Ibn Battuta (from Morocco)
● 1413-82: Abd al-Razzaq al-Din ibn Ishaq al-Samarqandi (from Samarqand)
● 1466-72 (years spent in India): Afanasail Nikitich Nikitin (from Russia)
● 1518 (visit to India): Duarte Barbosa (from Portugal)
● 1562 (year of Death): Seydi Ali Reis (from Turkey)
● 1536-1600: Antonio Monserrate (from Spain)
● 1626-31 (years spent in India): Mahmud Wali Balkhi (from Balkh)
● 1600-67: Peter Mundy (from England)
● 1605-89: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (from France)
● 1620-88: François Bernier (from France)

Interesting points

· Among the best known of the Portuguese writers is Duarte Barbosa, who wrote a detailed account
of trade and society in south India.
● One of the most famous French jeweller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, was particularly fascinated with
the trading conditions in India, and compared India to Iran and the Ottoman empire.
 BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS DEVOTIONAL
2 TEXTS EIGHT TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
New textual sources available from this period include compositions attributed to poet-saints, most of
whom expressed themselves orally in regional languages. These compositions were compiled by disciples
or devotees, generally after the death of the poet-saint.

Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices:

Most striking feature of this phase is the increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and goddesses in
sculpture as well as in texts.

The Integration of Cults:

● There were two processes at work:
⮚ Propagating Brahmanical ideas, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who
were generally excluded from Vedic learning.
⮚ Brahmanas accepting and reworking on their beliefs and practices. For example, at Puri Temple,
Orissa, the principal deity came to be identified as Jagannatha (the lord of the world), a form of
Vishnu.
● Such instances of integration are evident amongst goddess cults as well.

Fig 2.1: Buddhist goddess, Marichi,

Bihar, an example of integration

Differences and Conflict:

● Tantric practices: These were widespread in several parts of the sub-continent.
⮚ They were open to women and men.
⮚ They ignored caste differences.
● Shaivism and Buddhism were influenced by these ideas. These beliefs would come to be classified as
Hindu over the next millennium.
● Followers of Vedic tradition condemned practices that went beyond the closely regulated contact
with the divine through sacrifices or mantras. Meanwhile, followers of Tantric practices frequently
ignored the authority of the Vedas.

6
 ● Relations with other traditions, such as Buddhism or Jainism, were also often fraught with tension if
not open conflict.

Poems of Prayer: Early Tradition of Bhakti

Bhakti tradition:
It is classified into two categories:
● Saguna: It focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars and forms
of the goddess.
● Nirguna: It was the worship of an abstract form of god.

Early Proponents: The Alvars and Nayanars:

● Some of the earliest bhakti movements (sixth century) were led by the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu)
and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva).
● They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
● These singing compositions became part of temple rituals as did worship of the saints' images.
● While travelling, the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities,
which later developed as centres of pilgrimage.

Their Attitudes towards Caste:

● The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the
dominance of Brahmanas.
● They claimed their traditions to be as important as the Vedas.
● The Nalayira Divyaprabandham, an Alvar composition, was described as the Tamil Veda and claimed
to be as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit.

Women Devotees:
A striking feature was the presence of women.
● The compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung.
● Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her
goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.
● Their very existence and compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.

Relations with the State:

● Opposition to Buddhism and Jainism is the main theme of bhakti hymns due to competition between
religious traditions for royal patronage.
● Chola rulers: They supported both Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and
constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.
⮚ For example, Shiva temples at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, were
constructed under the Chola rulers.

7
 ⮚ Stone and metal sculpture in temples were built to recreate the vision of bhakti saints by the Chola
rulers to win their support.
⮚ Initiative of Singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples and organising them into a text (Tevaram)
was also introduced.

The Virshaiva Tradition in Karnataka:

● A new movement led by a Brahmana named Basavanna emerged in the twelfth century.
● The followers were known as Virshaivas (heroes of shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of Linga).
● Lingayats bury their dead instead of cremating them as they believe they will be united with Shiva and
will not return to this world.
● They also challenged the idea of caste and rebirth and encouraged post-puberty marriage and
remarriage of widows.
● Vachanas, composed in Kannada by the followers throws light on Virshaiva Traditions.

Religious Ferment in North India:

● During this period, several Rajput states had emerged, where Brahamanas occupied important
positions without any significant challenge to their authority.
● However, other religious leaders who challenged orthodox Brahmanical framework started gaining
ground. These were the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas.
⮚ They came from artisanal groups, who became important with the development of organised craft
production.
⮚ These religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas and spoke in the language spoken
by the local people.
● New development during this phase was the establishment of Delhi Sultanate (thirteenth century),
which led to marked changes in cultural and religious realm.

New Strands in The Fabric: Islamic Traditions:

● Faith of Rulers and Subjects:
⮚ Muslim rulers were to be guided by the Ulama, and were expected to rule according to the Shari'a,
which made the situation complicated as majority population did not subscribe to Islam.
⮚ Due to this, the category of Zimmi (the protected) developed for people of other religions. They
paid Jizya and in return they were to be protected by the Muslims.
⮚ Several leaders adopted flexible policy towards their subjects and also expressed devotion towards
non-Muslim religious leaders.
⮚ Grants were also made by Mughal rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb.

● The Popular practice of Islam:

⮚ The universal feautres of Islam were overlaid with diversities and influence of local customary
practices.

8
 ⮚ For example, the Khojahs, a branch of the Ismailis (a Shia sect), developed new modes of
communication for propagating Qur'an through devotional poems in local dialects.
⮚ Arab Muslim traders who settled along the Malabar coast (Kerala) adopted the local language and
customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence.
⮚ Several features of mosques also show variation, such as roof and building materials.

Fig 2.2: Mosque in Kerala. Note the Sikhara like roof

● Names for communities:

⮚ According to historians, terms Hindu and Muslims, as labels for religious communities were virtually
never used during this phase.
⮚ Instead, people were usually identified from the place they came from.
o Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka,
o Tajika were people from Tajikistan,
o Parashika were people from Persia.
⮚ A more general term for these migrant communities was Mlechchha.

The Growth of Sufism:

● A group of religious minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against
the growing materialism of the Caliphate.
● They laid emphasis on intense devotion and love for God by following His command.

Khanqahs and Silsilas:

● By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a full-fledged movement with their own literature and sufi
practices.
● The sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah (Persian) controlled by a
teacher known as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian).
⮚ He enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa).
⮚ He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between inmates, laypersons and the
master.
● Sufi silsilas (chain) began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth
century.
● Inmates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.

9
 ● Shaikh's tomb-shrine (dargah) became the centre of devotion after his death because the followers
believed that saints united with god after death.

Outside the Khanqah:

● Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi ideals.
● Many scorned the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy.
● They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.
● They were known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc.

The Chistis in the Subcontinent:

Chistis were the most influential of the groups that migrated to India in the Twelfth Century because they
adopted to the local environment and traditions.

Life in the Chishti Khanqah:

● Khanqahs were the centre of social life.
● Shaikh Nizamuddin's hospice in Delhi comprised of several rooms and big hall.
⮚ Inmates included family members of the Shaikh, his attendants and disciples.
⮚ A veranda surrounded the courtyard and a boundary wall ran around the complex.
⮚ There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (charity).
⮚ People from all walks of life came seeking discipleship.
⮚ Visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian
Ziyauddin Barani.
● Practices such as bowing before the Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving the heads of initiates,
and yogic exercises, represented attempts to assimilate local traditions.

Chisti Devotionalism: Ziyarat and Qawwali:

● Pilgrimage tom tombs of sufi saints is called ziyarat. This practice is an occasion for seeking the sufi's
spiritual grace (barakat).
● The most revered among these is that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz”.
⮚ It was popular because of the austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual
successors, and the patronage of royal visitors.
⮚ Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first Sultan to visit the shrine but the earliest construction was
funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji.
⮚ Akbar visited the shrine fourteen times and gave generous gifts.

● Use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or
qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy was also a part of Ziyarat.
⮚ The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking his Presence
through sama (audition).

10
Languages and Communication:
● In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people.
● Sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were incorporated in the Guru
Granth Sahib.
● Sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka. These were short poems in
Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti Sufis.
● Sufis of this region were inspired by the bhakti tradition of the Kannada vachanas.

Sufis and the state:

● The sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political elites.
● The Sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) and granted tax-free land (inam).
● These donations were used for requirements like food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities.
● It was believed that the auliya could intercede with God, which is why kings often wanted their tombs
to be in the vicinity of sufi shrines.
● However, there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis.
● To assert their authority, both expected that certain rituals be performed such as prostration and
kissing of the feet.
⮚ Sufi Shaiks were often addressed with titles, for example, disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya
addressed him as sultan-ul-mashaikh.

New Devotional Paths: Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India:

Weaving a Divine Fabric: Kabir:
● Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions:
⮚ The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere
in Uttar Pradesh.
⮚ The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
⮚ Many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib.
● All these manuscript compilations were made long after the death of Kabir.
● Kabir's poems are in several languages and dialects.
⮚ Some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the sant bhasha.
⮚ Ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted.
⮚ These hint at the difficulties of capturing the nature of the reality in words: expressions such as “the
lotus which blooms without flower” or the “fire raging in the ocean” convey a sense of Kabir's
mystical experiences.
● He described the Ultimate Reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.
⮚ He also used terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar (formless),
Brahman, Atman, etc.
⮚ Terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or shunya (emptiness) were drawn from
yogic traditions.
 ● Diverse and conflicting ideas are expressed in these poems
⮚ Some poems draw on Islamic ideas and use monotheism and iconoclasm to attack Hindu
polytheism and idol worship;
⮚ Some use the sufi concept of zikr and ishq to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran
(remembrance of God's name).
● Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition attempted to suggest that he was born a Hindu but was
raised by a poor Muslim.
● They also suggested that Ramananda was his guru but it is difficult that they both were
contemporaries.

Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word:

● He was born (1469-1539) in a Hindu family in a village called Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi.
● The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings which suggest that he
advocated a form of nirguna bhakti.
● For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form.
● He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both Hindus and
Muslims
● He proposed a way to connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating the Divine Name,
expressing his ideas through hymns called “shabad”.
● He organised his followers into a community and set up rules for congregational worship (sangat)
involving collective recitation.
● Baba Guru Nanak did not wish to establish a new religion, but after his death his followers
distinguished themselves from both Hindus and Muslims.
● The fifth Guru, Guru Arjan, compiled Baba Guru Nanak's hymns along with those of his successors
and poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib.
● The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh
Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib.
● Guru Gobind Singh laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth and defined its five symbols:
⮚ Uncut hair,
⮚ Dagger,
⮚ Pair of shorts,
⮚ Comb
⮚ Steel bangle.

Mirabai, the devotee princess:

● She is perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
● She was princess who was married against her wishes but she later escaped to live as wandering
saint.
● She recognized Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, as her lover.
 ● Her guru was Raidas, a leather worker, which indicates her defiance of the caste society.
● Although Mirabai did not attract a sect or group of followers but her songs continue to be sung by the
poor and those considered “low caste” in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Timeline: Some Major Religious Teachers in The Subcontinent:

● 500-800 CE: Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti in Tamil Nadu
● 800-900: Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi in Tamil Nadu
● 1000-1100: Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh in the Punjab; Ramanujacharya in Tamil Nadu
● 1100-1200: Basavanna in Karnataka
● 1200-1300: Jnanadeva, Muktabai in Maharashtra
⮚ Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Rajasthan
⮚ Bahauddin Zakariyya and Fariduddin Ganj- i Shakar in the Punjab
⮚ Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Delhi
● 1300-1400: Lal Ded in Kashmir
⮚ Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sind
⮚ Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi
⮚ Ramananda in Uttar Pradesh
⮚ Chokhamela in Maharashtra
⮚ Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri in Bihar
● 1400-1500: Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh
⮚ Baba Guru Nanak in the Punjab
⮚ Vallabhacharya in Gujarat
⮚ Abdullah Shattari in Gwalior
⮚ Muhammad Shah Alam in Gujarat
⮚ Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Daraz in Gulbarga
⮚ Shankaradeva in Assam
⮚ Tukaram in Maharashtra
● 1500-1600: Sri Chaitanya in Bengal
⮚ Mirabai in Rajasthan
⮚ Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh
● 1600-1700: Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in Haryana
⮚ Miyan Mir in the Punjab
 AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL VIJAYANAGARA
3 (FOURTEENTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURY)
Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the
fourteenth century. In its heyday it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the
peninsula.

Discovery of Hampi:
● The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an employee of the English East India Company,
Colonel Colin Mackenzie (first Surveyor General of India).
● Initial information received by him was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple
and the shrine of Pampadevi.
● Historians collated their information with accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in
Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.

Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans:

● Two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336.
● This empire included within its fluctuating frontiers peoples who spoke different languages and
followed different religious traditions.
● On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers – including the
Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control of the fertile river valleys and the
resources.
● Some of the areas that were incorporated within the empire had witnessed the development of
powerful states like the Cholas and the Hoysalas.
● Earlier states like the Chola and the Hoysalas in the empire had extended patronage to elaborate
temples such as Brihadishvara temple and the Chennakeshava temple.
● The rulers of Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas, built on these traditions and carried them
forward.

Kings and Traders:

● The import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was important for kingdoms for warfare.
⮚ This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders, but later local merchants known as kudirai
chettis (horse merchants) also started trading.
⮚ The Portuguese also attempted to establish trading and military stations.
⮚ Their superior military technology and the use of muskets made them.
● Vijayanagara was also noted for its trade in spices, textiles and precious stones.
● Trade was regarded as a status symbol for such cities, where the population demanded high-value
exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
● The revenue from trade significantly contributed to the development of the state.

The Apogee and Decline of the Empire:

● Saluva military commanders were replaced by Tuluva Dynasty in 1503.

14
 ● Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty, his rule was characterized by expansion and
consolidation.
⮚ Land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired (1512).
⮚ The rulers of Orissa were subdued (1514).
⮚ Severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).
● Though the kingdom remained under constant threat, however Krishnadeva Raya is credited for
unparalleled prosperity.
⮚ Building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian
temples.
⮚ He founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram.
● Strain began to show within the imperial structure following Krishnadeva Raya's death in 1529.
⮚ His successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas or military chiefs.
⮚ By 1542 control at the centre had shifted to Aravidu, another ruling lineage.
● This led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara.
⮚ In 1565 Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle at Rakshasi-
Tangadi (Talikota).
⮚ His forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
● Although the Sultans were responsible for the destruction of the city of Vijayanagara, relations
between the Sultans and the Rayas were not always hostile.
⮚ Krishnadeva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and had the
title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”.
⮚ Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagara after the
death of Krishnadeva Raya.
● It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against another that led
the Sultans to combine together and decisively defeat him.

The Rayas and the Nayakas:

● Military chiefs were very powerful and usually controlled forts and had armed supporters and were
known as Nayakas.
● Many Nayakas submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara but they often rebelled and had
to be subdued by military action.
● The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
⮚ They were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya.
⮚ They collected taxes in the area, of which a part was retained for personal use and for maintaining a
stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.

● They sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to
express their loyalty.
● Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.

15
 ● However, during seventeenth century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms.
● This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.

Vijayanagara: The Capital and its Environs

Water resources:
● River Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction formed a natural basin in this city.
● The surrounding landscape has stunning granite hills that form a girdle around the city from where a
number of streams flow down to the river.
● As this was an arid area, embankments were built along the streams to create reservoirs and store
rainwater. On such important tank is the Kamalapuram tank.
● One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya canal.

Fortifications and roads:

● Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador of the ruler of Persia in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed
by the fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts.
⮚ These forts encircled the city and its hinterland. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the
city.
⮚ The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered and no mortar or cementing agent was
used in the construction.
⮚ He also stated that between the first, second and the third walls there are fields, gardens and
houses.

● These statements have been corroborated by archaeologists, who found evidence of an agricultural
tract between the sacred centre and the urban core.
● This tract was serviced by a canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra.
● The reason behind fortifying agricultural tracts was to starve the attackers into submission.
● A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex and the third line
surrounded the royal centre.

● The fort was entered through well-guarded gates, which linked the city to the major roads.
⮚ Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which they
provided access.
⮚ The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the gate are
regarded as typical features of the Indo-islamic architecture.

● Archaeologists have studied roads within the city.

⮚ These have been identified by tracing paths and pavements.
⮚ Roads wound around through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain.
⮚ Some of the most important roads extended from temple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.

16
The Urban Core:
● Archaeologists have found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, including in the north-eastern corner
of the urban core and these areas may have been occupied by rich traders.
● This was also the Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques have distinctive functions, yet they
resembled the mandapas found in the temples of Hampi.
● Portuguese traveler Barbosa described houses of ordinary people as well built and arranged
according to occupations, with long streets and many open places.
● Field surveys indicate that the entire area had numerous shrines and small temples, pointing to the
prevalence of a variety of cults and communities.
● The surveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks served as sources of water to
the ordinary town dwellers.

The Royal Centre:

● The royal centre was located in the south-western part.
● It included over 60 temples which showed that patronage of temples and cults was important for
rulers who were trying to legitimise their authority through association with the divinities housed in the
shrines.
● About thirty building complexes have been identified as palaces. These are relatively large structures
not associated with ritual functions.
● Temples were constructed entirely of masonry, while the superstructure of the secular buildings was
made of perishable materials.

The Mahanavami Dibba:

● Distinctive structures in the area have been assigned names based on the form of the buildings and
their functions
● The “king's palace” is the largest but has not yielded evidence of being a royal residence.
● It has two of the most impressive platforms, called the “audience hall” and the “mahanavami dibba”
● The entire complex is surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.
● The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at regular intervals.
⮚ It had a staircase going up to the second floor, which rested on these pillars.
⮚ The pillars being closely spaced, would have left little free space, thus it is not clear what the hall was
used for.
● The “mahanavami dibba” located on one of the highest points in the city,
⮚ It is a massive platform with a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft.
⮚ There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure.
⮚ The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings.
● Rituals associated with the structure coincided with Mahanavami of the ten-day Hindu festival during
September and October, known variously as Dusehra, Durga Puja and Navaratri or Mahanavami.

17
 Fig 3.1: The Mahanavami Dibba

● The ceremonies performed on the occasion included

⮚ worship of the image,
⮚ worship of the state horse, and
⮚ the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
⮚ Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and
soldiers.
⮚ Ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings.
⮚ On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand
ceremony.
⮚ The Nayakas brought rich gifts for the king on this occasion.

Other buildings in the royal centre:

● The Lotus Mahal is one of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre, which may have been a
council chamber, where king met his advisers.

Fig 3.2: The Lotus Temple

● Some temples were found in the royal centre also with the Hazara Rama temple being the most
spectacular, meant to be used only by the king and his family.

18
 Fig 3.3: Sculpture from the Hazara Rama Temple

● Scenes from the Ramayana are sculpted on the inner walls of the temple.

The Sacred Centre

Choosing a Capital:
● According to local tradition, the hills on the banks of Tungabhadra sheltered the kingdom of Vali and
Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
● Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, did penance in these hills to marry Virupaksha (form of shiva)
the guardian deity of the kingdom.
● The choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and
Pampadevi.
⮚ The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha.
⮚ All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, in the Kannada script.
⮚ Rulers also indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu Suratrana”, which was
Sanskritisation of the term Sultan.

Gopurams and Madapas:

● New features were in temple architecture were evident during this period.
● This is best exemplified by the raya gopurams that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines,
probably meant as reminders of power of the king.
● Other features include mandapas and long pillared corridors.
● The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries.
⮚ Inscriptions suggest that the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth centuries, it was enlarged with
the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire.
⮚ The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession, which
was decorated with delicately carved pillars.
⮚ He also constructed the eastern Gopuram.
⮚ The halls in the temple were used for special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc. Some were
used to celebrate the marriages of deities and others were meant for the deities to swing in.
⮚ Special images, distinct from those kept in the small central shrine, were used on these occasions.
 ● The Vitthala temple is also magnificent.
⮚ The principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra.
⮚ The introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka shows the ways in which the rulers of
Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.
⮚ It has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot.
⮚ A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot streets that extended from the
temple gopuram in a straight line.
⮚ These streets were paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions in which merchants set
up their shops.

Timeline 1: Major Political Developments:

● 1200-1300: Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206)
● 1300-1400: Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336)
⮚ Establishment of the Bahmani kingdom (1347)
⮚ Sultanates in Jaunpur, Kashmir and Madura
● 1400-1500: Establishment of the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa (1435);
⮚ Establishment of the Sultanates of Gujarat and Malwa
⮚ Emergence of the Sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Berar (1490)
● 1500-1600: Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese (1510)
⮚ Collapse of the Bahmani kingdom, emergence of the Sultanate of Golconda (1518)
⮚ Establishment of the Mughal empire by Babur (1526)

Timeline 2: Landmarkds in the Discovery and Conservation of Vijayanagara

● 1800: Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara
● 1856: Alexander Greenlaw takes the first detailed photographs of archaeological remains at Hampi
● 1876: J.F. Fleet begins documenting the inscriptions on the temple walls at the site.
● 1902: Conservation begins under John Marshall.
● 1986: Hampi declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

Interesting points

· In 1976, Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance.

● Nayakas also built some of the most spectacular Gopurams.
● Domingo Paes compared Vijayanagara to Rome on the basis of its grandeur.
 PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE
4 AGRARIAN SOCIETY AND THE MUGHAL
EMPIRE (SIXTEENTH-SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES)
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries about 85 percent of the population of India lived in villages.
Both peasants and landed elites were involved in agricultural production and claimed rights to a share of the
produce. This created relationships of cooperation, competition and conflict among them.

Peasants and Agricultural Production:

● The basic unit of agricultural society was the village, inhabited by peasants.
● However, rural India was not characterized by settled peasant production alone.
● Several kinds of areas like dry land or hilly regions were not cultivable in the same way as the more
fertile land.

Looking for Sources:

● Major source for the agrarian history of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries was the Mughal
court.
● One of the most important chronicles was the Ain-i Akbari (Ain) authored by Abu'l Fazl.
● This text recorded the arrangements made by the state to ensure cultivation, collection of revenue and
to regulate the relationship between the state and the zamindars.
⮚ Ain presented a vision of Akbar's empire where social harmony was provided by a strong ruling
class. Any revolt against the Mughal state was predestined to fail.
⮚ Perspective in Ain about the peasants remains a view from the top.

● Apart from the Mughals, detailed revenue records from Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan provide
information on agrarian society.
● The records of the East India Company provide useful descriptions of agrarian relations in eastern
India.
● All these sources record instances of conflicts between peasants, zamindars and the state.

Peasants and their lands:

● The term which Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period most frequently used to denote a peasant
was raiyat (plural, riaya) or muzarian.
● Terms like kisan or asami are also mentioned.
● Sources refer to two kinds of peasants, khud-kashta and pahi-kashta
⮚ The former were residents of the village in which they had their lands.
⮚ The latter were cultivators who didn't own land and worked on contractual basis.
⮚ People became pahi-kashta either out of choice, for example, when terms of revenue in other
village were more favourable, or out of compulsion, for example, forced by economic distress after a
famine.

● The average peasant of North India seldom possessed more than a pair of bullocks and two ploughs,
most possessed even less.

21
 ⮚ In Gujarat, peasants possessing about six acres of land were considered to be affluent
⮚ In Bengal, five acres was the upper limit of an average peasant farm.
● Peasant lands were bought and sold in the same way as the lands of other property owners.

Irrigation and technology:

● Abundance of land, available labour and the mobility of peasants were three factors that accounted
for the constant expansion of agriculture.
● Areas receiving 40 inches or more of rainfall a year were generally rice-producing zones, followed by
wheat and millets.
● Monsoon remained the backbone of Indian agriculture, but there were crops which required
additional water.
● Irrigation projects received state support as well, for example, state in northern India undertook
digging of new canals (nahr, nala) and also repaired old ones like the shahnahr in the Punjab during
Shah Jahan's reign.

● Peasants often used technologies that often harnessed cattle energy.

⮚ Wooden plough was light and easily assembled.
⮚ A drill, pulled by a pair of giant oxen, was used to plant seeds.
⮚ Hoeing and weeding were done simultaneously using a narrow iron blade with a small wooden
handle.

Abundance of Crops:
● Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles, the kharif (autumn) and the rabi
(spring).
● Most regions produced a minimum of two crops a year (do-fasla), whereas some, where rainfall or
irrigation assured a continuous supply of water gave three crops.
● The Ain states that the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops, Delhi produced 43
over the two seasons and Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice alone.

● Agriculture in Medieval India was not only for subsistence.

⮚ The Mughal state encouraged peasants to cultivate Jins-i kamil (perfect crops) as they brought in
more revenue, for example, Cotton and Sugarcane.
⮚ Cash crops also included various sorts of oilseeds (mustard) and lentils.

● Several new crops from different parts of the world reached the Indian Subcontinent.
⮚ Maize (makka) was introduced into India via Africa and Spain.
⮚ Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies were introduced from the New World, as were fruits
like the pineapple and the papaya.

22
The Village Community
Caste and the rural milieu:
● Among those who tilled the land, there was a sizeable number who worked as menials or agricultural
labourers (majur).
● Certain caste groups were assigned menial tasks, they comprised large section of the village
population, had the least resources and were constrained by their position in the caste hierarchy.
● In Muslim communities, menials like the halalkhoran (scavengers) were housed outside the village,
similarly the mallahzadas (sons of boatmen) in Bihar were comparable to slaves.
● There was a direct correlation between caste, poverty and social status at the lower strata of society.
● Castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars and Malis rose in the hierarchy because of the profitability of cattle
rearing and horticulture.

Panchayats and headmen:

● The village panchayat was an assembly of elders, important people of the village with hereditary rights
over their property headed by a muqaddam or mandal.
● Sources suggest that the headman was chosen through the consensus of the village elders and
ratified by the zamindar.

● The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by individuals.

⮚ These funds were used for defraying the costs of entertaining revenue officials.
⮚ Expenses for community welfare activities such as tiding over natural calamities.
⮚ For construction of a bund or digging a canal.
● Panchayat had to uphold the caste boundaries among the various communities.
● They had the authority to levy fines and punish, like expulsion from the community.

● Each caste or jati in the village had its own jati panchayat.
⮚ These panchayats wielded considerable power.
⮚ In Rajasthan jati panchayats arbitrated civil disputes between members of different castes.
⮚ They mediated in contested claims on land, decided whether marriages were performed according
to the norms.
⮚ The decisions of jati panchayats were respected by the state.

● Records from Rajasthan and Maharashtra contain petitions presented to the panchayat complaining
about extortionate taxation or the demand for unpaid labour (begar) imposed by the “superior” castes
or officials of the state.

Village artisans:
● Marathi documents have revealed the existence of substantial numbers of artisans, as high as 25 per
cent of the total households in the villages.

23
 ● At times, distinction between artisans and peasants in village society was a fluid one, as many groups
performed both the tasks.
● Village artisans provided specialised services in return for which they were compensated by villagers
by a variety of means like share of the harvest, or an allotment of land, perhaps cultivable wastes.
● In Maharashtra, such lands became the artisans' miras or watan – their hereditary holding.
● Artisans and Peasants entered into a mutually negotiated system of remuneration, most of the time
goods for services.
● For example, zamindars in Bengal remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters, even goldsmiths for their
work by paying them “a small daily allowance and diet money”. This later came to be described as the
jajmani system.

A “little republic”:
● British officials in the nineteenth century saw the village as a “little republic” made up of fraternal
partners sharing resources and labour in a collective.
● There was individual ownership of assets and inequalities based on caste and gender.
● A group of powerful individuals decided the affairs of the village, exploited the weaker sections and
had the authority to dispense justice.
● A cash nexus had developed through trade between villages and towns.
● In Mughal heartland, revenue was collected in cash and artisans too demanded cash for goods for
export market as did producers of silk, cotton, indigo.

Women in Agrarian Society:

● Women and men worked together in the fields. Men tilled and ploughed, while women sowed,
weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest.

● Biases related to women's biological functions continued.

⮚ Menstruating women were not allowed to touch the plough or the potter's wheel in western
India or enter fields where betel-leaves were grown in Bengal.

● Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay for pottery and embroidery on female
labour.

● High mortality rates among women owing to malnutrition, frequent pregnancies, death during
childbirth, meant a shortage of wives.
⮚ This led to the emergence of social customs in peasant and artisan communities that were distinct
from elite groups.
⮚ Marriages in rural communities required the payment of bride-price rather than dowry to the
bride's family.
⮚ Remarriage was legitimate for divorced and widowed women.

24
 ● Documents from Western India – Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra record petitions sent by
women to the village panchayat, seeking justice.
⮚ Wives protested against the infidelity of their husbands or the neglect of the wife and children by
the male head of the household.
⮚ While male infidelity was not always punished, the state and “superior” caste groups intervened
when it came to ensuring that the family was adequately provided for.
⮚ When women petitioned to the panchayat, their names were excluded from the record: the
petitioner was referred to as the mother, sister or wife of the male head of the household.

● Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property, for example, women zamindars
were known in Bengal.

Forests and Tribes

Beyond settled Villages:
● Huge swathes of forests – dense forest ( jangal) or scrubland (kharbandi), existed all over eastern
India, central India, northern India and in peninsular India down the Western Ghats and the Deccan
plateau.
● Forest dwellers were termed jangli in contemporary texts.
● However, it didn't mean absence of civilization, the term described those whose livelihood came from
the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture.
● For example, Bhils reserved spring for collecting forest produce, summer for fishing, monsoon months
for cultivation, and autumn and winter for hunting.
● For the state, the forest was a place of refuge (mawas) for troublemakers.

Inroads into Forests:

External forces entered the forest in different ways:
● The state required elephants for the army, so the peshkash levied from forest people often included
elephants.
● The Hunt by the emperor enabled him to travel across the extensive territories of his empire and
personally attend to the grievances of its inhabitants.
● Forest products like honey, beeswax and gum lac were in great demand. Some of them had great
demand in the export market in the seventeenth century.

● Social factors also brought changes in the lives of forest dwellers.

⮚ Some tribal chiefs became zamindars, some even became kings.
⮚ They recruited people from their own lineage for military service.
⮚ The Ahom kings of Assam had Paiks, who rendered military service in exchange for land.
⮚ Ain-i-Akbari also mentions of Tribals kingdoms in the north-east.

25
The Zamindars:
● Zamindars were landed proprietors who enjoyed social and economic privileges due to their status in
rural society.
● Caste was one factor that accounted for the elevated status of zamindars; another factor was that
they performed certain services (khidmat) for the state.
● The zamindars held extensive personal lands (milkiyat).
⮚ Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, with the help of hired labour.
⮚ The zamindars could sell, bequeath or mortgage these lands at will.
● Zamindars could often collect revenue on behalf of the state, for which they were compensated
financially.
● Control over military resources was another source of power. Most zamindars had fortresses
(qilachas) and an armed contingent comprising units of cavalry, artillery and infantry.
● A combination of factors also allowed the consolidation of clan or lineage-based zamindaris. For
example,
⮚ The Rajputs and Jats adopted these strategies to consolidate their control over territory in northern
India.
⮚ Peasant-pastoralists (like the Sadgops) carved out powerful zamindaris in areas of central and
southwestern Bengal.
● Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation of agricultural land and helped in settling cultivators by
providing them with the means of cultivation, including cash loans.
● They often established markets (haats) where peasants came to sell their produce.
● Although the zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with the peasants was of
reciprocity, paternalism and patronage.

Land Revenue System:

● Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire.
● Therefore, the state created an administrative apparatus to fix and collect revenue.
⮚ This apparatus included the office (daftar) of the diwan who was responsible for supervising the
fiscal system.
⮚ Thus, revenue officials and record keepers penetrated the agricultural domain and became a
decisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.
● Land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages:
⮚ First, assessment and then actual collection.
⮚ Jama was the amount assessed,
⮚ Hasil, the amount collected.
● Amil-guzar or revenue collector had to make cultivators pay in cash but the option of payment in kind
was also open.
● While the state attempted to maximize its claims, they were, however, sometimes thwarted by local
conditions.
 ● Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. The Ain compiled the
aggregates of such lands during Akbar's rule.

The Flow of Silver:

● The Mughal Empire was among the large territorial empires in Asia that had managed to consolidate
power. These empires were the Ming (China), Safavid (Iran) and Ottoman (Turkey).
● The political stability in all these empires helped create vibrant networks of overland trade from China
to the Mediterranean Sea.
● This resulted in a greater geographical diversity of India's overseas trade.
● Expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silver bullion into Asia to pay for goods procured from
India.
● India didn't have natural resources of silver, so this provided stability in the availibilty of metal currency,
particularly the silver rupya in India.

Fig 4.1: A silver Rupya issued by Akbar

Fig 4.2: A silver Rupya issued by Aurangzeb

The Ain-i-Akbari of Abu'l Fazl Allami:

● It was the culmination of a large historical, administrative project of classification by Abu'l Fazl at
the order of Emperor Akbar.
● It was part of a larger project of history writing commissioned by Akbar. This history, known as the
Akbar Nama, comprised three books.
 ⮚ The first two provided a historical narrative.
⮚ The Ain-i Akbari, the third book, was organised as a compendium of imperial regulations and a
gazetteer of the empire.

● The Ain is made up of five books (daftars), of which the first three books describe the administration.
⮚ The first book, manzil-abadi, concerns the imperial household and its maintenance.
⮚ The second book, sipah-abadi, covers the military and civil administration and the establishment of
servants. It also includes notices and short biographical sketches of imperial officials (mansabdars),
learned men, poets and artists.

⮚ Third book, mulk-abadi, is the one which deals with the fiscal side of the empire and provides rich
quantitative information on revenue rates, followed by the “Account of the Twelve Provinces”.
o This section has detailed statistical information, which includes the geographic, topographic
and economic profile of all subas and their administrative and fiscal divisions (sarkars, parganas
and mahals), total measured area, and assessed revenue ( jama).
o It gives a detailed anaylsis of of the sarkars:
▪ parganat/mahal
▪ qila (forts)
▪ arazi and zamin-i paimuda (measured area)
▪ naqdi, revenue assessed in cash
▪ suyurghal, grants of revenue in charity
▪ zamindars
▪ columns 7 and 8 contain details of the castes of these zamindars.
⮚ The fourth and fifth books deal with the religious, literary and cultural traditions of and also
contain a collection of Akbar's “auspicious sayings”.

● The manuscript was revised five times by the author and oral testimonies were cross-checked and
verified.

Timeline: Landmarks in the History of the Mughal Empire:

● 1526: Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi, the Delhi Sultan, at Panipat, becomes the first Mughal emperor.
● 1530-40: First phase of Humayun's reign
● 1540-55: Humayun defeated by Sher Shah, in exile at the Safavid court.
● 1555-56: Humayun regains lost territories.
● 1556-1605: Reign of Akbar
● 1605-27: Reign of Jahangir
● 1628-58: Reign of Shah Jahan
● 1658-1707: Reign of Aurangzeb
● 1739: Nadir Shah invades India and sacks Delhi.
● 1761: Ahmad Shah Abdali defeats the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat.
● 1765: The diwani of Bengal transferred to the East India Company
● 1857: Last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, deposed by the British and exiled to Rangoon (present day
Yangon, Myanmar).

Interesting points

· Land was classified into 4 types by Akbar:

⮚ Polaj: Land which is annually cultivated for each crop and is never allowed to lie fallow.
⮚ Parauti: Land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
⮚ Chachar: Land that has lain fallow for three or four years.
⮚ Banjar: Land uncultivated for five years and more.
● Mansabdari was military cum bureaucratic system responsible. Some mansabdars were paid in
cash (naqdi), while the majority of them were paid through assignments of revenue (jagirs).
 KINGS AND CHRONICLES
5 THE MUGHAL COURTS
The Mughal kings commissioned court historians to write accounts. These accounts recorded the events of
the emperor's time. In addition, their writers collected vast amounts of information from the regions of the
subcontinent to help the rulers govern their domain.

Modern historians writing in English have termed these texts as chronicles, as they present a continuous
chronological record of events.

The Mughals and their Empire:

● The name Mughal comes from Mongol, though the Mughals referred to themselves as Timurids
descendants of the Turkish ruler Timur on the paternal side.
● During the sixteenth century, Europeans used the term Mughal to describe the Indian rulers.
● The empire was carved out of a number of regional states of India through conquests and political
alliances between the Mughals and local rulers.
● The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was driven from his Central Asian homeland, Farghana,
by the warring Uzbeks.
⮚ He first established himself at Kabul.
⮚ In 1526, he pushed further into the Indian subcontinent in search of territories.
● His successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56) expanded the empire, but lost it to Sher
Shah Sur, who drove him into exile.
⮚ He took refuge in the court of the Safavid ruler of Iran.
⮚ In 1555, Humayun defeated the Surs, but died a year later.
● Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) not only expanded but also consolidated his empire, making it the
largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time.
⮚ He succeeded in extending the frontiers to the Hindukush mountains, and checked the expansionist
designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the Safavids of Iran.
● Akbar had three fairly able successors in Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan (1628-58) and Aurangzeb
(1658-1707), much as their characters varied.
⮚ Under them the territorial expansion continued but at a much-reduced pace.
⮚ The three rulers maintained and consolidated the various instruments of governance.
● After the death of Aurangzeb (1707), the power of the dynasty diminished. Instead of Delhi, Agra or
Lahore, the different capital cities, regional powers acquired greater autonomy.

The Production of Chronicles:

● Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for studying the empire
and its court.
● The chronicles wrote focused on events centred on the ruler, his family, the court and nobles, wars
and administrative arrangements.
● Their titles, such as the Akbar Nama, Shahjahan Nama, Alamgir Nama, that is, suggest that in the
eyes of their authors the history of the empire and the court was synonymous with that of the emperor.

30
From Turkish to Persian:
● Turkish was the mother tongue of the Mughals; Babur wrote poetry and his memoir in this language.
● Due to cultural and intellectual contacts with Iran and stream of Iranian and central Asian migrants
seeking position at the Mughal court motivated Akbar to make Persian a leading language of the court.
● Persian became a language of the court and of literary writings, along with Indian languages,
especially Hindavi and its regional variants under the Sultans of Delhi.
● Persian was spoken by the king and later became the language of administration at all levels.
● Even when Persian was not directly used, it influenced the language of official records in Rajasthani
and Marathi and even Tamil.
● Persian soon became Indianised and new language, Urdu, emerged from the interaction of Persian
with Hindavi.
● Babur's memoirs were translated from Turkish into the Persian Babur Nama.
● Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata (Razmnama) and the Ramayana were also translated into
Persian.

The Making of Manuscripts:

● All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten. The centre of manuscript
production was the imperial kitabkhana.
● The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks.
⮚ Paper makers were needed to prepare the folios of the manuscript,
⮚ Scribes or calligraphers to copy the text,
⮚ Gilders to illuminate the pages,
⮚ Painters to illustrate scenes from the text,
⮚ Bookbinders to gather the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.
● The finished manuscript exemplified the power of its patron, the Mughal emperor.
● People involved in the actual production of the manuscript got recognition in the form of titles and
awards.
● Calligraphy, the art of handwriting, was a skill of great importance. It was practised using different
styles. Akbar's favourite was the Nastaliq, a fluid style with long horizontal strokes.

The Painted Image:

● Chronicles narrating the events of a Mughal emperor's reign contained, alongside the written text,
images that described an event in visual form.
● The scribe left blank spaces on nearby pages where paintings were inserted to accompany what was
described in words.
● These paintings were miniatures and could be passed around for viewing and mounting on the pages
of manuscripts.
● Paintings portraying the emperor, his court and the people, was a source of constant tension
between rulers and representatives of the Muslim orthodoxy, the Ulama.

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 ⮚ Islam prohibits the portrayal of human beings.
⮚ Prophet forbade the depiction of living beings in a naturalistic manner as it would suggest that the
artist was seeking to appropriate the power of creation.
⮚ This was a function that was believed to belong exclusively to God.
● The body of Islamic tradition was interpreted in different ways by various social groups.
● Muslim rulers in many Asian regions during centuries of empire building regularly commissioned
artists to paint their portraits and life scenes.
⮚ The Safavid kings of Iran patronised the finest artists.
⮚ Paniters such as Bihzad contributed to spreading the cultural fame of the Safavid court far and
wide.
● Artists from Iran like Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad were brought to the Mughal court.

The Akbar Nama and The Badshah Nama:

Akbar Nama:
● Beginning in 1589, Abu'l Fazl worked on the Akbar Nama for thirteen years.
● The Akbar Nama is divided into three books of which the first two are chronicles.
⮚ The third book is the Ain-i Akbari.
⮚ The first volume contains the history of mankind from Adam to Akbar's 30th year.
⮚ The second volume closes in the forty sixth regnal year (1601) of Akbar.
⮚ The very next year Abu'l Fazl was murdered by, Bir Singh Bundela in a conspiracy hatched by
Prince Salim.
● The Akbar Nama was written to provide a detailed description of Akbar's reign, giving a holistic
picture of all aspects of Akbar's empire.
● In the Ain-i Akbari, the Mughal Empire is presented as having a diverse population consisting of
Hindus, Jainas, Buddhists and Muslims and a composite culture.

Badshah Nama:
● A pupil of Abu'l Fazl, Abdul Hamid Lahori is known as the author of the Badshah Nama
● It is this official history in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar years each.
● Lahori wrote the first and second daftars comprising the first two decades of the emperor's rule (1627-
47) and due to old age, he couldn't proceed with the third.
● These volumes were later revised by Sadullah Khan, Shah Jahan's wazir.
● Edited versions of the Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were first published by the Asiatic Society in
the nineteenth century.

The Ideal Kingdom

A Divine Light:
● Court chroniclers drew upon many sources to show that the power of the Mughal kings came directly
from God.

32
 ● One such legend was that of the Mongol queen Alanqua, who was impregnated by a ray of sunshine
while resting in her tent. The offspring she bore carried this Divine Light and passed it on from
generation to generation.
● Abu'l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of objects receiving light
emanating from God (farr-i izadi).
● According to this idea, there was a hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted to the king who
then became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
● Mughal artists, began to portray emperors wearing the halo, which they saw on European paintings of
Christ and the Virgin Mary.

A Unifying Force:
● Mughal chronicles present the empire as the source of all peace and stability the emperor stood above
all religious and ethnic groups and ensured that justice and peace prevailed. Abu'l Fazl describes the
ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as the cornerstone of enlightened rule.
⮚ In sulh-i kul, all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that
they did not undermine the authority of the state.
⮚ The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies.
⮚ The nobility under the Mughals was a composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs,
Deccanis – all of whom were given positions and awards purely on the basis of their service and
loyalty to the king.
● Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and jizya in 1564.
● All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of places of worship.
● However, Aurangzeb reimposed jizya on non-muslims.

Just Sovereignty as Social Contract:

● Abu'l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract: The emperor protects the four essences of his
subjects, namely,
⮚ Life ( jan)
⮚ Property (mal)
⮚ Honour (namus)
⮚ Faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of resources.
● A number of symbols were created for visual representation of the idea of justice.
● One such symbol was the motif of the lion and the lamb (or goat) peacefully nestling next to each
other.
● This was meant to signify a realm where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.

Capitals and Courts

Capital Sites:
● The capital city was the heart of the Mughal Empire, where the court assembled.

33
 ● The capital cities frequently shifted during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
● Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra, though the court was frequently on the move during his reign.
● In the 1570s Akbar decided to build a new capital, Fatehpur Sikri.
⮚ One of the reasons for this was that Sikri was located on the direct road to Ajmer, where the dargah
of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti had become an important pilgrimage centre.
⮚ Mughal emperors entered into a close relationship with sufis of the Chishti silsila.
⮚ Akbar commissioned the construction of a white marble tomb for Shaikh Salim Chishti next to
the majestic Friday mosque at Sikri.
⮚ The enormous arched gateway (Buland Darwaza) was meant to commemorate victory in Gujarat.
⮚ In 1585 the capital was transferred to Lahore to bring the north-west under Akbar's watch.
● Shah Jahan accumulated enough money to indulge his passion for building.
● Building activity was the most visible and tangible sign of dynastic power, wealth and prestige. In the
case of Muslim rulers, it was also considered an act of piety.
● In 1648, the court, army and household moved from Agra to the newly completed imperial capital,
Shahjahanabad.
● It was a new addition to the city of Delhi, with the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, bazaars (Chandni Chowk)
and spacious homes for the nobility.

The Mughal Court:

● The physical arrangement of the court, focused on the sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of
society.
● Its centrepiece was the throne, the takht, which gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as
axis mundi.
⮚ In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king.
⮚ The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance.
⮚ Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was permitted to move or to leave without permission.
● The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person's status in the hierarchy.
⮚ Deeper prostration represented higher status.
⮚ The highest form of submission was sijda or complete prostration.
⮚ Under Shah Jahan these rituals were replaced with chahar taslim and zaminbos (kissing the
ground).
● The protocols governing diplomatic envoys at the Mughal court were equally explicit.
⮚ An ambassador to the Mughal emperor was expected to offer an acceptable form of greeting –
either by bowing deeply or kissing the ground, or else to follow the Persian custom of clasping one's
hands in front of the chest.
⮚ Thomas Roe, the English envoy of James I, simply bowed before Jahangir according to European
custom, and further shocked the court by demanding a chair.
● The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers, and then appeared
on a small balcony, the jharoka, facing the east.

34
 ⮚ Below, a crowd of people waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor.
⮚ Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the
imperial authority as part of popular faith.
● The Emperor then moved to the public hall of audience (diwan-I am) to conduct the primary business
of his government, where state officials presented reports.
● In diwan-i khas, the Emperor held private audiences and discussed confidential matters.
⮚ Ministers of state placed their petitions and tax officials presented their accounts.
⮚ Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects
(mimar).
● On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession to the throne, Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the
court was full of life.
● The Mughals celebrated three major festivals a year.
⮚ The solar and lunar birthdays of the monarch.
⮚ Nauroz, the Iranian New Year on the vernal equinox.

Titles and gifts:

● Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at the time of coronation or after a victory over an
enemy.
● Mughal coins carried the full title of the reigning emperor with regal protocol.

● The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity.
⮚ Title Asaf Khan for one of the highest ministers originated with Asaf, the legendary minister of the
prophet king Sulaiman (Solomon).
⮚ The title Mirza Raja was accorded by Aurangzeb to his two highest-ranking nobles, Jai Singh and
Jaswant Singh.
⮚ Titles could be earned or paid for.
⮚ Mir Khan offered Rs One lakh to Aurangzeb for the letter alif, that is A, to be added to his name to
make it Amir Khan.

● Other awards included:

⮚ Robe of honour (khilat), a garment once worn by the emperor and imbued with his benediction.
⮚ The sarapa (“head to foot”), consisted of a tunic, a turban and a sash (patka).
⮚ Jewelled ornaments were often given as gifts by the emperor.
⮚ The lotus blossom set with jewels (padma murassa) was given in exceptional circumstances.
● A courtier never approached the emperor empty handed: he offered either a small sum of money
(nazr) or a large amount (peshkash).
● In diplomatic relations, gifts were regarded as a sign of honour and respect.
● Thomas Roe was disappointed when a ring he had presented to Asaf Khan was returned to him for the
reason that it was worth merely 400 rupees.
The Imperial Household:
● Mughal household consisted of the emperor's wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives
and female servants and slaves.
● Polygamy was practised widely, especially among the ruling groups.
● Marriage was a way of cementing political relationships and forging alliances. The gift of territory
was often accompanied by the gift of a daughter in marriage.
● In the Mughal household, a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families
(begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of noble birth.
● The Begums had a higher status than the Aghas. Husband could elevate the status of Aghas to that of
the Begum.
● Numerous male and female slaves also populated the Mughal household, who performed a wide
variety of tasks.
● After Nur Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses began to control significant financial resources.
⮚ Shah Jahan's daughters Jahanara and Roshanara enjoyed an annual income often equal to that of
high imperial mansabdars.
⮚ Jahanara received revenues from the port city of Surat, which was a lucrative centre of overseas
trade.
● Control over resources enabled important women of the Mughal household to commission buildings
and gardens.
⮚ Jahanara participated in many architectural projects of Shahjahanabad (Delhi).
⮚ Among these was an imposing double-storeyed caravanserai with a courtyard and garden. The
bazaar of Chandni Chowk, the throbbing centre of Shahjahanabad.
● Humayun Nama, written by Gulbadan Begum (daughter of Babur and Humayun's sister) presents
elaborate details of Mughal household.

The Imperial Officials

Recruitment and Rank:
● The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups.
● This ensured that no faction was large enough to challenge the authority of the state.
● In Akbar's imperial service, Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the earliest phase.
● Two ruling groups of Indian origin entered the imperial service from 1560 onwards: the Rajputs and
the Indian Muslims (Shaikhzadas).
⮚ Rajput chief, Raja Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber, to whose daughter Akbar got married.
⮚ Akbar's finance minister, Raja Todar Mal, belonged to the Khatri caste.
● Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir, whose politically influential queen, Nur Jahan, was an
Iranian.
● Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions, and Marathas accounted for a sizeable number within
the body of officers.
● Holders of government offices held ranks (mansabs) comprising two numerical designations:
 ⮚ Zat: An indicator of position in the hierarchy and the salary of the official (mansabdar).
⮚ Sawar: It indicated the number of horsemen he was required to maintain.
⮚ In the seventeenth century, mansabdars of 1,000 zat or above ranked as nobles (Umara, which is
the plural of amir).
● The nobles participated in military campaigns with their armies and also served as officers of the
empire in the provinces.
⮚ Each military commander maintained the cavalry.
⮚ The troopers maintained superior horses branded by the imperial mark (dagh).
⮚ The emperor personally reviewed changes in rank, titles and official.
⮚ Akbar, who designed the mansab system, established spiritual relationships with a select band of
his nobility by treating them as his disciples (murid).
● For members of the nobility, imperial service was a way of acquiring power, wealth and the highest
possible reputation.
● A person wishing to join the service petitioned through a noble, who presented a tajwiz to the
emperor. If the applicant was found suitable a mansab was granted to him.
● The Mir bakhshi (paymaster general) stood in open court on the right of the emperor and presented all
candidates for appointment or promotion, while his office prepared orders bearing his seal and
signature and those of the emperor.
● There were two other important ministers at the centre: the diwan-i ala (finance minister) and sadr-
us sudur (minister of grants or madad-i maash, and in charge of appointing local judges or qazis).
● Nobles stationed at the court (tainat-i rakab) were a reserve force to be deputed to a province or
military campaign and were bound to appear before the emperor twice a day.

Information and Empire:

● The Mir bakhshi supervised the court writers (waqia nawis) who recorded all applications and
documents presented all imperial orders (farman).
● Agents (wakil) of nobles and regional rulers recorded the entire proceedings of the court under the
heading “News from the Exalted Court” (Akhbarat-i Darbar-i Mualla) with the date and time of the
court session (pahar).
● The akhbarat contained all kinds of information such as attendance at the court, grant of offices and
titles, diplomatic missions, presents received, or the enquiries made by the emperor about the health of
an officer.
● Round-the-clock relays of foot-runners (qasid or pathmar) carried papers rolled up in bamboo
containers, which ensured that emporer received reports from the distant corners.

Beyond the centre: provincial administration:

● The division of functions established at the centre was replicated in the provinces (subas) headed by
the Governor (subadar), where the ministers had their corresponding subordinates (diwan, bakhshi
and sadr).
 ● The subas were divided into Sarkars, which often overlapped with the jurisdiction of faujdars
(commandants) who were deployed with contingents of heavy cavalry and musketeers in districts.

● The local administration was looked after at the level of the pargana (sub-district) by three semi-
hereditary officers:
⮚ Qanungo (keeper of revenue records).
⮚ Chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection).
⮚ The qazi.

● Persian was made the language of administration, but local languages were used for village
accounts.

Beyond the Frontiers

The Safavids and Qandahar:
● All conquerors had to cross the Hindu Khush make their way into the Indian subcontinent, due to which
Mughals had to control the posts of Kabul and Qandahar to ward of this potential danger.
● Qandahar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals. It was initially in the
possession of Humayun and reconquered by Akbar in 1595.
● The Safavids continued to stake claim on Qandahar and in the winter of 1622 a Persian army captured
Qandahar.

The Ottomans: pilgrimage and trade:

● The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was marked by the concern to ensure free
movement for merchants and pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control.
● For example, centres like Mecca and Medina.
● The emperor usually combined religion and commerce by exporting valuable merchandise to Aden
and Mokha, both Red Sea ports, and distributing the proceeds of the sales in charity to the keepers of
shrines.

Jesuits at the Mughal court:

● Following the discovery of sea route to India, Portuguese merchants established a network of
trading stations in coastal cities, after which the Portuguese king became interested in the
propagation of Christianity through missionaries (Jesuits).
● Akbar was curious about Christianity and invited Jesuit priests.
⮚ The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about
two years.
⮚ The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama.
● The Jesuit accounts are based on personal observation and shed light on the character and mind of the
emperor.
Timeline Some Major Mughal Chronicles and Memoirs:
● 1530: Manuscript of Babur's memoirs in Turkish, saved from a storm, becomes part of the family
collection of the Timurids.
● 1587: Gulbadan Begum begins to write the Humayun Nama.
● 1589: Babur's memoirs translated into Persian as Babur Nama.
● 1589-1602: Abu'l Fazl works on the Akbar Nama.
● 1605-22: Jahangir writes his memoirs, the Jahangir Nama.
● 1639-47: Lahori composes the first two daftars of the Badshah Nama.
● 1650: Muhammad Waris begins to chronicle the third decade of Shah Jahan's reign.
● 1668: Alamgir Nama, a history of the first ten years of Aurangzeb's reign compiled by Muhammmad
Kazim.

Interesting points

· Nawab of Awadh gifted the Badshah Nama to King George III in 1799. Since then it has been
preserved in the English Royal Collections, now at Windsor Castle.
● Kitabkhana, translated as library, it was a scriptorium, that is, a place where the emperor's
collection of manuscripts was kept, and new manuscripts were produced.
● Akbar Nama was translated into English by Henry Beveridge, whereas only excerpts of the
Badshah Nama have been translated into English.
● Akbar establishes Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri, as a place for interfaith debates between learned
Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis and Christians.
NCERT NOTES
FOR HISTORY
12th Standard
Themes in Indian History Part- III
CONTENTS
Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives ........................................ 1 - 7

Rebels and the Raj: The Revolt of 1857 and its Representations ................................ 8 - 13

Colonial Cities: Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture ............................................. 14 - 23

Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement Civil Disobedience

and Beyond ................................................................................................................................. 24 - 30

Understanding Partition Politics, Memories, Experiences............................................. 31 - 35

Framing The Constitution The Beginning Of A New Era .............................................. 36 - 38

 COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE:
1 EXPLORING OFFICIAL ARCHIVES
Colonialism is the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country,
occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
Colonial rule was first established in Bengal. It is Bengal where the earliest attempts were made to reorder
rural society and establish a new regime of land rights and a new revenue system.

Bengal and the Zamindars

Auction in Burdwan:
● In 1797, there was an auction in Burdwan (present day Bardhaman). A number of mahals (estates)
held by the Raja of Burdwan were being sold.
● As the permanent settlement had come into operation in 1793, the East India Company had fixed the
revenue that each zamindar had to pay. The estates of those who failed to pay were to be auctioned to
recover the revenue.
● Since the raja of Burdwan had accumulated huge arrears, his estates had been put up for auction.
● During the auction, many of the purchasers turned out to be servants and agents of the raja who had
bought the lands on behalf of their master.
● And over 95 per cent of the sale at the auction was fictitious. The raja's estates had been publicly sold,
but he remained in control of his zamindari.

The Idea behind Permanent Settlement:

Britishers had been facing problem in regularizing their flow of revenue collection from Bengal because of
the recurrent famines and declining agricultural output during 1770s.
● Investment in Agriculture will result into regularisation of revenue: Company felt that revenue of the
company could be increased and regularised by encouraging investment in agriculture.
● Having property rights, Zamindar will have inherent interest in development of estate: By securing
the rights of property and fixing rates of revenue, Zamindars would get a sense of security and it would
encourage them to improve their estates.
● Emergence of a class loyal to Company: Improvement of Estates would lead to the emergence of a
class of rich land-owners loyal to company, securing regular flow of income to the company.
⮚ Emergence of Zamindars as a New Class of Landowners: They were rajas and taluqdars of
Bengal, now classified as zamindars. They were not a landowner of the village, but a revenue
collector of the estate. The difference between the amount paid to the company and collected from
estate, was his income.

Taluqdar: Literally means “one who holds a taluq” or a connection. Taluq came to refer to a territorial unit.

Reasons for Defaulting of Zamindars on Payments:

● High demand of revenue by Company during economic depression:
⮚ Wrongful Anticipation by Company: Company pegged initial revenue demands very high to
minimize their loss in long term because company anticipated that in coming years income from
land will increase with expansion of land and production.

1
 ⮚ Economic Depression: In 1790s, the prices of agricultural produce were depressed, making it
difficult for the Ryots to pay their dues to the zamindar. Thus, zamindar defaulted on the payment.
● The Law of Sunset and Invariable Demand of Revenue: The revenue was invariable and rigid,
regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually. In fact, according to the Sunset Law, if
payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, the zamindari was liable to be auctioned.
● Restriction on Autonomy of Zamindar: Permanent Settlement initially limited the power of the
zamindar to collect rent from the Ryot and manage his zamindari. The zamindars' troops were
disbanded, customs duties abolished, and their “cutcheries” (courts) brought under the supervision of
a Collector.
● Bad harvest, Low prices and Friction between Zamindar and Jotedar: Rent collection was a perennial
problem. Sometimes bad harvests, low prices and friction for the authority between zamindars and
jotedars made payment of dues difficult for the Ryots.

Rise of the Jotedars:

● Jotedar, a group of rich peasants, acquired vast areas of land. They controlled local trade as well as
moneylending, exercising immense power over the poorer cultivators of the region.
● Jotedars were called as haoladars in some places and elsewhere they were known as gantidars or
mandals. Various factors were responsible for their rise which are as follows:
⮚ At the end of 18th century, zamindars were facing a crisis while jotedars were consolidating their
power in villages.
⮚ They were more effective than that of zamindars because they were located in the villages unlike
zamindars who often lived-in urban areas and exercised direct control over villagers.
⮚ They fiercely resisted efforts by zamindars, prevented zamindari officials from executing their
duties, mobilised ryots who were dependent on them, and deliberately delayed payments of
revenue to the zamindar.

Ways adopted by the Zamindars to escape the auction of Estates:

The authority of the zamindars in rural areas did not collapse at once until the Great Depression of the
1930s, that they finally collapsed and the Jotedars consolidated their power in the countryside.
● Fictitious sale and transfer of estates: It was strategic manoeuvre of rajas to keep their zamindari
intact.
⮚ Raja transferred some of his zamindari to his mother, since property of a women would not be taken
over.
⮚ When a part of the estate was auctioned, the zamindar's men bought the property, outbidding
other purchasers. Subsequently they refused to pay so, the estate had to be resold. This process
continued endlessly until all other bidders exhausted and at last estate was sold to raja or zamindar
at low price.

2
 ● Payment deliberately withheld by zamindar: The revenue demand of the Company was deliberately
withheld, and unpaid balances were allowed to accumulate.
● Deterrence to outsider bidders: When people from outside the zamindari bought an estate, they could
not take possession as their agents would be attacked by lathyals of the former zamindar.
● Sense of Loyalty: Sometimes even the Ryots themselves resisted the entry of outsiders. They felt
bound to their own zamindar through a sense of loyalty and perceived him as a figure of authority and
themselves as his proja (subjects).

Report on the Administration of the Company:

A report was submitted to the British Parliament in 1813 on on the administration and activities of the East
India Company in India, often referred as the Fifth Report.
● Opposition to Monopoly of the Company by Private Traders: Private traders, closely watching the
activities of company in Britain, opposed the monopoly of company in trade.
● Demand for Revocation of the Royal Charter: Private Traders wanted revocation of the Royal Charter
that gave the Company this monopoly. Many political groups in England also argued that the conquest
of Bengal was benefiting only the East India Company.
● Scrutiny of Company's Administration: Company's misrule, maladministration, incidents of the greed
and corruption was hotly debated in Britain and widely publicised in the press.
● The Fifth Report: This report, submitted in British Parliament, has shaped our conception of what
happened in rural Bengal in the late 18th century. It contains petitions of zamindars and ryots, reports of
collectors from different districts, statistical tables on revenue returns, and notes on the revenue and
judicial administration of Bengal and Madras.

The Conflict Between Hoe (Paharias) and the Plough (Santhals):

When the peasant economy expanded, swallowing up pastures and forests, it created conflicts. As the
Santhals were pouring into the area of Rajmahal hills, clearing forests, ploughing land; Paharias had to
recede deeper into Rajmahal hills. Paharia life was symbolised by the hoe, which they used for shifting
cultivation while the Santhals represent the plough.
● Rajmahal Hills and the Paharias: It was a densely forested area where hill people known as Paharias,
lived around the Rajmahal hills, subsisting on forest produce, practising shifting cultivation and
intimately connected to forest.
● The Life of Paharias:
⮚ Sense of Identity: Paharias considered the region of Rajmahal hills as the basis of their identity
and survival. They raided the plains where settled agriculturists lived, for their survival and even
controlled the passes that passed through their area in return of a toll fee for the safe passage and
security.
⮚ British policy of extermination and pacification towards Paharias: In the 1770s the British
embarked on a brutal policy of extermination, hunting the Paharias down and killing them. Then, by
the 1780s, Augustus Cleveland, proposed a policy of pacification.

3
 ⮚ Agreement: Paharia chiefs were given an annual allowance and made responsible for the proper
conduct of their men.
⮚ White as Symbol of Oppression: For Paharias, every white man appeared to represent a power
that was destroying their way of life and means of survival, snatching away their control over their
forests and lands.

Santhals: Wanderers to Cultivators:

Santhals extended the frontiers of cultivation by displacing the hill folk, Paharias, who lived on these lower
slopes. Unlike Paharias, Santhals, by contrast, gave up their earlier life of mobility and settled down,
cultivating a range of commercial crops for the market, and dealing with traders and moneylenders.
● British installed Santhals in Rajamahal hills: Having failed to subdue and transform Paharias into
settled agriculturists, the British officials hired Santhals to reclaim land and expand cultivation and to
settle in the Jangal Mahals.
● Damin-i-Koh: By 1832 a large area of land was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh, declared to be the land of
Santhals.
● Reason for the revolt of Santhals: The state was levying heavy taxes on the land that the Santhals had
cleared, moneylenders (dikus) were charging them high rates of interest and taking over the land
when debts remained unpaid. By the 1850s, the Santhals felt that the time had come to rebel against
zamindars, moneylenders and the colonial state.
● Conciliatory policy of the Company: It was after the Santhal Revolt (1855-56) that the Santhal
Pargana was created, carving out 5,500 square miles from the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum.

A Revolt in the Countryside, The Bombay Deccan

One way of understanding the social condition of a region like countryside of Bombay deccan is by focusing
on a peasant revolt and their resentments. One such revolt occurred in 1875 in the Deccan at Supa, a large
village in Poona, on 12 May 1875.

Account Books are Burnt:

● Ryots from surrounding rural areas gathered and attacked the shopkeepers, demanding their bahi
khatas (account books) and debt bonds.
● They burnt the khatas, looted grain shops, and in some cases set fire to the houses of sahukars. From
Poona the revolt spread to Ahmednagar. Then over the next two months it spread even further.

Ryotwari, A new Land Revenue System:

● This revenue system was introduced in the Bombay Deccan came to be known as the Ryotwari
settlement. The revenue was directly settled with the Ryots.
● The average income from different types of soil was estimated, the revenue-paying capacity of the
Ryot was assessed and a proportion of it fixed as the share of the state.
● Rationale behind new system:

4
 ⮚ Need for maximization of revenue: As British rule expanded from Bengal to other parts of India,
colonial government had to think of ways to maximise its land revenue, which could not be
increased due to capping under Permanent Settlement.
⮚ Rise in Agricultural Prices: After 1810, agricultural prices rose, increasing the income of the
zamindars of Bengal. This increase in price made British think of new revenue system to collect
more revenue.
⮚ Ricardian Theory of “Average Rent” and Rise of Rentiers: Colonial officials followed Ricardian
ideas while formulating new revenue system.
o According to Ricardian ideas, a landowner should have a claim only to the “average rent” that
prevailed at a given time.
o More than this “average rent”, the state needed to tax. If tax was not levied, cultivators were likely
to turn into rentiers, and their surplus income would not be invested in the improvement of the
land.
o History of Bengal confirmed Ricardo's theory, there the zamindars seemed to have turned into
rentiers, leasing out land and living on the rental incomes.
⮚ Therefore, the revenue demand was no longer permanently fixed in any other part of the country.

Problems with Ryotwari Settlement:

● High Revenue Demand and the Peasant's debt: In 1820s, the revenue that was demanded was so
high that in many places' peasants deserted their villages and migrated to new regions.
● Poor soil and fluctuating rainfall: In areas of poor soil and fluctuating rainfall the problem was
particularly acute. When rains failed and harvests were poor, peasants found it impossible to pay the
revenue.
● Dip in agricultural prices: Prices of agricultural products fell sharply after 1832 and did not recover for
over a decade and a half. This meant a further decline in peasants' income.
● Famine and debt trap: At the same time the countryside was devastated by a famine that struck in the
years 1832-34. Inevitably, they borrowed but once a loan was taken, the ryot found it difficult to pay it
back. As debt mounted, and loans remained unpaid, peasants' dependence on moneylenders
increased.

The cotton Boom:

Before the 1860s, three-fourths of raw cotton imports into Britain came from America. India was seen as a
country that could supply cotton to Lancashire if the American supply dried up for eventuality.
● American Civil War and India: When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, a wave of panic
spread, messages were sent to India to increase cotton exports to Britain.
⮚ India possessed suitable soil, a climate favourable to cotton cultivation, and cheap labour.
⮚ British gave advances to urban sahukars who in turn extended credit to those rural moneylenders
who promised to secure the produce.

5
 ⮚ As a result, the riots in the Deccan villages suddenly found access to seemingly limitless credit. By
1862 over 90 per cent of cotton imports into Britain were coming from India.
● End of American Civil War and the Credit to Sahukars Dries Up: By 1865, as American civil war
ended, cotton production in America revived and Indian cotton exports to Britain steadily declined.
⮚ Export merchants and sahukars in Maharashtra were no longer keen on extending long-term
credit. They could see the demand for Indian cotton fall and cotton prices slide downwards.
⮚ So, they decided to close-down their operations, restrict their advances to peasants, and demand
repayment of outstanding debts.
● Money Lender and the experience of Injustice: Moneylending was widespread before colonial rule,
but a variety of customary norms regulated the relationship between the moneylender and the Ryots.
⮚ Interest more than Principal: One general norm was that the interest charged could not be more
than the principal. Under colonial rule this norm broke down.
⮚ Deccan riots commission: In one of the many cases investigated by the Deccan Riots Commission,
the moneylender had charged over Rs 2,000 as interest.
● System of deeds and bonds as new oppressive system:
⮚ Limitation Law and loopholes: In 1859, the British passed a Limitation Law that stated that the
loan bonds signed between moneylenders and ryots would have validity for only three years but
moneylender, forcing the ryot to sign a new bond every three years.
⮚ Compounded interest on exorbitant rates: When a new bond was signed, the unpaid balance, that
is, the original loan and the accumulated interest – was entered as the principal on which a new set
of interest charges was calculated.
⮚ Peasants in the clutches of Moneylender: Moneylender generally refused to give receipts when
loans were repaid, entered fictitious figures in bonds, acquired the peasants' harvest at low prices,
and ultimately took over peasants' property.

Deeds of Hire:
When debts mounted, the peasant was unable to pay back the loan to the moneylender. He had no
option but to give over all his possessions – land, carts, and animals – to the moneylender.
The peasant took land on rent and animals on hire. He had to sign a deed of hire stating very clearly that
these animals and carts did not belong to him.

The Deccan Riots Commission:

● When the revolt spread in the Deccan, the Government of India, worried by the memory of 1857,
pressurised the Government of Bombay to set up a commission of enquiry to investigate into the
causes of the riots.
● The commission reported that the government demand was not the cause of peasant anger. It was
the moneylenders who were to blame. This argument is found very frequently in colonial records.
● This shows that there was a persistent reluctance on the part of the colonial government to admit that
popular discontent was ever on account of government action.

6
Timeline:
● 1765: English East India Company acquires Diwani of Bengal.
● 1773: Regulating Act passed by the British Parliament to regulate the activities of the East India
Company.
● 1793: Permanent Settlement in Bengal.
● 1800s Santhals begin to come to the Rajmahal hills and settle there.
● 1818: First revenue settlement in the Bombay Deccan.
● 1820s: Agricultural prices begin to fall.
● 1840s-50s: A slow process of agrarian expansion in the Bombay Deccan.
● 1855-56: Santhal rebellion.
● 1861: Cotton boom begins.
● 1875: Ryots in Deccan villages rebel.

Interesting points

● Ryot is the way the term raiyat, used to designate peasants, was spelt in British records. Ryots in
Bengal did not always cultivate the land directly but leased it out to under-ryots.
● Benami, literally anonymous, is a term used in Hindi and several other Indian languages for
transactions made in the name of a fictitious or relatively insignificant person, whereas the real
beneficiary remains unnamed.
● Lathyal, literally one who wields the lathi or stick, functioned as a strongman of the zamindar.
● Aquatint is a picture produced by cutting into a copper sheet with acid and then printing it.
● A sahukar was someone who acted as both a moneylender and a trader.
● Rentier is a term used to designate people who live on rental income from property.

7
 REBELS AND THE RAJ: THE REVOLT OF
2 1857 AND ITS REPRESENTATIONS
On 10th May 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut broke out in mutiny. It began in the lines of the
native infantry, spread very swiftly to the cavalry and then to the city. The ordinary people of the towns and
surrounding villages had also joined the sepoys. On 11 May 1857, sepoys gathered in Delhi in Red fort and
the revolt acquired legitimacy because of the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah.

Pattern of the Rebellion

Beginning of the Mutiny:
● The sepoys began their action by seizing the bell of arms (storeroom of weapons), plundering the
treasury and attacking the government buildings – the jail, treasury, telegraph office, record room,
bungalows and burning all records.
● Everything and everybody connected with the white man became a target.
● Proclamations in Hindi, Urdu and Persian were put up in the cities calling upon the population, both
Hindus and Muslims, to unite, rise and exterminate the firangis.
● Targets of attack widened as the ordinary people joined.
● In major towns like Lucknow, Kanpur and Bareilly, moneylenders and the rich also became the objects
of rebel wrath.
● In most places their houses were looted and destroyed. The mutiny in the sepoy ranks quickly became
a rebellion.

Lines of communication:
The reason for the similarity in the pattern of the revolt in different places lay partly in its planning and
coordination.
● Communication between sepoy lines: There was communication between the sepoy lines of various
cantonments. Sepoys or their emissaries moved from one station to another spreading the message.
● Collective decision making of sepoys: The sepoys lived in lines and shared a common lifestyle and that
many of them came from the same caste, it is not difficult to imagine them sitting together to decide
their own future.

Leaders and followers:

To fight the British, leadership and organisation were required. For these the rebels sometimes turned to
those who had been leaders before the British conquest. One of the first acts of the sepoys of Meerut, was to
rush to Delhi and appeal to the old Mughal emperor to accept the leadership of the revolt.
● Kanpur: In Kanpur, the sepoys and the people of the town gave Nana Sahib, the successor to Peshwa
Baji Rao II, no choice save to join the revolt as their leader.
● Jhansi: In Jhansi, the Rani was forced by the popular pressure around her to assume the leadership of
the uprising.
● Arrah, Bihar: Kunwar Singh, a local zamindar in Arrah in Bihar.

8
 ● Awadh: In Awadh, where the displacement of the popular Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and the annexation
of the state were still very fresh, the populace in Lucknow celebrated the fall of British rule by hailing
Birjis Qadr, the young son of the Nawab, as their leader.
● Participation of Ordinary Men: Often the message of rebellion was carried by ordinary men and
women.
⮚ Shah Mal mobilised the villagers of pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh.
⮚ Gonoo, a tribal cultivator of Singhbhum in Chotanagpur, became a rebel leader of the Kol tribals of
the region.
● Participation of Religious men:
⮚ In Lucknow, after the annexation of Awadh, there were many religious leaders and self-styled
prophets who preached the destruction of British rule.
⮚ From Meerut, there were reports that a fakir had appeared riding on an elephant and that the
sepoys were visiting him frequently.

Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah:

● He was one of the many maulvis who played an important part in the revolt of 1857. He was
seen moving from village to village preaching jehad (religious war) against the British and
urging people to rebel.
● He was therefore popularly called Danka Shah – the maulvi with the drum (danka).
● When released from jail in1857, he was elected by the mutinous 22nd Native Infantry as their leader.
● He fought in the famous Battle of Chinhat in which the British forces under Henry Lawrence
were defeated.

Shah Mal:
● He belonged to a clan of Jat cultivators in pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh. Due to high
revenue demand, cultivators were losing land to outsiders, to traders and moneylenders.
● Shah Mal mobilised the headmen and cultivators of chaurasee des (eighty-four villages),
moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against the British.
● As in many other places, the revolt against the British turned into a general rebellion against
all signs of oppression and injustice.
● Cultivators left their fields and plundered the houses of moneylenders and traders.
● Shah Mal's men attacked government buildings, destroyed the bridge over the river, and dug
up metalled roads.
● They sent supplies to the sepoys who had mutinied in Delhi and stopped all official
communication between British headquarters and Meerut. He also set up an amazingly
effective network of intelligence.

9
Rumours and prophecies:
Rumours and prophecies played a part in moving people to action.
● Bullets coated with fat of cow and pig: Sepoys who had arrived in Delhi from Meerut had told Bahadur
Shah about bullets coated with the fat of cows and pigs and that biting those bullets would corrupt
their caste and religion.
● Conspiracy to destroy religion: There was the rumour that the British government had hatched a
gigantic conspiracy to destroy the caste and religion of Hindus and Muslims.
● Mixing of bone dust of cow and pig in flour: To this end, the rumours said, the British had mixed the
bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market. In towns and cantonments,
sepoys and the common people refused to touch the atta.
● Distribution of chapattis, Omen of upheaval: Reports came from various parts of North India that
chapattis were being distributed from village to village.
⮚ The meaning and purpose of the distribution of the chapattis was not clear. But there is no doubt
that people read it as an omen of an upheaval.

Reasons for believing in rumours:

● Rumour Resonate with suspicion of the people: Rumours circulate only when they resonate with the
deeper fears and suspicions of people. They reflect about the minds of people who believed them, their
fears and apprehensions, their faiths and convictions.
● British policies for reforming Indian society: The rumours in 1857 begin to make sense when seen in
the context of the policies the British pursued from the late 1820s.
⮚ Abolition of Sati, Widow remarriage, Western education: Under the leadership of Governor
General Lord William Bentinck, the British adopted policies aimed at “reforming” Indian society by
introducing Western education, Western ideas and Western institutions. Laws to abolish customs
like Sati (1829) and to permit the remarriage of Hindu widows.
● Introduction of British system of Administration: British introduced their own system of
administration, their own laws and their own methods of land settlement and land revenue collection.
● Annexation of Awadh, Jhansi, Stara and many more: On the false basis of misgovernment and the
refusal to recognise adoption, the British annexed not only Awadh, but many other kingdoms and
principalities like Jhansi and Satara.
● Activities of Christian Missionaries: This perception was aggravated by the activities of Christian
missionaries.
● It seemed to the people that all that they cherished and held sacred – from kings and socio-religious
customs to patterns of landholding and revenue payment – was being destroyed and replaced by a
system that was alien and oppressive.

Awadh in Revolt:
● Lord Dalhousie described the kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”.
Five years later, in 1856, the kingdom was formally annexed to the British Empire.

10
 ● Subsidiary Alliance and Awadh: It was imposed on Awadh in 1801. By the terms of this alliance, the
Nawab had to disband his military force, allow the British to position their troops within the kingdom,
and act in accordance with the advice of the British Resident who was now to be attached to the court.
● Reasons for Annexation: Britishers felt that the soil there was good for producing indigo and cotton,
and the region was ideally located to be developed into the principal market of Upper India.
● Official reason: Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dethroned and exiled to Calcutta on the plea that the
region was being misgoverned.
● Reaction of Common people of Awadh: The widespread sense of grief and loss at the Nawab's exile
was recorded by many contemporary observers. One of them wrote: “The life was gone out of the
body, and the body of this town had been left lifeless”.

Subsidiary Alliance:
● Subsidiary Alliance was a system devised by Lord Wellesley in 1798. All those who entered
into such an alliance with the British had to accept certain terms and conditions:
● The British would be responsible for protecting their ally from external and internal threats
to their power.
● In the territory of the ally, a British armed contingent would be stationed.
● The ally would have to provide the resources for maintaining this contingent.
● The ally could enter into agreements with other rulers or engage in warfare only with the
permission of the British.

Firangi Raj and the end of a World:

In Awadh, more than anywhere else, the revolt became an expression of popular resistance to an alien order.
It linked the prince, taluqdar, peasant and sepoy.

Sepoy and rural world:

Close links existed between the sepoys and the rural world. The grievances of the peasants were carried
over into the sepoy lines since a vast majority of the sepoys were recruited from the villages of Awadh.
● Racial discrimination and Low pay grade: For decades, the sepoys had complained of low levels of
pay and the difficulty of getting leave. The officers developed a sense of superiority and started
treating the sepoys as their racial inferiors.
● Trust was replaced by suspicion. The episode of the greased cartridges and mixing of flour with bone
dust was a classic example of this.
● Sepoy, a Peasant in Uniform: The large majority of the sepoys of the Bengal Army were recruited from
the villages of Awadh and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Many of them were Brahmins or from the “upper”
castes. Awadh was, in fact, called the “nursery of the Bengal Army''.

11
Taluqdars and Peasants:
The annexation also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region, who for many generations had controlled land
and power in the countryside. In pre-British times, the taluqdars were oppressors but many of them also
appeared to be generous father figures and were often considerate in times of need.
● Settlement with actual owners: By removing taluqdars, company would be able to settle the land with
the actual owners of the soil and thus reduce the level of exploitation of peasants while increasing
revenue returns for the state.
● Breakdown of Social order: The dispossession of taluqdars meant the breakdown of an entire social
order. The British land revenue policy further undermined authority of the taluqdars.
● The Summary Settlement of 1856: It was based on the assumption that the taluqdars were
interlopers with no permanent stakes in land. The Summary Settlement proceeded to remove the
taluqdars wherever possible.

Rebels and their demand:

British dismissed the rebels as a bunch of ungrateful and barbaric people. The repression of the rebels also
meant silencing of their voice. Most of them were sepoys and ordinary people who were not literate.
● The vision of unity: The proclamation issued under the name of Bahadur Shah, appealed to all sections
of the population, irrespective of their caste and creed.
⮚ The ishtahars harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of
different communities.
● Against the symbols of oppression: The proclamations completely rejected everything associated
with British rule or firangi raj.
⮚ The proclamations expressed the widespread fear that the British were bent on destroying the
caste and religions of Hindus and Muslims and converting them to Christianity.
⮚ In many places the rebellion against the British widened into an attack on all those who were seen
as allies of the British or local oppressors.
● The search for alternative power: Once British rule had collapsed, the rebels in places like Delhi,
Lucknow and Kanpur tried to establish some kind of structure of authority. It shows that the rebel
leadership wanted to restore the pre-British world.

Repression of the Revolt:

British did not have an easy time in putting down the rebellion and passed a series of laws to help them quell
the insurgency. By a number of Acts, passed in May and June 1857, not only was was the whole of North
India put under martial law but military officers and even ordinary Britons were given the power to try and
punish Indians suspected of rebellion.
● Repression of revolt in Delhi: Like the rebels, British recognised the symbolic value of Delhi. The
British thus mounted a two-pronged attack began in earnest in early June 1857. One force moved
from Calcutta into North India and the other from the Punjab. In late September that the city was finally
captured.

12
● Repression in Awadh: In the Ganegtic plain, forces had to reconquer the area village by village. The
British realised that they were not dealing with a mere mutiny but an uprising.
● In Awadh, for example, a British official called Forsyth estimated that three-fourths of the adult male
population was in rebellion.
British tried to break up the unity by promising to give back to the big landholders their estates. Rebel
landholders were dispossessed and the loyal rewarded.

Interesting points

● Resident was the designation of a representative of the Governor General who lived in a state
which was not under direct British rule.
● Mutiny – a collective disobedience of rules and regulations within the armed forces. Revolt – a
rebellion of people against established authority and power. The terms 'revolt' and 'rebellion' can
be used synonymously. In the context of the revolt of 1857 the term revolt refers primarily to the
uprising of the civilian population (peasants, zamindars, rajas, jagirdars) while the mutiny was
of the sepoys.
● Bell of arms is a storeroom in which weapons are kept.
● Firangi, a term of Persian origin, possibly derived from Frank (from which France gets its name),
is used in Urdu and Hindi, often in a derogatory sense, to designate foreigners.
● “Relief of Lucknow”: Painting by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859, famously called “Relief of
Lucknow”, depicts the siege of Lucknow as a story of survival, heroic resistance and the ultimate
triumph of British power.
● “In Memoriam”: Painted by Joseph Noel Paton. It depicts English women and children, looking
helpless and innocent, seemingly waiting for the inevitable – dishonour, violence and death. It
represents the rebels as violent and brutish.
● Painting of Miss Wheeler: The rebels are demonised, Miss Wheeler struggle to save her honour
and her life in fact, is represented as having a deeper religious connotation: it is a battle to save the
honour of Christianity. The book lying on the floor is the Bible.
● “The Clemency of Canning”: At a time when the clamour was for vengeance, pleas for
moderation were ridiculed. When Governor General Canning declared that a gesture of leniency
and a show of mercy would help in winning back the loyalty of the sepoys, he was mocked in the
British press.

13
 COLONIAL CITIES: URBANISATION,
3 PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE
Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai) were the three important centres of trade
due to the economic activities of the English East India Company.

Company agents settled in Madras in 1639 and in Calcutta in 1690. Bombay was given to the Company in
1661 by the English king, who had got it as part of his wife's dowry from the king of Portugal. The Company
established trading and administrative offices in each of these settlements. By the middle of the nineteenth
century, these settlements had become big cities from where the new rulers controlled the country.

Characteristics of Towns and Cities of Pre-colonial Times:

Towns came to represent specific forms of economic activities and cultures. Towns and cities were often
fortified by walls which symbolised their separation from the countryside.

Towns during Mughals:

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the towns built by the Mughals were famous for their
concentration of populations, their monumental buildings and their imperial grandeur and wealth.
● Agra, Delhi and Lahore were important centres of imperial administration and control.
● Mansabdars and jagirdars who were assigned territories in different parts of the empire usually
maintained houses in these cities.
● The emperor lived in a fortified palace and the town was enclosed by a wall, with entry and exit being
regulated by different gates.
● The presence of the emperor and noblemen in these centres meant that a wide variety of services had
to be provided. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the households of nobles.
● In North India, maintaining this order was the work of the imperial officer called the kotwal who
oversaw the internal affairs and policing of the town.
● In towns of South India such as Madurai and Kanchipuram, the principal focus was the temple. These
towns were also important commercial centres. Religious festivals often coincided with fairs, linking
pilgrimage with trade.

Changes in the Eighteenth Century:

The gradual erosion of Mughal power led to the demise of towns associated with their rule. The Mughal
capitals, Delhi and Agra, lost their political authority.
● The growth of new regional powers was reflected in the increasing importance of regional capitals
Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringapatam, Poona (present-day Pune), Nagpur, Baroda (present day
Vadodara) and Tanjore (present-day Thanjavur).
● Migration of different communities: Traders, administrators, artisans and others migrated from the
old Mughal centres to these new capitals in search of work and patronage.
● Qasbah and Ganj: Some local notables and officials associated with Mughal rule in North India also
used this opportunity to create new urban settlements such as the qasbah and ganj.

14
 ● European Trading Companies and growth of towns around trading centres: The European
commercial Companies had set up bases in different places early during the Mughal era:
⮚ The Portuguese in Panaji in 1510.
⮚ The Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605.
⮚ The British in Madras in 1639.
⮚ The French in Pondicherry (present-day Puducherry) in 1673.

● Battle of Plassey and Consequences: As the British gradually acquired political control after the Battle
of Plassey in 1757, and the trade of the English East India Company expanded.
⮚ Emergence of new economic capitals: Colonial port cities such as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay
rapidly emerged as the new economic capitals.
⮚ They also became centres of colonial administration and political power.

Features of Colonial Cities: Maintenance of Statistical Data, Mapping and Survey

● Importance of Data and Mapping:
⮚ The British kept detailed records of their trading activities in order to regulate their commercial
affairs.
⮚ To keep track of life in the growing cities, they carried out regular surveys, gathered statistical data,
and published various official reports.

● Mapping as a source to consolidate power:

⮚ It felt that good maps were necessary to understand the landscape and know the topography. This
knowledge would allow better control over the region.
⮚ When towns began to grow, maps were prepared not only to plan the development of these towns
but also to develop commerce and consolidate power.

● Municipal corporation and Taxes:

⮚ Municipal corporation used mapping to show the location of ghats, density and quality of houses
and alignment of roads which was further used to gauge commercial possibilities and plan
strategies of taxation.
⮚ British tried to raise money for administering towns through the systematic annual collection of
municipal taxes.
⮚ Institutions like the municipal corporation with some popular representation were meant to
administer essential services such as water supply, sewerage, road building and public health.

● Census:
⮚ By the mid-nineteenth century several local censuses had been carried out in different regions.
⮚ The first all-India census was attempted in 1872. Thereafter, from 1881, decennial (conducted
every ten years) censuses became a regular feature.

15
Trends of Change:
● Growth of Colonial cities at the expense of smaller towns:
⮚ Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the other hand grew rapidly and soon became sprawling cities
while the smaller towns had little opportunity to grow economically.
⮚ The growth of these three cities as the new commercial and administrative centres was at the
expense of other existing urban centres.
● Status of new cities from export hub to dump ground of manufactured goods:
⮚ As the hub of the colonial economy, they functioned as collection depots for the export of Indian
manufactures.
⮚ But this trend was reversed, and these cities instead became the entry point for British-
manufactured goods.
● Impact of Introduction of Railways:
⮚ The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns.
⮚ Every railway station became a collection depot for raw materials and a distribution point for
imported goods.
⮚ Railway towns like Jamalpur, Walt air and Bareilly developed. While Economic activity gradually
shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers.

Features of the New Colonial Towns:

● Ports, forts and centres for services:
⮚ By the 18th century Madras, Calcutta and Bombay had become important ports. The English East
India Company built its factories and fortified these settlements for protection.
● Racial Distinction of White Town and Black Town:
⮚ From the beginning there were separate quarters for Europeans and Indians, which came to be
labelled in contemporary writings as the “White Town” and “Black Town” respectively.
⮚ Once the British captured political power, these racial distinctions became sharper.
● Setting up of modern factories:
⮚ Since raw material was transported to these cities for export and there was plentiful cheap labour
available, it was convenient to set up modern factories there.
⮚ After the 1850s, cotton mills were set up by Indian merchants and entrepreneurs in Bombay. This
was the beginning of modern industrial development in India.
● Economy based on tertiary sector:
⮚ The economies of these cities were not primarily based on factory production. The majority of the
working population in these cities belonged to what economists classify as the tertiary sector.
⮚ As a result, India never became a modern industrialised country, since discriminatory colonial
policies limited the levels of industrial development.

16
A New Urban Environment:
As Political power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the East India Company, Colonial cities
reflected the mercantile culture of the new rulers. The nature of the colonial city changed further in the mid-
19th century.
● Lesson from Revolt of 1857: After the Revolt of 1857 British attitudes in India were shaped by a
constant fear of rebellion. Pasturelands and agricultural fields around the older towns were cleared,
and new urban spaces called “Civil Lines” were set up as safe enclaves of Britishers.
● Creation of Black Areas: For the British, the “Black” areas came to symbolise not only chaos and
anarchy, but also filth and disease.
● Sanitation measures in fear of spread of disease from Black areas: From the 1860s and 1870s,
stringent administrative measures regarding sanitation were implemented and building activity in the
Indian towns was regulated. Underground piped water supply and sewerage and drainage systems
were also put in place around this time.
⮚ Sanitary vigilance thus became another way of regulating Indian towns.
● Racial exclusiveness everywhere: Racially exclusive clubs, racecourses and theatres were also built
for the ruling elite.

The First Hill Stations:

Hill stations were a distinctive feature of colonial urban development, initially connected with the needs of
the British army.
● Hill stations as Strategic places: Hill stations became strategic places for billeting troops, guarding
frontiers and launching campaigns against enemy rulers.
⮚ Shimla and Gurkha war: Like Simla (present-day Shimla) was founded during the course of the
Gurkha War (1815-16).
⮚ The Anglo-Maratha War of 1818 led to British interest in Mount Abu; and Darjeeling was wrested
from the rulers of Sikkim in 1835.
⮚ In 1864 the Viceroy John Lawrence officially moved his council to Shimla, which later on became
the official residence of the commander-in-chief of the Indian army.
● To protect the army from diseases: British associated hot weather with epidemics such as Cholera
and malaria so hill stations were to protect the army from these diseases. The overwhelming presence
of the army made these stations a new kind of cantonment in the hills.
● Railways made hills accessible to Indians: The introduction of the railways made hill stations more
accessible to a wide range of people including Upper-and middle-class Indians such as maharajas for
the close-proximity to the ruling elite.
● Hills turned into revenue generators: With the setting up of tea and coffee plantations in the adjoining
areas, an influx of immigrant labour from the plains began and became one of the main sources of
revenue generation and important for the colonial economy.

17
Social life in the new cities:
For the Indian population, the new cities were a dramatic contrast between extreme wealth and poverty.
New transport facilities like trams and buses made a gradual separation of the place of work from residence,
a completely new kind of experience.
● Coherency of old towns was long gone: Though the sense of coherence and familiarity of the old
towns was no longer there, the creation of public places such as public parks, theatres and cinema halls
– provided exciting new forms of entertainment and social interaction.
● Rise of middle class: An increasing demand for clerks, teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers and
accountants, resulted in the raise of “middle classes”. They had access to new educational institutions
such as schools, colleges. A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged.
● New opportunities for women: Middle-class women sought to express themselves through the
medium of journals, autobiographies and books. But many people resented these attempts to change
traditional patriarchal norms. Over time, women became more visible in public but for a long-time,
women who moved out of the household into public spaces remained the objects of social censure.
● New class within the cities was the labouring poor or the working class. Paupers from rural areas
flocked to the cities in the hope of employment.
● Rise of new form of Drama: Yet the poor often created a lively urban culture of their own. They were
enthusiastic participants in religious festivals, tamashas (folk theatre) and swangs (satires) which
often mocked the pretensions of their masters, Indian and European.

Madras, Calcutta and Bombay: Segregation, Town Planning and Architecture

Madras, Calcutta and Bombay gradually developed into the biggest cities of colonial India having some of the
distinctive features.

Madras:
The Company had first set up its trading activities in the well-established port of Surat on the west coast.
Subsequently the search for textiles brought British merchants to the east coast. In 1639 they constructed a
trading post in Madraspatam/ Chenapattanam. The Company had purchased right of settlement from the
local Telugu lords, the Nayaks of Kalahasti.
● Rivalry with French and rise of Madras as commercial town: Rivalry with the French East India
Company (1746-63), led the British to fortify Madras and give their representatives increased political
and administrative functions. With the defeat of the French in 1761, Madras became more secure and
began to grow into an important commercial town.
● White Town as symbol of exclusivity and superiority: Fort St. George became the nucleus of the
White Town where most of the Europeans lived. Walls and bastions made this a distinct enclave. The
Company did not permit any marriages with Indians. Other than the English, the Dutch and
Portuguese were allowed to stay here because they were European and Christian.

18
 ● Black Town and development of clear line of fire: The Black Town developed outside the Fort. It was
laid out in straight lines, a characteristic of colonial towns. It was, however, demolished in the mid-
1700s and the area was cleared for a security zone around the Fort for a clear line of fire.

● Communities within Black town: There were distinct caste-specific neighbourhoods.

⮚ Chintadripet was an area meant for weavers.
⮚ Washermanpet was a colony of dyers and bleachers of cloth.
⮚ Royapuram was a settlement for Christian boatmen who worked for the Company.

● The new middle class: Several different communities came and settled in Madras, performing a range
of economic functions. It led to rise of new middle class.
⮚ Initially jobs with the Company were monopolised by the Vellalars, a rural caste.
⮚ With the spread of English education in the nineteenth century, Brahmins started competing for
similar positions in the administration.
⮚ Telugu Komatis were a powerful commercial group that controlled the grain trade in the city.
⮚ Gujarati bankers had also been present since the eighteenth century.
⮚ Paraiyars and Vanniyars formed the labouring poor.
⮚ Mylapore and Triplicane were earlier Hindu religious centres that supported a large group of
Brahmins.
⮚ The dubashes were Indians who could speak two languages, the local language and English.
They worked as agents and merchants, acting as intermediaries between Indian society and the
British.

Town planning in Calcutta:

Calcutta had grown from three villages called Sutanati, Kolkata and Govindapur.
Reason for Town planning: There were many reasons why the British took upon themselves the task of
town planning. One immediate reason was defence.
● In 1756, Sirajudaula, the Nawab of Bengal, attacked Calcutta and sacked the small fort.
● In 1757, when Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company decided to
build a new fort, one that could not be easily attacked.

Creation of Maidan or Garer-math: Here also around the new Fort William they left a vast open space which
came to be locally known as the Maidan or garer-math so that there would be no obstructions to a straight
line of fire from the Fort.

The Lottery Committee and town planning: The Lottery Committee commissioned a new map of the city so,
as to get a comprehensive picture of Calcutta.
● Among the Committee's major activities was road building in the Indian part of the city and clearing
the riverbank of “encroachments”.

19
 ● The threat of epidemics gave a further impetus to town planning. Because, on the basis of the
accepted theory of the time; that there was a direct correlation between living conditions and the
spread of disease, supported by Dwarkanath Tagore and Rustomjee Cowasjee.

● Thatched huts were banned in 1836 and tiled roofs made mandatory.

● The existing racial divide of the “White Town” and “Black Town” was reinforced by the new divide of
“healthy” and “unhealthy. Town planning had to represent everything that the British claimed to
stand for, rational ordering, meticulous execution and Western aesthetic ideals.

Architecture in Bombay:
One way of realising their imperial vision was through town planning, the other was through embellishing
cities with monumental buildings. These buildings reflected the culture and confidence of the rulers. The
architectural style was usually European.

Reasons to make monumental buildings:

● They were often meant to represent ideas such as imperial power.
● It expressed the British desire to create a familiar landscape in an alien country.
● The British felt that European styles would best symbolise their superiority, authority and power.
● They thought that buildings that looked European would mark out the difference and distance
between the colonial masters and their Indian subjects.

Assimilation of European and Indian art: Indians too got used to European architecture and made it their
own. The British in turn adapted some Indian styles to suit their needs.
● One example is the bungalow, derived from bangla, a traditional thatched Bengali hut.

Types of Architectural style:

For Public buildings, three broad architectural styles were used. Two of these were direct imports from
fashions prevalent in England.
● Neo-Classical Style: The first was called neo-classical or the new classical. Its characteristics
included construction of geometrical structures fronted with lofty pillars. It was derived from typical
buildings in ancient Rome, now be made to express the glory of imperial India.
⮚ The Mediterranean origins of this architecture were also thought to be suitable for tropical
weather.
⮚ Example: The Town Hall in Bombay was built in this style in 1833. Another group of commercial
buildings, built during the cotton boom of the 1860s, was the Elphinstone Circle, subsequently
named Horniman Circle. It made innovative use of covered arcades at ground level to shield the
shopper and pedestrian from the fierce sun and rain of Bombay.

20
 Fig 3.1 The Elphinstone Circle, pillars and arches Fig 3.2 The Town Hall in Bombay

Pitched roof: It is a term used by architects to describe a sloping roof. By the early twentieth century
pitched roofs became less common in bungalows, although the general plan remained the same.

● Neo-Gothic style: It is another style that was extensively used. It was characterised by high-pitched
roofs, pointed arches and detailed decoration. The neo-Gothic or new Gothic style was revived in the
mid-nineteenth century in England. This was the time when the government in Bombay was building
its infrastructure and this style was adapted for Bombay.
⮚ Example: University of Bombay and High Court were all built in this style. The most spectacular
example of the neo-Gothic style is the Victoria Terminus, the station. British invested a lot in the
design and construction of railway stations in cities, since they were proud of having successfully
built an all-India railway network.

Fig 3.3: Victoria Terminus Railway Station, designed by F.W. Stevens

21
Contribution of Indians:
● The University Hall was made with money donated by Sir Cowasjee Jehangir Readymoney, a
rich Parsi merchant.
● The University Library clock tower was similarly funded by the banker Premchand Roychand
and was named after his mother as Rajabai Tower.

● Indo-Saracenic style:
⮚ Towards the beginning of the twentieth century, a new hybrid architectural style was developed.
The inspiration for this style was medieval buildings in India with their domes, chhatris, jalis,
arches. Like the British wanted to prove that they were legitimate rulers of India.
⮚ “Indo”, was shorthand for Hindu and “Saracen” was a term Europeans used to designate Muslim.
⮚ Example: The Gateway of India, built in the traditional Gujarati style to welcome King George V and
Queen Mary to India in 1911, is the most famous example of this style.
⮚ The industrialist Jamsetji Tata built the Taj Mahal Hotel in a similar style.

Other Developments during this Period:

● Development of Chawl: The lack of space in the city and crowding led to a type of building unique to
Bombay, the chawl, the multi-storeyed single-room apartments with long open corridors built
around a courtyard.
● Bombay as commercial capital of India: Bombay was the commercial capital of colonial India. As the
premier port on the western coast, it was the centre of international trade.
⮚ By the end of the nineteenth century, half the imports and exports of India passed through Bombay.
One important item of this trade was opium exported to China.
● Growth of an Indian capitalist class: Indian merchants and middlemen, came from diverse
communities such as Parsi, Marwari, Konkani Muslim, Gujarati Bania, Bohra and Jew; supplied and
participated in this trade and they helped integrate Bombay's economy directly to Malwa, Rajasthan
and Sind where opium was grown.
● Development around the globe and rise of Urbs Prima in Indis: In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened,
and this further strengthened Bombay's links with the world economy. The Bombay government and
Indian merchants used this opportunity to declare Bombay Urbs Prima in Indis, a Latin phrase
meaning the most important city of India.

Timeline:
● 1500-1700: European trading companies establish bases in India: the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510;
the Dutch in Masulipatnam, 1605; the British in Madras in 1639, in Bombay in 1661, and in Calcutta in
1690; the French in Pondicherry in 1673.
● 1757: Decisive victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey; the British become rulers of Bengal.
● 1773: Supreme Court set up in Calcutta by the East India Company.
● 1784: Asiatic Society founded by Sir William Jones.

22
● 1793: Cornwallis Code enacted.
● 1803: Lord Wellesley's Minute on Calcutta town improvement.
● 1818: British takeover of the Deccan; Bombay becomes the capital of the new province.
● 1853: Railway from Bombay to Thane.
● 1857: First spinning and weaving mill in Bombay.
● 1857: Universities in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
● 1870s: Beginning of elected representatives in municipalities.
● 1881: Madras harbour completed.
● 1896: First screening of a film at Watson's Hotel, Bombay.
● 1896: Plague starts spreading to major cities.
● 1911: Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

Interesting points

● Pet is a Tamil word meaning settlement, while puram is used for a village.
● Busti (in Bengali and Hindi) originally meant neighbourhood or settlement. However, the British
narrowed the sense of the word to mean makeshift huts built by the poor. In the late nineteenth
century “bustis” and insanitary slums became synonymous in British records.

23
 MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST
4 MOVEMENT CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE AND BEYOND

Mahatma Gandhi was the most influential and revered of all the leaders who participated in the freedom
struggle. Gandhiji's activities in India during the period 1915-1948 is crucial. He inspired and led different
sections of the Indian society.

Making of a Leader:
● South Africa and the making of Mahatma: January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to
his homeland after two decades in South Africa. India, although still a colony of the British, was far
more active in a political sense in 1915.
● Chandran Devanesan has remarked, South Africa was “the making of the Mahatma”. It was in South
Africa that Mahatma Gandhi first forged the distinctive techniques of non-violent protest known as
satyagraha.
● Role of Swadeshi Movement and Mentor of Gandhiji: Swadeshi movement of 1905-07 thrown up
some towering leaders who advocated militant opposition to colonial rule. Some of them were Bal
Gangadhar Tilak of Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, and Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab.
Extremist: The three were known as “Lal, Bal and Pal”, the alliteration conveying the all-India
character of their struggle.
● Moderates: While there was a group of “Moderates” who preferred a more gradual and persuasive
approach. Among these Moderates was Gandhiji's acknowledged political mentor, Gopal Krishna
Gokhale.

Tour of the country and Banaras Hindu University:

On Gokhale's advice, Gandhiji spent a year travelling around British India, getting to know the land and its
peoples.
● Banaras Hindu University: The opening of the BHU was an occasion for celebration, marking as it did
the opening of a nationalist university, sustained by Indian money and Indian initiative.

A leader announce Himself:

Gandhi Ji's first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in
February 1916. In his speech, Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor.

Gandhiji's Speech:
● The opening of the BHU, he said, was “certainly a most gorgeous show”. But he worried about the
contrast between the “richly bedecked noblemen” present and “millions of the poor” Indians who
were absent.
● Gandhiji told the privileged invitees that “there is no salvation for India unless you strip yourself of this
jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen in India”.
● Our salvation can only come through the farmer. Neither the lawyers, nor the doctors, nor the rich
landlords are going to secure it.

24
 ● Gandhiji's speech at Banaras in February 1916 was, at one level, merely a statement of fact namely,
that Indian nationalism was an elite phenomenon. But it was also a statement of his intent, the first
public announcement of Gandhiji's own desire to make Indian nationalism more properly
representative of the Indian people as a whole.

Gandhiji was presented with an opportunity to put his precepts into practice in December 1916, he was
approached by a peasant from Champaran in Bihar, who told him about the harsh treatment of peasants by
British indigo planters.

The Making and Unmaking of Non-cooperation:

● 1917, Champaran: Gandhi spent much of his time in Champaran, seeking to obtain for the peasants
security of tenure as well as the freedom to cultivate the crops of their choice.
● 1918, Ahmedabad mill strike and Kheda Satyagraha: Gandhiji was involved in two campaigns.
⮚ First, he intervened in a labour dispute in Ahmedabad, demanding better working conditions for
the textile mill workers.
⮚ Then he joined peasants in Kheda in asking the state for the remission of taxes following the
failure of their harvest.
⮚ These initiatives marked Gandhiji as a nationalist with a deep sympathy for the poor.

● 1919, Rowlatt Act, Punjab Massacre and Non-cooperation: It was the Rowlatt satyagraha that made
Gandhiji a truly national leader. Emboldened by its success, Gandhiji called for a campaign of “non-
cooperation”, Indians who wished colonialism to end were asked to adhere to a “renunciation of (all)
voluntary association with the (British) Government”.
⮚ During the Great War of 1914-18, the British had instituted censorship of the press and permitted
detention without trial.
⮚ Now, on the recommendation of a committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt, these tough measures
were continued. In response, Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the “Rowlatt
Act” and bandh call.
⮚ Incident in Punjab: Many men had served on the British side in the First World War – expecting to
be rewarded for their service. Instead, they were given the Rowlatt Act. The situation in the province
grew progressively more tense, reaching a bloody climax in Amritsar in April 1919, when a British
Brigadier ordered his troops to open fire on a nationalist meeting killing more than 400 innocent
people.

Knitting a popular movement: Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movement

● Gandhiji hoped that by coupling non-cooperation with Khilafat, India's two major religious
communities, Hindus and Muslims, could collectively bring an end to colonial rule.
● These movements certainly unleashed a surge of popular action that was altogether unprecedented
in colonial India.

25
 ● According to official figures, there were 396 strikes in 1921. British Raj was shaken to its foundations
for the first time since the Revolt of 1857.
● The countryside was seething with discontent too. Hill tribes in northern Andhra violated the forest
laws. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial
officials.
● Peasants, workers, and others interpreted and acted upon the call to “non-cooperate” with colonial
rule in ways that best suited their interests.

Louis Fischer wrote that Non co-operation, “became the name of an epoch in the life of India and of
Gandhiji. Non-cooperation was negative enough to be peaceful but positive enough to be effective. It
entailed denial, renunciation, and self-discipline. It was a training for self-rule”.

● Chauri Chaura Incident: In February 1922, a group of peasants attacked and torched a police station.
Several constables perished in the conflagration. This act of violence prompted Gandhiji to call off the
movement altogether.

The Khilafat Movement (1919-1920): It was a movement of Indian Muslims, led by Muhammad Ali and
Shaukat Ali, that demanded the following:
● The Turkish Sultan or Khalifa must retain control over the Muslim sacred places in the
erstwhile Ottoman empire and the Khalifa must be left with sufficient territory to enable him to
defend the Islamic faith.
● The Congress supported the movement and Mahatma Gandhi sought to conjoin it to the Non-
cooperation Movement.

A people's leader:
● Transformation of Indian nationalism: By 1922, Gandhiji had transformed Indian nationalism. It was
no longer a movement of professionals and intellectuals; now, hundreds of thousands of peasants,
workers and artisans also participated in it.
● A leader who looked like a common man: Gandhiji went among the people in a simple dhoti or
loincloth, lived like them, and spoke their language. Unlike other leaders he did not stand apart from the
common folk.
● Meanwhile, he spent part of each day working on the charkha (spinning wheel).
● A Saviour: Known variously as “Gandhi baba”, “Gandhi Maharaj”, or simply as “Mahatma”, Gandhiji
appeared to the Indian peasant as a saviour.

Gandhian nationalism:
Gandhiji was a social reformer as well as a politician. He believed that in order to be worthy of freedom,
Indians had to get rid of social evils such as child marriage and untouchability.

26
 ● Swadeshi and self-reliant: Indians had to learn to become self-reliant on the economic front. Gandhi ji
was released from prison in February 1924 and chose to devote his attention to the promotion of
home-spun cloth (khadi).
● Support of Intellectuals: A group of highly talented Indians attached themselves to Gandhiji. They
included Mahadev Desai, Vallabh Bhai Patel, J.B. Kripalani, Subhas Chandra Bose, Abul Kalam Azad,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Govind Ballabh Pant and C. Rajagopalachari.
● Setting up of Praja Mandals: New branches of the Congress were set up in various parts of India. A
series of “Praja Mandals” were established to promote the nationalist creed in the princely states.
● Mother tongue as medium to connect to masses: Gandhiji encouraged the communication of the
nationalist message in the mother tongue. Thus, the provincial committees of the Congress were
based on linguistic regions.
● Support of famous industrialists: Among the supporters of the Congress were some very prosperous
businessmen and industrialists like G.D. Birla, supported the national movement openly; others did so
tacitly.

The Salt Satyagraha:

After the Non-cooperation Movement ended, Mahatma Gandhi focused on his social reform work. In 1928,
there was an all-India campaign in opposition to the all-White Simon Commission whose aim was to
enquire into conditions in the colony.
● Lahore Congress session December 1929: The meeting was significant for two things:
⮚ The election of Jawaharlal Nehru as President, signifying the passing of the baton of leadership to
the younger generation.
⮚ And the proclamation of commitment to “Purna Swaraj”, or complete independence. On 26
January 1930, “Independence Day” was observed, with the national flag being hoisted in different
venues.

Dandi:
Soon after the observance of this “Independence Day”, Mahatma Gandhi announced to break state's
monopoly in the manufacture and sale of salt. His picking on the salt monopoly was another illustration of
Gandhiji's tactical wisdom.
● Where most Indians understood the significance of Gandhiji's challenge, the British Raj apparently did
not. Although Gandhiji had given advance notice of his “Salt March” to the Viceroy Lord Irwin, Irwin
failed to grasp the significance of the action.
● Reaction in other parts of country: Apart from this campaign, peasants breached the hated colonial
forest laws. In some towns, factory workers went on strike while lawyers boycotted British courts and
students refused to attend government-run educational institutions.
● According to him, For Swaraj, Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Sikhs will have to unite. The massive
popular following that the march had garnered, wrote Time, had made the British rulers “desperately
anxious”.

27
 ● Gandhiji himself they now saluted as a “Saint” and “Statesman”, who was using “Christian acts as a
weapon against men with Christian beliefs”.

Significance of Salt March:

The Salt March was notable for at least three reasons.
● First, it was this event that first brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention.
● Second, it was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers.
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay had persuaded Gandhiji not to restrict the protests to men alone.
● Third, and perhaps most significant, it was the Salt March which forced upon the British the realisation
that their Raj would not last forever, and that they would have to devolve some power to the Indians.

Round Table Conferences:

To that end, the British government convened a series of “Round Table Conferences” in London.
● First Conference: The first meeting was held in November 1930, but without the pre-eminent political
leader in India, thus rendering it an exercise in futility.
● Gandhi-Irwin Pact: On January 1931, Gandhiji was released from jail and in the following month he
had several long meetings with the Viceroy. These meetings culminated in what was called the
“Gandhi-Irwin Pact' by the terms of which civil disobedience would be called off, all prisoners
released, and salt manufacture allowed along the coast.
● Second Round table conference: It was held in London in the latter part of 1931. Here, Gandhiji
represented the Congress. But his claim came under challenge from 3 parties.
⮚ From the Muslim League, which claimed to stand for the interests of the Muslim minority;
⮚ From the Princes, who claimed that the Congress had no stake in their territories;
⮚ From B.R. Ambedkar, who argued that Gandhiji and the Congress did not really represent the
lowest castes.
● The Conference in London was inconclusive, so Gandhiji returned to India and resumed civil
disobedience.

Series of Events:
● Government of India Act, 1935: The Act promised some form of representative government.
⮚ Two years later, in an election held on the basis of a restricted franchise, the Congress won a
comprehensive victory. Now eight out of 11 provinces had a Congress “Prime Minister”, working
under the supervision of a British Governor.
● September 1939, Second World War: Two years after the Congress ministries assumed office, the
Second World War broke out.
⮚ Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru promised Congress support to the war effort if the British,
in return, promised to grant India independence.
⮚ The offer was refused. In protest, the Congress ministries resigned.

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 ● March 1940: The Muslim League passed a resolution demanding a measure of autonomy for the
Muslim-majority areas.
⮚ Three Way Struggle: The political landscape now was no longer Indians versus the British; rather, it
had become a three-way struggle between the Congress, the Muslim League, and the British.
⮚ Cripps Mission: In the spring of 1942, Churchill was persuaded to send one of his ministers, Sir
Stafford Cripps, to India to try and forge a compromise with Gandhiji and the Congress but the talks
broke down.

Quit India Movement:

After the failure of the Cripps Mission, in August 1942, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch his third major
movement, 'Quit India'.
● Spread of the Movement and Independent Governments: In several districts, such as Satara in the
west and Medinipur in the east, “independent” governments were proclaimed. It especially energised
the young who, in very large numbers, left their colleges to go to jail.
● Congress and Muslim League: However, while the Congress leaders languished in jail, Jinnah and his
colleagues in the Muslim League worked patiently at expanding their influence in the Punjab and Sind.
● Change of Government in Britain: In 1945, a Labour government came to power in Britain and
committed itself to granting independence to India. Meanwhile, Lord Wavell, brought the Congress
and the League together for a series of talks.
● Elections of 1946 and political polarisation: Early in 1946, fresh elections were held to the provincial
legislatures. The Congress swept the “General” category, but in the seats specifically reserved for
Muslims, the League won an overwhelming majority. The political polarisation was complete.
● Disagreement between Congress and League, Direct Action Day: A Cabinet Mission sent in the
summer of 1946 failed to get the Congress and the League to agree on a federal system that would
keep India together while allowing the provinces a degree of autonomy. After the talks broke down,
Jinnah called for a “Direct Action Day” to press the League's demand for Pakistan.
● India freed but divided: In February 1947, Mountbatten called one last round of talks, but when these
too proved inconclusive he announced that British India would be freed, but also divided.

The Last Heroic Days:

● Freedom at Unacceptable price for Mahatma Gandhi: He did not attend any function or hoist a flag
there either. Gandhiji marked the day with a 24-hour fast. The freedom he had struggled so long for
had come at an unacceptable price, with a nation divided and Hindus and Muslims at each other's
throats.
● Resolution on Rights of minorities and India as a democratic and secular state: At the initiative of
Gandhiji and Nehru, the Congress now passed a resolution on “the rights of minorities” and India
would be “a democratic secular State where all citizens enjoy full rights and are equally entitled to
the protection of the State, irrespective of the religion to which they belong”.

29
 ● Death of Gandhi and response from the world: At his daily prayer meeting on the evening of 30
January, Gandhiji was shot dead by a young man. The assassin, who surrendered afterwards, was a
Brahmin from Pune named Nathuram Godse, the editor of an extremist Hindu newspaper who had
denounced Gandhiji as “an appeaser of Muslims”.
⮚ Gandhiji's death led to an extraordinary outpouring of grief, with rich tributes being paid to him
from across the political spectrum in India, and moving appreciations coming from such
international figures as George Orwell and Albert Einstein.
⮚ Time magazine, which had once mocked Gandhiji, now compared his martyrdom to that of
Abraham Lincoln: it was a bigoted American who had killed Lincoln for believing that human
beings were equal regardless of their race or skin colour; and it was a bigoted Hindu who had killed
Gandhiji for believing that friendship was possible, indeed necessary, between Indians of different
faiths.

Timeline:
● 1915: Mahatma Gandhi returns from South Africa.
● 1917: Champaran movement.
● 1918: Peasant movements in Kheda (Gujarat), and workers' movement in Ahmedabad.
● 1919: Rowlatt Satyagraha (March-April).
● 1919: Jallianwala Bagh massacre (April).
● 1921: Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movements.
● 1928: Peasant movement in Bardoli.
● 1929: “Purna Swaraj” accepted as Congress goal at the Lahore Congress (December).
● 1930: Civil Disobedience Movement begins; Dandi March (March-April).
● 1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March); Second Round Table Conference (December).
● 1935: Government of India Act promises some form of representative government.
● 1939: Congress ministries resign.
● 1942: Quit India Movement begins (August).
● 1946: Mahatma Gandhi visits Noakhali and other riot-torn areas to stop communal violence.

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 UNDERSTANDING PARTITION POLITICS,
5 MEMORIES, EXPERIENCES
The Partition of British India into the sovereign states of India and Pakistan led to many sudden
developments. Thousands of lives were snuffed out, many others changed dramatically, cities changed,
India changed, a new country was born, and there was unprecedented genocidal violence and migration.

A Momentous Marker:
● Several people were killed, and innumerable women were raped and abducted. Millions were
uprooted, transformed into refugees in alien lands.
● Some 15 million people had to move across hastily constructed frontiers separating India and Pakistan.
● The relationship between Pakistan and India has been profoundly shaped by this legacy of Partition.

Reasons for Partition:

Partition as a culmination of a communal politics that started developing in the opening decades of the
twentieth century.

Culminating Point of a Long History:

● Separate electorates for Muslims, created by the colonial government in 1909 and expanded in 1919,
shaped the nature of communal politics.
⮚ Separate electorates meant that Muslims could now elect their own representatives in
designated constituencies.
● During the 1920s and early 1930s, tension grew around a number of issues.
⮚ Muslims were angered by “music-before-mosque”,
⮚ Cow protection movement,
⮚ Efforts of the Arya Samaj to bring back to the Hindu fold (shuddhi) those who had recently
converted to Islam.
⮚ Hindus were angered by the rapid spread of tabligh (propaganda) and tanzim (organisation)
after 1923.

The Provincial Elections of 1937 and the Congress Ministries:

● In 1937, elections to the provincial legislatures were held for the first time, where only about 10 to 12
percent of the population enjoyed the right to vote.
● The Congress won an absolute majority in five out of eleven provinces and formed governments in
seven of them. It did badly in the constituencies reserved for Muslims.
● The Muslim League fared poorly, polling only 4.4 per cent of the total Muslim vote cast.
● In United Province, Congress had absolute majority but Muslim League wanted to form a joint
government, but Congress rejected the offer.
⮚ Scholars argue that this rejection convinced the League that if India remained united, then Muslims
would find it difficult to gain political power because they would remain a minority.
⮚ The League assumed that only a Muslim party could represent Muslim interests, and that the
Congress was a Hindu party.

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 ● While the leading Congress leaders insisted on the need for secularism, these ideas were not
completely accepted by the cadre and even the ministers.

The “Pakistan” Resolution:

● On 23 March 1940, the League moved a resolution demanding a measure of autonomy for the
Muslim majority areas of the subcontinent.
● The origins of the Pakistan demand have also been traced back to the Urdu poet Mohammad Iqbal,
the writer of “Sare Jahan Se Achha Hindustan Hamara”. In his presidential address to the Muslim
League in 1930, the poet spoke of a need for a “North-West Indian Muslim state”.

The Suddenness of Partition:

● Initially even Muslim leaders did not seriously raise the demand for Pakistan as a sovereign state, they
however wanted autonomy.
● It was the massive Quit India Movement which started in 1942, that brought the British Raj to its
knees and compelled its officials to open a dialogue with Indian parties regarding a possible transfer
of power.

Post-War Developments:
● In 1945, the British agreed to create an entirely Indian central Executive Council, except for the
Viceroy and the Commander -in-Chief of the armed forces.
● Further discussions broke down due to Jinnah's unrelenting demands that were as follows:
⮚ The League should have an absolute right to choose all the Muslim members of the Executive
Council.
⮚ A communal veto in the Council, with decisions opposed by Muslims needing a two thirds majority.
● However, a large section of nationalist Muslims supported the Congress, and the delegation of
Unionist Party was Muslim dominated.
● In Provincial elections of 1946, the Congress swept the general constituencies, capturing 91.3
percent of the non-Muslim vote, whereas the League won 86.6 per cent of the Muslim votes.

A Possible Alternative to Partition:

● In March 1946, the Cabinet Mission suggested:
⮚ A loose three-tier confederation but India was to remain united.
⮚ It was to have a weak central government controlling only foreign affairs, defence and
communications.
⮚ The existing provincial assemblies being grouped into three sections while electing the
constituent assembly:
o Section A for the Hindu majority provinces,
o Sections B and C for the Muslim-majority provinces of the north-west and the north-east
(including Assam) respectively.

32
 ● Neither the League nor the Congress agreed to the Cabinet Mission's proposal.
● This was a most crucial juncture, because after this partition became inevitable.

Towards Partition:
● Muslim League announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”.
⮚ On this day, riots broke out in Calcutta, lasting several days and leaving several dead.
⮚ By March 1947 violence spread to many parts of northern India.
● It was in March 1947 that the Congress voted for dividing the Punjab and Bengal into two halves.

The Withdrawal of Law and Order:

● Due to the collapse of the institutions of governance, the bloodbath continued for about a year from
March 1947 onwards.
● Penderel Moon, an administrator serving in Bahawalpur (in present-day Pakistan) at the time, noted
how the police failed to fire even a single shot when arson and killings were taking place in Amritsar in
March 1947.
● Amritsar district became the scene of bloodshed later in the year when there was a complete
breakdown of authority in the city.
● British officials did not know how to handle the situation, they were unwilling to take decisions, and
hesitant to intervene.
● The top leadership of the Indian parties, barring Mahatma Gandhi, were involved in negotiations
regarding independence.

The One-man Army:

● The 77-year-old Gandhiji decided to stake his all in a bid to vindicate his lifelong principle of non-
violence, and his conviction that people's hearts could be changed.
● He travelled to every corner of the country to restore communal harmony.

Gendering Partition
“Recovering” women:
● Women were raped, abducted, sold, many times over, forced to settle down to a new life with
strangers in unknown circumstances.
● According to an estimate, 30,000 women were “recovered” overall, 22,000 Muslim women in India
and 8000 Hindu and Sikh women in Pakistan, in an operation that ended as late as 1954.

Preserving “honour”:
● Idea of preserving community honour came into play in this period of extreme physical and
psychological danger.
● Virility lay in the ability to protect your possessions – zan (women) and zamin (land) from being
appropriated by outsiders.

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 ● When the men feared that “their” women, wives, daughters, sisters, would be violated by the “enemy”,
they killed the women themselves.

Regional Variations:
● Many Muslim families of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh
continued to migrate to Pakistan through the 1950s and early 1960s.
● Most of these Urdu-speaking people, known as muhajirs (migrants) in Pakistan moved to the
Karachi-Hyderabad region in Sind.
● In Bengal, the migration was even more protracted, with people moving across a porous border.
⮚ Many Bengali Hindus remained in East Pakistan while many Bengali Muslims continued to live in
West Bengal.
⮚ Finally, Bengali Muslims (East Pakistanis) rejected Jinnah's two-nation theory by creating
Bangladesh in 1971-72.

Timeline:
● 1930: The Urdu poet Mohammad Iqbal speaks of the need for a “North-West Indian Muslim state” as
an autonomous unit within a single, loose Indian federation.
● 1933: The name Pakistan or Pak-stan is coined by a Punjabi Muslim student at Cambridge, Choudhry
Rehmat Ali.
● 1937-39: Congress ministries come to power in seven out of 11 provinces of British India.
● 1940: The Muslim League moves a resolution at Lahore demanding a measure of autonomy for the
Muslim-majority areas.
● 1946: Elections are held in the provinces. The Congress wins massively in the general constituencies.
The League's success in the Muslim seats is equally spectacular.
● 1946 March to June: The British Cabinet sends a three-member Cabinet Mission to Delhi.
● 1946 August: The Muslim League decides on “Direct Action” for winning Pakistan.
● 1946, 16 August: Violence breaks out between Hindus-Sikhs and Muslims in Calcutta, lasting several
days and leaving several thousand dead.
● 1947 March: The Congress high command votes for dividing the Punjab into Muslim-majority and
Hindu/Sikh-majority halves and asks for the application of a similar principle to Bengal; the British
begin to quit India.
● 1947, 14-15 August: Pakistan is formed; India gains independence. Mahatma Gandhi tours Noakhali
in East Bengal to restore communal harmony.

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 Interesting points

● The Lucknow Pact of December 1916 was an understanding between the Congress and the
Muslim League whereby the Congress accepted separate electorates. The pact provided a joint
political platform for the Moderates, Radicals and the Muslim League
● Arya Samaj: It is a Hindu reform organisation of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, particularly active in the Punjab, sought to revive Vedic learning and combine it with
modern education in the sciences.
● Hindu Mahasabha: Founded in 1915, it remained confined to North India. It aimed to unite Hindu
society by encouraging the Hindus to transcend the divisions of caste and sect.
● The Muslim League: Initially floated in Dhaka in 1906, the Muslim League was quickly taken over
by the U.P.-based Muslim elite. The party began to make demands for autonomy for the Muslim-
majority areas of the subcontinent and/or Pakistan in the 1940s.

35
 FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION
6 THE BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA
The Constitution of India was framed between December 1946 and November 1949 which finally came
into effect on 26th January 1950. The years immediately preceding the making of the Constitution had been
exceptionally tumultuous as:
● Memory of the Quit India struggle of 1942 was fresh,
● Bid by Subhas Chandra Bose to win freedom through armed struggle with foreign aid,
● Rising of the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay and other cities in 1946, and
● The Great Calcutta Killings of August 1946.

The Making of the Constituent Assembly:

● The idea of constituent assembly was first proposed by M.N Roy in 1934. Later, under the Cabinet
Mission Plan of 1946, elections were held for the formation of the constituent assembly.
● The Constituent Assembly was formed for the purpose of writing a constitution for independent
India.
● The members of the Constituent Assembly were not elected on the basis of universal franchise but
chosen by the Provincial Legislatures to which elections were held in 1945-46.
● 82 per cent of the members of the Constituent Assembly were also members of the Congress.
● The Muslim League boycotted the Constituent Assembly, pressing its demand for Pakistan with a
separate constitution.
● In order to create a sense of collective participation, the public was also asked to send in their views
on what needed to be done.
● Many of the linguistic minorities wanted the protection of their mother tongue, religious minorities
asked for special safeguards, while dalits demanded an end to all caste oppression and reservation of
seats in government bodies.
● Important issues of cultural rights and social justice raised in these public discussions were also
debated on the floor of the Assembly.

The Dominant Voices:

● The Constituent Assembly had 300 members. Of these, six members played particularly important
roles.
● Jawaharlal Nehru moved the crucial “Objectives Resolution”. He also proposed that the National Flag
of India be a “horizontal tricolour of saffron, white and dark green in equal proportion”, with a wheel
in navy blue at the centre.
● Vallabh Bhai Patel worked mostly behind the scenes, playing a key role in the drafting of several
reports, and working to reconcile opposing points of view.
● Rajendra Prasad's role was as President of the Assembly, where he had to steer the discussion along
constructive lines while making sure all members had a chance to speak.
● B.R. Ambedkar served as Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution.
⮚ Other members of the drafting committee are K.M. Munshi from Gujarat and Alladi Krishnaswamy
Aiyar from Madras, N. Gopalaswami, Mohammad Saadulla, B.L. Mitter, D.P. Khaitan.
● B. N. Rau was the Constitutional Advisor to the Government of India.

36
The Vision of the Constitution:
● On 13 December 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the “Objectives Resolution” in the Constituent
Assembly.
⮚ It proclaimed India to be an “Independent Sovereign Republic”,
⮚ Guaranteed its citizens justice, equality and freedom,
⮚ Assured adequate safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and Depressed and Other
Backward Classes.

Defining Rights:
There was continuous debate in the Constituent Assembly over the rights of individual citizens and special
rights for oppressed groups and minorities.

Later, Nehru in his inaugural speech, had invoked the “will of the people” and declared that the makers of the
Constitution had to fulfil “the passions that lie in the hearts of the masses”. However, with the anticipation of
Independence, different groups expressed their will in different ways, and made different demands.

The Problem with Separate Electorates:

● The demand for separate electorates provoked anger and dismay amongst most nationalists. Most
nationalists saw separate electorates as a measure deliberately introduced by the British to divide the
people.
● Sardar Patel considered it as a demand that had turned one community against another, divided the
nation, caused bloodshed, and led to the tragic partition of the country.
● By 1949, most Muslim members of the Constituent Assembly agreed that separate electorates were
against the interests of the minorities.

The Powers of the State:

● Respective rights of the Central Government and the states were vigorously debated in the
Constituent Assembly.
● The Draft Constitution provided for three lists of subjects such as Union List, State List, and
Concurrent List.
● The Constitution also mandated for a complex system of fiscal federalism.
● It was debated that the centre was overburdened with powers and responsibility and that it was
necessary to strengthen the states.
● The rights of the states were most eloquently defended by K. Santhanam from Madras.
● Dr. B. R. Ambedkar had advocated for a strong and united Centre, much stronger than the Centre,
created under the Government of India Act of 1935.

The Language of the Nation:

● By the 1930s, the Congress had accepted that Hindustani ought to be the national language.

37
 ● Mahatma Gandhi felt that everyone should speak in a language that common people could easily
understand.
● Hindustani – a blend of Hindi and Urdu – was a popular language of a large section of the people of
India and Gandhi ji thought it could unify Hindus and Muslims.

A Plea for Hindi:

● There was a strong demand for Hindi to be made the national language, but it met with equal
resistance from non-Hindi speaking members.
● It was decided that for the first fifteen years, English would continue to be used for all official purposes
and each province was allowed to choose one of the regional languages for official work within the
province.
● By referring to Hindi as the official rather that the national language, the Language Committee of the
Constituent Assembly hoped to placate ruffled emotions.

The Fear of Domination:

● Members of the Constituent Assembly from Southern part of India argued that sentiment against
Hindi was strong in their region.
● They, however, said that Hindustani could be accepted due to persuasion of Mahatma Gandhi, but
Hindi could not be forced upon the people.

Timeline:
1945:
● 26 July: Labour Government comes into power in Britain.
1946:
● 16 May: Cabinet Mission announces its constitutional scheme.
● 6 June: Cabinet Mission presents scheme for the formation of an Interim Government at the Centre.
● 16 June: Muslim League accepts Cabinet Mission's constitutional scheme.
● 16 August: Muslim League announces Direct Action Day.
● 2 September: Congress forms Interim Government with Nehru as the Vice-President.
● 13 October: Muslim League decides to join the Interim Government.
● 3-6 December: British Prime Minister, Attlee, meets some Indian leaders; talks fail.
● 9 December: Constituent Assembly begins its sessions.
1947:
● 29 January: Muslim League demands dissolution of Constituent Assembly.
● 16 July: Last meeting of the Interim Government.
● 11 August: Jinnah elected President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.
● 14 August: Pakistan Independence; celebrations in Karachi.
● 14-15 August: At midnight India celebrates Independence.
1949:
● December: Constitution is signed.

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