11th sociology

Chapter 1

Question 1:
Why is the study of the origin and growth of sociology important?
Answer :

Sociology is the study of social life of humans, their groups and societies. The
subject matter of sociology is our own behaviour as social beings. It is important to
study this subject, in order to understand the society as a whole. Hence, sociology
helps us in the understanding of interconnectedness of the social systems across. It
is important to study the origin and growth of sociology because it helps in shaping
the subject matter according to its principles and perceptions. The study of the origin
of the subject also helps us to understand the ideas that led to its origin.
Sociology studies societies that are different in size, characteristics, etc. by using
certain methods, material contexts and methodologies. The study of growth of
sociology shows the new ideas that were involved in making it a distinct subject of
social science. These ideas which were gradually involved in bringing up this subject
affects its subject-matter. Therefore, studying the origin and growth of sociology is
important to understand the various institutions and their functions present in the
society.
Question 2:
Discuss the different aspects of the term ‘society’. How is it different from your
common sense understanding?
Answer :

The different aspects of the term ‘society’ have been made by early sociologists like
Auguste Comte, Karl Marx and Herbert Spencer. They classified the societies into
two broad groups:
(i) Pre-modern societies such as, hunters and gatherers, pastoral and agrarian and
non-industrial civilisations.
(ii) Modern societies such as the industrial societies.
Sociology studies society on the basis of some rules and principles that depend on
concepts, data and methods. On the other hand, our common sense understanding
of the society depends on our naturalistic or individualistic understanding.
Common sense knowledge does not question its own origins but Sociology has both
the systematic and questioning approach that is derived from a broader tradition of
scientific investigation.
In our common sense understanding of the society, the aspect of the term ‘society’
is very limited which is quite different from that of sociology.
Question 3:
Discuss how there is greater give and take among disciplines today.
Answer :

The give and take among disciplines today, is discussed below:

(i) Sociology, as a subject studies the society in the form of social behaviour, social
institutions, social policies and programmes that get affected from the historical,
political and economic policies.
(ii) Political Science studies the polity of the country. The political atmosphere,
political policies, etc. have an impact on society and its economy. Sociology has
shared common interests of research with political science. Political sociology
focuses mainly on the study of political behaviour of the various institutions and their
interactions. Studies have been conducted to understand sociological reasons for
support of political parties, the role of gender in politics, the process of decision
making in organisations, etc.
(iii) The economy is the subject matter of economics that studies economic activities,
economic policies etc. that gets affected by political policies and the needs of the
society. The economic behaviour and activities are looked upon through sociological
approach in a broader context of social norms, practices, values and interests. Also,
the subject of economic sociology has been introduced, because of the wide and
critical perspective of both sociology and economics.
(iv) History as a subject has been different from sociology. However, the historians
nowadays have started using sociological methods and concepts to understand the
social matters, gender relations, customs and other important institutions of the past.
(v) Psychology is the science of behaviour. Society gets affected from individual
behaviour in collective form and even the individual behaviour is affected by the
society that makes sociology and psychology interrelated. This has introduced the
subject of social psychology, which studies the primary interest in the individual by
observing his/her behaviour in social groups.
(vi) Anthropologists study simple societies whereas sociology studies complex
societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology are of concern for
sociologists. Anthropology is often regarded as the sister discipline of sociology.
Polity, economy and society are interrelated and get affected by each other.
Therefore, these three subjects are necessary to be studied together. Hence, the
different disciplines of social sciences such as anthropology, economics, political
science, history and psychology are interrelated as they share common interests,
concepts and methods.
Question 4:
Identify any personal problem that you or your friends or relatives are facing.
Attempt a sociological understanding.
Answer :

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.
One sample answer has been provided to you:
My uncle and aunt are looking for a groom for my cousin. They are looking for a boy
who is well-qualified, government officer, decent and has a good family background.
However, my cousin wants a well-natured husband who might not be a government
officer. She is looking for someone who would provide her freedom to pursue her
career and allow her to live the way she wants to. Her family wants a government
officer who can make them feel socially and financially strong. They also want the
boy to be of same community because of social pressure, but my cousin wants a
loving husband irrespective of his community background.
In the above example, it is clear that personal choice is often affected by one’s
individual needs and thoughts.
The girl holds a modern thinking and does not believe in the barrier of caste or
community to find a soul mate. Her views are shaped with the changing environment
of her work place and peer group. On the other hand, her parents are affected by
their community and feel the pressure from the society to find a son-in-law who
belongs to their own social group. The views/opinions of the parents mentioned
above are formed by the pressure of society and the wish to have a government
officer as their son-in-law arises from their own need. Therefore, we can say that our
needs and opinions or views are formed by the various institutions of society, such
as work places, peer groups, etc.

Chapter 2

Terms, Concepts and their Use in SociologyTerms, Concepts and

their Use in Sociology
Question 1:
Why do we need to use special terms and concepts in sociology?
Answer :

We need to use special terms and concepts in sociology to understand the society
better. In sociology, there are different ways of understanding the society. For
example, Max Weber gave importance to individuals for existence of a society
whereas Emile Durkheim laid emphasis on society as a whole.
For Karl Marx, the key concepts were class and conflict to understand society
whereas for Emile Durkheim, social solidarity and collective conscience were
important.
There are different kinds of individuals and groups in society that leads to different
concepts and ideas. Therefore, we need special terms and concepts in sociology to
differentiate it from our common sense knowledge of society.
An individual studies the society on the basis of his/her own common sense, which
is often within a limited range, while sociology provides specific concepts and terms
to study the structure, phenomenon and functions of the society in a scientific way.

Question 2:
As a member of society you must be interacting with and in different groups. How do
you see these groups from a sociological perspective?
Answer :
(Within different groups)
We interact with different groups in our daily lives. The students of a classroom form
a social group of that class and an individual (you) is a part of that group.
The individual has some of the classmates as his/her friends and this group of
friends forms the primary group where interaction takes place with intimacy and co-
operation while the rest of the class forms the secondary group.
The group of students of the class sharing common interest and ideas interact with
each other in a formal manner. The friends of the individual from the class also
shares common interests and ideas but with informal ways of interaction.
(In different groups)
An individual also interacts with the students association which forms a secondary
group based on specific goals. The individual discusses his/her school problems
with the members of these groups and the members help him/her.
Question 3:
What have you observed about the stratification system existing in your society?
How are individual lives affected by stratification?
Answer :

Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between groups

in a society, in terms of their access to materials or symbolic rewards. Historically,
there have been four basic systems of stratification- slavery, caste, estate and class.
In India, there are several stratifications on the basis of caste, class, gender etc. In
several organisations, stratification exists on the basis of the roles of the employees.
The life of the individuals is affected by stratification because people are placed in
higher or lower strata. The lower strata is devoid of certain symbolic rewards and
material advantages which improve the quality of the life of the recipient such as
wealth, income, health, security in a job, etc. On the other hand, the higher strata
enjoys all the benefits of the society. These material benefits or privileged position
are also passed on to the future generations of the higher strata.
Question 4:
What is social control? Do you think the modes of social control in different spheres
of society are different? Discuss.
Answer :
Social control refers to the social processes, techniques and strategies by which the
behaviour of an individual or a group is regulated.
There are two types of social control:
(i) The formal social control, which is formal, official and codified. Its agents are law
and the state.
(ii) Informal social control, which is personal, unofficial and uncodified. For example,
family, religion and kinship. This mode of social control is very effective in our daily
life. However, this form of social control may not be adequate to enforce conformity
or obedience.
Social control can also be either positive or negative, as in the case of sanctions. It
is a mode of reward or punishment that enforces socially expected forms of
behaviour. In this case, individuals are rewarded for their good behaviour and are
punished for their offence in the society.
The modes of social control in different societies are different because in pre-
modern societies, the caste system controlled and regulated the activities of
individuals and kept a check on violation against the prescribed norms. Likewise, in
modern societies the government and the state control its citizens and act as agents
of social order.
Different societies have different norms and values, different structure and functions.
Therefore, they have accordingly different techniques and strategies of social
control.
Question 5:
Identify the different roles and status that you play and are located in. Do you think
roles and status change? Discuss when and how they change.
Answer :

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.
One sample answer has been provided to you:
An individual (you) has many roles and status. For instance, a student whose duty is
to study, also plays the role of a son or a daughter. He/she enjoys the status of
being a son or a daughter. This status will not change but a new status of husband
or wife would get attached to him/her once he/she gets married. Later, the status of
being a mother or a father would also apply to him/her.
Not only this, but the individual also plays the role of a brother, sister, nephew,
niece, friend, etc.
Similarly, the status and duties of being a student would change accordingly, once
his/her studies get over and he/she gets employed.
In this way, the status and role of the individual (you) changes according to time and
place and the new status and roles get attached to the individual.

Chapter 3

Understanding Social Institutions

Question 1:

Note what are the marriage rules that are followed in your society? Compare your
observations with these made by other students in the class. Discuss.
Answer :

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.
One sample answer has been provided to you:
Every society comprises several types and rules of marriage. Our society particularly
follows monogamy. Monogamy is a system of marriage wherein one man can marry
only one woman, and one woman can only marry one man. People are only allowed
to re-marry after the death of their spouse or after a divorce. Thus, they cannot have
more than one spouse at the same time.
Generally, the marriages are fixed by the parents and this is known as arrange
marriage. Parents choose the relevant partners for their sons and daughters.
However, some people also prefer love marriages and their partners are self
chosen.
Some societies also practice the rules of polygamy and polygyny, wherein the men
and women can have multiple partners as their wives and husbands respectively.
However, this practice is not allowed in laws of marriage of some religions.
Question 2:
Find out how membership, residence pattern and even the mode of interaction
changes in the family with broader economic, political and cultural changes, for
instance migration.
Answer :

Family is an institution where its members live together under one roof and have
cordial relationships. It is affected by broader political, economic and cultural
activities of the society. Some examples of the way these activities of the society
affect the family are:
Cultural Change
With the change in culture, the membership, residence pattern and mode of
interaction within a family also changes. For example, in a matrilineal society the
women play a major role in decision-making in the family. However, in a patriarchal
society, men exercise authority and dominance over the family.
Another example of cultural change is the preference or resistance towards
individualism. If the members of a family are individualistic, then there are chances
of having a nuclear family. On the other hand, increase in the inter-personal
relationships leads to a joint family.
Political Change
During post-unification period in the 1990s, Germany witnessed a rapid decline in
the number of marriages because the new German state withdrew all the protection
and welfare schemes which were provided to the families prior to the unification.
This is an example of broader political change influencing the family.
Economic Change
When a society undergoes economic changes, even the family gets affected
indirectly. For example, industrialisation has led to the emergence of nuclear families
and women have also adopted instrumental roles in the family.
Migration
Due to economic instability in a society, people migrate in search of work. For
example, people from a flood affected village migrate to cities in search of new
homes and new jobs. In some cases, women stay at their village and perform
household activities, while the husbands migrate to the city for work.
Migration also leads to a change in the housing pattern because the people who
migrate from villages have to live in slums and in tents. Similarly, in village they live
with their parents and other relatives but in the city they either have to stay alone or
with their husband or wife and children only. This change depicts a change in the
membership pattern of the family.
Question 3:
Write an essay on `work’. Focus on both the range of occupations, which exist and
how they change.
Answer :

Work means carrying out activities that require expenditure of mental and physical
effort and can be paid or unpaid. It has the objective of production of goods and
services that cater to human needs. Mainly, paid work is considered as real work
and paid workers are referred to as being employed.
There are two types of occupations, namely informal and formal.
The informal employment is found in the unorganised sector of the society, whereas
the formal employment is found in the organised sector of the society.
Informal employment is mostly unrecorded and the workers are not paid on a regular
basis. Also, the payment is made either in terms of money or as goods or services.
Informal employment mostly includes physical work, whereas in the formal
employment both physical and mental work is involved. Also, workers are paid a
regular salary in terms of money.
Before industrialisation, in traditional societies, the work was performed in house
itself. This formed the informal employment. However, after industrialisation, with the
advancement of technology, work shifted from home to factories and offices, forming
the formal sector of employment.
These occupations change gradually. For instance, as the variety of work expanded
and became complicated, it led to a specialised division of labour. Human labour
was replaced by machines and Industrialisation broke down processes into simple
operations that could be precisely timed, organised and monitored.
Question 4:
Discuss the kind of rights that exist in your society. How do they affect your life?
Answer :
There are three kinds of rights that exist in our society:
(i) Political rights such as participation in the formation of the government by casting
vote.
(ii) Civil rights, such as freedom of speech, choice of religion, the right to equal
justice before the law. The citizen has the freedom to live anywhere in the state
territory and has the right to own property irrespective of his/her gender.
(iii) Social rights, such as health benefits, unemployment allowance, and setting of
minimum level of wages. The citizen can enjoy a minimum standard of economic
welfare and security.
These rights help in the smooth functioning of life of individuals, as they help in the
growth of personality. For instance, the individual can go for higher studies of his/
her subject of interest, he/she can learn any form of music and dance, and can also
practice any religion. Therefore, the individual has right to make his/her own choice
and can also demand justice by appealing to the court.
Question 5:
How does sociology study religion?
Answer :

Sociology studies religion as an institution and conducts it in three ways:

(i) An empirical study on the various functions of religion and its interrelatedness to
the society.
(ii) It uses a comparative method.
(iii) It investigates the religious beliefs and practices in relation to other aspects of
the society.
There are different groups of religion that originated with the change and need of the
society such as Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Jainism, etc.
Religion has certain beliefs, norms, rules and regulations that are expected to be
followed by its members, which govern and regulate their behaviour.
Further, religion has had a very close relationship with power and politics. There
have been many social movements which were carried out on the basis of religion.
Classical sociologists believed that as societies have modernised, the influence of
religion on the lives of individuals has decreased, which has led to secularism.
Many thinkers of sociology have presented their theories upon religion and their
origin. For example, Max Weber in his study, The Protestant Ethic and The Rise of
Capitalism viewed that capitalism was a result of Calvinism and their thinking of
increasing the economic activity, in order to please the god.
Similarly, Emile Durkhiem presented the view of differentiating the sacred from the
profane that existed in religious societies.
Further religion is not only a private matter of individual but it also has a public
character, as it holds strong ties with other institutions like politics, economics,
education and marriage and kinship.
Question 6:
Write an essay on school as a social institution. Draw from both your reading as well
as your personal observations.
Answer :

The need for education gave rise to schools, and sociology terms this need as a
process of transmission or communication of group heritage, which is common to all
the societies.
The schools function in order to discipline and regulate human behaviour. Hence,
acting as a permanent and binding character.
Furthermore, Ginsberg defines the established institutions as “the recognized and
established usage governing the relations between individuals and groups”, and
schools are established institutions that provide formal education to students.
They have their own norms and values and certain rules and regulations that are to
be followed.
According to Durkheim, for its survival, a society needs a common base − a certain
number of ideas, sentiments and practices which education must inculcate in all
children indiscriminately.
For functionalists, education system maintains and develops the social structure and
culture. For those who perceive society as unequally differentiated, education
functions as one of the main stratifying agent.
According to common sense knowledge of a lay man, schools provide with one of
the basic components of socialisation. As a child grows and learns to become a part
of the group amongst his/her peers, this process of inculcating the values and norms
of the society starts. Thus, the individual becomes a part of the society.
Question 7:
Discuss how these social institutions interact with each other. You can start the
discussion from yourself as a senior school student. And move on to how you are
shaped by different social institutions. Are you entirely controlled or can you also
resist and redefine social institutions?
Answer :

All the social institutions of marriage, family and kinship, politics, education,
economics and religion interact and affect each other.
For instance, religion had its deep impact on the various spheres of social and
cultural life of the individuals affecting the family, marriage, kinship and education.
The religious institutions were so strong that they even had their affect on political
and economic institutions of the society.
The religion gave way to the capitalism and had the strongest position in the society.
However, in modern societies religion comparatively has become less influential. But
still has its hold on marriage, family, kinship and politics
Even in contemporary societies, family, kinship and marriages are affected by
religion. Similarly, the family and marriages are getting affected by economic and
political policies of the state as well. The functions of the family members are also
indirectly decided by the policies of the state leading to the fragmentation of family.
These institutions offer many new opportunities while some even constrain the
individuals. It is very difficult to resist and redefine any social institution but this can
be done through social movements and protests.
Chapter 4

Culture and Socialisation

Question 1:
How does the understanding of culture in social science differ from the everyday use
of the word `culture’?
Answer :
The use of the word ‘culture’ in everyday life is limited, which refers to the artistic
performances such as dance, music, painting, drama etc. But social science
understands culture in a scientific and prescribed way that is not only limited to
drawing and painting but more than it. Culture has shaped our life and the society as
a whole. In sociological terms, culture implies the common understanding which is
learnt and developed through social interaction and then passed on to the next
generation.
Therefore, in everyday use, the term culture is used for individuals, whereas in
sociology, it is used to denote the entire group or the society.
Edward Tylor was the first anthropologist to define culture that includes abstract and
intangible dimensions. Later, Bronislaw Malinowski defined culture, which included
the use of materials as well.
Question 2:
How can we demonstrate that the different dimensions of culture comprise a whole?
Answer :

There are three dimensions of culture cognitive, normative and material that
comprise a whole.
(i) Cognitive: It refers to how we learn to process what we see and hear so as to give
it a meaning. For example, looking at a flag and associating it with the country to
which it belongs. Symbolising the waving of hand as a means of saying goodbye.
Thus, every culture has given a different meaning to different actions.
(ii) Normative: It refers to the rules of conduct. Every society has some rules
according to which its members have to behave. As a result, this behaviour and
action of the individuals become the culture of that society.
(iii) Material: It includes any activity which is made possible by the means of
materials. It also includes tools and machines, which is said to be a part of the
culture.
In the present industrial societies, advanced technology and machines are used.
Some societies use them in abundance such as, USA while some do not make
much use of it, such as Afghanistan. Thus, use of various materials in different ways
for various purposes shows the culture of that society.
Therefore, culture can be identified as material and non-material. Both material and
non-material dimensions work together as a whole in a society for the proper and
integrated functioning of the culture. The use of materials having different notions
and ways of understanding different signs and symbols with certain rules of conduct
as a whole describes the culture of that society.
Question 3:
Compare two cultures with which you are familiar. Is it difficult not to be
ethnocentric?
Answer :

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.
One sample answer has been provided to you:
The two cultures with which we are familiar are:
(i) Urban culture
(ii) Rural culture
The urban culture represents the life in a city, while the rural culture represents the
life in a village. In a city, there are industries for people to work with machines, on
the other hand, in a village people work in farms to produce crops. The life in
villages is simpler and traditional as compared to that of the life in a city. In a city,
there is an emphasis on individualism, while in villages more importance is given to
groups.
Hence, the way of life, culture, occupation and thinking is different in urban and rural
areas.
Ethnocentrism means giving value to one’s own culture and regarding the other
culture as inferior. Yes, it is difficult not to be ethnocentric because people mostly
give value and superiority to one’s own culture. If we compare the villages and cities,
it would be obvious that the villagers carry the notion that their culture is better
because it is embedded with societal norms, values and traditions. On the other
hand, the city dwellers would consider their culture superior because it is modern
and liberal.
Historically also, the colonialists considered their culture superior and better to that
of the colonised countries. The notion of ethnocentrism generates differences and
wars between many ethnic and racial groups. For example, the riots of Godhra and
Babri Masjid were a result of ethnocentrism.
Therefore, it is correct to say that it is difficult for people not to be ethnocentric even
in contemporary societies.
Question 4:
Discuss two different approaches to studying cultural change.
Answer :

Cultural change is a way in which society changes its patterns of culture. Cultural
change takes place through the process of adaptation, contact with other cultures
and changes in the natural environment. This change is associated with many
sources that can be external factors or can be the internal adjustments of the
culture.
There are two different approaches of cultural change:
(i) Evolutionary
(ii) Revolutionary
Evolutionary change is slow, for instance in the case of education. In ancient times,
the individuals were often taught orally. Gradually with the discovery of paper,
writing and publication of books started. Eventually, new subjects were introduced
according to the need of the society. Further, with the introduction of
industrialisation, focus on professional courses also increased and with the
introduction of information technology and globalisation the new ways of teaching
emerged. Finally, several instruments and gadgets like computer and use of internet
was invented.
Contrary to this, revolutionary change is fast. For instance, revolutionary change
takes place through political intervention, as in the case of France. After the French
Revolution the estate system of ranking was destroyed and the values of liberty and
equality in the society were established. This was a radical change in the society
and its culture.
Question 5:
Is cosmopolitanism something you associate with modernity? Observe and give
examples of ethnocentrism.
Answer :
Cosmopolitanism means valuing other cultures for their difference. A cosmopolitan
perception is always ready to adapt other cultures and share its own culture with
others.
In this process of sharing, neither foreign culture becomes the legitimate part of
one’s own culture, nor does the indigenous culture lose its base. Hence, it respects
every culture.
Cosmopolitanism is associated with modernity, in contemporary period, as it is
emerging in most parts of the world. Since modernity has to deal with time,
cosmopolitanism is phenomenon of the modern world.
Ethnocentrism, on the other hand, refers to the standard cultural values that are
considered more superior to that of cultural values of others. For example, the
British people were ethnocentric as they regarded the Indian culture as primitive and
orthodox. Similarly, the people belonging to cities consider the people of villages
inferior to them. The above examples show that unlike cosmopolitanism,
ethnocentrism ranks the culture as superior or inferior.
Question 6:
What in your mind is the most effective agent of socialisation for your generation?
How do you think it was different before?
Answer :

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.
One sample answer has been provided to you:
In contemporary time, the mass media has emerged as a strong agent of
socialisation. Earlier, family and the peer group was the socialising agent in an
individual’s life. However, now, due to penetration of information technology into the
house, people spend more time in front of computers and television sets, than being
with their families and friends.
Children have started adopting new ways from what they watch on televisions. For
instance, they choose their own career and lead a self-chosen lifestyle. They stay
connected with their friends through internet and they even depend on the internet
for their studies. Hence, their dependence on visual media is much more than that of
print media.
Not only children, but even women, men and old age people are getting affected by
mass media. Magazines, newspapers, radio, advertisements, etc. provide
information on various aspects such as health, decoration, eating habits etc. Mass
media has therefore spread itself in every sphere of our lives.
It gives a shape to our personality and ideas at every stage of life. It had its influence
on the society earlier as well but this influence was little.
Thus, it is a boon for our society, as mass media has connected the world with one
touch. For instance, on internet, information is available with just one click and with a
touch one can view everything on television. Mass media has affected the society
and also promoted globalisation. It has decreased the distance between different
parts of the world.
Life before introduction of mass media was very different as people had very little
information of the rest of the world. There was no television, radio, newspaper or
internet. People in earlier days had to make a lot of effort to gather information and
also to spread it.

Chapter 5
Doing Sociology: Research Methods

Question 1:
Why is the question of a scientific method particularly important in sociology?
Answer :

The question of scientific method is important because it helps sociologists to

acquire knowledge.
Sociologist deals with different societies whose culture may be similar or different.
They have to conduct research and field work in which they need to take opinions
and feelings of people or respondent in that area. Hence, sociologists try to adopt an
objective point of view which is neutral and not based on one’s own perception.
Some sociologists like Emile Durkhiem believed that in order to study the society
with objectivity, it is important to have a scientific approach. Therefore a need for
scientific method was felt. He even carried out a scientific study on the phenomenon
of ‘suicide’ by giving various rules in sociological method.

Question 2:
What are some of the reasons for `objectivity’ being more complicated in social
sciences, particularly disciplines like sociology?
Answer :

Objectivity means being unbiased, neutral or based on facts alone.

(i) In case of social science, especially sociology, objectivity becomes more
complicated because, like every human, there are some notions perceived by
sociologists which make it difficult for him/her to study the culture and norms of a
different society in a neutral manner. This can lead to incorrect research.
(ii) The sociologist who is conducting a research can also get biased if the issues
are related to his/her society and can imply his/her personal notions to that study.
Hence, despite of being reflexive there are chances of unconscious bias.
(iii) There are many versions of truth in the social world. A boy and an old person
would have different notions on a particular thing. A shopkeeper and a customer
would have different ideas regarding the ‘good price’ of a product. Thus, there is no
universal truth in social sciences, making them difficult to arrive at a conclusion.
(iv) Sociology is a ‘multi-paradigmatic’ science. There are different schools of
thought that sometimes contradict each other. As a result, ‘objectivity’ becomes
complicated in social sciences, especially sociology.

Question 3:
How do sociologists try to deal with these difficulties and strive for objectivity?
Answer :

To deal with the problem of objectivity sociologists use the technique of ‘self-
reflexivity’ or ‘reflexivity’. The sociologist views opinions, norms or behavioural
patterns of different societies from all the perspectives. The sociologist continuously
subjects her own attitudes and opinions to self-examination. Also, emphasis is laid
on proper documentation of the research. This helps others to retrace the steps
taken by the sociologist and scrutinise the study that has been conducted. It also
helps the sociologist to check and recheck his/her work. The sociologist then tries to
judge different conceptions of people.
Thus, the sociologists take objectivity as a goal of a continuous ongoing process
rather than an already achieved end result.
Question 4:
What is meant by `reflexivity’ and why is it important in sociology?
Answer :

‘Self-reflexivity’ or ‘reflexivity’ is a technique to deal with the problem related to

objectivity in social science and is closely related to empathy. In this, the social
scientist views different opinions of the people in an unbiased or a neutral manner.
Attaining objectivity is a difficult and complicated task in social science therefore,
reflexivity becomes very important to carry out social research.
There are different schools of thought within the subject of sociology that study
issues from different perceptions and ideologies. At these places the sociologist
uses reflexivity.
Question 5:
What are some of the things that ethnographers and sociologists do during
participant observation?
Answer :

Participant observation is a method to study societies. Ethnographers and

sociologists use this method when they have to conduct field work that may last for
months and years. Some of the things that ethnographers and sociologists do during
participant observation are:
(i) They either live or spend most of their time with the community people upon
which the research is to be carried out.
(ii) The sociologist or the ethnographer almost becomes like a part of the
community.
(iii) They participate with the communities in their rituals and customs, and record
the observations on a regular basis.
(iv) The sociologists and ethnographers have limited people from the community on
whom they depend for the information. These people are called informants or
principal informants.
(v) Although the sociologist’s goal is to study a specific area of interest, but the
overall goal of the participant observation is to learn about the entire life of
community.
Question 6:
What are the strengths and weaknesses of participant observation as a method?
Answer :

Participant observation is a micro method used in conducting field work. Its

strengths and weaknesses are mentioned below:
Strengths
(i)It provides a very rich and detailed picture of the people on whom the research is
being conducted.
(ii)The sociologist can talk to the native people of the community directly which helps
in the authenticity of the data.
(iii)The sociologist is free to ask endless number of questions to the person. This is
not possible in case of questionnaire and survey.
(iv)A daily record is maintained which reduces the chances of incomplete data.
(v) It helps in correcting initial impressions that may often be biased.
(vi) Because of the long hours spend with the field many errors and biases are
avoided that are present in other methods.
Weaknesses
(i) The method involves a lot of time and effort.
(ii) It also involves lot of expenses during the work.
(iii) It is not necessary that the report consists of the views of the insider or of the
sociologist, as the sociologist may become consciously or unconsciously bias in
selecting what to write and what not to.
(iv) There is no other version available to check or confirm the findings except the
sociologist him/herself.
(v) The sociologist or anthropologist is only able to study a very small community.
Therefore, it cannot be guaranteed that the observation of the study of the village is
really common in the larger community.
(vi) The report of the sociologist based on participant observation method is often
criticised to be biased by other sociologists because of the one-sided relationship
they project. Hence, it is advised that the report should be translated in the local
language of the community so that the people of the community can read and make
sure that the report contains proper information.
Question 7:
What are the basic elements of the survey method? What is chief advantage of this
method?
Answer :

The basic elements of the survey method are:

(i) Survey is the best method applied in studying a large area.
(ii) It is mostly based on random sampling.
(iii) These samplings are done in such a way that the samples represent every strata
and characteristics of the community.
(iv) Random sampling is preferred to avoid biasness.
(v) Interviews and questionnaire techniques are used in sampling method.
(vi) The questionnaire can be filled by the respondent at his place and sent through
post or the sociologist himself may go to the respondent and complete the
questionnaire.
(vii) The questionnaire can be filled and sent through email.
(viii) The interview can be conducted online or on telephone.
Its main advantages are:
(i) Survey method is the best known sociological method. In situations where census
is not possible survey method is used.
(ii) It gives an accurate picture of the community through sampling.
(iii) In comparison to census or participant observation, less time and money is
spend.
(iv) It provides a real picture that is made on the basis of collective
representativeness than on single individuals.
(v) Many problems are visible at this level, which cannot be identified at the micro
level research.
Question 8:
Describe some of the criteria involved in selecting a representative sample.
Answer :

Some of the criteria involved in selecting a representative sampling are:

(i) The representative sampling is done in such a way that it represents and
recognises all the relevant groups of the particular community.
For example if the lifestyle of working women in India has to be studied then five
samples would be collected, each from the organized sector and unorganized
sector. Then the combined study is conducted on the basis of these samples.
(ii) These samples are randomly selected, that is, they are to be selected on the
basis of chance. This process is known as randomisation and depends on
probability. The randomisation is done through lottery method, rolling of dice, use of
random number tables prepared for this purpose and random number generated by
calculators and computers.
Question 9:
State some of the weaknesses of the survey method.
Answer :

The weaknesses of survey method are as follows:

(i) It is not possible to get detailed information in a survey method.
(ii) There are a number of respondents and the time spent on each respondent is
limited.
(iii) The detailed answers that require detailed prompting cannot be asked again
once the questionnaire is filled and sent.
(iv) These differences in the way the questions are asked and answered could
introduce errors into the survey.
(v) Questions of a personal and sensitive type cannot be asked. If it is asked then
the answer would definitely be given in a safe manner by the respondents. This will
make error in the survey.
Question 10:
Describe main features of the interview as a research method.
Answer :

The main features of interview are:

(i)It is conducted in the form of conversation which is shaped by certain guidelines
and questions between the researcher and the respondent.
(ii)It is used in surveys and participant observation method.
(iii)The interview is flexible in its structure.
(iv)This flexibility can lead to a change in the mood of the respondent or lack of
concentration, which is one of its disadvantages.
(v)Some interviewers have very structured format with specific questions whereas
some have loosely structured format with only a check-list of topics rather than the
actual questions.
(vi)During interview the interviewer can ask cross questions or other questions that
are required during the process which are not possible in a questionnaire.
(vii)Use of recorders and other equipments are also taken during the interview. Their
use makes the respondent uncomfortable that introduces a degree of formality into
the conversation, which is another disadvantage.
(viii)The mode of recording depends on the social and physical circumstances in
which the interview is conducted.
(ix)The authenticity of this method also depends on the memory of the interviewer
after it is conducted.
(x)Sometimes important information goes unnoticed or it is not at all recorded.
(xi)On a whole, a good interview is often based on the rapport build by the
researcher with the interviewer.

Chapter 6
Social Structure, Stratification and Social Processes in Soc...
Question 1:
Discuss the different tasks that demand cooperation with reference to agricultural or
industrial operations.
Answer :
Cooperation in a society plays a very important role because it enables the social
structure in a society. According to Durkheim, solidarity is important to understand
cooperation in a society. The following are the two kinds of society referred to, by
Durkheim:
(i) Agricultural society - Durkheim explained mechanical solidarity which is present in
the agricultural operations, where most of the members live similar lives with little
division of labour. For example, activities like transplantation of crops, tilling the land
and ploughing the field are activities not associated with specialization of labour.
(ii) Industrial society - Here Durkheim explained organic solidarity, which is found in
industrial operations and includes a specialized division of labour. For example,
different stages of production at a manufacturing unit require specialization of labour
of workers as they have to operate different kinds of machines.
Both of them are forms of cooperation in a society.
Question 2:
Is cooperation always voluntary or is it enforced? If enforced, is it sanctions or is the
strength of norms that ensure cooperation? Discuss with examples.
Answer :

According to Karl Marx’s conflict perspective, cooperation is enforced and not

voluntary. The enforcement of cooperation takes place because of the existence of
the class system. The strength of norms or the ‘social power’ compels the workers to
work because of the alien force which exists outside them. It is caused by the
division of labour. For this, Marx gave an example of a worker in a factory, who
undergoes the process of ‘alienation’ and loses control over the products of his/her
labour because he/she follows the monotonous routine every time. Also, compared
to the conditions of a factory worker who works in a cooperative environment with a
worker who works for himself, it is found that the independent worker is happier.
Question 3:
Can you find illustrative examples of conflict drawn from Indian society? Discuss the
causes that led to conflict in each instance.
Answer :
The following are some examples of conflicts that have occurred in the Indian
society:
(i) Caste-based conflict - This type of conflict is based upon the institution of caste
and it has led to violent clashes between the traditionally superior and inferior
communities. Education has spread awareness about the oppression caused by this
system. However, a lot needs to be done to eradicate the prejudice of caste.
(ii) The Kashmir conflict - India has officially stated that it believes that Kashmir is an
integral part of India. Pakistan says that Kashmir is a disputed territory, whose final
status must be determined by the people of Kashmir. China states that Aksai Chin is
a part of China. Certain Kashmiri independent groups believe that Kashmir should
be independent of both, India and Pakistan.
This was a territorial conflict.
(i) The Godhra incident - On February 27, 2002 at Godhra city in the state of
Gujarat, the Sabarmati train was forcibly stopped and attacked by a large Muslim
mob. As a result, 58 Hindu pilgrims — mostly women, children and seniors,
returning from the holy city of Ayodhya— were burned alive. The attack prompted
retaliatory massacres against Muslims on a large scale, in which 790 Muslims and
254 Hindus were killed.
This conflict was based on religion.
(i) The Kaveri river conflict - It is a conflict between the states of Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu over the sharing of water of the river Kaveri. A dam was built over the
portion of river that lies upstream in Karnataka, leading to depletion of water
resources for the farmers in Tamil Nadu. A central tribunal, later, allotted more water
to Tamil Nadu and allowed it to construct the Mettur dam as well. This led to large
scale riots in Karnataka.
This conflict was based on sharing of resources.
Question 4:
Write an essay based on examples to show how conflicts get resolved.
Answer :

There are many conflicts in contemporary society based upon different factors,
ranging from social, economic and cultural. The kind of resolution depends upon
nature of the conflict. Local conflicts get resolved through the intervention of
administration and law enforcement agencies, like the police. However, bigger
conflicts that involve communities of people cannot be resolved in this way. Special
provisions have to be made for resolution of such conflicts.
Dialogue between the aggrieved parties is the most suitable way of finding out the
root cause of the conflict. A successful example of dialogue as a mechanism of
conflict resolution is the Good Friday agreement between Ireland and UK that led to
reduction in violence in Ireland. However, in most cases, the leadership takes up
rhetorical positions which create further dissatisfaction among people. Eventually,
many conflicts take on a violent form and cause great loss of life and property.
These include religious, ethnic and linguistic conflicts. Territorial and ideological
disputes also lead to wars. The Second World War was a result of the conflict
between territorial ambitions of European powers, while the Cold War was an
ideological battle. Such conflicts get resolved only when one of the parties become
too weak to challenge the other one. For example, the collapse of the Soviet Union
ensured the supremacy of the USA after the end of Cold War. The United Nations is
an organization created to resolve conflicts, but its role has become increasingly
limited in the present situation.
Ethnic conflicts and insurgencies have also taken place in the North-Eastern part of
India due to a combination of factors. When there is a movement regarding
reservation by the backward classes, within the country, the government resolves
the issues by making special provisions in the constitution. This was also in the
recent case of Jan Lokpal Bill, when Anna Hazare started a 'fast unto death' to exert
pressure on the government of India to enact a strong anti-corruption legislation.
Judicial action is also a remedy to resolve conflicts which are sensitive in nature. For
example, the Babri Masjid dispute at Ayodhya.
Question 5:
Imagine a society where there is no competition. Is it possible? If not, why not?
Answer :

A society without competition is not possible. This is because it is an ambiguous

idea, which is totally utopian in nature. Historically also, the idea of a society without
competition, has failed miserably. Many societies adopted the ideology of socialism,
which was based upon the principle of equality to all. However, socialism did not
work as it was inconsistent with the fundamental principles of human behavior. It
was inherent in human beings to compete, in order to survive. The growth of
civilization has tempered indiscriminate competition to some extent and it has been
the main difference between savages and civilized people. Technological
advancements and innovations in human society have mostly taken place due to the
urgency imposed by competition.
Furthermore, competition is the dominant ideology of capitalism. The main idea here
lies behind rational individuals in free competition in the marketplace, each
competing to get the maximum profit.
For example, if there was no competition, there would have been no difference
between a student with the highest marks and a student with the lowest marks.
Hence, the spirit of development would have been lost.
Question 6:
Talk to your parents and elders, grandparents and their contemporaries and discuss
whether modern society is really more competitive or conflict ridden than it used to
be before. And if you think it is, how would you explain this sociologically?
Answer :

Note: Any answer supported with argument or explanation would solve the purpose.
 One sample answer has been provided to you:
Society was competitive even during the time of our previous generations. Though
the needs of that time were different, striving to get the best has always been a part
of the society. For example, fifty years ago, the value of Rs. 100 would have been
equal to the value of Rs 10,000 in the contemporary times. Hence, the competition
at that time was to get Rs. 100, while today it is to get Rs. 10000 at least.
The urge to get the best available resources of the time has always led to
competition and consequently, conflicts. This has been visible in the exploration of
the world by European explorers in search of new resources and the resultant
process of colonization of newly discovered lands. The other types of conflicts were
based upon locally unique phenomena. For example, the caste system in India was
one of the oldest forms of division of labour.
Therefore, it can be concluded that society has never been free from conflicts and
competition because there has always been a change in the nature of conflicts in
different periods of a society according to the prevalent social, economic and cultural
conditions.

Chaspter 7
Social Change and Social Order in Rural and Urban Society
Question 1:
Would you agree with the statement that rapid social change is a comparatively new
phenomenon in human history? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer :

Question 2:
How is social change to be distinguished from other kinds of change?
Answer :

Social change, unlike other forms of change, refers to significant changes that take
place in the foundations of social structure and systems of a society. Other forms of
change may impact certain aspects of social life without encompassing it as a
whole. Such restrictions are not applied to social changes. It does not include the
small changes but only the big changes that alter the society fundamentally. The
influence of such changes has to be both intensive and extensive.
Therefore, the changes that impact a large section of the society are called social
changes.
For example, a change in the government may not necessarily qualify as a social
change. However a change in the social ideals from capitalism to socialism or
abolition of practices like untouchability, that impact a large number of people, does
represent social change.
Question 3:
What do you understand by `structural change’? Explain with examples other than
those in the text.
Answer :

Structural change refers to the transformation in the structure of a society. This type
of change includes changes in the structure of social institutions or the rules by
which they are run. Structural changes are thus long term and permanent changes.
For example, globalization is a structural change. It took place in order to integrate
the economies of the world through a global network.
Question 4:
Describe some kinds of environment-related social change.
Answer :

The nature of a society is altered by its ecology and environment. Modern

technology has significantly altered the impact of environment on society. However,
catastrophic events that take place can change the structure of a society completely.
For instance, the tsunami that occurred in the Indian Ocean changed the lives of
people drastically. These changes are irreversible and permanent in nature. There
was a great loss of lives, loss of livelihood and in many cases, large scale migration
of people to new areas in search of new opportunities. Thus, the tsunami became an
agent of social change. Similar phenomena are associated with floods, draughts and
earthquakes.
Question 5:
What are some kinds of changes brought about by technology and the economy?
Answer :

Technology and economy have immensely changed the structure of the society.
Technology, through its association with the economy, has caused major social
changes. Various examples of these changes are as follows:
(i) The Industrial Revolution, which brought about many industries and the
development of capitalist system of production in society.
(ii) The invention of steam engine and development of various modes of transport
like rail and aeroplane transformed the entire economy and social geography of the
world.
(iii) Steam ships made gigantic changes not only in the economy, but also in the
social, cultural and demographic directions, by enabling large scale trade.
(iv) Development of textile industry in Britain had a negative impact upon the
handloom industry in India which was very distant from Britain. This type of
integration of economies was enabled only by the advent of technology.
(v) Changes in economic institutions caused a skewed demand for labour and
adoption of new social practices. For example, development of plantation agriculture
of cash crops established slavery and slave trade between Europe, America and
Africa.
(vi) The ongoing process of globalisation, while being beneficial for multinational
corporations, has had a negative impact on indigenous industries.
Question 6:
What is meant by social order and how is it maintained?
Answer :

Social order is the tendency of social institutions to resist and regulate change. It is
useful as it provides a backdrop and relativity to compare social change.
Every society strives for social order in order to maintain stability and provide a
strong and viable social system. This inevitably leads to the process of stratification
of society as social rules need a visible authority for them to be followed. Thus,
social order is maintained by the people who are in power because they do not want
to lose control over the societal norms and access to resources. Therefore, the
dominant groups in societies resist social change because it may reduce their
status. As power generally lies with such groups, they are successful in their
endeavour and societies acquire stability.
Question 7:
What is authority and how is it related to domination and the law?
Answer :

Authority, according to Max Weber, is the power which is legitimate, justified and
proper. It is generally derived from the official position of a person and the powers
are specified on written documents. Other members of a society implicitly agree to
follow the authority. For example, the authority of police or a judge.
A law is an explicitly codified norm or rule and usually exists in a written form.
Authority is related to law and domination as the difference between the strict
authority, which is explicitly codified, and the informal authority, lies in the notion of
law.
In a modern democratic state, the laws are created by legislature. They act as a
binding force on citizens and, hence, dominate them. This domination works through
legitimate power or authority, a large part of which is codified in the law. It requires
consent and cooperation on a regular basis to maintain legitimacy.
Question 8:
How are a village, town and city distinguished from each other?
Answer :

In sociological terms, a village and a city are distinguished by their social

organisation, administrative factors like population density and the proportion of
agriculture and its allied economic activities.
Villages emerged as part of the major changes in social structure which was brought
by the transition from nomadic life to a more settled form of life. They are
traditionally dependent upon agriculture and other primary activities for income.
They also have lower density of population. In comparison, towns and cities have
higher population density and are more dependent upon industries for income.
The difference between a city and a town is based upon their size. A city is similar to
a town, except that it is much larger in size and area.
Question 9:
What are some features of social order in rural areas?
Answer :

Every rural area has a different condition. Thus, the social order also varies from
village to village. The features of social order in rural areas are as follows:
(i) The small size of a village is suitable for more personalised relationships.
(ii) The social structure of a village follows traditional lifestyle. Institutions such as
caste and religion are stronger here.
(iii) The social institutions do not welcome change easily, as compared to towns and
cities.
(iv) A village also has a strong power structure as the people in power control all the
resources and resist change.
(v) It is not easy for subordinate groups to challenge the dominant groups. The poor
are dependent upon dominant sections for support and employment.
(vi) The villages are not very well connected to the towns and cities and thus not
conducive to change.
(vii) New modes of communication, land reforms and technology have reduced this
gap and accelerated the pace of change.
Question 10:
What are some of the challenges to social order in urban areas?
Answer :

Most of the challenges to social order in the urban areas are related to the ‘space’.
This is because of the high population density which leads to the problem of
logistics. The following are some of these challenges:
(i) The management of space is related to development of housing, transportation,
land use and public facilities like sanitation, policing and urban governance.
(ii) Inadequate facilities for housing results in homelessness and development of
slums that are congested and overcrowded neighbourhoods, with improper facilities.
(iii) Law and order issues due to criminal activities in slums. The major cause is the
undefined rights over property of slum owners.
(iv) The residential colonies in urban areas are mixed with people of all class, caste,
religion and ethnicity, which also give rise to communal problems, such as riots, and
the phenomenon of ghettoisation.
(v) The gated or affluent communities are separated from their surroundings by
walls, gates and run their own parallel facilities for water and electricity supply,
policing and security.
(vi) Large distances between residential, industrial and commercial areas place a
burden on transport. People rely on private transport, which results in congestion
and pollution.

Chapter 8
Environment and Society
Question 1:
Describe in your own words what you understand by the term `ecology’.
Answer :
Ecology refers to the complex network of biological and physical systems and
processes between the biotic and abiotic components of environment. It is
responsible for the type of environment around living beings. Humans are also a
constituent of ecology. Various physical features like mountains, rivers, plains and
oceans, each with their unique flora and fauna, form their own ecology. The ecology
of a place is affected by the interaction between its geography and hydrology. The
flora and fauna of a particular region adapt themselves according to its ecology, in
order to survive. Ecology of a place has an impact on the human living conditions
and the lifestyle, food, clothing, occupation and culture of the people of that place.
Question 2:
Why is ecology not limited only to the forces of nature?
Answer :

Ecology is not limited to the forces of nature as it gradually gets modified by human
actions. Many seemingly natural features and phenomena associated with the
environment are the caused by human activities. For example, the change in climate
because of global warming seems to be a natural process, but is an outcome of the
human activities. The conservation of soil and water, usage of pesticide, and other
man-made materials in agriculture are other examples of human transformation of
nature. Artificial environment is prominently visible in cities in the form of built
environment made from concrete, cement, brick, stone, glass and tar.
Question 3:
Describe the two-way process by which social environments emerge.
Answer :

Social environments emerge as a result of a two-way process in the form of

interaction between biophysical ecology and human interventions. This can be
explained as the shaping of human society by nature and the shaping of nature by
human society. For example, the soil fertility of Indo-Gangetic plain enables
agriculture and sustains high density of population while the arid and dry condition in
Rajasthan barely supports pastoral form of life. This represents the impact of nature
on human life. Contrary to this, technological developments like invention of
automobiles have had an impact on the landscape. Air pollution and global warming
are examples of the impact of human activities on nature.
Question 4:
Why and how does social organisation shape the relationship between the
environment and society?
Answer :

Social organisation shapes the relationship between the environment and the
society because the relations of property determine the usage of natural resources.
For example, there would be a difference in the ownership of forests by the
government and the private companies. This is because both of them would have
different purposes and aim out of these resources. Hence the use of forests by both
of them would be different.
The ownership of natural resources also vary with the division of labour. For
instance, the relationship of landless labours and women with resources would be
different than that of men because women experience scarcity of resources more
acutely in a rural area, as they have to go to fetch water and collect firewood without
controlling these resources.
Question 5:
Why is environmental management a complex and huge task for society?
Answer :

Environmental management is a complex and huge task for society because

sufficient information is not available about the biophysical processes to predict and
control them. The relation between humans and environment has become complex
as industrialisation has accelerated the extraction of resources. This has affected
ecosystems in ways which were not possible earlier. The industrial management
systems are fragile and often vulnerable. This has also given rise to many
environmental problems and risks. Disasters like the Bhopal Gas Tragedy are
consequence of such hazards.
Question 6:
What are some of the important forms of pollution-related environmental hazards?
Answer :
Some of the important forms of pollution-related environmental hazards are as
follows:
(i) Air Pollution - It is caused by emissions from industries and vehicles in urban
areas and burning of wood and coal for domestic use in rural areas. It is one of the
major environmental problems in both - urban and rural areas. Air pollution causes
many diseases, such as respiratory disease that may result in serious illness and
death.
(ii) Water Pollution - It is another form of pollution that affects the quality of water on
surface and groundwater. It is mainly caused by domestic sewage, factory effluents
and water from farms, which have large amounts of pesticides and synthetic
fertilisers. Rivers and other bodies are particularly affected by water pollution.
(iii) Noise Pollution - Noise pollution mainly occurs in the cities as a result of
continuous honking by vehicles, use of amplified loud speakers, traffic
and construction work, etc. Noise pollution has been a subject in many court orders,
for its control.
Question 7:
What are the major environmental issues associated with resource depletion?
Answer :

The depletion of resources is associated with the using up of non-renewable natural

resources. The major environmental issues as associated with resource depletion
are as follows:
(i) The depletion of land and water resources. The decline in groundwater levels has
caused an acute shortage of water all over India, particularly in states of Haryana,
Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. With the growing demands of agriculture, industries and
urban sector, the water shortage is one of the major problems faced by the world
today. The fertile soil of the land also gets destroyed due to erosion, water-logging
and salinization and activities like production of bricks.
(ii) Depletion of biodiversity habitats like forests, grasslands and wetlands is another
major environmental concern. This has been caused by expansion of areas under
agriculture. Many species of flora and fauna have been endangered by the loss of
biodiversity. This includes the tiger population, which is now threatened by declining
numbers.
Question 8:
Explain why environmental problems are simultaneously social problems.
Answer :

Environmental problems are simultaneously social problems, as the way they affect
different social groups is associated with ‘social inequality’. This is because social
status determines the extent to which a person is able to cope up with environment
related problems. For example, in places like Gujarat where water is scarce, the rich
farmers invest in deep bore tube wells to get underground water, whereas the poor
farmers cannot afford to get tube wells. The depletion of water is compounded when
the rains fail, as the wells of poorer farmers become dry.
However, some environmental problems, like air pollution and loss of biodiversity,
are universal concerns. Differences in perception exist over the constitution of public
interest in terms of environment. These differences often result in decisions which
hurt the interest of weaker groups and minorities. For example, debates over
construction of large dams and the displacement of people.
Question 9:
What is meant by social ecology?
Answer :

Social ecology emphasises the role of social relations in environmental practices

and perceptions. It is particularly related to the organisation of property and
production. Various social groups share a different relation with the environment and
have a different approach to it. The varied interests and ideologies generate
environmental conflicts. Thus, social ecology indicates the solution of environmental
problems by changing relations between environment and society. To achieve this
result, it advocates changing the relation between different social groups like men
and women, urban and rural people, landlords and labourers. Change in social
systems enables the development of new methods of managing the environment.
Question 10:
Describe some environment related conflicts that you know of or have read about.
(Other than the examples in the text.)
Answer :
Note: Any answer supported with explanation would solve the purpose.
One sample answer has been provided to you:
Some of the environment related conflicts are:
(i) The Chipko Movement or the Chipko Andolan.- It was a socio-ecological
movement which started in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. It was started by
women, who hugged the trees to protect them when the lumbermen came to cut
them. Later, this movement spread all over India and came to be known as the
Chipko Movement.
(ii) Narmada Bachao Andolan- This was a movement for the rights of people who
were displaced by the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada.
Medha Patkar and Baba Amte were the leading figures associated with this
movement. The Supreme Court initially stopped the ongoing work at the dam site
and later ordered the monitoring of the dam project along with its environmental
aspects.

Chapter 9
Introducing Western Sociologists
Question 1:
Why is the Enlightenment important for the development of sociology?
Answer :

The Enlightenment is important for the development of sociology because it helped

in the development of secular, scientific and humanistic attitudes of mind during the
late 17th and 18th centuries. This is because ‘enlightenment’ positioned the human
being as the central figure of the universe, with rational thought at its core. Rational
and critical thinking transformed human beings into both producer and user of all
knowledge. Those who did not adopt the new ways of thinking and reasoning were
deemed as deficient and primitive. This development influenced society as it was a
product of human interaction. Thus, it helped sociology to grow as a rational and
scientific subject with critical analysis.
Question 2:
How was the Industrial Revolution responsible for giving rise to sociology?
Answer :
The Industrial Revolution brought many changes in the society. The invention of new
machines led to evolution in the organisation of labour and markets. The factory
system and manufacturing on mass scale led to changes in modes of production
and acquisition of raw materials from around the world. The growth of industries,
urban space, slums and modern form of government was a social consequence of
these developments. As a result, the industrial revolution caused significant changed
in society, and thus the need to understand it also grew and led to the emergence of
sociology.
The scientific analysis of developments and study of social behaviour in
industrialised societies were the main subjects of sociology. This was made possible
by empirical observation and study of the information about social indicators
generated by the state.
Question 3:
What are the various components of a mode of production?
Answer :

Karl Marx’s philosophy of capitalism was based on the notion of modes of

production which was associated with the historical period. The various modes of
production at a general level are:
(i) Primitive communism
(ii) Slavery
(iii) Feudalism
(iv) Capitalism
At a specific level, the base of production is economic and includes productive
forces and production relations. The productive forces include land, labour,
technology and sources of energy. Production relations refer to economic
relationships and forms of labour organisation that are involved in production.
Property relations are based on the ownership of means of production.
Question 4:
Why do classes come into conflict, according to Marx?
Answer :
According to Karl Marx, the groups with similar interests and common objectives
form same classes. This formation of classes is based on a historical process, which
means that in every society class, identity among the people was present. With the
change in modes of production, technology and social relations, these classes
became antagonist to each other, thus resulting in class conflict. For instance, in a
capitalist society, there is a conflict between the capitalists and the working class. In
such a society, both of them are in a direct opposition to each other and hence the
class conflict arises between classes.
Question 5:
What are social facts? How do we recognise them?
Answer :

According to Emile Durkheim, sociology is the study of social facts. Social facts are
things that are external to an individual and constrain their behaviour. They are
general in nature, which means that they are collective representations of social
behaviour of a group of people. Social institutions like law, education and religion
also constitute social facts along with beliefs, feelings and collective practices. In
order to prove that sociology is based on social facts, Durkheim carried out the study
of ‘suicide’. According to it, suicide is a personal choice that an individual commits,
but the average rate of suicide in society reflects social behaviour and is a social
fact. Hence social facts can be recognised through social behaviour, and the
aggregate patterns of social behaviour.
Question 6:
What is the difference between `mechanical’ and `organic’ solidarity?
Answer :

Mechanical Solidarity Organic Solidarity

1. It is found in primitive societies. i. It is found in modern societies.

2. It is based on the similarity of its ii. It is based on the heterogeneity of its

individual members. members.

3. It is found in societies with less iii. It is found in the societies with large
population. population and impersonal relationships.
4. It is a group of people who are self iv. The people in this group are not self
sufficient and engaged in similar sufficient but dependent on other groups
activities. for their survival.

5. This kind of society is not very v. This kind of society is tolerant and
tolerant of differences and violation of interdependent on each other.
norms.

6. It has repressive laws that prevent vi. It has a restitutive law that corrects the
deviation or opposition from the wrong done by the criminals.
norms of community.

7. The individual in this kind of society vii. In this society the individual is given
is totally submerged in the collectivity. some autonomy.
Question 7:
Show, with examples, how moral codes are indicators of social solidarity.
Answer :

According to Durkheim, moral codes are indicators of social solidarity because

society existed as a moral community above the individuals. Moral codes were
codes of conduct that were collectively agreed upon. They reflected the prevailing
social conditions and were manifested in the practices in everyday life. The ties that
the individuals were bounded with, were important for the society, and these exerted
a pressure on people to confirm that the norms and values of the society are not
violated by any means. Therefore, the individual’s behaviour was limited and
predictable which made it easy to understand the social solidarity which governed
them. For example, caste system in India is a moral code that is reflective of social
solidarity among various groups belonging to same caste.
Question 8:
What are the basic features of bureaucracy?
Answer :

The basic features of bureaucracy are:

(i) Functioning of Officials - It means that the officials have fixed areas of jurisdiction
and are governed by rules and laws. The responsibilities of the officials are defined
by the authority available to them and they have to function under the command of
higher authorities. The officials are appointed on the basis of their qualifications.
(ii) Hierarchical Ordering of Positions - The authority of the officers is placed in a top
down hierarchy.
(iii) Reliance on Written Document - The management of the organisation is carried
out on the basis of written documents. Records are preserved for reference and
decision making is cumulative.
(iv) Office Management - Office management is a specialised activity which requires
trained and skilled officers.
(v) Conduct in Office - The conduct of the officers is maintained by strict rules and
regulations. The public behaviour is separated from behaviour in private domain.
Officials are also held accountable for their conduct.
Question 9:
What is special or different about the kind of objectivity needed in social science?
Answer :

The special or different kind of objectivity needed in social science is ‘value

neutrality’. According Max Weber, it was important for sociologists to understand the
subject matter of sociology in an objective manner as social interactions
incorporated subjective human meanings, values, feelings, prejudices and ideals.
For this, a sociologist had to study and record the views of people and their personal
beliefs in a neutral way through empathetic understanding. That is, s/he had to
describe and could not judge or imply her/his own conceptions to the understanding
of others. Social scientists were themselves a part of society. Therefore, the
exercise of such objectivity is deemed to be unique.
Question 10:
Can you identify any ideas or theories which have led to the formation of social
movements in India in recent times?
Answer :

Many social theories have been at the root of social movements in India after
independence. These include theories related to socialism, feminism and
environmentalism. Socialist movements have strived to secure economic justice for
backward classes. The ideal of socialism has been recognised in the preamble of
the Constitution of India as well. Dalits and tribals have participated in socio-political
movements to acquire political power based on the ideas of social reforms
movements of nineteenth and twentieth century. These groups had been exploited
from ancient time and are now endeavouring to claim their place in society.
Feminism seeks to redefine the role of women in society and bring it on equal
footing with that of men. Feminist movements have struggled against stereotypes
and made efforts to secure the rights of women at home and workplace with some
degree of success. Environmental movements have combined environmental and
social concerns of people which have been overshadowed by developmental
concerns. The Gandhian ideals of peaceful agitation and simplistic living have their
association with most of these movements. Environmentalism has recently acquired
a prominent focus among social concerns with problems like climate change and its
attendant costs, particularly for developing countries. Major socio-environmental
movements in India are the Chipko movement, the Appiko movement, Narmada
Bachao Andolan and Silent Valley conservation.
Question 11:
Try to find out what Marx and Weber wrote about India.
Answer :

(i) Karl Marx - He referred to the villages of India as “little communities”. He was of
the opinion that India was a self sufficient group which had no contact with the
outside world. India had its own institutions and beliefs that controlled the human
behaviour. Marx also opposed the British rule in Indian society and was totally
against it. He wrote many articles on India under the British Raj, in order to throw
light upon his views.
(ii)Max Weber - He studied India under his works on the ‘Sociology of Religion’.
Weber understood the Indian society as orthodox and suppressed, under the
barriers of the caste system. He emphasised throughout his studies the need of
rational thinking, which was opposed by the caste system in India. He also believed
that the religion and caste system together acted against economic development.
Question 12:
Can you think of reasons why we should study the work of thinkers who died long
ago? What could be some reasons to not study them?
Answer :
The work of thinkers who died long ago needs to be studied because it is important
to understand the impact of their ideologies in order to know the present-day
societies well. For example, to understand the communist model and its failures, one
needs to study the theories developed by Karl Marx on capitalism and communism.
Some theories of scholars are still relevant in the present day societies. The idea of
bureaucracy by Max Weber is a very important element of functioning of present day
societies in which we are living.
Their theories also provide many answers to social developments of the past. For
example, the progress of western societies compared to Asian societies can be
understood through the study of Protestant-Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism by Max
Weber.
The difference between sociology and psychology can be understood by the study
of ‘Suicide’ done by Emile Durkheim.
Reasons for not studying the works of early thinkers are that some of the old
concepts may not be applicable to the present day societies. This can be attributed
to unforeseen changes in social, economic, cultural and technological fields which
accompany the advent of a new era. For instance, the theory of Karl Marx where he
concludes that the working class would protest against the capitalist and a new form
of socialist regime would emerge, was eventually proved wrong and later the theory
of Max Weber was accepted. Also, there are many critics to the theory. For instance
the ideology of the Indian villages being self sufficient entity by the western scholars,
was highly criticised by the Indian scholars like M.N. Srinivas, according to whom,
the villages were connected with the outside world.

Chapter 10
Indian Sociologists
Question 1:
How did Ananthakrishna Iyer and Sarat Chandra Roy come to practice social
anthropology?
Answer :

Ananthakrishna Iyer came to practice social anthropology by voluntarily helping the

British administrators in ethnographic surveys of India. He was initially a clerk and
then became a college teacher at Ernakulum. In 1902, he was asked by the Dewan
of Cochin to assist with an ethnographic survey of the state. Later, he worked for
British government as unpaid Superintendent of Ethnography. His work received
appreciation from British anthropologists and administrators. Iyer became a reader
at the University of Madras and set up the post-graduate department of
anthropology at the University of Calcutta. Thus, he became the first self-taught
anthropologist.
Sarat Chandra Roy was educated in law and English. He gave up his law practice
and became a school teacher in Ranchi. He was appointed as the official interpreter
in the court after he resumed his law practice. Gradually, he became interested in
the tribal society, as he had to interpret the tribal customs in the court. He gained
considerable knowledge on the culture and society of the tribal people of
Chhotanagpur. Roy produced valuable monographs and research articles on this
subject. He travelled and did intensive fieldwork pertaining to the tribal community.
Thus, the experiences gained by Iyer and Roy in the course of their work led to their
interest in social anthropology.
Question 2:
What were the main arguments on either side of the debate about how to relate to
tribal communities?
Answer :

The main arguments, on either side of the debate about relating to tribal
communities, were led by the British administrator-anthropologists and the
nationalists.
According to the British, the tribes of India were primitive people and had a different
culture from the Hindus. They believed that the simple tribal people would suffer
exploitation and cultural degradation at the hands of Hindu people who wanted the
assimilation of tribal people with them. Thus, they needed to be protected by the
state in order to safeguard their interests.
On the other hand, the nationalists, of whom G.S Ghurye was the most famous
exponent, argued that the tribes of India were not backward, but had been
interacting with the rest of Hindu society over a long period. The process of
assimilation had been experienced by all the communities in India and the tribes
were only a step behind in this process. According to nationalists, attempts to
preserve tribal culture only contributed to their backwardness. They believed tribal
society needed as much reform as Hindu society.
Thus, the main difference in both viewpoints was the perception about the impact of
mainstream culture on tribes.
Question 3:
Outline the positions of Herbert Risley and G.S. Ghurye on the relationship between
race and caste in India.
Answer :

Herbert Risley believed that human beings could be divided into separate races on
the basis of their physical characteristics. His main argument was that caste
originated in race because the different castes belonged to different racial types. He
believed that the higher castes originated from Indo-Aryans while the lower castes
originated from non-Aryan races. Risley was of the opinion that the conditions in
India were suitable for studying racial evolution as inter-caste marriages was strictly
prohibited in India.
Ghurye was of a different view. He believed that Risley’s argument was partially
correct and the argument of upper castes being Aryan and lower castes being non-
Aryan was true only for north India. He further said that the prohibition of intermixing
of different castes was only limited to the northern India, and people in other areas
had been mixing for a long time. According to him, racial purity was preserved only
in North India while other parts adopted the practice of endogamy only after
variations had occurred in racial groups.
Question 4:
Summarise the social anthropological definition of caste.
Answer :

The social anthropological definition of caste was given by G.S Ghurye, which
comprised six features. These were as follows:
(i) Caste is an institution based on segmental division. This means that the castes
were different and closed segments that comprised people of an exclusive social
order determined by birth. The individuals born in a particular caste would always
remain in that caste.
(ii) Caste society is based on hierarchical division. The caste system was based on
a hierarchical order, and each caste had unequal status as compared to others.
(iii) The institution of caste necessarily involves restrictions on social interaction,
specially sharing of food. There were many restrictions in the caste system based on
the ideas of purity and pollution.
(iv) Caste involves differential rights and duties for different caste as a consequence
of hierarchy and restricted social interaction. These pertained to religious life and
everyday practices.
(v) The choice of occupation, like caste itself, is decided by birth and is hereditary. It
was a rigid form of division of labour. A person born as a shudra would always
remain one, however hard he worked or whatever success he achieved.
(vi) Caste involves strict restrictions on marriage. The marriage between people of
different castes was strictly prohibited and rules existed regarding both endogamy
and exogamy.
Question 5:
What does D.P. Mukerji mean by a `living tradition’? Why did he insist that Indian
sociologists be rooted in this tradition?
Answer :

By ‘living tradition’, D.P. Mukerji means that the traditions were not only formed in
the past but also kept on changing with the present and evolved over time. It
manages to retain basic elements from the past. He insisted that Indian sociologists
be rooted in this tradition because an Indian sociologist should be an Indian first,
which means that he/she should understand his/her social system first.
Question 6:
What are the specificities of Indian culture and society, and how do they affect the
pattern of change?
Answer :

The Indian culture and society are not individualistic like the western society. The
behaviour of an Indian individual is fixed by his socio-cultural group. Hence, the
Indian social system is oriented towards groups, unlike the western societies where
people are highly individualistic. The actions of individuals in Indian society are
mostly involuntary. The traditions are strongly rooted in the past.
Thus, there are fewer changes in Indian societies, as the pattern of desires of an
individual are mostly governed by the societal traditions and norms. Changes occur
more in adaptive form than any basic form. The role of economy as an internal
source of change is diluted in Indian society. Conflict due to caste system causes
adaptive changes without overriding the institution of caste.
Question 7:
What is a welfare state? Why is A.R. Desai critical of the claims made on its behalf?
Answer :

A.R. Desai explained three features of a welfare state. These were as follows:
(i) A welfare state is a positive state that uses its power in order to implement social
policies for the betterment of society. It is interventionist in nature.
(ii) Democracy and democratic institutions are considered the most important factors
for the emergence of the welfare state.
(iii) A welfare state includes a mixed economy. It means the co-existence of both the
private and state owned enterprises. The public sector concentrates on basic goods
and social infrastructure, while the private industry produces consumer goods.
Desai is critical of welfare states like Britain, USA and countries in Europe. He
argues that the claims of these states are exaggerated, while they are not even able
to provide basic social and economic security to their citizens. They are unable to
reduce economic inequality. The process of development in these states is not
independent of market fluctuations. A high level of unemployment alongside excess
economic capacity indicates the failure of welfare state. Therefore, A.R. Desai is
critical of the claims made on behalf of welfare state and concludes that its existence
is a myth.
Question 8:
What arguments were given for and against the village as a subject of sociological
research by M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont?
Answer :
According to Louis Dumont, social institutions like caste were more important than
the study of villages. He argued that villages are just a group of people, who live or
die or may move to another location, but their social institutions always follow them.
Hence, he thought that the study of village as a category should not be given much
importance.
Contrary to this, M.N. Srinivas argued that the Indian villages were relevant social
entities and historically the villages were a unifying factor in the Indian society.
Further, he criticised the British administrators because they studied the villages as
a self sufficient entity, and mentioned them as “little republics”. With the help of
historical and sociological data, M.N. Srinivas concluded that the Indian villages had
undergone considerable change, were connected with the outside world and had
always been a part of the Indian economy. Thus, he believed it was necessary to
study the function of villages in the Indian social life.
Question 9:
What is the significance of village studies in the history of Indian sociology? What
role did M.N. Srinivas play in promoting village studies?
Answer :

The study of Indian villages has always been important in the history of Indian
sociology because of the following reasons:
(i) It provided with an opportunity to emphasise the importance of ethnographic
research methods.
(ii) It provided examples of rapid social change that took place in the country after
independence and implementation of planned development.
(iii) The village studies provided sociology with a new role in the context of
independent nation as it enabled urban Indians and policy makers to form their
opinions about developments in the villages of India.
M.N. Srinivas played a very important role in promoting village studies by
concentrating his research on village areas. He conducted field work in villages and
coordinated efforts at producing detailed ethnographic accounts of villages. His
writings featured ethnographic accounts and historical and conceptual discussions
about villages. He was critical of the arguments presented by the British
anthropologists. He concluded that the village was as important as any other social
institution. He also presented the links of the village community to the economy of
the outside world.