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Research Methodology » Research Design

Qualitative Vs
Quantitative Research
Methods & Data
Analysis
By Saul Mcleod, PhD Updated on June 2, 2023
Reviewed by Olivia Guy Evans

What is the difference between

quantitative and qualitative?
The main difference between quantitative and
qualitative research is the type of data they
collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data

and analyzes it using statistical methods. The
aim is to produce objective, empirical data that
can be measured and expressed in numerical
terms. Quantitative research is often used to
test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make
predictions.

Qualitative research, on the other hand,

collects non-numerical data such as words,
images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring
subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes,
often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and

detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being
studied, and to uncover new insights and
meanings.

Quantitative data is information about

quantities, and therefore numbers, and
qualitative data is descriptive, and
regards phenomenon which can be
observed but not measured, such as
language.

Table of Contents
1. What Is Qualitative Research?
1. Qualitative Methods
2. Examples
3. Qualitative Data Analysis
4. Key Features
5. Limitations of Qualitative Research
6. Advantages of Qualitative Research
2. What Is Quantitative Research?
1. Quantitative Methods
2. Examples
3. Quantitative Data Analysis
4. Key Features
5. Limitations of Quantitative
Research
6. Advantages of Quantitative
Research

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-
numerical data, such as language. Qualitative
research can be used to understand how an
individual subjectively perceives and gives
meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as

text, video, photographs, or audio recordings.
This type of data can be collected using diary
accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed
using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in

focus, involving an interpretive,
naturalistic approach to its subject
matter. This means that qualitative
researchers study things in their natural
settings, attempting to make sense of, or
interpret, phenomena in terms of the
meanings people bring to them.

Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the

result of the dissatisfaction of some
psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the
scientific study of psychologists such as
behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the

traditional approach to science is not seen as
an appropriate way of carrying out research
since it fails to capture the totality of human
experience and the essence of being human.
Exploring participants’ experiences is known
as a phenomenological approach (re:
Humanism ).

The aim of qualitative research is to

understand the social reality of individuals,
groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as its
participants feel it or live it. Thus, people and
groups are studied in their natural setting.

Research following a qualitative approach is

exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and
‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior,
operates as it does in a particular context. It
can be used to generate hypotheses and
theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods
There are different types of qualitative
research methods, including diary accounts,
in-depth interviews, documents, focus groups,
case study research, and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a

deep understanding of how people perceive
their social realities and in consequence, how
they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for

collecting empirical materials, ranging
from the interview to direct observation,
to the analysis of artifacts, documents,
and cultural records, to the use of visual
materials or personal experience.

Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Examples
Here are some examples of qualitative data:

1. Interview transcripts: Verbatim records

of what participants said during an interview
or focus group. They allow researchers to
identify common themes and patterns, and
draw conclusions based on the data.
Interview transcripts can also be useful in
providing direct quotes and examples to
support research findings.

2. Observations: The researcher typically

takes detailed notes on what they observe,
including any contextual information,
nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The
resulting observational data can be analyzed
to gain insights into social phenomena, such
as human behavior, social interactions, and
cultural practices.

3. Unstructured interviews: generate

qualitative data through the use of open
questions. This allows the respondent to talk
in some depth, choosing their own words.
This helps the researcher develop a real
sense of a person’s understanding of a
situation.

4. Diaries or journals: Written accounts of

personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much

more than just words or text. Photographs,
videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be
considered qualitative data. Visual data can be
used to understand behaviors, environments,
and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and
interpretive. The researcher does not just leave
the field with mountains of empirical data and
then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed,

and various techniques can be used to make
sense of the data, such as content analysis,
grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967),
thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or
discourse analysis.

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative

approach that involves identifying implicit or
explicit ideas within the data. Themes will
often emerge once the data has been coded.

Key Features
Events can be understood adequately only if
they are seen in context. Therefore, a
qualitative researcher immerses her/himself
in the field, in natural surroundings. The
contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they
are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken
for granted.

Qualitative researchers want those who are

studied to speak for themselves, to provide
their perspectives in words and other
actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an
interactive process in which the persons
studied teach the researcher about their
lives.

The qualitative researcher is an integral part

of the data; without the active participation
of the researcher, no data exists.

The study’s design evolves during the

research and can be adjusted or changed as
it progresses. For the qualitative researcher,
there is no single reality. It is subjective and
exists only in reference to the observer.

The theory is data-driven and emerges as

part of the research process, evolving from
the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Because of the time and costs involved,
qualitative designs do not generally draw
samples from large-scale data sets.

The problem of adequate validity or

reliability is a major criticism. Because of the
subjective nature of qualitative data and its
origin in single contexts, it is difficult to
apply conventional standards of reliability
and validity. For example, because of the
central role played by the researcher in the
generation of data, it is not possible to
replicate qualitative studies.

Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions,

and interactions cannot be replicated to any
extent, nor can generalizations be made to a
wider context than the one studied with
confidence.

The time required for data collection,

analysis, and interpretation is lengthy.
Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and
expert knowledge of an area is necessary to
interpret qualitative data. Great care must be
taken when doing so, for example, looking
for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Because of close researcher involvement, the
researcher gains an insider’s view of the
field. This allows the researcher to find
issues that are often missed (such as
subtleties and complexities) by the scientific,
more positivistic inquiries.

Qualitative descriptions can be important in

suggesting possible relationships, causes,
effects, and dynamic processes.

Qualitative analysis allows for

ambiguities/contradictions in the data,
which reflect social reality (Denscombe,
2010).

Qualitative research uses a descriptive,

narrative style; this research might be of
particular benefit to the practitioner as she
or he could turn to qualitative reports to
examine forms of knowledge that might
otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining
new insight.

What Is Quantitative
Research?
Quantitative research involves the process of
objectively collecting and analyzing numerical
data to describe, predict, or control variables of
interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test

causal relationships between variables, make
predictions, and generalize results to wider
populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish

general laws of behavior and phenomenon
across different settings/contexts. Research is
used to test a theory and ultimately support or
reject it.

Quantitative Methods
Experiments typically yield quantitative data,
as they are concerned with measuring things.
However, other research methods, such as
controlled observations and questionnaires,
can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions

on a questionnaire would generate quantitative
data as these produce either numerical data or
data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,”
“no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how a research

participant can react to and express
appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-

bound and simply a reflection of the
assumptions that the researcher brings to the
investigation.

Examples
There are numerous examples of quantitative
data in psychological research, including
mental health. Here are a few examples:

1. Standardized psychological
assessments: One example of a
standardized psychological assessment of IQ
that uses quantitative data is the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
Another example is the Experience in Close
Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report
questionnaire widely used to assess adult
attachment styles.

The ECR provides quantitative data that can

be used to assess attachment styles and
predict relationship outcomes.

2. Neuroimaging data: Neuroimaging

techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide
quantitative data on brain structure and
function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain

regions involved in specific mental processes
or disorders.

3. Clinical outcome measures: The use of

clinical outcome measures provides
objective, standardized data that can be used
to assess treatment effectiveness and
monitor symptoms over time, helping
mental health professionals make informed
decisions about treatment and care.
For example, the Beck Depression Inventory
(BDI) is a clinician-administered
questionnaire widely used to assess the
severity of depressive symptoms in
individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each

scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores
indicating more severe depressive
symptoms.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into
useful information to help with decision-
making. We can use statistics to summarize
our data, describing patterns, relationships,
and connections. Statistics can be descriptive
or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our

data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used
to identify statistically significant differences
between groups of data (such as intervention
and control groups in a randomized control
study).

Key Features
Quantitative researchers try to control
extraneous variables by conducting their
studies in the lab.

The research aims for objectivity (i.e.,

without bias) and is separated from the data.

The design of the study is determined before

it begins.

For the quantitative researcher, the reality is

objective, exists separately from the
researcher, and can be seen by anyone.

Research is used to test a theory and

ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

Context: Quantitative experiments do not
take place in natural settings. In addition,
they do not allow participants to explain
their choices or the meaning of the questions
they may have for those participants (Carr,
1994).

Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the

application of statistical analysis may
negatively affect analysis and subsequent
interpretation (Black, 1999).

Variability of data quantity: Large sample

sizes are needed for more accurate analysis.
Small-scale quantitative studies may be less
reliable because of the low quantity of data
(Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the
ability to generalize study findings to wider
populations.

Confirmation bias: The researcher might

miss observing phenomena because of focus
on theory or hypothesis testing rather than
on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative
Research
Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can
be interpreted with statistical analysis, and
since statistics are based on the principles of
mathematics, the quantitative approach is
viewed as scientifically objective and rational
(Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).

Useful for testing and validating already

constructed theories.

Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software

removes much of the need for prolonged
data analysis, especially with large volumes
of data involved (Antonius, 2003).

Replication: Quantitative data is based on

measured values and can be checked by
others because numerical data is less open to
ambiguities of interpretation.

Hypotheses can also be tested because of

statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

References
Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative
data with SPSS. Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative

research in the social sciences: An integrated
approach to research design, measurement
and statistics. Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic

analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and

weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative
research: what method for nursing? Journal of
advanced nursing, 20(4), 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research

Guide: for small-scale social research.
McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of

Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US:
Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E.

(1968). The discovery of grounded theory;
strategies for qualitative research. Nursing
research, 17(4), 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing:

Researching People. Longman Cheshire.