Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Theories of Poverty
Edwin Sakah Nsah

Abstract:- A lot of poverty writers explained that the theoretic and experimental study on the causes of
conceptualization and dimension of poverty influence the insufficiency and also how deficiency can be controlled. The
ground rules of poverty policies and programs. This causes of deficiency or insufficiency are many but they are
piece analyses the academic and empirical study on the going to be grouped under three main concepts in this
causes of poverty and also how poverty can be article: (individual influence, cultural influence and
controlled. The causes of poverty are many but these structural influence). Sustainable Livelihood Approach
causes have been grouped under three main headings; (SLA) is used in the study to provide an understanding of
individual influence, cultural influence and structural best practices in addressing poverty. The source of
influence. Constructing a good knowledge on any of information for this study is secondary data. Facts derived
these opposing concepts shape the way in which poverty from unpublished or published works of others have been
can be handled. Sustainable livelihood approach has acknowledged in the text and a list of references are
been used in this article to share the concern that the provided.
economic well-being of the poorest of the poor ought to
be understood from their perspective. The approach II. UNDERSTANDING POVERTY
encourages a bottom-top methodology as it stresses that
the poor should be at the core when developing any Poverty is the ancient and the strongest ailment that
poverty reduction strategies for them. The source of data brings an overwhelming disease in the world. Poverty
for this study is literature review (published books and affects development and political stability, disrupts nations,
regions and individuals and remains a noticeable problem in
other journal articles).
the whole world [2] It has many structures, and varies from
The paper may add more understanding into the region to region [3].
ways in which poverty can be studied or handled. The
paper strongly proposes that if poverty is caused by In the early days, Gross National Product (GNP) was
used to measure poverty. With this approach, poverty was
individual influence, the best way to deal with poverty
should be to boost the emotional state of the poor measured based on the amount of income necessary to keep
through “self-help” strategies. This can be done by an individual alive [4]. According to this approach, the
eliminating other forms of help given to the poverty dimension was based on the income level required
underprivileged in the form of family allowance. Family to purchase the essential volume of lowest nutritional intake
allowance encourages laziness. If poverty is caused by for sustaining life and calorie counts. Meaning poverty was
cultural influence, cultures should be replaced by a the absence of appropriate wages or revenues in form of
means that inspires creative work, assets, and collective cash to buy or obtain the most elementary requirements such
responsibility. Lastly, if deficiency is caused by as food, shelter and clothing. According to the World Bank
structural influence, there should be improvement in the (2015) poverty line is 1.9 dollars per day. This means that if
schooling system. Government should create more jobs, one is living on less than 1.9 dollars per day, one is
underprivileged and will fall under the category of absolute
and support the growth of micro, small, and medium
businesses. This will bridge the inequality gap especially poverty [5]. Absolute poverty can be defined as a state where
when a Sustainable livelihood approach is applied. a household lacks an income or financial means to get the
basic goods and services necessary to live. E.G food, shelter,
I. INTRODUCTION drinking water education etc. The above views do not
consider the differences in regions, class and beliefs in
Some poverty writers explained that the societies in which households live [6]. For example, an
conceptualization and measurement of poverty influence the individual can have an income which can buy elementary
basic poverty strategies [1]. Sameti, Esfahani, & Haghighi, needs, but that individual can still possibly be
(2012) categorised the causes of poverty into three classes, underprivileged in comparison to one’s region. This type of
individual, neighbourhood, and structural causes. Bradshaw poverty is known as relative poverty [7]
(2006) on the other hand agreed with these authors that
poverty can be assembled under three groups as mentioned According to Nsah (2013:10) relative Poverty can be
by above authors but he also added other two causes of described as the standard of living compared to economic
poverty, geographical disparities and cyclical standards of living within the same surroundings. With
interdependencies as the causes of poverty. Davis & relative poverty, households are seen as underprivileged if
Sanchez-Martinez (2015) argues that poverty can be they live below normal standards of living in a community
[8]
categorized under Classical, Neoclassical, Keynesian and . This means that a family or a person can have some
Marxist causes. Literature review suggests that much money but they will be considered poor because the income
research has been done on the theories of poverty but there is still not enough to afford anything above the basics. In
are no studies to assess theories of poverty and Sustainable other words, ‘’relative poverty’’ is the powerlessness to
Livelihood Approach. Against an examination of the acquire what a person needs for a decent life [9]
theories of poverty, this article critically reviewed the

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 555

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
It was believed that nations with high GNP rates argues that people are poor because they depend so much on
would have a lesser volume of poverty than nations with social welfare contributions and as such they lack interest to
low GNP but this was demonstrated wrong as some of the battle poverty out. This theory is rooted in the United State
nations started to experience growths in GNP with rises in where households are given huge openings to accomplish
poverty at the same time. The fact is that increases in GNP the vision of substantial prospect and achievement. Sameti
were not evenly distributed among the citizens. The uneven et al. (2012:45) stress that capacity, assets and resilient work
distribution of the GNP increases the level of inequality. can result in greater achievement. Individuals at times are
Those who receive little or nothing from the GNP continue poverty stricken because they do not want to get involved in
to be poor because they are not benefiting from economic activities that will better their life situation. Here social
growth which could lead to social unrest [10] The flaw of problems such as unemployment can be a burden on the
GNP statistics is that the sharing of the wealth across the shoulders of individuals [17]. From the above views one can
citizens of a nation are not shown, all the same, the status of say that the theory focuses on the explanation that
any nation is not only influenced by increase in GNP but by individuals are responsible for their poverty situation. This
other factors including human capital, the legacy of the means that those in poverty should be blamed for creating
nation history, natural endowments, and the nature of their own problems. Even in the bible, the poor are blamed
governance [11] for their situation. For example, Proverbs in the bible
reveals that anyone who follows frivolity will highly be
The above views provide compassionate poor because poverty is associated with immoral activities,
understanding that being underprivileged can mean a lot such as drunkenness, gluttony, gambling, and sloth
more than merely not possessing some income. Amartya (Proverbs. 10:4; 12:11, 20;13 23:21; 28:19). Schiller (2008)
(1999) added that poverty also includes noiselessness and explains that harder work and better choices will get the
powerlessness of an individual in the community. According poor out of poverty. However, Schwartz (2000) found little
to Amartya, this type of poverty is when an individual lacks evidence to support this claim. He argues that children born
the ability to motivate a process or development into underprivileged families are much more likely to
programme/s that can have a positive impact on their remain in poverty. Very few individuals born into poor
personal life situation [12] families might escape poverty and many will die in poverty
because hard work isn’t the solution when the economic
Runguma (2014:28) suggested that in order to properly system works against the poor. Such circumstances fuel the
address a poverty situation, scholars and practitioners have cycle of poverty. Tamanji (2010) and Forgha (2006) believe
to deal with the situation in a specific way. She suggested that welfare programmes cause dependency on state
that the first phase should involve the definition of poverty. administration as they argue that this concept gives a false
The second phase should be to measure the extent of the impression that poverty is caused by individual influence.
issue, which consists of the creation of techniques to For example, as revealed in Nsah (2021) studies, one of the
measure it. Once the issue has been recognised, the last causes of poverty among the Bakas in the East Region in
phase should be to determine its source. Answers have to be Cameroon is government’s effort to expand and increase
found to these questions: (what is poverty? What is the growth in the East Region which has forced the Baka to
degree of poverty? What are the explanations of poverty?) move out of the forest, which used to be their home, source
Only then can one cross-examine what the cures to poverty of income and food. Causes of poverty in the Baka
are. [13] Onyango (2011:6) on the other hand suggests that community here can be attributed to government role and
poverty definitions may possibly give wrong messages on not to Baka because those who are able and willing to carry
how to tackle poverty. For him, a more relevant approach on out farming activities do not have available land for
how to study poverty should be well-defined primarily by cultivation. Furthermore, there are also natural occurrences
the underprivileged who know their situation very well [14] that cause poverty. For example, the Lake Nyos disasters in
Borrowing from Runguma (2014) views, the next section of the North West region of Cameroon and the mountainous
the study is going to discuss the sources of poverty. nature of the North West region of Cameroon will keep
A. Roots Of Deficiency those who are willing and able to work in poverty(ibid)
Constructing a full knowledge of the theories of poverty Other natural disasters that causes poverty include; floods,
shape the way in which poverty can be handled as fires, earthquakes, tsunamis and cyclones [18]
researchers argue that knowing the actual roots of poverty is From the above views, it is certain that one can be
significant as it informs people's perceptions on how to poor because of natural occurrences even when one is
handle it. This section discusses the three opposing theories willing and able to work. There are other causes of poverty
of poverty [15] such as joblessness, geographical locations, old age, and
B. Individual Influences physical and mental disabilities that can cause poverty [19]
The individual influence attributes poverty to Even though it is challenging to disagree with the point that
imperfections of the underprivileged themselves (Sameti, individual influence cannot limit one’s position in society, it
Esfahani & Haghighi, 2012). The theory places much is also true that one’s position in most societies function
importance on people’s hard work and responsibility to within boundaries defined by forces outside individual’s
acquire elementary needs. The concept illustrates that control[20] This theory, then, puts forward that for poverty to
people should take charge of their life situations because be reduced, the government and those who want to fight
they are in charge of their own lives [16] Sameti et al (20:45) poverty should increase economic activities and encourage
people to search for jobs, provide short-term employment to

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 556

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
those who are unemploy (Semati et al., 2012). This move D. Cultural Influence
can be accompanied by emphasising on “mutual support” Researchers argued that continual poverty in households
plans, and the government should discourage or reduce will generate a cultural defiance, beliefs, sometimes
family allowances given to the poor as assistance. generate some kind of behaviour that would tend to extend
itself over time, even if the circumstances that first gave
C. Structural Influences intensification to it changes. For example Hurst (2004),
The basic theory of neoliberal economic policies argues that with concept of cultural influence people do not
explained that income or earning disparities in the job have controllable emotions of marginality and vulnerability.
market is the reason some people are poor (Hurst, 2004). People act like strangers in their own communities. He
According to Marx (1932) every goods has a market value further added that the underprivileged every now and then
and this market value is determined by the amount of labour are not willing to take part in useful activities simply
invested in that goods. Davis & Moores (1945) argues that because of the way they grow up in their community.
there are some jobs that require distinctive skills or Akerloff & Kranton (2002), added that learner’s
knowledge to effectively carry out such a job and that such performance in school is influenced by their cultural
jobs deserve higher earnings because people undergo identity. Lareau (2003) studies found that poor children
sacrifices to acquire such skills. Thus, work payment should may continue to be poorer over their generations simply
be proportional to the cost of training. Hurst (2004) because their relatives prefer cultural ways of doing things
confirmed that the inequality in salaries is acceptable ``normal growth”. This means that the underprivileged will
because skills or knowledge require training and during the continue to be poor and the affluent will continue to be rich
training period income is lost because there is no labour. because they have diverse patterns of beliefs and
Meaning payment should be determined by the amount of behavioural norms. Meaning the underprivileged come to be
time spent in learning a skill. poor as they acquire strong emotional behaviours associated
with poverty. From the above views, the underprivileged
Figart & Power (2002) argues that in a competitive will continue to be poor because they do not have means to
society there are some factors which tend to determine fight their poverty; for example, education and training are
individual positions and earnings. E.g. Discrimination in the the keys to fight poverty but the underprivileged do not have
labour market increases inequality. Fischer (1992) explained resources to acquire the necessary skills in schools to enable
that discrimination is socially constructed e.g. race, and them gain employment and reduce poverty.
gender. These factors either increase poverty or decrease it.
Bonakele (2021) discusses that someone with exceptional Mandell & Schram (2003) condemned the culture of
expertise can still remain in poverty because of the poverty for holding the underprivileged beliefs and their
communities in which they live. Alkire (2007) confirmed surroundings responsible for their lot. Rank (2004) indicates
that because of discrimination certain groups of people will that human capital greatly disturbs an individual's earnings,
continue to find it difficult to gain employment even when and therefore absence of human assets can push people to
they have the necessary skills because of structural and fall in poverty. People with high knowledge or skills are
cultural influence in the job market (race and gender). more competitive in the labour market than people with low
Meaning education and training do not guarantee or no skill. From the above views, one can conclude that
employment because economic structure influences education and training are key to poverty reduction because
individual level of poverty in any society irrespective of people with high education face fewer problems being
their strength such as hard work, skill, experience and employed than those with less education. Moreover, they are
willingness. Semati et al. (2012:8) further explained that in less likely to be without a job, and the duration of their
the domain of wage employment, individuals come to be joblessness is usually shorter when compared to the
underprivileged when they are under paid, and this practice situation of less educated individuals. The next section of
of economic discrimination is the direct sign of deficiency. the study focuses on poverty and livelihoods with more
For example, joblessness takes place when an individual is emphasis on Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) as
discriminated against by the labour market. When someone the best strategy for poverty reduction.
loses a job, immediately he or she is deprived of access to
regular income and their economic status is weakened III. SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS APPROACH
towards poverty. Similarly, when an individual is deprived (SLA)
of material goods or services his economic status is also
weakened towards poverty. A person’s joblessness status Sustainable Livelihood Approaches mean different
can also damage one’s social class [21] Amartya (1999) things at different levels to different people [23] For example,
added that the distribution of scarce resources by the for programme developers, it means pinpointing what
government is inefficient and ineffective and as such combination of policies are more likely to have a greater
encourage deficiency This goes contrary to concepts and supportive influence on economic growth, such as building
policy assumptions that dwell on the lack of “will and skill” good transportation networks and developing micro-credit
obsessed by the poor themselves as being the major cause of facilities. Chambers and Conway (1992:4) perceive
their poverty [22] sustainable livelihoods as the connecting of three concepts;
(1) increasing social sustainability, that is, vulnerability of
the underprivileged ought to be minimized by decreasing
external pressure and providing safety nets such as public
allowances; (2) enhancing capability, that is, in facing

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 557

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
irregularity, people are flexible, speedy to adjust and exploit resources and time, there is little or nothing to show for it [1]
different opportunities. (3) Improving equity, the main The advantage of this method is that it positions the
concern ought to be given to the assets, capabilities and underprivileged and their conditions firmly at the centre of
access of the poorest of the poor, including minorities and the investigation and equally offers a general view of the
women. lives of the poor that fits well with multi-level
conceptualization of poverty.
Applying the SLA to poverty reduction will share the
concern that the economic well-being of the poorest of the A. The core principles underpinning SLA are [25]
poor ought to be understood from their perspective and not  People centred: Krantz (2001) clarifies that a viable
from the perspective of an outsider. From the above view, poverty alleviation can be accomplished if outside
poverty has numerous measurements and the circumstances assistance centres on what is important to people,
of well-being for most household’s changes over time. NSah recognises the changes between individuals groups, and
(2023) assert that deficiency entails a holistic and build on their capacity in a way that is well-suited to their
participatory assessment of the range of livelihood activities existing living approaches or community setting, and
that people draw upon, and of the strategies they employ. capability to adjust. This means that for any project or
The available resources in fulfilling individual livelihood activity to yield good fruit in the community, the
plans and overpowering their weakness to circumstances underprivileged who know their poverty situation more
outside their control are very significant and, as such, than anyone should be at the centre of that project.
poverty is not the focus, but rather building on their However, the state role is still necessary to support and
prosperity. Ashley & Carney (1999) argue that this stimulate people's needs, but change in the conception of
approach is based on the principle that the underprivileged people-centred development is the best approach. Roodt
make premeditated choices according to their privileges and (2001) argues that growth does not start with material
access to assets. For the purpose of this study, Krantz, belongings; it begins with individuals and their training,
(2001) definition of SLA is used. According to Krantz a good system of government, and discipline. From this
livelihood is a set of activities necessary for daily life that view, unless life expectancy of the people is appropriately
are conducted over one's life span. E.g. Water, food, shelter, considered and managed accordingly, the developmental
clothing. A livelihood is viable if it can handle and pull process will be a useless effort because economic growth
through pressures and still boost its abilities in the present alone cannot represent real development [26]. Nsah
and in the future while keeping its natural resource base. (2023) in line with Matiku, Zuwarimwe & Tshipala,
These explanations emphasise that a sustainable livelihood (2021), advises that “development processes should carry
must offer substantial work that will satisfy the social, the aspirations and define the needs of the people for
economic, cultural and spiritual needs of a society both allocating, mobilizing, and managing resources which can
present and in the future, but still safeguard cultural and strengthen the communities”. According to this author,
natural diversity. This revealed that a decent description of growth is not like stuff which can be rented from outside.
sustainable livelihoods ought to go further than elementary To him, genuine growth cannot be attained with foreign
requirements of life such as water, food, and shelter but aid or assistance alone. People must be involved in
include good quality of life that is rooted in prosperous carrying out developmental activities that require
societies [24] authentic participation if they want to benefit from the
developmental process.
The sustainable livelihood approach is used in this  Being responsive and participatory: Every individual
study to illustrate how individuals can prepare for and has a strong point. Meaning that any intervention to deal
respond to changes in their environment. Furthermore, the with poverty should be built on people straight or on their
approach is an important analytical tool that illustrates how strong point (Roodt 2001). This means that any project
external factors consisting of macro-economic factors, that has to deal with poverty, the beneficiaries of the
history and politics generally influence the poor in the project should be involved in the project from the
society. Nyathi (2012:45) indicates that numerous beginning to end. The goals of participation are
approaches have been unsuccessful to reduce poverty and accomplished when everyone has a saying in decision
stresses that anyone who wants to reduce poverty can apply making. Participation starts from situation assessment,
this approach as it focuses on normal resources to improve planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation and
living conditions. Cárdenas Oleas (2015) argues that ends by celebrating the success. It is not a once-off plan
although some individuals or organisations can not officially but a learning practice for all the participants.
apply this approach for poverty alleviation plans, however, Participation encourages empowerment. Empowerment
the approach is a valuable instrument that can be used to here implies the process through which community
evaluate their work and how it assists peoples’ means of members gain skills, knowledge, understanding and
support. The approach stresses the involvement of the poor control on how to manage economic, social, cultural and
in the identification and implementation of activities. Roodt political powers in order to develop and improve their
(2001:470) indicates that some of the reasons it is difficult livelihood. The advantages of participation in community
to reduce poverty is that most developers’ activities are development is that community members will take
based on top-down project plans instead of bottom-up ownership of their own development and self-reliance,
approaches to deliver change to the community. The top- and utilise their power to improve their living conditions
down approaches most often do not really think through [27] However some researcher like Ashley & Carney
feasibility and thus after much has been spent in terms of (1999) argues that participation sometimes cause delay in

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 558

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
development project because people have different views income and food security, training and skills
on what need to be done. This is time-consuming which development, healthcare, safety and empowerment. With
makes the delivery process longer than when decisions are this approach, the poor themselves should be the key
made by few. actors in detecting and addressing livelihood main
 Working with partners: The method emphases the concerns as the approach necessitates an understanding of
significance of forming partnerships. Partnerships can be what people need and want most[29]
developed with underprivileged and their organisations,
e.g. partnerships can be formed with NGOs and their B. SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FRAMEWORK
beneficiaries. Partnerships should be transparent This is a framework that assists in studying the means of
arrangements, built upon shared goals [28] support of the underprivileged. The aim of the framework is
 Being dynamic; Means of support and the elements to show how the poor can detect the issues that shake their
influencing them are continuously changing. The method means of support, comparative status and the manner in
should try to support constructive ways of change and which they interrelate. The framework views the
create longer-term assurances. underprivileged as those functioning in an environment of
 Disaggregate: It is dynamic to apprehend how resources, vulnerability, however, there are some basic resources
voices and livelihood approaches vary among affluent around them that they can use to reduce their vulnerability.
groups and underprivileged groups as well as between The environment also impacts the means of support schemes
males and females in these groups. that are exposed to the underprivileged in search of valuable
means of support that meet their own livelihood intentions.
With this approach it is easy to possibly evaluate It is adopted from the sustainable livelihood framework used
different impacts on livelihood strategies of individuals or by DFID in the late 1999’s
households. The activities that will have an impact on
livelihoods include, providing work or job opportunity,

[1]
Roodt, 2001

Fig. 1: Sustainable livelihoods framework

The above conceptual framework emphasizes a people sanctuaries and examines the relationship amongst the
centred approach. The framework helps in understanding actors, organizations and processes in the wider world. The
how underprivileged can pull on capabilities and framework is built around five important groups of means of
possessions to improve living plans made up of a series of support system, namely, livelihood strategies, livelihood
undertakings. The framework outlines diverse forms of assets, vulnerability context, transforming and processes
possessions and privileges which the underprivileged have structure, and livelihood outcome.
control over. The framework studies the diverse features in
small and broader settings that affect individual living

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 559

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
According to Krantz (2001) sustainable livelihood  Livelihood Outcome: Sustainable Livelihood framework
framework was developed as an alternative way of DFID (1999) refers to what people may obtain tomorrow
conceptualising deficiency, as well as its framework. The through livelihood activities. Matiku, et al (2021)
approach is more about the necessary aspects of life i.e. the recognizes two classes of outcomes. The first class is
ability of the underprivileged to support their lives and their concerned with an individual’s working hours,
relatives for always. Sustainable living or livelihood advancement of contentment and proficiencies. The next
structures will be elaborated in greater details below as class is based on adaptability, flexibility, and sustainable
follows: use of normal means[33] In Krantz (2001), livelihood
 Vulnerability Context: DFID (1999) explained that outcomes is more about how to increase income, deal with
people’s livelihoods are fundamentally affected by critical vulnerability, enhanced foodstuff safety, and best ways to
inclinations (population, resource, economic, and exploit raw material base. Meaning that in order to reduce
governance) as well as shocks that distress individuals’ poverty, those who are concerned need to introduce the
means of support. Shock here consists of clashes, health use of local base raw material. This strategy will offer the
complications, and natural disasters, such as epidemic, locals a long-term dependable source of income.[34]
animal diseases, floods, and earthquakes. Seasonality
consists of prices and employment opportunities over C. Strengths Of The Sustainable Livelihood Approach
which they have limited or no control. To deal with The approach is important in this study because it
vulnerability context entails identifying trends, shocks and encourages a bottom-top approach. The approach stresses
aspects of seasonality that are of particular importance to that the poor should be at the core when developing poverty
means of support. reduction strategies. The approach recognises that the poor
 Livelihood Assets: Individuals need different means of also have strengths including physical and natural
support to attain optimistic livelihood outcomes. resources[35] Results from contemporary participatory
Therefore, absence or lack of resources in terms of poverty assessments demonstrate that deficiency is not just
income, and other opportunities that may better the living the lack of basic but renunciation of luxury life .
condition is a cause of insufficiency. According to Krantz
Furthermore, the Approach has assisted in the
(2001), Livelihood Assets comprises natural capital.
understanding of the principal reasons that increases or
These are natural means that can be used by the
decreases the level of poverty in communities as it’s easy to
underprivileged to accomplish their living objectives, e.g.
assess the available resources in the communities [37]. In
wildlife, biodiversity and environmental services.
addition, the method creates a possibility to understand how
Physical capital are inputs required at every stage of
the poor can gain strength and make decisions that can
production. E.g. raw material, real estate, building. In
positively improve their living standard. In addition, it
order word, physical capital are production tools.
permits a more vibrant perspective on livelihoods, since
Financial capital comprises financial possessions such as
individual powers are not constant, they can change at times
money, bank notes, pension and regular remittances that
either because of their surroundings or because of external
can be used by the needy to attain a better living. Human
environment [38]. The approach is used in this study because
capital comprises skills, strength, understanding,
if it is applied effectively, it can contribute to veritable
information and ability that can make it possible for the
poverty reduction.
needy to apprehend different living strategies and achieve
living goals. Social capital comprises, social systems, D. LIMITATIONS OF THE SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS
association, connection, support, entrance to wider APPROACH
institutions or organisation through which individual gain Despite all the great benefits that the Sustainable
assistance to build their livelihood objectives [30] Livelihoods Approach provides for poverty reduction, the
 Transforming Structures and Processes: These are approach has some criticism. Helmore & Singh (2001)
institutions and policies that influence the underprivileged established the following weaknesses in the application of
lives. Transforming Structures consist of hardware that the approach.
involves government and non-governmental segments at
all stages. Policy, law, culture, institutions and power The first criticism about this approach is that it does
relations are all examples of processes. All these elements not deal with the problem of how to recognise those who are
are more like software, they can transform susceptibility really in need of assistance and the actual underlying core of
setting and possessions which the underprivileged have the SLA is poverty reduction. As seen above, being
control (DFID, 1999) underprivileged can mean a lot more than simply not having
 Livelihood Strategies: These are those activities that the any income or that poverty is well-defined as absence of
underprivileged undertake to achieve their living goals. In enough income in cash or exchange items for obtaining the
other words, these are activities which are employed to most elementary requirements like education, water, food,
generate the means of family survival [31] Matiku et al shelter, and clothing. There is more to poverty than just lack
(2021) classifies (income from crops and livestock) as of basic necessities. In a community people are faced with
normal resource based and (rural employment, rural diverse needs since poverty is not homogeneously spread
service, property rentals, retirement pensions, urban and within a community as every single community has people
international remittances) non-natural resource based [32] who are better off than others. In addition, the approach
does not offer a clear scheme to handle individual
positioning, their knowledge and sensitive cares. Similarly,

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 560

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
the way assets and other living prospects are spread locally REFERENCES
and are time and again determined by natural structures of
social authority and power within the people themselves. [1.] Abia, W., Nchanji, E., Markjovert, A, Eucharia A.,
Therefore poverty cannot simply be reduced only to Abia, E. 2016. Valorisation of NGOs’ existence in
economic deprivation Cameroon: Option for a more engaged civil society
(vnec-oecs). International Journal of Non-
Another criticism is that gender is one of the Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Essays,
characteristics of communal relationships. There is high vol.1 no.1, pp.1-17. European Centre for Research
discrimination and social supremacy between males and Training and Development, UK.
females relationships. The approach has not helped to show [2.] Akerloff, G., &. Kranton.R. 2002. Identity and
how gender can be addressed in principle, for example, the schooling: Some lessons for the economics of
genuine perceptions, interests, and needs of women in education. Journal of Economic Literature 40:1167-
relation to specific livelihood issues in practice is difficult to 2101.
handle using this approach. [3.] Alkire, S. 2007. Choosing dimensions: The capability
approach and multidimensional poverty. CPRC
Finally, the approach cannot be used continuously Working Paper, 88, 1-25.
because if the approach is used every day it might be beyond [4.] Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom, (Oxford:
the actual genuineness of numerous local development Oxford University Press, 1999) Ashley, C. & Carney,
managers, with the danger that this method remains as a D. 1999. Sustainable livelihoods: Lessons from early
good deed to funders [39]. Despite these criticisms, the experience. Nottingham: Russell Press Ltd.
approach offers a more appropriate technique to evaluate [5.] Bonakele, P. 2021. Understanding Sustainable
poverty and provides a framework through which poverty Livelihood Strategies Of Female-Headed
can be reduced. Households: The case of Renosterberg municipality,
pixleyka seme district, Northern Cape. Faculty 0f
IV. CONCLUSION Economic and Management Science. University of
Drawing from above illustration one can suggest that the Free State
underprivileged are those operating within harsh external [6.] Bourgois, P. 1997. In Search of Respect: Selling
surroundings and they are subjected to different pressures Crack in El Barrio Cambridge: University Press.
and limitations. Below are some of the suggestions to deal [7.] Bradshaw, T.K. (2006) Theories of Poverty and Anti-
with the causes of poverty as discussed above. To begin Poverty Programs in Community Development. Rural
with, if poverty is caused by individual influence, the best Poverty Research Centre (RPRC) Working Series
solution will be to encourage the needy to search for jobs, No.06-05 Oregon State University and University of
and this can be done through counselling. Another strategy Missouri
can be through reduction of assistance given to the [8.] Cárdenas, S. E. 2015. Case study: a sustainable
underprivileged in the form of family allowance but Semati livelihoods analysis of a non-governmental
et al. (2012) suggested that there should be an increase in organization working with quinoa producers in the
assistance given to the disabled and elderly to fight poverty. province of Chimborazo, Ecuador. Graduate Theses
The study further suggests that if poverty is caused by and Dissertations.Paper 14336.
cultural influence, communities or individuals should be [9.] Carter, P. 2005. Keeping’ it real: School success
encouraged to educate the elderly who are custodian of their beyond black and white. New York: Oxford
culture to know the negative impact of these cultures so that University Press Chambers, R. & Conway, G. R.
they can replace the values with beliefs that inspire creative 1992. Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical
work, investment, and communal responsibility. concepts for the 21st Century, Discussion paper 296.
Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Thirdly, if poverty is caused by structural influence, [10.] Davis, K. & Moore, W. (1945). Some principle of
the solution will be to change that particular system. If stratification. American Sociological Review, 10 (2),
households are poor because they have inadequate human 242-249.
capital or lack technical expertise, the government should [11.] Davis, E & Sanchez-Martinez, M, . 2015. Economic
improve schooling for the poor by giving scholarships, since theories of poverty. Available at www.jrf.org.uk
education and training are the keys to fight poverty and the [12.] Department for International Development (DFID).
underprivileged do not have resources to acquire these 1999. Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets.
necessary skills to enable them gain employment. Available:
Government should create more jobs, and support the http://www.livelihoodscentre.org/documents/20720/1
development of micro, small, and medium businesses. This 00145/Sustainable+livelihoods+guidance+sheets/8f3
will bridge the inequality gap. Since the sources of poverty 5b59f-8207-43fc-8b99-df75d3000e86.
are very much multifaceted, the study strongly believed that [13.] Eddins, E. 2013. A sustainable livelihoods approach
poverty can be well-defined primarily by the to volunteer tourism: the roles of the host community
underprivileged who know their situation very well and the and an alternative break program in Achiote, Panama.
best approach to tackle poverty is SLA because poverty is Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
diverse and means different things

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 561

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
[14.] Ekane, D. 2010. The Context of an Urban Social Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Essays,
problem in Cameroon: Case study of youth Vol.7, No 1, pp. 1-19
unemployment. University of Stockholm, Department [29.] Nsah, E. 2021. Non-governmental Organisations and
of social work (Master’s Thesis). poverty reduction in the North West and East regions
[15.] Figart, M,. & Power, M. (2002). Living wages, equal of Cameroon. University of Cape Town. PHD thesis
wage: Gender and labor market policies in the United [30.] Nsah, E. 2013. Food garden and poverty reduction in
States: New York, NY: Routledge Grabouw, South Africa. University of the Western
[16.] Fisher, G. (1992). The development of the Cape, Department of Development Studies (Master’s
Orshansky’s poverty thresholds and their subsequent thesis).
history as the official poverty measure. Available [31.] Nyathi, D. 2012. An evaluation of poverty alleviation
www.census.gov/hhes/www/povmeas/papers/orshans strategies implemented by NGOs in Zimbabwe.
ky.html. University of Fort Hare. Department of Development
http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/rdrr100/rdrr100 Studies (Master’s thesis).
.pdf [32.] Onyango, P. 2011. Poverty Alleviation in Small-
[17.] Forgha, N. 2006. Econometric Model of Poverty in Scale Fisheries: Governance Challenges in Lake
Cameroon: International Review of Business Victoria Fishing Communities, Tanzani. University
Research Papers, 2(2): 30-46. of Tromsø Ouane, Available
[18.] Graaf, J. 2003. Poverty and development. Oxford: http://www.unesco.org/education/uie/publications/uie
Oxford University Press. stud41.shtml
[19.] Harding, D. 2010. Living the drama: Community, [33.] Pettinger, T. 2017. Definition of absolute and relative
conflict, and culture among inner-city boys poverty. Available:
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/glossary/definiti
[20.] Helmore, K,. & Singh, N. 2001. Sustainable on-of-absolute-and-relative-poverty/
livelihoods: Building on the wealth of the poor. [34.] Rank, M. (2001). The effect of poverty on America’s
Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, Inc. families: Assessing our research knowledge. Journal
[21.] Hurst, C. (2004). Social inequality: Forms, causes of Family Issues, 22 (7), 882-903
and consequences. New York, NY: Person Education [35.] Rank, M. 2004. One nation underprivileged: Why
Inc. American poverty affects us all. New York, NY:
[22.] Krantz, L. 2001. The Sustainable Livelihood Oxford Press.
Approach to Poverty Reduction. An Introduction. [36.] Roodt, M. 2001. Participation, civil society and
Executive Summary. pp. 6-21. Swedish International development. In Coetze, J. K. et al. (Eds.).
Development Cooperation Agency. Division for Development: Theory, policy and practical. Oxford:
Policy and Socio Economic Analysis. Available Oxford University Press, pp. 469-481.
file:///C:/Users/owner/Downloads/Sustainableliveliho [37.] Runguma, S. 2014. The political economy of poverty
ods.pdf. reduction in Kenya. University of Witwatersrand
[23.] Laderchi, C., Saith, R. & Stewart, F. (2003). Does it Johannesburg, Faculty of humanities. (PhD Thesis).
matter that we do not agree on the definition of [38.] Sameti, M., Esfahani, R., Haghighi, H. 2012.
poverty: A comparison of four approaches. Oxford Theories of Poverty: A Comparative Analysis.
Development Studies, 31 (3), 233-274. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and
[24.] Lareau, A. 2003. Unequal childhoods: Class, race, Management Review 33(835):1-16
and family life. Berkeley: University of California [39.] Schiller, R.B. 2008. The economics of poverty and
Press. discrimination. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
[25.] Mah, V.A. 2016. Sustainability of community- Prentice Hall.
managed projects in the North West Region of [40.] Schwartz, J. 2000. Fighting poverty with virtue.
Cameroon.Cardiff Metropolitan University (PhD Bloomington: Indiana University.
thesis). [41.] Tamanji, A. 2011.Three Instances of Western
[26.] Marx, K. 1932. The Economic and philosophical of Colonial Governments and Christian Missions in
manuscripts. Available Cameroon Education. The Faculty of Graduate
http://www.wehavephotoshop.com/PHILOSOPHY% School in Candidacy: Loyola University Chicago
20NOW/PHILOSOPHY/Marx/Marx,.Karl.- (PhD thesis).
.Economical.And.Philosophical.Manuscripts.pdf. [42.] Tao, T.C.H. & Wall, G. 2008. Tourism as a
[27.] Matiku, Zuwarimwe,. & Tshipala, 2021. Sustainable sustainable livelihood strategy. Tourism
tourism planning and management for sustainable Management, 30: 90–98.
livelihoods. Development Southern Africa, 2021, [43.] Thomas, C. 2015. Poverty and inequality. In Stewart,
Volume 38, Number 4, Page 524 Available. P. & Zaaiman, J. (eds). Cape Town: Juta Sociology a
https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.100 Concise South African Introduction,
7/978-981-10-0983-9_5 [44.] The World Bank. 2015. “The international poverty
[28.] Nsah E.S. 2023 Gaps between NGOS Polices and line has just been raised to $1.90 a day, but global
their Implementation in The North West Region, poverty is basically unchanged. How is that even
Cameroon, International Journal of Non- possible?
https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/internati

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 562

Volume 8, Issue 6, June 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
onal-poverty-line-has-just-been-raised-190-day-
global-poverty-basically-unchanged-how-even
[45.] Laderchi, Saith & Stewart, 2003
[46.] The World Bank, 2015
[47.] Laderchi, Saith & Stewart, 2003
[48.] Graaff, 2003
[49.] Pettinger, 2017; Thomas, 2015
[50.] Graaf, 2003
[51.] Amartya, 1999
[52.] Nsah, 2013:10
[53.] Amartya, 1999
[54.] Graaff, 2003
[55.] Lardechi et al, 2003
[56.] Amartya, 1999
[57.] Runguma, 2014
[58.] Onyango, 2011.
[59.] Rank, 2001
[60.] (Ekane, 2010).
[61.] Sameti et al. (2012:45)
[62.] (Mah, 2016).
[63.] (Nsah, 2021).
[64.] (Nsah, 2021).
[65.] (Graaff, 2003).
[66.] (Semati et al., 2012).j
[67.] (Krantz, 2001).
[68.] (Department for International Development (DFID),
1999).
[69.] (Krantz, 2001);
[70.] (Matiku, Zuwarimwe & Tshipala, 2021)
[71.] (Matiku et al, 2021).
[72.] (Roodt, 2001).
[73.] (Krantz, 2001).
[74.] (Krantz, 2001).
[75.] (Krantz, 2001).
[76.] (Matiku et al, 2021).
[77.] Matiku et al, 2021).
[78.] (Matiku et al, 2021).
[79.] (Roodt, 2001).
[80.] (Nsah, 2013).
[81.] (Tao & Wall, 2008
[82.] (Krantz, 2001).
[83.] Eddins, 2013

IJISRT23JUN791 www.ijisrt.com 563