TOS Outline IndusPsych 2.0

Industrial Psychology
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Sources: Aamodt (2016), Levy (2017), Howes & Muchinsky (2019), Riggio (2013), McShane & Glinow (2018), Dessler
(2017), Cummings & Worley (2009), Mondy & Martocchio (2016)
Organizational Theory (20) o Scalar Principle – deals with the organization’s
Organizational Theories, Models, and Concepts vertical growth and refers to the chain of command
Organizational Theory that grows with levels added to the organization
o Organization – collectivities of parts that cannot ▪ Each subordinate should be accountable to only
accomplish their goals effectively if they operated one superior (unity of command)
separately o Line/Staff Principle
▪ a tool people use to coordinate their actions to Line Functions: have primary responsibilities for
obtain something they desire or value to achieve meeting the major goals of the organization, like the
a goal production department
▪ org creates value, or else the “die” Staff Function: support the line’s activities but are
▪ How do org create value? Environment regarded as subsidiary in overall importance to line
(Customers, Suppliers) > Input (Raw Materials, functions
IT, HR) > Process (Machines, Computers, o Span-Of-Control Principle – refers to the number
KSAOs) > Output (Products, Services) of subordinates a manager is responsible for
o Organizational Theory – set of propositions that supervising
explains or predicts how group and individuals ▪ Large Span-of-Control produce flat
behave in varying organizational structures and organizations, whilst, smaller Span-of-Control
circumstances produce taller organizations
Classical Theory/Classical Organizational Theory A. Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor
o Classical Organizational Theory – organizations ▪ The organization is a machine, a pragmatic
exists for economic reasons and to accomplish machine whose focus is to simply run more
productivity goals effectively
o The basic ingredient of any organization and then ▪ Taylor believed that scientific principles could
addresses how organizations should best structured be applied to the study of work behavior to help
to accomplish its objectives increase worker efficiency and productivity
✓ System of differentiated activities – activities ▪ Based on the concept of planning of work to
that are linked to each other achieve efficiency, standardization,
✓ People – perform tasks and exercise authority specialization, and simplification
✓ Cooperation toward a goal – unity of purpose in ▪ The advantages of productivity improvement
pursuit of their common goals should go to workers
✓ Authority – ensures cooperation among people ▪ Physical stress and anxiety should be eliminated
pursuing their goals ▪ Capabilities of workers should be developed
o There is a “right” structure for an organization through training
o Assumes there is one best configuration to ▪ Traditional boss concept should be elimated
accomplish goals ▪ Mainly associated with high levels of job
o Scientific Analysis will identify the one best way to specialization and standardization
organize for production ▪ conducted time and motion studies and analyzed
o Deal with the formal organization and concepts to temperature, illumination, and other conditions
increase management efficiency of work, all while looking at the effects of these
o Both people and organizations act in accordance conditions on productivity and efficiency
with rational economic principles ▪ Taylorism: has a premise that there is one best
o To be successful in this new economy, industrial way to get the job done
and mechanical engineers are needed to organize ▪ Management gathers data from the workers, who
production systems to keep the machines busy and are in the best position to understand the job
work flowing duties and tasks
o Functional Principle – concept behind division of ▪ Workers are selected carefully or scientifically
labor, that is, organizations should be divided into and trained so that they become more efficient
units that perform similar functions into areas of than ever
specialization ▪ Scientific selection, data collection, and training
are combined to enhance efficiency
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▪ The work itself is redistributed, with C. Administrative Management by Henri Fayol
management taking over tasks previously left to ▪ Aims to improve organizational productivity by
subordinated focusing on methods that managers can use to
▪ The most effective companies have detailed synchronize internal processes
procedures and work practices developed by ▪ Managerial practices are the key to driving
engineers, enforced by supervisors, and executed efficiency in organizations
by employees ▪ Seeks to heighten managerial performance
▪ Taylor, along with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth instead on individual worker efficiency
implemented the principles of scientific ▪ Proposed the creation of work groups and
management functional departments wherein distinct
▪ Worker efficiency would lead to greater activities are performed which contribute to the
managerial efficiency accomplishment of greater tasks
B. Bureaucracy by Max Weber ▪ Five functions of Managers: Planning,
▪ Described the structure, organization, and Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, and
operation of many efficient organization Controlling
▪ ideal form of organization Structural Theory
▪ includes formal hierarchy, division of labor, and o Harry Mintzberg proposed how organizations
a clear set of operating procedures evolve to reach a certain form and shape (structure)
▪ Well-defined authority hierarchy with strict rules which permits the organization to function in its
for governing behavior, with few members with surroundings
highest status on the top o The structure of an organization is an adaptive
▪ Increase productivity by reducing inefficiencies mechanism that permits the organization to function
in organizational operations in its surroundings
Characteristics of a Bureaucratic Organization Seven Basic Parts of an Organization
Specialization of labor Operating Core – responsible for conducting basic
Well-defined Authority Hierarchy work duties that give the organization its defining
Formal Rules and Procedures purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products
Impersonality – behavior is based on logical reasoning Strategic Apex – responsible for the overall success
rather than emotional thinking of the entire organization; associated with executive
Employment decisions based on merit leadership
Emphasis on written records Middle Line – ensures that overall goals set by
▪ Division of Labor: each job is a specialized strategic apex are being carried out by the operating
position with its own set of responsibilities and core
duties; division of tasks performed in an Technostructure – possess specific technical
organization expertise that facilitates overall operation of the
▪ One potential difficulty involves the organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments
coordination of various tasks handled by various Support Staff – aid the basic mission of the
employees organization and typically includes the mailroom,
▪ Tend to be top-down pyramidal organization security, and janitorial services
▪ Delegation of Authority: approach whereby Ideology – belief system that compels commitment to
supervisors assign particular tasks to separate a particular value; organizations should have
employees and hold them responsible for singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its
completing these tasks (Micromanagers); actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees
information about which lower-level employees behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in
report to higher-level employees the ideology of the organization, and can perform their
▪ Structure: formal way an org is designed in work relatively independent of each other
terms of division of labor, delegation of Politics – side effect of ideology, causes divisiveness
authority, and span of control and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is
▪ Characterized by Span of Control (number of neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the
subordinates who report to a given supervisor organization
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Neoclassical Theory o Growth was a natural and health experience for an
o Neoclassical Theory – recognizes the importance individual
of individual or group behavior and emphasized o Organizations that acknowledged and aided this
human relations growth would be more likely to prosper than those
o also known as Behavioral Theory of Organization, that are ignored or actively inhibited this growth
Human Relations, or New Classical Theory of o Passive to active organisms
Management Humanistic Theory
o Based on Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, and Herbert o Humanistic Theory – organizational success in
Simon’s Theories terms of employee motivation and the interpersonal
o Adds a personal or human element to the study of relationships that emerge within the organization
organization, considering the interrelationship ▪ Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor) –
between an organization’s requirements and the managers’ beliefs and assumptions about their
characteristics of its members employees determine how they behave towards
o Productivity was achieved as a result of high those employees
morale, which was influenced by the amount of ▪ Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – employees, over
individual, personal, and intimate attention workers time, learn to act and believe in ways consistent
received with how managers think they act and believe
o Introduced informal organization and emphasized Theory X
the: individual, work group, and participative - employees are viewed to be lazy, selfish,
management uninterested in work, lack in ambition, and not very
1. Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Experiment intelligent
▪ Conducted in Western Electric Company - managers control and direct employees in order to
Hawthorne, Chicago make outputs
▪ Study if the workers would be more productive - employees is passive and unresponsive to
depending on the levels of illumination in the organization needs
factory - most prevalent set of beliefs about employees from
▪ Increased productivity when lighting conditions the birth of industry
improved - lack of focus would lead to apathy and resistance
▪ Workers motivation increased due to interest Theory Y
shown by the company in them and their well- - much more humanistic and developmental
being orientation, emphasizing not only the inherent
2. Chester Barnard’s Comprehensive Theory of goodness, capacity, and potential of employees but
Behavior in Formal Organizations also their readiness to develop those inherent
▪ People in executive roles must foster a sense of characteristics
purpose, moral codes, ethical visions, and create - emphasizes management’s responsibility for
formal and informal communication systems nurturing those qualities and providing employees
▪ People should cooperate, thus making no place with opportunities to develop their inherently positive
for conflicts among workers characteristics in the workplace
3. Herbert Simon’s Application of Classical Theories - without unduly constraining organizational or
to current situations of his time managerial controls
▪ Contradicted Henri Fayol’s Administrative o Motivation – the internal force that drives a worker
Management to action as well as the external factors that
o Human Relations Movement – social and encourage that action
psychological factors are important in determining ▪ Ability and skill determines whether the worker
worker productivity and satisfaction can do the job, but motivation determines
▪ Efficient leaders are employee-centric, whether a worker can do it properly
democratic, and follow a participative style Three Individual differences traits that are most
o Behavioral Movement – proposes ideas how related to work motivation
managers should behave to motivate the employees 1. Self-Esteem – the extent to which a person views
4. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y himself as valuable and worthy
5. Argyris’ Growth Perspective
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- Employees high in self-esteem are more motivated satisfied when jobs involve little challenge and have a
and will perform better than employees low in self- high probability of success
esteem - Employees who have a strong need for affiliation are
- Consistency Theory: employees who feel good about motivated by jobs in which they can work with and
themselves are motivated to perform better at work help other people
than employees who do not feel that they are valuable - Employees who have strong need for power are
and worthy people motivated by a desire to influence others rather than
- Employees try to perform at levels consistent with simply to be successful
self-esteem is compounded by the fact that employees o Other Humanistic/Motivational Theories:
with low self-esteem tend to underestimate their 1. Job Expectations Theory – a discrepancy between
actual ability and performance what an employee expected a job to be like and the
- Chronic Self-Esteem: person’s overall feeling about reality of the job can affect motivation and satisfaction
himself ▪ When expectations from the job was not met,
- Situational Self-Esteem: person’s feeling about ▪ the employee might feel unmotivated
himself in a particular situation ▪ Realistic Job Preview is really important
- Socially Influenced Self-Esteem: how a person feels 2. Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics
about himself on the basis of the expectations of Theory/Model - employees desire jobs that are
others meaningful, provide them opportunity to be personally
- To increase self-esteem, employees can attend responsible for the outcome of their work, and provide
workshops in which they are given insights into their them with feedback of the results of their efforts
strengths ▪ Jobs will have motivation potential if they allow
- Experience-with-Success: employee is given a task employees to use a variety of skills and to
so easy that he will almost certainly succeed connect their efforts to an outcome which has
- Galatea Effect: the relationship between self- meaning, is useful, or is appreciated by
expectations and performance coworkers as well as by others in society
- Train supervisors to communicate a feeling of ▪ Job Diagnostic Survey
confidence in an employee ▪ Job Enrichment: redesigning jobs to give
- Pygmalion Effect/Rosenthal Effect: if an employee workers greater responsibility in the planning,
feels that the manager has confidence in him, his self- execution, and evaluation of their work, raises
esteem will increase the level of responsibility
- Golem Effect: occurs when negative expectations of Core Job Characteristics
an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s Skill Variety: use of different skills and talents to
actual performance complete a variety of work activities
2. Intrinsic Motivation – they will seek to perform Task Identity: the degree to which a job requires
well because they either enjoy performing the actual completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work
tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully Task Significance: the degree to which the job affects
completing the task the organization and/or larger society
- Extrinsic Motivation – they don’t particularly enjoy Autonomy: provide freedom, independence, and
the tasks but are motivated to perform well to receive discretion in scheduling the work and determining the
some type of reward or to avoid negative procedures to be used to complete the work
consequences Feedback: employees can tell how well they are
- Work Preference Inventory – measures the doing from direct sensory information from the job
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation itself
3. Needs for Achievement and Power – employees 3. Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - employees
differ in the extent to which they are motivated by the would be motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at
need for achievement, affiliation, and power any given point in time if certain needs were met
- Employees who have strong need for achievement ▪ This model condenses a long list of previously
are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over studied drives into five basic categories (primary
which they have some control, whereas employees needs)
who have minimal achievement needs are more
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▪ Proposed that human beings are motivated by 5. Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory – some
several primary needs (drives) at the same time, factors seemed to cause job satisfaction and
but the strongest source of motivation is the dissatisfaction
lowest unsatisfied need a. Motivators – related to the work itself, the type
▪ As the person satisfies the a lower-level need, of work, level of responsibility, and the chances
the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes for recognition, advancement, and personal
the next strongest motivator and remains so even achievement
if never satisfied b. Hygiene – related to the context in which people
▪ Motivation can be shaped by human thoughts perform the job, e.g., benefits, working
a. Physiological Needs – food, air, water, shelter conditions, type of supervision, salary, company
b. Safety Needs – physical, psychological, and policies
financial needs ▪ Eliminate job dissatisfaction by providing basic
c. Belongingness/Social needs – interaction with hygiene factors (compensated properly, treated
others well, and provided with job security)
d. Ego Needs – recognition and success 6. David McClelland’s Achievement Motivation
e. Self-Actualization – highest potential Theory – three needs are central to work motivation:
needs for achievement, power, and affiliation
Need for Achievement – drive to success and get the
job done; love the challenges of work, task-oriented,
preferring situations offering moderate levels of risk
or difficulty
Need for Power – need to direct and control the
activity of others and to be influential
- Personal Power: used toward personal ends
- Institutional Power: power that is oriented toward
organizational objectives
Need for Affiliation – desire to be liked and accepted
by others
7. Four-Drive Theory – emotions are the source of
4. Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory – states that human motivation and that these emotions are generated
individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need through four innate and universal drives
at the same time, and that the level which is most 1) Drive to acquire – seek out, take, control, and
important to them can change over time retain objects and personal experiences
▪ Individual’s priorities and motivations may be 2) Drive to bond – variation of the need for
fluid and can move between existence, belonging and affiliation, motivates the people
relatedness, and growth to cooperate and, essentially, for organizations
and societies
3) Drive to Comprehend – need to know, discover
answers to unknown
4) Drive to defend – protect ourselves physically,
psychologically, and socially
8. Self-Regulation Theory - employee monitor their
own progress toward attaining goals and then make
the necessary adjustments: that is to self-regulate
9. Reinforcement Theory – draws principles of operant
conditioning and states simply that behavior is motivated
by consequences
▪ Operant Conditioning – employees will engage
in behaviors for which they are rewarded and
avoid behaviors for which they are punished
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Factors the must be considered in determining the - Gainsharing: ties groupwide financial incentives to
effectiveness of incentive programs improvements in organizational performance
Timing of incentive – reinforcer or punisher is most - Stock Options: employees are given the opportunity
effective if it occurs soon after the performance of the to purchase stock in the future
behavior Use of positive incentives versus negative incentives
Contingency of the consequences – if it is not – instead of rewarding employees, punish
possible to immediately reward or punish a behavior, those who did wrong
it should at least be clear that the employee - For punishment to be effective, the employee must
understands the behaviors that brought reward or understand why he is being punished and be shown
punishment alternative ways of behaving that will result in some
- Reward and punishment must be made contingent type of desired reinforcement
upon performance, and this contingency of Fairness of the reward system
consequence must be clear to employees if we want ▪ Reinforcement – increases behavior
them to be motivated a. Positive – addition of something to increase
Type of incentive used – supervisors should have behavior
access to and be trained to administer different types b. Negative – removing something to increase
of reinforcers behavior
- Premack Principle: reinforcement is relative and that ▪ Punishment – decreases behavior
a supervisor can reinforce an employee with 4 types of Schedules
something that on the surface does not appear to be a Fixed Interval
reinforcer Fixed Ratio
- Financial Rewards: can be used to motivate better Variable Interval
worker performance either by making variable pay an Variable Ratio
integral part of an employee’s compensation package * ratio – responses
or by using financial rewards as a bonus for * interval – time
accomplishing certain goals ▪ Organizational Behavior Modification –
- Recognition: reward through recognition program certain target behaviors are specified, measured,
- Social Recognition: consists or personal attention, and rewarded
signs of approval, and expressions of appreciations; 7. Edwin Locke’s Goal Setting Theory – emphasized
informal recognitions the role of specific, challenging performance goals and
- Travel: offer travel rewards rather than financial worker’s commitment to those goals as key determinants
rewards of motivation
Use of individual-based versus group-based ▪ Difficult or challenging goals will also result in
Incentive greater levels of motivation, if the goals have
1. Individual Incentive Plans – designed to make high been accepted by the workers
levels of individual performance financially ▪ Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant,
worthwhile and the research is clear monetary Time-Bound
incentive increase performance over the use of a 8. J. Stacey Adam’s Equity Theory – based on the
guaranteed hourly salary premise that our levels of motivation and job
- Pay For Performance: also called as earnings-at-risk satisfaction are related to how fairly we believe we are
(EAR) plans, pay employees according to how much treated in comparison with others
they individually produced ▪ Inputs – those elements that we put into our
- Merit Pay: base their incentives on performance jobs
appraisal scores rather than on such objective ▪ Outputs – elements we receive from our jobs
performance measures as sales and productivity ▪ Employees subconsciously list all their outputs
2. Group Incentive Plans – get employees participate and inputs and then compute an input/output
in the success or failure of the organization ratio by dividing the output value by input value
- Profit Sharing: provide employee with percentage of ▪ When an employee’s ratio is lower than those of
profits above a certain amount others, he will become dissatisfied and be
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motivated to make the ratios equal in one or Motivation – represents the forces within a person
more ways that affect his or her direction, intensity, and
▪ Our motivation decreases when our input/output persistence of voluntary behavior
ratios are lower than others - Direction: path along which people steer their effort
9. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory – also known as VIE - Motivation is goal-oriented
Theory - Intensity: amount of effort allocated to the goal
Valence – desirability of a particular outcome to an - Persistence: refers to the length of time that the
individual individual continues to exert effort toward an
- extent to which an employee value a particular objective
consequence Ability – includes both the natural aptitudes and the
- “gusto ko yumaman” learned capabilities
- gaano mo ka-gusto yung outcome Role Perceptions – how clearly people understand
Instrumentality – relationship between the their job duties
performance of a particular behavior and the Situational Factors – any context beyond the
likelihood that a certain outcome will result employee’s immediate control
- link between one outcome and another outcome 12. Costa & McCrae’s Five Factor Model of
- outcome of a worker’s performance, if noticed, Personality – the most researched and respected
results in a particular consequence clustering of personality traits
- the extent to which the performance will result to the Conscientiousness – organized, dependable, goal-
desired outcome focused, thorough, disciplined, methodical, and
- “kapag bae to yung ginawa ko, yayaman ako?” industrious
Expectancy Agreeableness – trusting, helpful, good-natured,
- perceived relationship between the amount of effort considerate, tolerate, selfless, generous, and flexible
an employee puts in and the resulting outcome Neuroticism – people who tend to be anxious,
- the extent to which the effort an employee exerted insecure, self-conscious, depressed, and
resulted to the outcome she wanted temperamental
- “nag-aral ako ng mabuti, nag-trabaho ako ng maayos Openness to Experience – imaginative, creative,
kaya eto mayaman na ako” unconventional, curious, nonconforming,
10. Organization Justice Theory – if employees are autonomous, and aesthetically perceptive
treated fairly, they will be more satisfied and motivated Extraversion – outgoing, talkative, energetic,
▪ Focused on fairness of many aspects such as the sociable and assertive
process of decision making, outcome of ▪ Conscientiousness stands out as the best overall
decisions, and how it is communicated to predictor of proficient task performance for most
employees job, followed by Extraversion
▪ Distributive Justice – fairness of the decision 13. IMPACT Theory - each leader has one of six
itself behavior styles: informational, magnetic, position,
▪ Procedural Justice – fairness of the procedures affiliation, coercive, or tactical
used to arrive with the decision Informational (Ignorance) provides info in a climate
11. MARS Model of Individual Behavior and of ignorance, where important information is missing
Performance – Performance is predicted by the from the group
Motivation, Ability, Role Perception, and Situational Magnetic (Despair) leads through energy and
Factors optimism but characterized by low morale
▪ All 4 factors are critical influences on an Position (Instability) leads through energy and
individual’s voluntary behavior and optimism but characterized by low morale
performance, if one is low in a given situation, Affiliation (Anxiety) leads by liking and caring about
then, the employee will perform poorly others
▪ Motivation, ability and role perception is
Coercive (Crisis) leads by controlling and
clustered together as they are located within the
punishment
person
Tactical (Disorganization) leads through strategy
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14. Path-Goal Theory – a leader can adopt one of four Systems Approach – considers organization as
behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation systems – a system is an organized or complex whole
Instrumental – calls for planning, organizing, and – an assemblage or combination of things or parts
controlling the activities of employees which form a complex unitary whole
Supportive – shows concern for employees - Subsystems: different parts of the system, which are
Participative – shares information with employees interrelated
and lets them participate in the decision making - Open: interact with the environment
Achievement-Oriented – challenging goals and - Closed: no interaction with the environment
rewards increases in performance - offer an open-system view of an organization and
15. Situational Leadership Theory – a leader typically recognizes its environmental interface
uses one of the 4 behavioral styles: - adopts multi-level and multi-dimensional approach,
1. Delegating – willing and able which considers both macro and micro aspects
2. Directing – unwilling and unable - 3 basic elements: Components, Linking Processes,
3. Coaching – willing but unable Goals of Organization
4. Supporting – unwilling but able - focuses on the internal dynamics of an
16. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Vertical Dyad organization’s structure and behavior
Linkage Theory) – concentrates on the interactions - applicable to all situations
between leader and subordinates Socio-Technical Approach – based on the premise
▪ Leaders develop different roles and relationships that every organization consists of the people, the
with other people under them and thus act technical system, and the environment
differently with different subordinates - people use tools, techniques, and knowledge to
▪ In-Group: HQ relationship with the leader, produce goods or services valued by consumers or
developed trusting and friendly relationship users
▪ Out-Group: LQ relationship with the leader, - equilibrium among the social system, technical
developed system, and the environment is necessary to make the
17. Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory – org more effective
defined as the person’s ability to make choices and - Joint Optimization: the idea that the social and
manage their own life technological systems should be designed to fit one
▪ You feel in greater control, as opposed to being another as well as possible
non-self-determined, which can leave you - Unit Control of Variance: concerns who handles
feeling that your life is controlled by others work problems when they arise
▪ People are motivated to grow and change by - enhances the motivation, self-efficacy, and skills of
three innate psychological needs the employee, and it saves the time of the specialist
▪ The tendency to be either proactive or passive is and supervisor
largely influenced by the social condition which - very useful because of the trend of downsizing in
we are raised favor of advanced equipment/machinery/gadgets
▪ Intrinsic motivation plays an important role - reduces lag time associated with topo many moving
Autonomy – people need to feel in control of their parts
own behaviors and goals Contingency or Situational Approach – based on
Competence – people need to gain mastery of tasks the belief that there cannot be universal guidelines
and learn different skills suitable for all situations, thus, different environment
Connection or Relatedness – people need to requires different organizational relationships for
experience a sense of belonging and attachment to optimum effectiveness, taking into consideration
people various social, legal, political, technical, and
Modern Organization Theory economic factors
o Modern Organization Theory – based on the - focuses on external determinants of the
concept that the organization is a system which has organization’s behavior and structure
to adapt to changes in its environment’ - works on the prescription which says that “it all
o Organization is defined as a designed and structured depends,”
process in which individuals interact for objectives
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Open System Theory by Katz & Kahn ▪ Mass Production, large span of control and long
o Open System Theory – organization develop and chain of command
change over time as a result of both external and ▪ Continuous process, largest span of control
internal forces ▪ Deals only with manufacturing organizations
3 Key Elements of Open System Theory B. Lawrence and Lorsch’s Model – asserted that two
Inputs – raw materials, human resources, energy, processes determine the company’s ability to keep up
machinery with external changes: differentiation and integration
Throughputs – production processes, service, ▪ Proposed that the stability of the environment
training dictates the most effective form of organization
Outputs – products, services, knowledge ▪ Depends on the environment of the company
o The interplay between internal reality of an ▪ Mechanistic Organization: an organization that
organization and the external reality of its depends on formal rules and regulations, makes
environment and history decisions at higher levels of the organization and
o Organization must be open to its environment to be has smaller spans of control (for stable
effective environments)
o Organizations thrive only as long as there is a ▪ Organic Organization: organization with a large
continuous flow of energy from the external span of control, less formalized procedures, and
environment into the system and continuous export decision-making at middle levels (for unstable
of products out of the system environments)
o Too much Negative Entropy (all forms of ▪ Differentiation: complexity of the org structure –
organization move towards disorganization or number of units, various orientations and
death, so orgs must avoid this movement) philosophies of the managers, and the goals and
o The negative feedback loop provides information interests of the organization’s members
about where and how the organization is getting off- ▪ Integration: amount and quality of collaboration
course; therefore, they could correct or adjust the C. Fiedler’s Contingency Model – any individual’s
course leadership style is effective only in certain situations
o Equifinality – a system can reach the same end D. Mintzberg’s Contingency Model – argued that one
state in different ways (there isn’t just one way to could describe an organization by looking at several
achieve a particular outcome) categories of characteristics
o Surviving open systems are characterized by a ▪ the key mechanism used by the organization for
balance in energy exchange coordinating its efforts
o Open systems move toward more specialized ▪ functions and roles of people in the organization
functions ▪ the context in which the organization operates
o Bringing the system together as a unified process is ▪ the priority level depends on the goals
necessary for the system to continue ▪ Operating Core:
Contingency Theory Basic Forms of Coordination
o The “it depends” theory Mutual Adjustments based on Informal Comms
o Behavior must be selected to fit the particular Direct Supervision
circumstance Standardization of Work Process
o This answers the problem of both classical and Standardization of KSAOs
neoclassical theories Standardization of Outputs
A. Joan Woodward’s Contingency Model – for Standardization of norms (Culture)
maximal performance, org structure needed to match the Seven Basic Parts of an Organization
type of production technology Operating Core – responsible for conducting basic
▪ 3 types of manufacturers: Small-batch, mass work duties that give the organization its defining
production, and continuous production purpose; transform raw goods into a sellable products
▪ Producers of small batches of specialty products Strategic Apex – responsible for the overall success
required a span of control that was moderate in of the entire organization; associated with executive
size and a short chain of command leadership
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Middle Line – ensures that overall goals set by - forces that maintains the status quo are broken down,
strategic apex are being carried out by the operating and the system is opened up for change
core; mid-levels managers - started by pointing out behaviors and outcomes
Technostructure – possess specific technical prevalent in the organization that are not consistent
expertise that facilitates overall operation of the with its goals and objectives
organization; accounting, HR, IT, law departments Moving
Support Staff – aid the basic mission of the - real org change begins to happen
organization and typically includes the mailroom, Refreezing
security, and janitorial services - changes become stabilized, and the organization
Ideology – belief system that compels commitment to reaches a new level of equilibrium
a particular value; organizations should have B. Action Research Model – social problems that
singularly devoted to a particular mission, and all its needed to be addressed from both methodological and
actions are in pursuit if that mission; employees social perspective
behave in accordance with their sincere conviction in ▪ Cyclical nature
the ideology of the organization, and can perform their ▪ Initial research about the organization
work relatively independent of each other ▪ Results from the research could be the guide for
Politics – side effect of ideology, causes divisiveness further activities
and conflict; the basis is the use of power that is ▪ Sensemaking: what employees do to gain a
neither formally authorized or widely accepted in the better understanding of their workplace
organization C. Perrow’s Model – examined information
Organizational Models technology, which refers to all aspects of jobs
A. Lewin’s Change Model – change as a matter of ▪ The structure of the organization adjusts to the
modifying those forces that are acting to keep things technology
stable ▪ among the various units of the organization
o Any behavioral situation is characterized both by D. Kotter’s Change Model – proposed an eight-stage
forces operating to maintain stability or equilibrium model that essentially broke down Lewin’s 3 steps into
and by forces pushing for change subcomponents based on common mistakes he saw
o Intervention: the program or initiative suggested or organizations make when trying to change
implemented by the change agent 1) Increase Urgency
o Evolutionary Change: continual process of 2) Build Guiding Team
upgrading or improving processes 3) Develop the Vision
o Revolutionary Change: drastic changes 4) Communicate the Vision
o Change Agent: initiates the change, usually external 5) Empower Action, Remove Obstacles
to the organization, people who enjoy change and 6) Create Short-Term Wins
often make changes just for the sake of it 7) Build on Wins
o Client: recipient of the change effort 8) Embed changes into culture
o Change Resistant: individuals who prefer to keep E. Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand Theory – individuals
things the way they are are driven by self-interest and rationality will make
o Change Analysts: not afraid to change or make decisions that lead to positive benefits for the whole
changes but want to make changes only if the economy
changes will improve the organization ▪ Rational Choice Theory: individuals use rational
o Receptive Changers: people who probably will not calculations to make rational choices and
instigate change but are willing to change achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own
o Reluctant Changers: not instigate or welcome personal objectives
change, but they will change if necessary F. Peter and Waterman’s Well-Managed Model –
o Planned for change to occur in organizations with aims at formulating a descriptive model of choice which
the least amount of tension and resistance focuses on the expressive character of decision making
3 Steps of Change Process in the organization
Unfreezing ▪ Based on empirical perception of how successful
organizations are being run
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G. Vroom-Yetton Model – provide a flowchart that can ▪ Establish the behavior expected of everyone in
tell a leader process to go through when making a the group
decision ▪ Descriptive norms – developed through a
process of observation
▪ Injunctive norms - developed through a process
of conforming to gain social approval
▪ There is “oughtness” or “shouldness”
▪ Usually more obvious for behavior judged to be
important for the group
▪ Norm must be first defined and communicated,
either explicitly or implicitly
▪ The group must be able to monitor behavior and
judge whether the norm is being followed
▪ Group must be able to reward conformity and
punish nonconformity
3. Organizational Climate and Culture
Organizational Climate – shared meaning
organizational members attach to the events, policies,
Organizational Concepts practices, and procedures they experience and the
Components of Social Systems behaviors they see being rewarded, supported, and
o Social System – structuring events or happenings, it expected
has no formal structure, apart from its functioning - how things are done within an organization
▪ Sometimes referred to as informal component of Organizational Culture – languages, values,
an organization attitudes, beliefs, and customs of an organization
1. Roles – expectations of others about appropriate - complex pattern of variables that, when taken
behavior in a specific position collectively, gives each organization its unique
▪ Impersonal “flavor”
▪ related to task behaviors - three layers: Observable Artifacts (symbols,
▪ difficult to pin down, some people might define language, narratives, and practices), Espoused Values
your role differently as how you define it or the (values endorsed by the management), and Basic
other way around Assumptions (unobservable and are at the core of the
▪ learned quickly and can produce major behavior org)
changes - Organizational Culture Profile – organizational reps
▪ roles and jobs are not the same, some people sort 54 “value statements” describing such things as
have several roles in one job (e.g., Head organizational attitudes toward quality, risk taking,
Manager, also specifically watches the and the respect the organization gives to workers into
production department, a mother) meaningful categories to provide a descriptive profile
▪ Role Conflict – when an individual is faced with of the organization
incompatible or competing demands - Organizational Practices Scale – designed
▪ Role Ambiguity – uncertainty about the specifically to measure organizational structure
behaviors to be exhibited in a role, or boundaries assesses the company’s culture in terms of dimensions
that define a role such as whether the organization is “process versus
▪ Role Overload – when an individual feels result oriented,” etc.
overwhelmed from having too many Person-Organization Fit
responsibilities o Person-Organization Fit (Person-Organization
▪ Role Differentiation – the extent to which Congruence) – process of gauging the degree of fit
different roles are performed by employees in between the two parties is mutual
the same subgroup ▪ People populating the organization who most
2. Norms – shared group expectations about appropriate define its culture
behavior
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Downsizing, Outsourcing, Offshoring ▪ An organization’s ability to divide work among
Downsizing – decision to cut jobs, one of the most people depends on how well those people can
radical and tumultuous ways an organization can coordinate with each other
change in response to pressures Coordinating Mechanisms in Organizations
- reducing cost Informal Communication – sharing information on
- reduction-in-force mutual tasks; forming common mental models to
- greatest losses come from middle line, synchronize work activities
technostructure, and support staff Formal Hierarchy – assigning legitimate power to
- Horizontal Cut: involves the loss of jobs within a individual, who then use this power to direct work
department, but the department remains within the processes and allocate resources
organization Standardization – creating routine patterns of
- Vertical Cut: involves elimination of all jobs in the behavior or output
department o Elements of Organizational Structure:
Outsourcing – company use external employees to 1. Chain of Command
perform internal functions which known to be less 2. Span of Control
costly than hiring its own employees to perform these 3. Centralization and Decentralization
services 4. Formalization
Offshoring – work performed domestically is 5. Mechanistic vs. Organic Structure
exported to cheaper labor markets in overseas o Traditional – have formally defined roles for their
countries members, very rule driven, and are stable and
Mergers and Acquisition resistant to change
Organizational Merger – marriage of two a. Bureaucracy
organizations of equal status and power b. Line-Staff Organizational Structure
Acquisition – procurement of property by another (Principle)
organization o Nontraditional – less formalized work roles and
- Hostile Takeover: dominant organization thus procedures (organic)
acquires an unwilling partner to enhance its financial ▪ Generally, have fewer employees and may also
status occur as a small organization that is a subunit of
- Parent: acquiring organization a larger, more traditionally structured
- target: organization being acquired organization
- 3 Phases: Precombination (emphasis on financial Team Organization – workers have defined jobs, not
issues), Combination (clash between people as they narrowly specialized positions common to
focus on differences between partners), traditionally structured organizations, collaborate
Postcombination (integrating two cultures) among workers, and share skills and resources (e.g.,
Organizational Structure group of psychologists working on a single case)
o Organizational Structure – arrangement of Project Task Force – temporary, nontraditional
positions in an organization and the authority and organization of members from different departments
responsibility relationships among them or positions within a traditional structure who are
o Arrangement of positions in an organization and the assembled to complete a specific job or project (e.g.,
authority and responsibility relationships among Avengers)
them Matrix Organization – structured of both product
o The division of labor as well as patterns of and function simultaneously
coordination, communication, workflow, and o Tall – managers have smaller span of control,
formal power that direct organizational activities longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct
o Division of Labor – subdivision of work into layers with obvious lines of responsibility and
separate jobs assigned to different people control and a clear promotion structure
▪ Leads to job specialization to increase work o Flat – span of control is larger, fewer management
efficiency levels, focused on empowering employing rather
than adhering to the chain of command by
encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common
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when the task is repetitive and requires minimal Organizational Development
supervision o Organizational Development – planned,
o Functional – divides the organization into organization-wide effort to increase organizational
departments based on the functions or tasks effectiveness through behavioral science knowledge
performed and technology
▪ Creates job specialists but overly focused on ✓ Involve the total organization
their own department and area of specialization ✓ Be supported (and initiated) by top management
o Divisional – based on type of products or clients ✓ Entail diagnosis of the organization, as well as
▪ Can easily expand products or services merely implementation plan
by adding new division but there is a duplication ✓ Be long-term processes
of areas of expertise ✓ Focus on changing attitudes, behaviors, and
o Centralization – the degree to which decision- performance of groups/team
making authority is concentrated at the top of the ✓ Emphasize the importance of goals, objectives,
organizational hierarchy and planning
o Decentralization – process of taking the decision- o Change process through which employees
making power out of the hands of the top level and formulate the change that’s required and implement
distributing it to lower levels it, often with the assistance of trained consultants
o Formalization – the degree to which organizations o When OD fails, it is often because the
standardize behavior through rules, procedures, characteristics mentioned above has been ignored in
formal training, and related mechanisms favor of superficial changes that have very little
o Mechanistic – characterized by narrow span of impact on the organization’s effectiveness and
control and high degree of formalization and result in greater stress and lower morale at the
centralization company
▪ Have many rules and procedures, limited o “is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and
decision making at lower levels, tall hierarchies (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase
of people in specialized roles, and vertical rather organization effectiveness and health through (5)
than horizontal communication planned interventions in the organization’s
▪ Operate better in rapidly changing environments processes, using behavioral science knowledge,”
o Organic – operate with a wide span of control, (Beckhard, 1969)
decentralized decision-making, and little o Planned ahead of time (Revolutionary (abrupt) and
formalization Evolutionary (gradual))
▪ Tasks are fluid, adjusting to new situations and o Often involves altering the organization’s works
organizational needs structure or influencing workers’ attitudes or
o Departmentalization – specifies how employees behaviors to help the organization to adapt to
and their activities are grouped together fluctuating external and internal conditions
▪ Establishes chain of command 1. identify significant problems
▪ Focus people around common mental models or 2. appropriate interventions are chosen to deal with
ways of thinking the problems
▪ Encourages specific people and work units to 3. implementation
coordinate through informal communication 4. evaluation
a) Simple – few people minimal hierarchy o Change Agent = OD practitioner
b) Functional – organizes employees around o Action Research Model – social problems that
specific knowledge or other resources needed to be addressed from both methodological
c) Divisional – group employees around and social perspective
geographic areas, outputs, or clients ▪ Cyclical nature
d) Team Based – built around self-directed teams ▪ Initial research about the organization
that complete an entire piece of work ▪ Results from the research could be the guide for
e) Matrix – overlays two structures to leverage the further activities
benefits of both ▪ Sensemaking – what employees do to gain a
f) Network – design and build a product or serve a better understanding of their workplace
client though an alliance of several organizations o Effective Interventions:
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✓ Fit the needs of the organization create job specialist and overly focused on their
✓ Based on the causal knowledge of intended own department and are of specialization
outcomes; and,
✓ Transfer change-management competence to
organization members
1. Survey Feedback – involves systematic collection
data, widely used intervention strategy
2. Team Building – develop teams or to enhance the
effectiveness of the existing teams
▪ In order to be successful, the members must
collaborate and be interdependent
▪ Must be initiated to correct existing problems
▪ Combined with other interventions
▪ Strongly supported by the members
▪ Implemented in a participative management ▪ Product-Based Organizational Design
climate (Divisional Structure) – organized based on
▪ Performance was measured at the group level their product output, allows the managers of a
▪ Outdoor Experiential Training – makes use of particular division to focus exclusively on that
outdoors and entails various physical and mental division, creating greater commitment and
exercises cohesion within the division; operates as a
3. Total Quality Management – also known as separate entity
continuous improvement or quality management ▪ Matrix Structure – combined function and
▪ Focuses on employee involvement in the control products structures
of quality in organizations ▪ Reengineering (business process redesign) –
1) Senior management must receive training on involves fundamental rethinking and redesign of
what TQM is, how it operates, and what their business processes to improve critical
responsibilities are performance as measures by cost, quality,
2) Employees are trained in quality methods such service, and speed
as statistical process control (identifying Fundamental
problems reflective of a low-quality product or Examination of what the company does and why
service) Radical
3) Employees identify not only the areas in which Willingness to make crucial and far-reaching
their department or division excels but also organizational changes rather than superficial ones
deviations (output variation) from quality Dramatic
standards Making striking performance improvements rather
4) Self-Comparison analysis, whereby the org that slight ones
compares its effectiveness to that competitors Processes
that set the benchmark for the industry ▪ Information Technology – science of
5) Rewards are linked to achievement of collecting, storing, processing, and transmitting
intervention goals information
4. Gainsharing – involves paying employees a bonus 6. Positive Organizational Development
based on improvements in productivity ▪ Positive Psychology – scientific study of the
▪ Link between pay and performance lead to strengths and virtues of individuals and
increased employee involvement and job institutions rather than their weaknesses and
satisfaction impairments
5. Technostructural Interventions – focus on the ▪ Appreciative Inquiry – engages employees by
technology and structure of organizations focusing on positive messages, the best of what
▪ Functional Organizational Design – most employees have to offer, and the affirmation of
basic, structured according to the various past and present strengths and successes
functions of the employees, groups employees to 1) Discovery – determine the strengths
various departments based on their expertise;
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2) Dream – information gathered from discovery is o Individual Power – derived from personal
analyzed and elaborated upon to arrive at a characteristics that are of value to the organization
vision statement or focused intent and its members
3) Design – designing innovative ways to identify Power Bases
where the organization should be going Coercive Power – ability to punish or threaten to
4) Destiny – the design is maintained or sustained punish others
in this stage Reward Power – ability to give something positive
7. Organizational Transformation – any Legitimate Power – formal rights or authority that an
intervention primarily directed toward creating a individual possesses by virtue of a position in an
new vision for an organization and changing its organization
beliefs, purpose, and mission Expert Power – possession of some special, work-
▪ Culture Change – alteration of a pattern of related knowledge, skill, or expertise
beliefs, values, norms, and expectations shared Referent Power – an individual is respected, admired,
by organizational members and liked by others
▪ Knowledge Management – organizations Communication in the Organization
enhance their operations through attempts to o Horizontal Communication – aims at linking
generate, transform, disseminate, and use their related tasks, work units and divisions in the
knowledge organization; among co-workers with the same level
▪ Organizational Change – process of altering or similar hierarchical positions
organizations to be more adaptive and congruent o Downward Communication – provides
with their business environment information from the higher levels to lower levels
8. T-groups – sensitivity training, use of unstructured o Upward Communication – serve as a control
group interaction to help workers gain insight into system for the organization wherein subordinates
their motivations and their behavior patterns in communicate to the higher levels
dealing with others Organizational Decision Making
Power in the Organization 1. Setting Organization Goals
o Power – refers to the ability to get an individual or 2. Establish Performance Criteria
group to do something or change in some way 3. Classifying and defining the problem
o Politics – process to achieve power 4. Developing criteria for a successful solution
o Organizational Politics – involves any action taken 5. Generating Alternatives
to influence the behavior of others to reach personal 6. Comparing Alternatives to criteria
goals 7. Choosing an alternative
o Ingratiation – increasing one’s personal appeal 8. Implementation
through such tactics as doing favors, praising, or 9. Evaluation
flattering another (#sipsip) Types of Individual Behavior
o Assertiveness – making orders or demands Task Performance – individual’s voluntary goal-
o Rationality – using logic to convince someone directed behaviors that contribute to organizational
o Sanction – withholding salary, threaten firing objectives
someone - Proficient Task Performance: refers to performing
o Exchanges – offering something in exchange for the work efficiently and accurately
another - Adaptive Task Performance: refers to how well
o Upward Appeals – obtaining the support of employee modify their thoughts and behaviors to
superiors align with and support a new or changing environment
o Blocking – threatening to stop working with the - Proactive Task Performance: refers to how well
other person employees take the initiative to anticipate and
o Coalition – obtaining co-workers’ support of a introduce new work patterns that benefit the
request organization
o Organization Power – comes from an individual’s Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – various
position in the organization and from the control forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that
over important organizational resources conveyed
by that position
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support the organization’s social and psychological Leadership
context o Leadership – influencing, motivating, and enabling
Counterproductive Behavior – voluntary behaviors others to contribute toward the effectiveness and
that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm success of the organizations of which they are
the organization or its stakeholders members
Joining/Staying with the Organization ▪ Motivate others through persuasion and other
Maintaining Attendance influences tactics
Perceptual Effects o High Openness, Conscientiousness, and
o Halo Effect – occurs when our general impression Extraversion = great leaders
of a person, usually based on prominent o High Self-Monitors = leaders
characteristic, distorts our perception of other Motivation to Lead
characteristic of that person Affective Identity Motivation – become leaders
▪ Most likely to occur when important information because they enjoy being in charge and leading others
about the perceived target it missing or we are Noncalculative Motivation – seeking leadership
not sufficiently motivated to search for it position that will result to personal gain
o False-Consensus Effect (Similar-to-Me Effect) – Social-Normative Conditions – becomes leaders out
occurs when people overestimate the extent to of a sense of duty
which others have similar beliefs or behaviors to o Leadership Motive Pattern – high need for power
our own and a low need for affiliation
▪ We are comforted by the thought of other people o Person-Oriented leaders – acts in warm and
are similar to us supportive manner and show concern for their
▪ We interact more with people who have similar subordinates
views and behaviors ▪ Believe that employees are intrinsically
▪ We are more likely to remember information motivated, seek responsibility, are self-
consistent to our own views and selectively controlled, and do not necessarily dislike work
screen out information that is contrary to our ▪ Consult their subordinates before making
beliefs decisions, praise their work, ask about their
o Primacy Effect – tendency to rely on the first families, and etc.
information we receive about people to quick form ▪ Socially withdrawn
an opinion of people of them ▪ Appreciate humor
o Recency Effect – occurs when the most recent ▪ Have satisfied employees
information dominates our perception o Task-Oriented Leaders – define and structure their
Organizational Commitment own roles and those of their subordinates to attain
o Organizational Commitment – the extent to which the group’s formal goals
an employee identifies with and is involved with an ▪ See their employees as lazy, extrinsically
organization motivated, wanting security, undisciplined
Affective Commitment – the extent to which an ▪ Manage or lead by giving directives, setting
employee wants to remain with the organization, cares goals, and making decisions without consulting
about the organization, and is willing to exert effort on their subordinates
its behalf ▪ Under pressure, they become anxious, defensive,
Continuance Commitment – the extent to which an and dominant
employee believes she must remain with the ▪ Produce humor
organization due to the time, expense, and effort that ▪ Productive employees
she has already put into it or the difficulty she would Team – both task- and person-oriented
have in finding another job Middle-Of-The-Road – moderate amounts of both
Normative Commitment – the extent to which an orientations
employee feels obligated to the organization and, as a Impoverished – neither task- nor person-oriented
result of this obligation, must remain with the o Transactional Leadership – consists of many task-
organization oriented behaviors
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o Transformational Leadership – focus on - humans are the focus of the theory and social
changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, relationships and interactions are instrumental to
standards, and performance of others organizational efficiency
▪ Visionary, charismatic, and inspirational - introduced an informal organization structure
▪ Confident, have need to influence others, and - the most irrational behavior is when they seek
hold a strong attitude that their beliefs and ideas rewards from work
are correct - human beings are interdependent, one can predict
▪ Charisma, intellectual stimulation, individual their behavior by looking at the social and
consideration psychological factors
o Shared Leadership – exists when employee - integrates the classical model with behavioral
champion the introduction of new technologies and science and even considers the environment it’s in
produces - small groups and human behavior
▪ when employee engage in organizational - resulted to more satisfied and efficient employees
citizenship behaviors to assist the performance - democratic and participative
and well-being of co-workers and the overall Modern Org Theory
team - tend to be based on the concept that the organization
▪ flourishes in organizations where formal leaders is a system which must adapt to changes in its
are willing to delegate power and encourage environment
employees to take initiative and risks without - an organization is defined as designed and structured
fear of failure process in which individuals interact for objectives
o Managerial Leadership – daily activities that Contingency Theory
support and guide the performance and well-being - no particular managerial action or organizational
of individual employees and the work unit toward design that is appropriate for all situations
current objectives and practices - also known as situational theory
▪ Assumes the organization’s objectives are stable - situational variables
and aligned with the external environment - result to dynamic management style – since it adapts
▪ Micro-focused to what is needed
o Servant Leadership – an extension or variation of Motivation Theory
people-oriented leadership because it defines - what drives an employee towards a particular goal or
leadership as serving others outcome
Determine the focus and differences of Organization - motivated employee = more productive = more
Theories profitable
Classical Org Theory Open Systems Theory
- views an organization as a machine with centralized - organizations are strongly influenced by their
authority, labor specialization, and incentives to environment (whether political, economic, or social in
optimize productivity in an organization, and in turn, nature)
drive profits - environment provides key resources that sustain the
- each employee must be efficient to increase organization and lead to change and survival
efficiency Importance of Organizational Theories
- rigid and static view of organization o Help study an organization, its corporate designs,
- no interaction with the environment structures and behaviors of individual or groups
- more on structural and technical aspects of o Aim to provide an overview of how an organization
organizations functions and the things needed to improve
- oversimplified and mechanistic assumptions efficiency and profitability
- work as well as the economic needs of the workers
- more mechanical and impersonal
- results to work alienation and dissatisfaction
- authoritarian and bureaucratic
Neo-Classical Org Theory
- emphasized human relations
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Organizational Structures and Systems (20) authority and - impedes specialists’
Pros and Cons of different types of Organizational responsibility exposure to others within
Structures - heightens departmental the same specialties
Pros Cons cohesion and - puts multiple-role
Functional involvement in work demands on people and
- promotes skill - emphasizes routine so creates stress
specialization tasks, which encourages - may promote
- reduces duplication of short-time horizons departmental objectives,
scarce resources and uses - fosters parochial as opposed to overall
resources full time perspectives by organizational objectives
- enhances career managers, which limit Simple
development t for their capabilities for top- - minimal hierarchy - insufficient economies
specialists within large management positions - highly flexible and of scale to assign them to
departments - reduces communication minimizes the walls that specialized jobs
- facilitates and cooperation between form between employees - difficult to operate as
communication and departments the company grows and
performance because - multiplies the become more complex
superiors share expertise interdepartmental Flat/Process Structure
with their subordinates dependencies, which can - greater interaction - offer few promotional
- exposes specialists to make coordination and between top and bottom opportunities
others within the same sched of the organization - supervision may not
specialty - focuses resources on always be adequate since
Multidimensional/Divisional customer satisfaction many workers report to
- easily expand products - duplication of areas of - improves speed and the same supervisor
or services merely by expertise efficiency - can threaten middle
adding new division - workers with similar - adapts to environmental managers and staff
- each division operates skills and expertise may change rapidly specialists
as a separate entity, thus not be able to benefit - increases ability to see - requires changes in
greater accountability from professional total workflow command-and-control
- growth relatively easily interaction with each - enhances employee mindsets
- outcome-focused other because they are involvement - duplicate scarce
- direct employee housed in different - lower costs because of resources
attention to customers divisions less overhead structure - requires new skills and
and products rather than - expertise is spread knowledge to manage
to their own specialized across several lateral relationships and
knowledge autonomous business teams
- recognizes sources of units, which reduces the - may take longer to
interdepartmental ability and perhaps make decisions in teams
dependencies motivation of the people - can be ineffective if
- foster an orientation in one division to share wrong processes are
toward overall outcomes their knowledge with identified
and clients other counterparts in Tall
- allows diversification other divisions - may offer lower-level - workers at the bottom
and expansion of skills - may use skills and employees many different level may feel cut-off
and training resources inefficiently promotional opportunities from those who are above
- ensures accountability - limits career throughout their careers because they are
by departmental advancement by - adequate supervision separated by many levels
managers and so specialists to movements since each supervisor is - can become “top heavy”
promotes delegation of out of their departments only responsible for a few with administrators and
employees managers, because the
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ratio of line workers to Team Organization/Team-Based
supervisors is very low - collab with other - intragroup conflict
- executives tend to workers to get the job arises but it could turn
receive lower-quality and done into productive,
less-timely information - each worker is viewed functional outcome
- high overhead costs – as knowledgeable and - costly to maintain due
necessarily have more skilled to the need for ongoing
people administering the - team members have interpersonal skills
company considerable input into training
- employees feel less organizational decision
empowered and engaged making
in their work - less emphasis on
Matrix organizational status
- highly flexible and - do not work well with - more flexible and
adaptable all types of tasks or responsive in turbulent
- high levels of workers environments
performance in dealing - best suited for projects - reduce costs
with complex, creative and products that requires - allows quicker and more
work products creativity and innovation informed decision-
- greater work but less suited for routine making
communication and job tasks Project Task Force/Network
satisfaction - report to two bosses - offer flexibility to - they expose the core
- makes very good use of simultaneously can cause realign their structure firm to market forces
resources and expertise confusion and conflict with changing - information technology
- improves - increases conflict environmental makes worldwide
communication among managers who requirements communication much
efficiency, project share equal power - enable flexible and easier, but it will never
flexibility, and innovation - can be very difficult to adaptive response to replace the degree of
- makes specialized, introduce without a dynamic environments control organizations
functional knowledge preexisting supportive - creates best of the best have when
available to all projects management climate organization to focus manufacturing,
- uses people flexibly, - increases role resources on customer marketing, and other
because departments ambiguity, stress, and and market needs functions are in-house
maintain reservoirs of anxiety by assigning - enables each - managing lateral
specialists people to more than one organization to leverage a relations across
- maintains consistency department distinctive competency autonomous
between different - without power - permits rapid global organizations is difficult
departments and projects balancing between expansion - motivating members to
by forcing product and functional - can produce synergistic relinquish autonomy to
communication between forms, lowers overall results join the network is
managers performance troublesome
- recognizes and provides - makes inconsistent - sustaining membership
mechanisms for dealing demands, which may and benefits can be
with legitimate, multiple result in unproductive problematic
sources of power in the conflicts and short-term - may give partners
organization crisis management access to proprietary
- can adapt to - may reward political knowledge/technology
environmental changes skills as opposed to Centralized
by shifting emphasis technical skills
between project and
functional aspects
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- uniformity, each - may limit individuals to Describe the elements that create organizational
department should adjust to special structure and their distinct relationships: Job Design,
operate with some circumstances Departmentation, Delegation, Span of Control, and
average level of quality - inefficiencies in Chain of Command
and efficiency decision-making Job Design
- more efficient o Job Design – developing new jobs or adding
operations responsibilities to existing jobs
Decentralized ▪ Interview questions, training plans, development
- can make their own - poor decision making plans, career implications, performance reviews,
decisions could backfire and compensation, tie into the job design
- decision making and ▪ Process of assigning tasks to a job, including
problems are solved at interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
lower levels, more ▪ Allows a company to more easily reach its goals
authority to lower-level by having more employees perform more tasks
employees (sense of within the organization
empowerment) ▪ May involve developing a new position or
- quicker decisions, simply adjusting set of tasks that a current
greater level of position encompasses
procedural fairness ▪ Creates clear and effecting communication
Mechanistic process throughout the company since it clearly
- more flexible and - limited decision making define tasks and form them into natural work
responsive to the changes at lower levels units to organize duties
- formal comms channel - tasks are rigidly defined ▪ Structuring the content and size of jobs for
and are altered only by efficient task performance, flexibility, and
higher authorities worker satisfaction and defining their
- limited autonomy and component tasks, conditions, and competency
self-determination which requirements for recruitment, appraisal, reward,
could lower intrinsic and a number of other HR Processes
motivation of workers o Job Specialization – occurs when the work
Organic required is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to
- emphasize information - may lower productivity different people to improve work efficiency
sharing and an - too many ideas o Job Enrichment – an employee assumes more
empowered workforce - slower decision-making responsibility over the tasks
rather than hierarchy and - less-regulated work ▪ Help improve motivation and morale for
status - slower adaptation for employees who remain following organizational
- communication new employees downsizing
decentralized down to ▪ Combining highly interdependent tasks into one
teams and individuals job (Natural Grouping)
- opportunities for ▪ Feel sense of ownership, therefore, increase job
creativity quality
- more open comms ▪ Putting employees in direct contact with their
- better employee clients rather than using another group or the
satisfaction supervisor as the liaison between employee and
- fewer formal procedures the customer (Establishing Client Relationships)
- deeper employee o Job Rotation – workers are rotated among variety
relationships of jobs, spending certain length of time at each
▪ Exposing workers to as many areas of
organization as possible so they can gain a good
knowledge of its workings and how the various
jobs and departments fit together
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▪ Increases worker flexibility, eliminates boredom, Departmentation/Departmentalization
and increases worker satisfaction o Departmentalization – specifies how employees
o Job Enlargement – adding tasks to an existing job and their activities are grouped together
▪ Might involve combining two or more complete Simple – few people minimal hierarchy
jobs into one or just adding one or two more Functional – organizes employees around specific
tasks to an existing job knowledge or other resources
▪ Significantly improve work efficiency and Divisional – group employees around geographic
flexibility areas, outputs, or clients
▪ Employees are motivated when they perform a Team Based – built around self-directed teams that
variety of tasks and have the freedom and complete an entire piece of work
knowledge to structure their work to achieve the Matrix – overlays two structures to leverage the
highest satisfaction and performance benefits of both
o Re-engineering – fundamental rethinking and Network – design and build a product or serve a
radical redesign of business processes to achieve client though an alliance of several organizations
dramatic improvements in critical contemporary Delegation
measures of performance, such as costs, quality, o Delegation (of Authority) – supervisors, rather
service, and speed than doing everything by themselves, assign
▪ Rethinking and redesigning its business system particular tasks to separate employees and hold
to become more competitive them responsible for completing tasks
▪ Focuses on the overall aspects of job designs, ▪ Strategic, focuses on outcomes, provides
org structures, and management systems learning opportunities
o Duty Allocation – company creates a team or group o Micromanagers – try to take charge of everything
of departments, with each having a specific role that goes on in the organization rather than holding
o Job Crafting – informal changes that an employee employees responsible for individual tasks
makes in their jobs Span of Control
▪ Obtain additional responsibilities in their role o Span of Control – number of subordinates who
over time report to a given supervisor
▪ Organizational Citizenship Behaviors – o Also known as Span of Management
motivated to help the org and colleagues by o Narrow span of control exists when very few people
doing little things they are not required to do report directly to a manager, whereas a wide span
o Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics exists when a manager has many direct reports
Theory/Model - employees desire jobs that are o Widen span of control is possible when employees
meaningful, provide them opportunity to be perform routine jobs because they require less
personally responsible for the outcome of their direction or advice from supervisor
work, and provide them with feedback of the results o Narrow span of control is necessary when
of their efforts employees perform novel or complex tasks, because
Core Job Characteristics these employees require supervisory decisions and
Skill Variety: use of different skills and talents to coaching
complete a variety of work activities o Narrow span of control is necessary highly
Task Identity: the degree to which a job requires interdependent jobs became employees tend to
completion of a whole or identifiable piece of work experience more conflict with each other, which
Task Significance: the degree to which the job affects requires more of a manager’s time to resolve
the organization and/or larger society o Tall – managers have smaller span of control,
Autonomy: provide freedom, independence, and longer chain of command, provide a clear, distinct
discretion in scheduling the work and determining the layers with obvious lines of responsibility and
procedures to be used to complete the work control and a clear promotion structure
Feedback: employees can tell how well they are o Flat – span of control is larger, fewer management
doing from direct sensory information from the job levels, focused on empowering employing rather
itself than adhering to the chain of command by
encouraging autonomy and self-direction; common
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when the task is repetitive and requires minimal opportunities to learn
supervision new skills etc.
Chain of Command - Employees develop
o Chain of Command – number of authority levels their personal and
in a particular organization organizational skills,
o Follows the lines of authority and status vertically knowledge, and abilities
through the organization - focused on the future
Importance of Aligning the Org Structures with needs of the organization
Business strategy and its members
o Organizational Structure improves operational - both are beneficial for the organization and the
efficiency by providing clarity to employees at all employees for the productivity
levels of a company - some activities overlap: appraisal/training
o In a flat structure, front-line employees are Human Resource Development vs. Organizational
empowered to make a range of decisions on their Development
own and information flows quickly from bottom- HRD Org Dev
level employees to top-level employees - mainly concerned with - planned, organization-
o In tall structure, information generally flows one- the training and overall wide effort to increase
way from top to bottom-level employees development of organizational
o Organizational Structures provide a clear employees effectiveness through
organization chart that helps business keep track of - this also includes behavioral science
their human resources performance appraisal of knowledge and
4 Business Elements each employee technology
Product – offerings that solve specific problems or
services of doing things Human Resource Development vs. Employee
Market – who will be the potential clients Training
Money – funds HRD Employee Training
People – make the business work - refers to various - provides learners with
Human Resource Development and Human Resource activities that helps knowledge and skills
Management (25) people to adjust to the needed for their present
Differentiating Human Resource Development and organization/workplace job
Human Resource Management, Human Resource and its culture - training only
Development and Organizational Development, HRD - deals, not only with the
and Employee Training training, but also the
Human Resource Development vs. Human Resource development of their
Management employees overall
HRM HRD - Includes training a
- process of acquiring, - refers to an assortment person after he/she is first
training, appraising, and of training programs that hired, providing
compensating employees, help people adjust to their opportunities to learn
and of attending to their new roles and learn more new skills etc.
labor relations, health and about the organization - focused on the future
safety, and fairness and its culture needs of the organization
concerns - specifically deals with and its members
- focused on the present training and development Activities involved in HR Development
needs of the organization of the employees in the o Training and Development (T&D) – heart of a
and its members organization continuous effort designed to improve employee
- Includes training a competency and organizational performance
person after he/she is first ▪ Includes training, career development,
hired, providing organizational development, and organizational
learning
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o Training – provides learners with knowledge and Training Methods
skills needed for their present job Classroom Method – instructor physically stands in
o Development – involves learning that goes beyond front of students
today’s job and has a more long-term focus - instructors may convey a great deal of information in
▪ Prepares employees to keep pace with the a relatively short time
organization as it changes and grows - common training method
o Some possible strategic benefits of T&D: employee - seminar, lecture, workshop
satisfaction, improved morale, higher retention, E-Learning – online instruction using technology-
lower turnover, improved hiring etc. based methods such as DVDs, company intranets, and
1. Determining Specific Training and Development the internet
needs – Analyzing training needs Case Study – trainees study the information provided
Organizational Analysis – determine those in the case and make decisions based on it
organization factors that either facilitate or inhibit - provide trainees with the opportunity to sharpen
training effectiveness critical thinking skills
- focus on the goals the org want to achieve, the extent Behavior Modeling and Tweeting – permits a person
to which training will achieve those goals, the to learn by copying or replicating the behavior of
organization’s ability to conduct training, and the others
extent to which employees are willing and able to be - tweeting = twitter
trained - ideal behavior rather than the behavior they might
- training will only be effective if the org is willing to normally performed
provide supportive climate for training, it can afford Simulation – allow the trainee to practice newly
an effective program, employees want to learn, and learned skills and work with equipment under actual
the goals of a program are consistent with those of the working conditions
organization Role Playing – participants are required to respond to
Task Analysis – use of the job analysis to identify the specific problems they may encounter in their jobs by
tasks performed by each employee, the condition acting out real-world situations
under which these tasks are performed, and the - learning by doing the task
competencies needed to perform the tasks under - perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out
identified conditions simulated roles
- interviews, observations, task inventories - practice what is being taught
Person Analysis – determining which employees Training Games – games are cost effect means to
needs training and which areas encourage learner involvement and stimulate interest
- not every employee needs further training for every in the topic, thereby enhancing employees’ knowledge
task performed and performance
- based on performance appraisal scores, surveys, - Business Games: permits participants to assume
interviews, skill and knowledge tests, and critical roles such as president, controller, or marketing vice
incidents president of two or more hypothetical orgs and
2. Establish Specific T&D Objectives – must have compete against each other
clear and concise objectives and be developed to In-Basket Training – asked to establish priorities for
achieved organizational goals, designing the overall and then handle a number of business papers, e-mails,
training program tests, memoranda, reports, and telephone messages,
▪ Includes designing the training program by that would typically cross a manager’s desk
setting learning objectives, creating a On-The-Job Training – informal T&D that permits
motivational learning environment, making the an employee to learn job tasks by actually performing
learning meaningful, making skill transfer them
obvious and easy, reinforcement, and ensure the - to transfer knowledge from highly skills experienced
transfer of learning worker to a new employee, while maintaining the
3. Select T&D Methods and Delivery Systems – productivity of both workers
developing the course Apprenticeship – combines classroom method with
OJT
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Team Training – focuses on imparting knowledge - Transfer of Training: the extent to which an
and skills on individuals who are expected to work employee generalizes knowledge and skill learned in
collectively toward meeting common objective training to the workplace, as well as maintains the
- Team Coordination Training: educates team level of skill proficiency or knowledge learned in
members how to orchestrate the work they do to training
complete the tasks Organizational Results – refer to such outcomes as
- Cross-Training: educates team members about the enhanced productivity, lower costs, and higher
other members’ jobs so that they may perform them product or service quality
when a team member is absent, which could raise - ROI is an important results criterion
flexibility, communication, morale, and - Benchmarking: process of monitoring and measuring
interdepartmental relations a firm’s internal processes, such as operations, and
Coaching – takes in two forms: experienced then compare the data with information from
employees and professional coaches companies that excel in those areas
Mentoring – a veteran in the organization takes o Factors influencing T&D:
special interest in a new employee and helps him not 1. Top Management Support
only to adjust to the job but also in the organization 2. Shortage of Skilled Workers
Delivery Systems 3. Technological Advances
Corporate University – provided under the umbrella 4. Global Complexity
of the organization 5. Leaning Styles
College and Universities – primary delivery system Orientation (On-Boarding) – inform new employees
for training professional, technical, and management about the company, the job, and the work group
employees - it also familiarizes them with the corporate culture
Online Higher Education – formal educational and helps them to quickly become productive
opportunities including degree and training programs - Employee Handbook
that are delivered, either entirely or partially, saves o Career – general course that a person chooses to
employees time because it reduces their need to pursue throughout his working life
commute to school ▪ Career Path: a flexible line of movement
Vestibule System – takes place away from the through which a person may travel during his or
production area on equipment that closely resembles her work life
equipment actually used on the job Traditional Career Path – employee progresses
Video Media – cds, DVDs vertically upward in the organization
Simulators – comprised of devices or programs that Network Career Path – contains both vertical
replicate actual job demands sequence of jobs and series of horizontal opportunities
Social Networking - recognizes the interchangeability of experience at
4. Implement T&D Programs – a perfectly conceived certain levels and the need to broaden experience at
program will fail if management cannot convince one level before promotion to a higher level
participants of its merits Lateral Skill Path – allows for lateral moves within
o Thus, participants must believe that the program has the firm, taken to permit an employee to become
value and will help them achieve their personal and revitalized and find new challenges
professional goals - learning a different job, an employee can increase
5. Evaluate T&D Programs his or her value to the organization and also become
Reactions – the extent to which the trainees liked the rejuvenated and re-energized
training program related to its usefulness, and quality - job enlargement, job enrichment
of conduct Dual-Career Path – recognizes that technical
Learning – the extent to which the principles, facts specialists can and should be allowed to contribute
and techniques were understood and retained in their expertise to a company without having to
memory by the employee become managers
Behavior Change – changes in job-related behaviors - advises without entering the management due to
or performance that can be attributed to training specialization to a certain knowledge
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Adding Value to Your Career – an individual’s ▪ any attempt to improve managerial performance
knowledge must be ever expanding, and continual by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or
personal development is a necessity increasing skills
Demotion – process of moving a worker to a lower ▪ Succession Planning: involves developing
level of duties and responsibilities, typically involves workforce plans for the company’s top positions
a reduction in pay ▪ Mentoring: approach to advising, coaching, and
Free Agents – people who take change of all or part nurturing for creating a practical relationship to
of their careers by being their own bosses or by enhance individual career, personal, and
working for others in ways that fit their particular professional growth and development
needs or wants ▪ Coaching: responsibility of the immediate boss,
o Career Management – process of enabling who provides assistance, but the primary focus is
employees to better understand and develop their about performance
career skills and interests, and to use these skills and ▪ Reverse Mentoring: process in which older
interests more effectively employees learn from younger ones
o Career Development – formal approach used by o Performance Appraisal – means evaluating an
the organization to ensure that people with proper employee’s current and/or past performance relative
qualifications and experiences are available when to his or her performance standards
needed ▪ For base pay, promotion, and retention decisions
▪ Lifelong series of activities that contribute to a and continuously ensure that each employee’s
person’s career exploration, establishment, performance makes sense in terms of the
success, and fulfillment company’s overall goals
▪ Must be closely parallel individual career ▪ Provide an opportunity to review the employee's
planning if a firm is to retain its best and career plans in light of his or her exhibited
brightest workers strengths and weakness
▪ Formal: includes short-term training programs, ▪ (1) Setting Work Standards; (2) Assessing the
education, certifications, workshops, or seminars Employee’s actual performance relative to those
that can help build skills sets for a particular job standards; (3) Providing feedback to eliminate
or industry performance deficiencies or to continue to
▪ Informal: includes mentorship opportunities, perform above par
networking events, online courses, internships, Who will Evaluate the Performance?
and volunteering experiences Supervisors – most common type of performance
Manager/Employee Self-Service – providing appraisal
managers with the online ability to assist employees in Peers – often see the actual behavior since they work
planning their career paths and developing required directly with the employee
competencies - employees tends to react worst to negative peer
Discussions with Knowledgeable Individuals – such evaluation
as HR, psychologists, counselors etc. Subordinates – also called upward feedback
Company Material – tailors to the firm’s special - Difficult because of the fear of backlash if they
needs unfavorable rate their supervisor
Workshops – employees define and match their - Correlate highly with upper-management ratings of
specific career objectives with the needs of the supervisors’ performance
company Customers/Clients – provide feedback on employee
o Career Planning – on-going process whereby an performance by filling complaints or complimenting
individual sets career goals and identifies the means the manager about one of her employees
to achieve them - Secret Shoppers: current customers who have been
▪ Self-Assessment, Formal Assessment enlisted by a company to periodically evaluate the
o Management Development – consists of all service their receive
learning experiences provided by an organization Self-Appraisal – allowing an employee to
resulting in upgrading skills and knowledge evaluate her own behavior and performance
required in current and future managers
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- Suffer from leniency and correlate moderately to - requires manager to set specific, measurable,
actual performance organizationally relevant goals with each employee,
- Most accurate when the self-appraisal will not be and then periodically discuss the latter’s progress
used for such administrative purposes as raises or toward these goals
promotions Computerized and Web-Based Performance
- Accurate when employees understand the Appraisal – compiles computerized notes on
performance appraisal system and when employees subordinates during the year, and then merge these
believe that an objective record of their performance with ratings for the employee on several performance
is available with which supervisor can compare the traits
self-appraisal Electronic Performance Monitoring – systems use
Rating Committees – consists of employee’s computer network technology to allow manager to
immediate supervisor and three or four other monitor their employee’s computers
supervisors Conversation Days – no explicit performance ratings,
- help cancel out problems such as biases and provide just manager-employee conversations about
a way to include in the appraisal the different facets of improvement and growth
an employee’s performance observed by different Rating Errors
appraisers Unclear standards – might result in unfair appraisals,
360-Degree Feedback – employer collects because the traits and degrees of merits are ambiguous
performance information all around an employee – Halo Effect – influence of a rater’s general
from his or her supervisors, subordinates, peers, and impression on ratings of specific ratee qualities
internal or external customers Central Tendency Error – rating all employee
Techniques for Appraising Performance average
Graphic Rating Scale – simplest and the most Leniency Error – rater is very lenient and gave the
popular method employees higher scores, rates at the higher end of the
- list several job dimensions and range of performance scale
values for each trait, then supervisors rate each Strictness Error – rater is very strict and gave the
subordinate by circling or checking the score that best employees lower scores, rates at the lower end of the
describes the subordinate’s performance scale
Alternation Ranking Method – ranking employees Recency Effects – rating the employee based on their
from best to worst on a trait or traits is another option recent performance rather than their overall
Paired Comparison – for every trait, you compare performance over the year
every employee with every other employee o Raters who scored higher on conscientiousness,
- n(n-1)/2 tend to have stricter scoring
Forced Distribution – manager places pre- o Raters who scored higher on agreeableness are
determined percentages of ratees into performance more lenient
categories o Performance Management – continuous process
Critical Incident Method – supervisor keeps a log of of identifying, measuring, and developing the
positive and negative examples of a subordinate’s performance of individuals and teams, and aligning
work-related behaviors their performance with the organization’s goals
Narrative Forms/Report – helps the employee o Turnover – the rate at which employees leave the
understand where his or her performance was good or firm
bad, and how to improve that performance ▪ Voluntary Turnover: employees voluntarily leave
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales – anchors the organizations, maybe due to dissatisfaction
numerical rating scale with specific illustrative etc.
examples of good and bad performance ▪ Effectively conduct exit interviews to provide
- based on critical incidents useful insights into turnover problem areas
Management by Objectives – usually refers to a ▪ To boost employee retention the org must raise
multistep company wide goal-setting and appraisal pay, hire smartly, discuss careers, provide
program direction, offer flexibility, use high-performance
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HR Practices, counteroffer (if another company law or with contractual arrangement stated or
offered their employees) implied by the employer
o Job Withdrawal – actions intended to place o Termination Interview – for employee dismissal
physical or psychological distance between o Human Resource Development Manager –
employees and their work environment empower their employees so that they can become a
▪ Absences and voluntary turnover major asset of the company
▪ Job Withdrawal Process: tends to be ▪ Give employees training and opportunities for
incremental, often evolving from daydreaming career growth with the hope that they will use
to absences to quiting what they learned for the organization
o Promotions – traditionally refer to advancement to ▪ In charge of retaining talent
positions of increased responsibility Scope, Coverage, and Processes across the different
▪ Usually mean more pay, responsibility, and job areas of HRD
satisfaction Training - provides learners with knowledge and
▪ Glass Ceiling: a metaphorical invisible barrier skills needed for their present job
that prevents certain individuals from being Career Development – formal approach used by the
promoted to higher positions organization to ensure that people with proper
▪ Glass Cliff: women being likelier than men to qualifications and experiences are available when
achieve leadership roles during periods of crisis needed
or downturn, when the risk of failure is highest Talent Management – the system or strategy used by
o Turnover – describes the number of workers that an organization to effectively recruit, hire, develop,
leave an organization, whether by the termination of and retain employees
the contract, resignation, or any other reason - strategic endeavor to optimize the use of human
o Transfer – move from one job to another, usually capital, which enables an organization to drive short-
with no change in salary or grade and long-term results by building culture,
o Dismissal – involuntary termination of employee’s engagement, capability, and capacity, through
employment with the firm integrated talent acquisition, development, and
Unsatisfactory Performance deployment processes that are aligned to business
Misconduct goals
Lack of Qualification for the Job - refers to the attraction, selection, and retention of
Changed requirements of the Job employees
Insubordination – unwillingness to carry out - management of turnovers
manager’s orders and disrespectful behavior Performance Appraisal – means evaluating an
1) Allow the employee to explain why he or she employee’s current and/or past performance relative to
did what he did his or her performance standards
2) Have formal multistep procedure and appeal Employee Engagement and Empowerment
process - Employee Engagement – an individual’s emotional
3) The person who does the dismissing is important and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused,
4) Dismissed employees who feel they’ve been intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-
treated unfairly are more likely to sue related goals
▪ Statutory Exceptions: include federal and state - High level of absorption in the work, the experience
equal employment and workplace laws that of focusing intensely on the task with limited
prohibit certain dismissals awareness of an events beyond that work
▪ Common Law Exceptions: employee handbooks - Building an engage workforce calls on MARS
promising termination only “for just cause” may model, building affective commitment, motivation
create an exception practices, organizational-level communication, and
▪ Public Policy Exception: against a well- leadership
established public policy - Empowerment – psychological experience
▪ Wrongful Discharge: occurs when an represented by four dimensions: self-determination,
employee’s dismissal does not comply with the meaning, competence, and the impact of the
individual’s role in the organization
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Org Activities involved in HRM Predictive Workforce Monitoring – paying
o Manager – someone who is responsible for continuous attention to workforce planning issues
accomplishing the organization’s goals, and who Matching Projected Labor Supply and Labor
does so by managing the efforts of the Demand
organization’s people Succession Planning – ongoing process of
Manpower Planning/HR Planning/Workforce systematically identifying, assessing, and developing
Planning organization leadership to enhance performance
o Strategic Planning – the process by which top Staffing/Workforce Planning
management determines overall organizational o Staffing – determining what type of people should
purposes and objectives and how they are achieved be hired, recruiting prospective employees,
o Manpower Planning/HR Planning/Workforce selecting employees, setting performance standards,
Planning – primary source for any company, compensating employees, evaluating performance,
process of estimating the optimum number of counselling, training, and developing employees
people required for completing a project, task or ▪ Execution of the plans from Manpower
goal within time Planning
▪ systematic process of matching the internal and ▪ Deciding what positions the firm will have to
external supple of people with job openings fill and how to fill them
anticipated in the organization over a specific ▪ Identify and address the gaps between the
period of time employer’s workforce today, and its projected
▪ process of deciding what positions the firm will workforce needs
have to fill, and how to fill them o Trend Analysis – studying variations in the firm’s
▪ Organizing: giving each subordinate a specific employment levels over the past few years
tasks, establishing departments, delegating o Ratio Analysis – means making forecasts based on
authority to subordinates, establishing channels the historical ratio between (1) some causal factor
of authority and communication, coordinating and; (2) the number of employees required
the work of subordinates ▪ Assumes that things like productivity remains
Strategy and Workforce Planning – about the same
workforce/employment planning is best understood as o Scatter Plot – shows graphically how two
an outgrowth of the firm’s strategic and business variables, such as sales and your firm’s staffing
planning levels, are related
- personnel needs (demands), supply of the inside o Managerial Judgment – to adjust the forecast
candidates, and one for the supple of outside o Forecasting starts within the organization (Internal
candidates Recruitment)
Forecasting Personnel Needs (Labor Demands) – ▪ Personnel Replacement Charts: show the
how many people with what skills will we need? present performance and promotability for each
- Trend Analysis: studying variations in the firm’s position’s potential replacement
employment levels over the past few years ▪ Markov Analysis: mathematical process to
- Ration Analysis: making forecast based on historical forecast availability of internal job candidates
ratio between (1) some causal factor and (2) the o Job Analysis is the cornerstone of personnel
number of employees required selection
- Scatter Plot: shows graphically how two variables o Every essential knowledge, skill, and ability
are related identified in the job analysis that is needed on the
Forecasting the Supply of Inside Candidates – first day of the job should be tested, and every test
determining which current employees are qualified or must somehow relate to the job analysis
trainable for the projected openings o Recruitment – attracting people with right
- Markov Analysis: forecast availability of internal job qualifications to apply for the job
candidates ▪ Internal: within the org, enhance employee
Forecasting the Supply of Outside Candidates – morale and motivation
turning to outside candidates when there is no enough ▪ Done thru Job Postings or rehiring a employee
inside candidates to fill the anticipated openings who already left the organization
▪ External: outside the org
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▪ Recruiting Yield Pyramid: gauge the staffing Structure
issues it needs to address Structured – source is job analysis, all participants
Media Advertisements – Newspaper Ads, Blind Box, are asked with the same questions and there is a
Electronic Media, Situation-Wanted Ads, Point-of- standardized scoring key
Purchase Methods, Recruiters - more reliable and valid
Employee Agencies and Search Firms Unstructured – freely asking anything they want
- Employee Agencies: outsourced agencies that helps - Primacy Effects: first impression affected the
the company for recruitment evaluation
- Executing Search Firms: the jobs they represent tend - Contrast Effects: the interview performance of one
to be higher-paying, non-entry level positions applicant may affect the interview score given to the
- Public Employment Agencies: designed primarily to next applicant
help the unemployed find work, but they often offer - Negative-Information Bias: negative information
services such as career advisement and resume apparently weighs more heavily that positive
preparation information
Employee Referrals – current employees recommend - Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity: interviewee will
someone for hiring receive a higher score if she is similar to the
- most effective but at risk for possible discrimination interviewer in terms of personality, attitude, gender, or
Direct Mail – an employer obtains a mailing list and race
send help-wanted letters or brochures to people Style
through the mail One-on-One – one interviewer, one applicant
Internet – employer-based websites, internet Serial - series of single interviews
recruiters - e.g., first interview with recruitment manager, then
Job Fairs – designed to provide information in a HR head, to immediate supervisor, then CEO
personal fashion to as many applicants as possible Return – similar to serial interviews with difference
Nontraditional Population – developing recruitment being a passing of time between the first and
strategies for minorities, inmates, PWDS etc. subsequent interviews
Passive Applicants – recruiters try to find ways to - e.g., returning the next day for another interview
identify hidden talent and convince them to apply for Panel – multiple interviewers, one applicant
a job with their company Group – multiple applicants were interviewed at the
o Interviews – most commonly used method to select same time
employees Serial-Panel-Group – series of panel and group
▪ Clarifiers: allow the interviewer to clarify interviews
information in the resume, cover letter, and Medium
application, fill in gaps, and obtain necessary Face-to-Face - both the applicant and interviewer are
information at the same room
▪ Disqualifiers: questions that must be answered a Telephone – often used to screen applicants but do
particular way or the applicant is disqualified not allow the use of visual cues
▪ Skill-Level Determiners: tap an interviewee’s Videoconference – the applicant and the interviewer
level of expertise can hear and see each other, but the interview is
▪ Future-Focused Questions/Situational remote
Questions: ask what they would do in a Written – involve the applicant answering a series of
particular situation written questions
▪ Past-Focused Questions/Patterned Behavior o Resume – summaries of an applicant’s professional
Description Interviews/Behavioral Questions: and educational background
focused on previous behavior ▪ Views as a history of your life or an
▪ Organizational-Fit Questions: tap the extent to advertisement of your skills
which the applicant will fit into the culture of an Chronological – lists previous jobs in order from the
organization or with the leadership of a most to least recent
particular supervisor
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Functional – organizes jobs based on skills required (2) assessing the employee’s performance relative to
to perform them rather than the order they were those standards
worked (3) providing feedback
Psychological – contains the strengths of both o Criteria – ways of describing employee success
chronological and functional styles ▪ Trait-Focused: concentrates on such employee
▪ Averaging versus Adding Model of Impression attributes such as dependability, honest, and
Formation: implies that activity quality is more courtesy
important than quantity ▪ Competency-Focused: concentrate on
o Taylor-Russell Tables – designed to estimate the employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities
percentage of future employees who will be ▪ Task-Focused: organized by the similarity of
successful in the job if an organization uses a tasks that are performed
particular test ▪ Goal-Focused: based on the goals accomplished
o Proportion of Correct Decisions – the only info by the employee
needed is employee test scores and scores on ▪ Contextual Performance: the effort an employe
criterion makes to get along with peers, improve the
▪ Type 1 Error: False Positive (Q3) organization, and perform tasks that are needed
▪ Type II Error: false negative (Q1) but are not necessarily an official part of the
▪ True Positive (Q2) employee’s job description
▪ True Negative (Q4) Compare the role of HRM and HRD in an Org
o Lawshe Tables – probability that a particular o Human Resource MANAGEMENT is about
applicant will be successful WHOM and HOW to employ for the best outcome
o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula – o Human Resource DEVELOPMENT is about
computing the amount of money an organization making the employee BEST ASSET for the best
would save if it used the test to select employees outcome
Top-Down Selection – applicants are rank-ordered on Team Dynamics (15)
the basis of their test scores Team Dynamics
Rule of Three – the names of top three scorers are o Group – two or more people who perceive
given to the person making the hiring decision themselves as a group and interacts with each other
Passing Scores – determines the lowest score on a ▪ Must involve some degree of structure and
test that is associated with acceptable performance on permanency
the job ▪ Collection of people to be called group, the
Multiple-Cutoff Approach – the applicants would be following criteria must be met: (a) the members
administered all of the test at one time of the group must see themselves as a unit; (b)
Multiple-Hurdle Approach – applicant is the group must provide rewards to its members;
administered one test at a time (c) anything that happens to one member of the
Banding – attempts to hire the top scorers while group affects every other members; and (d) the
allowing some flexibility for affirmative action members of the group must share a common
Developing, Monitoring, Maintaining, Managing goal. (Gordon, 2001)
Relationships ▪ Groups must have multiple members
o Leading – getting others to get the job done, ▪ 2 (Dyad), 3 (Triad), 4 to 20 people (Small
maintaining morale, and motivate subordinates Group)
o Controlling – setting standards such as sales quota, ▪ an event that affects one group member should
quality standards, or production levels, checking to affect all group members (Corresponding
see how actual performance compared with the Effects)
standards, taking corrective action as needed o Formal Groups – subunits that the organization
Evaluation has established
o Performance Appraisal – evaluating an o Informal Group – no to little interdependence and
employee’s current and/or past performance relative no organizationally mandated purpose
to his or her performance standards ▪ They exist due to the fact that humans are social
(1) setting work standards animals and have a drive to bond with others,
they define themselves by their group
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affiliations, and to accomplish personal Task Force (Project) Teams (Cross-Functional) –
objectives members are usually drawn from different disciplines
▪ Develop apart from the official structure of the to solve a specific problem, realize an opportunity, or
organization and exist relatively independent of design a product or service
it Production Teams – frontline employees producing
o Work Group – interdependent collection of tangible outputs
individuals who share responsibility for specific Management Teams – corporate executive teams,
outcomes for their organization coordinate other work units under their direction
o Team – consists of interdependent workers with Service Teams – attend the needs of the clients
complimentary skills working toward a shared goal Advisory Teams (Parallel Teams)– solve problems
or outcome and recommend solutions
▪ Groups of two or more people who interact with o Process Losses – teams have additional costs and
and influence each other, that is: (1) to fulfill resources expended on the team development and
some purpose; (2) held together by their maintenance rather than on performing the task
interdependence and need for collaboration; (3) ▪ Refers to any nonmotivational element of a
influence each other; and, (3) perceive group situation that detracts from the group
themselves to be a team performance
▪ Team Permanence: how long that team exists ▪ Amplified when more people are added or
▪ Skill Diversity: each member possesses different replace others on the team
skills and knowledge ▪ Brooks’ Law – adding more people on a project
▪ Authority Dispersion: the degree that decision- team when the project is already on-going, the
making responsibility is distributed throughout project will more likely finished longer than in
the team shorter span of time
▪ Identification: extent to which group members o Social Facilitation – involves positive effect of
identify with the team rather than in other groups presence of others on individual’s behavior
▪ Interdependence: one member does greatly ▪ Social Inhibition – involves the negative effects
influence what another member does of other’s presence
▪ Power Differentiation: overstepping roles, ▪ Audience Effects – takes place when a group of
challenge opinions, interrupt each other, gives people passively watch an individual
orders, and use sarcasm ▪ Audience size, proximity, and status affects the
▪ Social Distance: an imaginary space that performance of the group
separates two colleagues such as treating them ▪ Coaction – the effect on behavior when two or
formally and very politely rather than being more people are performing the same task in the
casual presence of one another
▪ Team members respond to conflict by ▪ Mere presence of others naturally produces
collaborating, try to understand the other’s views, arousal
makes attempt to compromise, and use o Social Loafing – considers the effect on individual
nonthreatening tones performance when people work together on a task;
▪ Members negotiate in a win-win style in which exerting less effort in group work than individual
the goal is for every person to come out ahead work (Max Ringelmann)
Departmental Teams – consists of employees who ▪ Occurs on tasks with low in attractiveness
have similar or complimentary skills and are located ▪ Less likely to occur in cohesive groups
in the same unit of a functional structure ▪ Social Enhancement – occurred among group
- usually minimal task interdependence because each members who were working on a task that was
person works with clients or with employees in other high in attractiveness
departments ▪ Free-Rider Theory – when things are going
Self-Directed Teams – teams whose members are well, a group member realizes that his effort is not
organized around work processes that complete an necessary, and this does not work hard as he
entire piece of work requiring several interdependent would if he were alone
tasks and have substantial autonomy over the
execution of those tasks
#BLEPP2023
▪ Sucker Effect – social loafing occurs when a ▪ Disjunctive Tasks – group performance is based
group member notices that other group members on the most talented group member
are not working hard and does are “playing him ▪ Social Impact Theory – If the group is already
for a sucker”, then decide that they will no longer stable and cohesive, adding another member
be played for a sucker and thus reduce their effort might be disruptive
▪ Social Compensation – when individual increase o The higher group status, the greater cohesiveness
their efforts on collective tasks because they don’t o It’s important to believe that a group has higher status
anticipate much help from their group members o Groups with high-ability members outperform those
▪ To minimize social loafing: with low-ability members
✓ Form smaller groups so each member’s o Confidence is the key to success
performance is noticeable and important and it o Groups whose members have task-related experience
increases individual commitment and identity and score high in the personality dimensions of
with the team openness to experience and emotional stability will
✓ Specialize tasks to easier observe when each perform better than groups with no such
member performs differently characteristics
✓ Measure individual performance o Good Communication is also the key
✓ Increase Job Enrichment so it could have high o Mental Model – organized knowledge structure that
motivation potential enhance the interaction of an individual with his or
✓ Select motivated, team-oriented employees, who her environment
are also known to have at least moderately high ▪ Shared Mental Models – organized structures
conscientiousness and agreeableness combining the knowledge, beliefs, and
o If the leader or group member has an accurate understandings of two or more individuals that
solution to a problem the group is trying to solve, the help coordinate their efforts
group will probably perform at a high level o Group Roles – extent to which its members assume
o Groupthink – members become cohesive and like- different roles
minded that they make poor decisions despite ▪ Task-Oriented Roles – involves behaviors such
contrary information that might reasonably lead as offering new ideas, coordinating activities, and
them to other options finding new information
o Mindguard – a member of a cohesive group whose ▪ Social-Oriented Roles – involve encouraging
job it is to protect the group from the outside cohesiveness and participation
information that is inconsistent with the group’s ▪ Individual Role – blocking group activities,
views calling attention to oneself, and avoiding group
o Team members tend to work together more interaction
effectively when they receive some team-based 5 C’s of Effective Team Member Behavior
rewards, when the organization’s structure assigns Cooperating – share resources, accommodate others
discrete clusters of work activity to teams Coordinating – align work with others, keep the team
o External competition also increases motivation for on track
teams to work together Communicating – share info freely, efficiently,
▪ Groups that are pressured by outside forces also respectfully, and listen actively
tend to become highly cohesive Comforting – show empathy, provide emotional
▪ Psychological Reactance – when we believe that comfort, build confidence in others
someone is trying to intentionally influence us to Conflict Handling – diagnose conflict sources, use
take some particular action, we often react by best conflict-handling style
doing the opposite o Group Homogeneity – extent to which its members
o Smaller size of group, more cohesive are similar
▪ Additive Tasks – those for which the group’s ▪ Homogenous Group – members are similar in
performance is equal to the sum of the some or most ways
performances by each group member; each ▪ Heterogenous Group – members are more
contribution is important different than alike
▪ Conjunctive Tasks – group performance
depends on the least effective group member
#BLEPP2023
▪ The best working groups consist primarily of ▪ Members that are similar with each other have
similar people but have dissimilar person adding higher cohesion
tension and a different vantage point ▪ More cohesive the group is, the greater:
▪ Main advantage of diverse teams is that they performance, decision quality, member
make better decisions in some situations because satisfaction, member interaction, employee
they see a problem from different angles courtesy
▪ Diverse teams also have broader pool of technical ▪ Cohesiveness also lose the sight of organization
abilities and provide better representation of the goals (e.g. putting their colleagues first before
team’s constituents their client)
o Role – set of behaviors that people are expected to ▪ The greater stability, the greater cohesiveness
perform because they hold formal or informal ▪ Groups in which members remain for long
positions in a team and organization periods of time are more cohesive and perform
▪ Role Differentiation – process by which group better than groups that have high turnover
or organization establishes distinct roles for ▪ Groups that are isolated or located away from
various members of the group, accomplished other groups tend to be highly cohesive
through formal job descriptions, rules, task ▪ Smaller groups are more cohesive and when they
requirements, etc. interact regularly
o Conflict – friction that emerges in the team ▪ The more elite a team is, the more prestige it
▪ Relationship Conflict – tension in interpersonal confers to the members, and the more they tend
relationships to value their membership = higher cohesion
▪ Task Conflict – results when team members have ▪ Teams with higher cohesion tend to perform
different ideas, beliefs, viewpoints better than those with lower cohesion
▪ Process Conflict – when group members have o Team Trust – refers to positive expectations one
incompatible ideas about how the work should be person has toward another person in situations
completed involving risk
o Team Building – consists of formal activities to ▪ Calculus-Based Trust: logical calculation that
improve the development and functioning of a work other team members will act appropriately
team because they face sanctions if their actions violate
a) Team Volunteering events reasonable expectations
b) Team Scavenger Hunt/Treasure Hunt ▪ Knowledge-Based Trust: based on the
c) Team Sports/Exercise Competitions predictability of another team member’s
d) Team Music Ensemble Events behavior; you would not trust someone who tends
o Norms – informal rules and shared expectations that to engage in harmful or dysfunctional behavior
groups establish to regulate the behavior of their ▪ Identification-Based Trust: based on mutual
members understanding and an emotional bond among
▪ Descriptive Norms – define what most people team members; occurs when team members
tend to do, feel, or think in a particular situation think, feel, and act like each other
▪ Prescriptive Norms – what people should do, Self-Directed Teams – cross-functional groups
feel, or think in a particular situation organized around work processes that complete an
o Team Cohesion – refers to the degree of attraction entire piece of work requiring several interdependent
people feel toward the team and their motivation to tasks and have substantial autonomy over the execution
remain members of those tasks
▪ Attracted to the team, committed to the team’s - closed knit group of employees who depend on each
goals, tasks, and feel a collective sense of team other to accomplish individual tasks
pride - substantial autonomy over the execution of tasks with
▪ the extent to which group members like and trust little to no direct involvement of a higher-status
one another, are committed to accomplishing a supervisor
team goal, and share a feeling of group pride Virtual Teams – teams whose members operate across
▪ Similarity-Attraction Effect: occurs when people space, time, and organizational boundaries and are
assume that people are more trustworthy and linked through information technologies to achieve
more acceptable if they are similar to them organizational tasks
#BLEPP2023
- members are not usually co-located demographic
- depend on information technology rather than face- characteristics
to-face interaction to communicate Group Work Design Member task
Stages of Team Development interdependence
o Teams typically go through 5 developmental phases, Member goal
according to Tuckman: interdependence
1. Forming – team members get to know each other Intragroup Processes Group Cohesion
and decide roles, discover expectations, test Group Efficacy or
boundaries of behavior communication processes
2. Storming – begins to disagree with each other; External Group Communication outside
frustration starts individually Processes the group
3. Norming – easing the tension from the previous External Interaction
stage, developing cohesion, agree on team Patterns
objectives Norms
4. Performing – begins to accomplish the goals, o Norms directly reinforced through praise from high-
high cooperation and trust, conflicts resolved status members, more access to valued resources, or
quickly other rewards available to the team
5. Adjourning – when the team is about to disband o The more closely the person’s social identity is
o Punctuated Equilibrium – rather than forming in connected with the group, the more the individual is
stages, teams develop direction and strategy in the motivated to avoid negative sanctions from that
first meeting, follow this direction for a period of group
time, and then drastically revise their strategy about
halfway through Cohesion
Group Processes that affect Team Effectiveness o Members of highly cohesive team spend more time
3 Major Dimensions of Work-Team Effectiveness together, share information more frequently, and are
Team Performance – concerns how well the team is more satisfied with each other
performing and includes such variables such as o When conflict arises, they tend to resolve their
productivity, quality of output, and the degree to differences swiftly and effectively
which costs are controlled in this process o Team cohesion has less effect on team performance
Attitudes – reflect such variables as quality of work when the team has low task interdependence (the
life, trust in management, organizational commitment, need to cooperate or interact)
and job satisfaction o Teams with high cohesion perform better when their
Withdrawal Behaviors – turnover, absence and norms are aligned with the organization’s
tardiness objectives, whereas higher cohesion can potentially
Diversity – members differ on one or more attributes reduce team performance when norms are
o Taskwork – involves the task-oriented aspects of counterproductive
work; entails specific individual behaviors required Trust
for success o Trust tends to decrease rather than increase over
o Teamwork – involves the process-oriented aspects time
of work; includes wide range of activities aimed at o Employees become less forgiving and less
maintaining and enhancing team performance cooperative toward others as their level of trust
▪ Revolves around communication and decreases and this undermines team and
coordination among team members, feedback, organizational effectiveness
team cohesion, and norms Common problems that occur in teams
Predictors of Work-Team Effectiveness Constraints on Team Decision Making
Organizational Context Rewards, goals and o Production Blocking – teams take longer than
feedback, training individuals to decide because they require time to
Group Composition and Cognitive Ability of build rapport, agree on rules and norms, and
Size group members, understand each other’s ideas
personality traits, and
#BLEPP2023
o Evaluation Apprehension – based on individual’s 4. Communication Barriers
desire to create a favorable self-presentation and 5. Beliefs
need to protect self-esteem 6. Personalities
▪ Team members are often reluctant to mention Conflict Styles
ideas that seem silly because they believe that A. Avoiding Style – ignore conflict and hope it will
other team members are silently evaluating them resolve itself
o Team cohesion leads employees to conform to the ▪ Triangling: occurs when an employee discusses
team’s norms, thus, depending on the opinions that the conflict with a third party
others hold to validate an individual’s views B. Accommodating Style – a person is so intent on
▪ If coworkers disagree, they begin to question settling a conflict that he gives in and risks hurting
their opinions even with overt peer pressure himself
o Team Efficacy – collective confidence on how well C. Forcing Style – handles conflict in a win-lose
they work together and the likely success of their fashion and does what it takes to win, with little
team effort regard for the other person
▪ Although high efficacy teams set more D. Collaborating Style – wants to win but also wants
challenging goals and are more motivated to the other person win as well
achieve them, teams could make worse decisions E. Compromising Style – adopts give-and-take tactics
if they are overconfident that enable each side to get some of what it wants
▪ They become less vigilant when making Resolving Conflicts
decisions and engage in less constructive debate o When conflict first occurs, two parties should be
Why Teams Don’t Always Work encouraged to resolve the conflict on their own
1. The team is not a team o Dispute – when they can’t agree to resolve the
2. Excessive meeting requirements conflict
3. Lack of Empowerment o Cooperative Problem Solving – all department reps
4. Lack of Skill come over to solve the problem
5. Distrust of the Team Process o Third-Party Intervention
6. Unclear Objectives a. Mediation – neutral third party is asked to help
Group Conflict both parties reach agreeable solution to the
o Conflict – psychological and behavioral reaction to conflict
a perception that another person is keeping you from b. Arbitration – neutral third party listens to both
reaching a goal sides and make decision
o Dysfunctional Conflict – keeps people from Individual versus Group Performance
working together, lessens productivity, spreads to o Nominal Group – when several people individually
other areas, and increases turnover work on a problem but do not interact
o Functional Conflict – moderate levels of conflict o Interacting Group – when individuals interact to
can stimulate new ideas, increase friendly solve a problem
competition, and increase team effectiveness o Brainstorming – group members are encouraged to
Types of Conflicts speak out their ideas
A. Interpersonal Conflicts – occurs between two o Brainwriting – removing conversations during idea
individuals generation
B. Individual-Group Conflicts – usually occurs when o Group Polarization – group members will shift
the individual’s needs are different from the group’s their beliefs to a more extreme version of what they
needs, goals, or norms already believe individually
C. Group-Group Conflict – occurs between two or Organizational Change and Development (20)
more groups Differentiate: Org Change vs. Org Dev, Org Dev. vs.
Causes of Conflict Org Transition
1. Competition for Resources Organizational Change – refers to the actions in
2. Task interdependence – group members depends on which a company or business alters a major
the performance of other group members component of its organization, such as culture,
3. Jurisdictional Ambiguity – geographical boundaries technology, infrastructure, etc.
or lines of authority are unclear
#BLEPP2023
- process of guiding organizational change to a Incremental Change – introduces small, but
successful resolution meaningful changes to an organization’s systems,
- Evolutionary Change: continual process of processes, and structures
upgrading or improving processes - can help businesses increase their efficiency and
- Revolutionary Change: drastic changes effectiveness
- process of altering organizations to be more adaptive - focused on small, targeted adjustments
and congruent with their business environment Developmental Change – seeks to build on existing
- an organization achieving a desired future state from processes, structures, and capabilities of an
its current state with minimal disruption or negative organization in order to bring about meaningful
impact to the organization improvements
Organizational Development – change process - involves introducing new systems, technologies, and
through which employees formulate the change that’s tools that enable greater efficiency and effectiveness
required and implement it in the workplace
- planned, organization-wide effort to increase - focuses on building upon existing systems,
organizational effectiveness through behavioral processes, and structures to bring about meaningful
science knowledge and technology improvements
- how an organization achieve its purpose/change Remedial Change – involves making corrections or
through design, function, structure, and processes improvements to existing systems, processes and
- addresses change and how it affects organizations structures in order to bring about more efficient and
and the individuals within those organizations effective operations
Organizational Transition – implementation of - troubleshooting and problem-solving
change through systematic planning, organizing and Process and System Change – making adjustment to
implementation of change to reach desirable future existing processes and systems in order to improve
state without affecting continuity of business efficiency and effectiveness
Different factors driving Org Change - introduction of new technologies, systems, and tools
1. Technology – adoption and diffusion of computers People and Culture Change – focuses on
into work life transforming organization’s culture, values, and
2. Cultural Diversity behaviors in order to drive greater efficiency and
3. Emergence of advanced communication effectiveness
technologies - introducing new corporate policies, procedures, and
4. Globalization, Global Competition systems that help create an environment where
5. Redistribution of economic power employees feel supported, valued, and empowered
6. Consumer needs Structural Change – alters the way an organization is
7. Government deregulation structured in order to improve efficiency and
8. Environmental Standards effectiveness
12 different types of Large-Scale Organizational - involves introducing new policies, procedures, and
changes systems that help to streamline operations and
Transformational Change – seeks to create eliminate areas of waste
significant, fundamental shifts in how an organization - re-organizing departments and teams in order to
operates and organizes itself better align the organization’s goals, objectives, and
- involves introducing new strategies, processes, strategies
systems, and structures that shift the way the company Merger and Acquisition Change – involves merging
operates or acquisition of two or more business
- more radical – it can involve overhauling existing - combining resources, personnel, and operation from
operations or introducing larger, systemic solutions multiple organizations into one
that may span across multiple departments De-merger Change – involves splitting of an
- requires deep level of commitment from leaders and organization into two or more separate entities
employees alike as it often requires them to let go of - when an organization has grown too large, and there
traditional ways of doing things in order to embrace is a need to streamline operations and simplify
new systems and procedures structures in order to improve efficiency
#BLEPP2023
Downsizing – reducing the size of an organization accomplish tasks, help members enhance their
- involves cutting costs and reducing personnel in interpersonal and problem-solving skills, and increase
order to achieve greater efficiency and productivity team performance
Relocation Change – moving of an organization or - Confrontation Meeting: intervention designed to
parts of it to a new location mobilize the resources of the entire organization to
- take advantage of new opportunities in different identify problems
geographic regions, cultures, and countries - Microcosm Groups: consists of small number of
Rebranding Change – making modifications to individuals who reflect the issue being addressed (e.g.,
organization’s brand or public image, in order to minorities, marginalized groups)
create a more compelling and attractive image - Large-Group Interventions: referred to variously as
Different types of Org Interventions used to enhance “Search conferences,” “open-space meetings,” “open-
org effectiveness, well-being, and productivity systems planning” etc.; focuses on issues that affect
Human Process Interventions – related to the who organization or large segments of it
interpersonal relations, group, and organization Technocultural Interventions – targeted toward
dynamics structural and technological issues such as
- Process Consultation: creation of a relationship that organization design, work redesign, and employee
permits the client to perceive, understand, and act on engagement
the process events that occur in [his or her] internal - structural design, re-engineering, downsizing
and external environment in order to improve the
situation as defined by the client Employee Involvement Applications
- works to help managers, employees, and group 1. Parallel Structures – involve members in
assess and improve human processes, such as resolving ill-defined, complex problems, and build
communication, interpersonal relations, decision- adaptability into bureaucratic organizations
making, and task performance 2. Total Quality Management – emphasizing quality
Group Process control and represents a long-term effort to orient all
1. Communication of an organization’s activities around the concept of
2. Functional Roles of Group Members quality
3. Group Problem Solving and Decision-Making 3. High Involvement Organizations – members
4. Group Norms receive extensive training in problem-solving
5. The Use of Leadership and Authority techniques, plant operation, and organizational
policies
Basic Process Interventions Human Resource Management Interventions –
1. Individual Intervention – help people be more impact areas such as performance management, talent
effective in their communication with others development, DEIB, and well-being in the workplace
2. Group Interventions - Performance Management: process of defining,
a. Process interventions: sensitize the group to its assessing, and reinforcing employee work behaviors
own internal processes and generate interest in and outcomes
analyzing them; relationships among group members, - Goal Setting: managers and subordinates in jointly
problem-solving and decision-making, and identity establishing and clarifying employee goals
and purpose of the group - Performance Appraisal: feedback system that
b. Content Interventions: comments, questions, or involves direct evaluation of individual or work-group
observations about group memberships, agenda performance by supervisor, manager, or peers
setting, review, and testing procedures, interpersonal - Reward Systems: incentives for improving employee
issues, and conceptual inputs on task-related topics and work-group performance
c. Structural Interventions: help the group examine - Coaching, Mentoring, Training, etc.
the stable and recurring methods it uses to accomplish Strategic Change Interventions – revolves around
tasks and deal with external issues transformational change, restructuring, and uniting
two or more organizations together during a merger
- Team Building: refers to a broad range of planned
activities that help groups improve the way they
#BLEPP2023
Different strategies and techniques org use to manage end
change, and/or cope with change to achieve org
efficiency congratulations on reaching the end of this reviewer! we
Motivating Change will all pass #BLEPP2023!! see u in PICC this year!! i’ll
1. Creating Readiness for Change – creating a felt be in Filipiniana
need for a change by making people so dissatisfied
with the status quo one day, we will be remembered. -aly <3
2. Overcoming Resistance to Change
- Technical Resistance: comes from the habit of
following common procedures and the consideration
of sunk costs invested in the status quo
- Political Resistance: org changes threatens powerful
stakeholders
- Cultural Resistance: takes the form of systems and
procedures that reinforce the status quo, promoting
conformity to existing values, norms, and assumptions
3 Major Strategies for Dealing with Resistance to

change
1. Empathy and Support
2. Communication
3. Participation Involvement
Creating a Vision – to provide valued direction for
designing, implementing, and assessing organizational
changes
- can also energize commitment to change by
providing members with a common goal and a
compelling rationale for why change is necessary and
worth the effort
Developing Political Support – by assessing change
agent power, identifying key stakeholders, and
influencing them
Managing the Transition
1. Activity Planning – making a roadmap for change,
citing specific activities, and events that must occur if
the transition is to be successful
2. Commitment Planning – identifying key people
and groups whose commitment is needed for change
to occur and formulating a strategy for gaining their
support
3. Change-Management Structures – should include
people who have the power to mobilize resources to
promote change, the respect of the existing leadership
and change advocates, and the interpersonal and
political skills to guide the change process
4. Managing Learning Process
Sustaining Momentum – by building a support
system for change agents, developing new
competencies and skills, reinforcing new behaviors,
and staying in the course

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Industrial Psychology

3 Major Strategies for Dealing with Resistance to

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