Chapter One

CLIMATE OF INDIA
India has a tropical monsoon type of
climate. Still climatic variations prevail
due to various factors. These regional
diversities are known as Sub-Types of
monsoon climate.
Factors Affecting The Climate Of India:
• Himalayas: They form a
climatic barrier and not only prevent
the cold Siberian winds from entering
the Indian region and from India
becoming a cold desert, but they also
force the moisture laden SW
Monsoon winds to shed rainfall.or
else India would become a dry
region.
• Monsoon Winds: The SW, NE
and Retreating monsoon winds have
greatly affected the climate of India.
• Latitude: The Indian subcontinent
is divided into two parts by the Tropic of
Cancer. The northern part lies in the
temperate zone and the southern part in
the tropical zone. The southern part
does not experience clear winter
seasons.
• Varied Relief: Relief plays an
important role in determining the climate
of a particular place. The western ghats
block the monsoon winds and bring
heavy rainfall to the western coast of
India, whereas the Aravalli range lies
parallel to the SW Monsoon winds and
fails to bring rainfall to Rajasthan. In the
same way the hills in NE India trap the
monsoon clouds and brings heavy
rainfall in that region.
• Altitude: There is a decrease of
1C for every 166mts rise in height.
Thus regions of higher altitude are
cooler than the plains.
• Influence of the Surrounding
Seas: India is surrounded by the
Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and the Bay
of Bengal which moderates the climate
of coastal areas and influences the
monsoon pattern.
• Western Disturbance: India
comes under the influence of cyclones
rising from the Mediterranean sea, these
cyclones bring snowfall in Kashmir and
rains in the Northern plains.
• Jet Streams: Air currents which
determine the arrival and departure
of monsoons are known as jet
streams. These currents develop in
the upper layers of the atmosphere.
• Distance from the Sea: Areas in
the interior of India have continental
type of climate, whereas coastal
areas have maritime climate.
• El-Nino Effect: It is a warm
ocean current that surfaces near the
coast of Peru. It increases the
surface temperature of the sea and
affects the movement of the
monsoon winds in the Indian ocean
and causes drought situation in
India.

Hot Dry Summer

• The vertical rays of the Sun fall
directly over the Tropic of Cancer
during from the month of March-
June. It increases the solar radiation
which moves northwards. In south
India, the hot weather is not as
intense as in north India. The
moderating influence of the oceans
keeps the temperature low. Plateaus
and hills are relatively cool because
of the elevation.
• High Temperature causes low
pressure between the Thar desert
and the Chotta Nagpur plateau, the
surrounding seas are cooler and
develop high pressure conditions.
• Low pressure in the Northern
region draws winds from the
surrounding areas and gives rise to
thunderstorms. They bring rainfall
mostly in Punjab, Haryana and UP.
• The most striking feature of the
summer season is Loo. Strong dusty
winds that blow over northern India
with winds having a temperature
range of 45-50C and can cause heat
strokes.
• The thunderstorms with heavy
rainfall occur in Assam and West
Bengal and are known as Kalbaisakhi
which means ‘calamity in the month
of Baisakh’. In Assam it is known as
Bardoli Chheerha. These lowpressure
winds originate over the Chotta
Nagpur plateau and blow eastward
bringing rainfall to Assam, Odisha
and West Bengal, which in turn is
beneficial for the growth of jute, rice
and tea.
• Similar thunderstorms occur
along the coast of Kerala and
 Karnataka and are beneficial for
mango, tea and coffee plants. They
are known as Cherry Blossoms or
Mango showers.
Monsoon Season
The large landmass to the north of
Indian Ocean gets heated during the
months of April and May. This causes
the formation of low pressure in the
north-western part of Indian
subcontinent. This attracts the South
East trade winds from the southern
hemisphere. The trade winds get
deflected due to Coriolis force after
crossing the equator and reach the west
coast of India as South-West Monsoon
Winds.
The sudden onset of Monsoons
accompanied with thunder, lightning and
heavy showers is termed as Burst Of
Monsoon and it is first experienced by
the coastal regions of Kerala.
If the SW Monsoon fails to bring rainfall
during the initial week it is known as
Break Of Monsoon.

The SW Monsoon winds divide into two

branches:
Arabian Branch of SW Monsoon winds
Bay Of Bengal Branch of SW Monsoon
winds
Enters India after blowing over a vast
span of ocean and collects a lot of
moisture.
Travels a shorter distance over the sea
and thus carries less moisture
Strikes the western coast of India
Enters Myanmar and then is deflected
towards Odisha and West Bengal.
It has three branches
It arrives in a single branch
Brings rainfall to a large part of India
Brings rainfall to the eastern part and
some parts of North and North East
India.
The coast of Tamil Nadu remains dry
during this season, as the coast is
located parallel to the Bay of Bengal
branch of SW Monsoon winds and
further it lies in the rain shadow area of
the Arabian sea branch of the SW
Monsoon winds.
RETREATING MONSOON
The months of October and November
are known for retreating monsoon as the
SW Monsoon winds start retreating from
North India during this period. The low
pressure is replaced by High pressure
which creates clear skies and high
humidity. This is known as October heat.
The low pressure is transferred to the
Bay of Bengal which creates cyclonic
depression over the Andaman Sea. This
depression brings in heavy rainfall with
cyclonic storms on the coast of Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. These
cyclones are also known as Tropical
Cyclones and occur during the months
of November – December.
October Heat: Clear skies, high
humidity after the rains and rise in
temperature are characteristics of
October Heat. It is a transition period
from monsoon to winter.
NORTH EAST MONSOON SEASON
The excessive cold in North India during
December and January is due to the
following reasons:
• Cold winds from the Caspian
sea bring cold wave over the
northwestern parts of India.
• Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
experience continental type of
climate.
• The snowfall in the Himalayas
create cold wave conditions in the
Plains of North India.
The coastal areas hardly experience
winter due to the moderating effect of
the Oceans and closeness to the
equator.
During this season, the North East trade
winds prevail over the country. These
winds blow from land to sea and hence
certain parts of the Coromandel Coast
receive rainfall during this period. As
these winds blow from North-EAST to
South-West, they are called as North
East Monsoon.
In a similar manner, a low pressure
system develops over West Asia near
the Mediterranean Sea, these winds
travel eastwards and enter India. They
bring winter rains to the Plains of India
and snowfall on the mountains in the
North. They are generally active during
the months of January and February.
Tropical Cyclones
Temperate Cyclones
They are summer phenomenon
They are winter phenomenon
Generally smaller in size and less
circular
Bigger in size and oval in shape
Develop over seas
Develop over land
Develop over Bay of Bengal and
influence the coastal climate
Develop over Mediterranean sea and
influence North India
Brings heavy rainfall and strong winds
Brings moderate rainfall and heavy
snow
SW Monsoon
Retreating Monsoon
NE Monsoon
Winds blow from June-Sept
Winds blow from Oct-Nov
Winds blow from Dec-Feb
Blows from South West
Blows from North East
Blows from North East
Blow from sea to land
Blow from land to sea
Blow from land to sea
Brings heavy rainfall
Rainfall decreases, transition period
Pleasant weather with low temperatures
Rainfall throughout the whole
subcontinent
Coastal areas of Tamil Nadu receive
rainfall
Only Coromondel coast receives rainfall

Chapter Two SOILS IN INDIA

Formation Of Soil
Soil is a loose material which forms the
upper layers of the surface and consists
of silica, clay, chalk and humus which
has been formed through decomposition
of plant and animal remains and is an
essential part determining the fertility of
the soil. The parent material of Soil is
rock which is broken down due to
weathering and erosion. The process of
soil formation is called Pedogenesis.
Soil Fertility:
• Adequate amount of moisture
• Sufficient depth to enable
plants to grow
• Rich in nutrients
• Contains organic matter.
Soil Classification in accordance to
Location:
• Residual or In Situ soil: Formed
in original position by breaking up of
parent rock. Example: Red, Black and
Laterite soil.
• Transported or Ex Situ soil:
Soil is transported by various agents
of erosion such as wind and rivers.
Example: Alluvial soil.
TYPES OF SOILS IN INDIA
Type of soil
Sub-Division
Characteristics
Crops Grown
Geographical distribution
Alluvial soil
Deltaic coastal
Inland Alluvial
• Transported by rivers and
called Ex-Situ.

• Found at the depth of 500mt

• Yellow in colour, consists of

clay and organic matter.
• Light and Porous

• Deficient in nitrogen, but rich in

potash and lime.

Bhangar – old alluvial soil- not very

fertile and light in colour. Full of kankars
Khadar- new alluvial soil- loamy. Fine silt
and clay and excellent for cultivation
Cereals, cotton, oilseeds, jute and
sugarcane
Punjab, Brahmaputra valley, Ganga and
its tributaries, Along all coastal or
riverine belt.
Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar
Black Cotton or Regur Soil
• Volcanic origin- Formed due to
denudation of volcanic rocks.

• Black cotton soil as cotton

thrives on it.

• Formed In Situ
• Black to brown in colour

• Rich in iron, potash and lime.

• Very sticky when wet and

forms deep cracks when dry.
Cotton, cereals, jowar, wheat, sugarcane
and vegetables.
Deccan area, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka.
Red Soil
• Formed due to weathering of
crystalline and metamorphic rocks

• Has mixture of clay and sand

• Red in colour due to high iron

oxide

• Deficient in nitrogen and lime

• Rich in potash

• Need irrigation to support

cultivation
• Ideal for dry farming as it is
formed in areas with poor rainfall.
Wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, pulses,
ragi, tobacco.
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand.
Laterite Soil
Upland laterite
Lowland laterite
• Formed due to leaching of
laterite rocks- due to high
temperature and rainfall.

• Red in colour due to iron oxide

• Poor in nitrogen and lime

• Coarse in texture
• High acidity and low moisture
retentiveness.
Cashew, tapioca, pulses, ragi, rubber
and coffee.
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa,
Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra
SOIL EROSION
• Detachment and transportation
of soil due to weathering, running
water, wind.
• Depletion of soil due to faulty
 methods of farming.
• Destruction of the top fertile
soil.
Causes For Soil Erosion
• Erosion due to Water:
• Sheet Erosion:
• Due to heavy downpour in
steep areas, a large layer of top soil
is washed away.
• When rivers overflow their
banks and flood the surrounding
plains e.g. Brahmaputra, Chambal,
Ganga.
• Gully Erosion:
• Takes place when water runs
down in distinct paths forming
ravines or gullies.
• It creates badlands which
cannot be put to any use.
• Example: Chambal valley
• Rill Erosion:
• When sheet erosion continues
for long and leads to finger shaped
 rills.
• Sea Or Shore Erosion:
• Tidal waters cause damage to
soil near the shore
• It breaks rocks due to tidal
waves
• Can be seen throughout the
eastern and western coasts of India
• Stream Bank Erosion:
• Rivers change their courses
• They cut through one bank and
deposit silt on the other
• Can be seen on the flood plains
of Ganga and Yamuna.)
• Leaching:
• After harvesting the farmer
leaves the soil bare.
• During rainfall the nutrients in
the soil are leached or percolated
below
• Leaving the soil devoid of
fertility.
2. Soil Erosion due to Wind:
 • Wind blows away fine particles
of sand and deposits them in other
areas, rendering both areas
unproductive. It leads to
advancement of deserts
• Example: Thar desert in
Rajasthan.
• When wind moves soil
particles 0.1-0.5mm in size bouncing
or hopping fashion it is called
Saltation.
• When wind roles particles of
0.55mm and above, it is called Soil
Creep.

• Human Factor:
• Increase in the demand for land
for settlement and cultivation
• Overgrazing, deforestation
• Bad farming technique
• Example: Chota Nagpur area,
Malwa plateau
Causes For Soil Erosion In India
 • Heavy population pressure on
land:
Forests are being destroyed to house
and feed an increasing population. This
pressure and deforestation leads to soil
erosion.
• Nature Of Rainfall:
Heavy downpour in monsoon season
and drought like situation in the summer
period affects the fertility of the soil.
• Overgrazing:
Due to increase in animal husbandry
and lack of scientific methods to deal
with it, the cattle tend to destroy the
vegetation of an area, thus leaving the
top soil bare and prone to erosion.
• Bad Farming Techniques:
Traditional methods of farming and
absence of contour cultivation and crop
rotation has led to serious problems for
soil conservation.
• Topography:
Steep slopes and heavy rainfall has
naturally led to some areas in India
prone to soil erosion. Example: North
East India.
The worst affected areas in India
include:
• Western Himalayan region
• Chotanagpur plateau
• Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Haryana.
Prevention Of Soil Erosion And Soil
Conservation
• Terrace Farming: Terraces acts
as bunds and prevent the soil from
being washed away.
• Shelter belts: Farmers plant
trees in rows to check wind erosion.
Known as wind breaks.
• Plugging Gullies: Gullies in soil
are plugged with silt during rains.
• Construction Of Dams: They
prevent soil in the upper course of
rivers.
 • Soil Conservation Schemes:
Integrated watershed management,
development of ravine areas project,
Scheme to control shifting
cultivation.
Need for Soil Conservation:
• Loss of fertile top soil
• Depletion of underground
water
• Drying of vegetation
• Occurrence of landslides

Chapter Three NATURAL VEGETATION

OF INDIA
It refers to the plant cover that has not
been disturbed over a long time, so as to
allow individual species to adjust
themselves fully to the climate and soil
conditions.
Importance Of Forests:
• Productive Functions: Trees
provide us with fruit, timber and
other means of livelihood.
• Protective Functions: The thick
layer of humus in forests prevents
evaporation of water, it prevents soil
erosion and helps indirectly in the
increase of ground water.
• Regulatory Functions: Trees
use carbon dioxide from respiration
and release oxygen during
photosynthesis. They also regulate
the water cycle.
• Accessory Functions: Forests
provide habitat for wildlife. It
provides aesthetics and recreation to
human beings through National
Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere
reserves.
Indian vegetative regions can be divided
into:
• Tropical Evergreen
 • Tropical Deciduous
• Tropical Desert
• Littoral
• Montane
Vegetative Region
Climatic Conditions
Distribution
Features
Types of trees
Tropical Evergreen
Rainfall: 250 cms
Temp: 25-27C
Western ghats,
Coast of Tamil Nadu
Andaman and Nicobar
Dense forests
Trees reach a height of 60m
Sunlight does not penetrate
Forests appear evergreen as shedding
cannot be noticed.
Multi-layered and has different types of
trees and shrubs
Forest has not been exploited due to
tangled mass of creepers and ferns and
lack of transport facility.
Rosewood,
Ebony, Toon and Chaplas
Tropical Deciduous
(Moist Deciduous)
Rainfall: 100-200cms
Temp: 24-27C
Foothills of Himalayas
Western and Eastern ghats.
Known as Monsoon forests
Sheds leaves from six to eight weeks
A particular species is found over a
large area.
They are commercially the most
exploited forests.

Shisham, Mahua, Teak, Sal, Sandalwood

and Palas
Tropical Deciduous (Dry Deciduous)
Rainfall: 70-100cms
Temp: 23-27C
Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra,
Karnataka
Shed leaves completely.
In drier regions they turn into thorn
forests
Teak , tendu, rosewood, khair and
axlewood.
Tropical Desert Forests (Thorn Forests)
Rainfall: 50cms
Temp: 25-27C
Punjab,
Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh and Eastern Rajasthan.
Xerophytic vegetation- trees are stunted
with large patches of coarse grass.
Plants remain leafless.
Babool: Medicinal value.
Date Palm: Syrup for cold, sore throat.
Neem: Medicinal properties, insecticide.
Littoral Forests
(Tidal or Delta)
Found in marshy areas and swamps.
Sunderbans,
Coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa
Trunks are supported by stilted roots
which are under water during high tide.
At low tide, roots can be seen.
Evergreen species.
They have profuse growth with tangle of
climbers, which is an adaptation for
survival in soft and shifting mud.

Screw pines, palms, canes.

Utilized for fuel and Timber for
construction
Montane Forests
Rainfall: 100 cms
Temp: 12-13C
Himalayan zone,
Western Ghats,
Nilgiris
Mixed breed of conifers and evergreen
trees.
Broad leafed trees
From deciduous forests-temperate
forests-coniferous forests-alpine
forests-no vegetation beyond a certain
point. It variates according to the
altitude.
Junipers, Maple, Oak, Pine, Fir.
Timber for furniture, paper, match sticks
and medicinal purposes.
Causes for the Decline of Forest Cover:
• Large clearance of forest land
due to population growth
• Forest land converted into
pastoral land
 • Increase in the demand for
timber
• Building of dams and river
projects has led to submerging of
forest land
Forest Conservation Measures:
• Check indiscriminate
deforestation
• Prevention of overgrazing
• Control of shifting agriculture
• Deforestation and reforestation
should be carried out
• Using of alternative sources of
energy
• People’s participation
• Increasing the area under
forests
• Proper and strict laws for
preservation of forests
SOCIAL FORESTRY:
• Refers to the protection and
management of the forest,
 afforestationon barren land with the
purpose of helping in the
environmental, social and rural
development.
• It consists of Restoration,
reallocation, joint management of
forest.
• It is people oriented

Features and Objectives of Social

Forestry:
• Providing fuel wood, fodder for
cattle and minor forest products to
rural people
• Developing cottage industries
• Taking the pressure off the
forests and making use of unused
and fallow land
• Making use of easy technology.
• Providing employment
opportunities to the rural people.
AGRO-FORESTRY
• Sustainable system of
 managing a piece of land through
combined production of agricultural
crops and forest crops and rearing.
• To ensure the most efficient
land use in accordance to the
customs of the local people
• To check soil erosion and to
maintain natural fertility of the soil.
• To maintain ecological balance

Chapter Four WATER RESOURCES

Sources Of Water:
• Surface Water: Water on land
is the result of precipitation or
seepage from underground which
forms streams and rivers which meet
 the sea. Example of surface water:
Rivers, lakes, ponds, sea, lagoons.
• Ground Water: Water seeps
into the soil and gets collected at the
rock bottom which is known as
groundwater. An underground stream
that is saturated with water and
transmits water readily is known as
Aquifer.
Need to Conserve Water:
• Overexploitation of
underground water
• Loss of vegetation due to
reduction of water table
• Increasing demand for water
for industrial use
• Pollution of water bodies
• Increase in demand for water
due to population growth
Conservation Practices:
Rain Water Harvesting
• It is collecting and storing of
 rainwater
• It increases the groundwater
• Prevents loss through
evaporation and seepage
• The storing mechanism is
known by different names in different
regions: Khatri in Western Himalayas,
Baolis or Dighis in Gangetic plains,
Johads in Central India, Bhandaras in
Deccan plateau, Korambu in Eastern
ghats and Zing in Ladakh.
Water Harvesting Mechanism
• Catchments: It can be a paved
area like a terrace or courtyard or
open ground
• Conduits: They are pipelines or
drains that carry rainwater from
catchment area to the harvesting
system.
• Storage Facility: Rainwater can
be stored in any storage containers.
• Recharge Facility: Used to
recharge groundwater aquifers
 through dugwells, borewells and
recharge pits.
Watershed Management: Refers to the
efficient management and conservation
of both the surface and groundwater
resources.
Methods for Recharging Groundwater
Aquifers:
• Borewells and Dugwells
• Recharge Pits
• Percolation pits
• Recharge trenches
• Permeable surfaces
Irrigation: Refers to the process of
watering of agricultural plants through
artificial means from wells, tanks,
tubewells and canals.
Importance Of Irrigation In India:
• Uncertainty of Rainfall: Due to
irregular rainfall pattern and wide
fluctuations in rainfall in different
parts of India.
 • Uneven Distribution Of
Rainfall: Some parts get more rainfall
as compared to others due to
topographical reasons.
• Crop Requirement: Different
crops require different quantity of
water for their growth.
• Nature of Soil: Some soils can
easily retain moisture and charge
underground water system, others
tend to dry up and become sandy.
• Rivers In India: Many rivers in
India are not perennial and therefore
tend to dry up during the summer
season.
• To Maximize Production: To
obtain maximum production,
irrigation is a must.
Means Of Irrigation
Type
Features
Methods
Advantages
Disadvantages
Areas
Wells
Hole dug to obtain water from subsoil.
Cheap and simple
Confined mainly to the alluvial plains
Water found at a depth of 15m.
Persian wheel method.
Lever method.
Inclined plane method.
Table wells
Low cost
With the use of pumps and tube wells,
water can be easily lifted up.
Depends on underground water which
varies greatly
Difficult to dig wells in hilly regions
Dry up during the summer season
Uttar Pradesh, Goa, Punjab, Maharashtra
Canals
Inundation canals: Canals directly from
rivers without building dams.
They remain operational during rainy
season.
Have limited use.
Perennial Canals: Canals created on
perennial rivers by constructing dams.
Have water throughout the year.
They help in irrigating large areas.
Rainfall deficient areas receive water
from canals
Arid areas have benefitted
Punjab and Haryana have become
granary of the country due to canal
irrigation
Alkaline salts come to the surface, mix
with the soil and make it unproductive
Can lead to water logging.
Punjab-Harayana belt, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan.
Tanks
Refer to small bund of earth or stones
built across a stream to channelize the
water in fields
Hard rocks in the Deccan area do not
suck up water, so tanks are built
Deccan plateau is very uneven with
many natural depressions where tanks
can be easily built
Where rainfall is highly seasonal, tank
irrigation is useful.
In hard rock terrains only tanks are
feasible.
Abundant rainwater can be stored for a
long time.
They get silted
They dry due to failure of monsoon
They occupy a large fertile area that
could have been utilized
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra.
Tubewells
Water found at a depth of 20-30m.
Water is lifted with the help of pumps
thus is known as Lift Method.
Ideal condition for digging tube well is:
Availability of clean water, soft soil,
cheap electricity.
Independent source of irrigation.
Can irrigate large area.
Perennial means of irrigation.
Brings up clean water.
Excessive use can lead to depletion of
groundwater.
Useless if water is brackish.
Expensive as it requires electricity.
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar and Gujarat.
Drawbacks Of Conventional Methods Of
Irrigation
• Large quantity of water is not
properly utilized
• Fields in low areas experience
water logging
• Excessive irrigation can build
up soil salinity and make the soil
unproductive.
Modern Methods Of Irrigation:
• Furrow Irrigation: Water poured
on the field is directed to flow
through narrow channels dug
between the rows of crops. Furrows
have equal dimensions; it’s useful in
areas where water is easily available.
• Spray Irrigation: A long hose is
set to a water source on one side and
on the other side the water is
released through spray guns to the
field. This method is expensive but
water is efficiently used.
• Drip Irrigation: Used to irrigate
fruits and vegetables. It consists of
perforated pipes that are placed
between rows of crops or buried
along their root lines and give water
directly on the crops.
• Sprinkler Irrigation: In this
method a pipe fitted with a nozzle on
the top is used through which water
is sprayed directly to the required
plants. It is also known as Overhead
Irrigation.
 Chapter Five MINERALS IN INDIA
• Minerals are exhaustible
resources.
• Rocks containing metallic
minerals in concentrated form are
called ORES.
• Minerals are classified into
three categories:
• Mineral Fuels, Metallic minerals
and Non Metallic minerals
Minerals
Significance
Areas
IRON ORE
(Metallic mineral)
Types:
Haematite: Reddish in colour, pure iron.
Magnetite: Dark brown, known as black
ore, has 70% iron, got magnetic
properties.
Limonite: Yellow or light brown, got 35-
50% of iron.
1)Used in the production of iron and
steel.
2)Used in the transport system, dams
and bridges.
3) Iron blue is used in paints, printing
inks, plastics.
4) Radioactive iron is used in medicine.
Dantewada (Chattisgarh) Singhbhum
and Palamau(Jharkhand) Hospet(Kar)
Salem(TN) Satara(Mah)
The main iron ore exporting ports in
India are: Mormugao and
Vishakapatnam.
MANGANESE
(Metallic Minerals)
Black iron like metal which occurs as
natural oxide.
1)Used in making iron and steel tough.
2)Raw material for making paints and
glass.
3) Increases the strength of steel.
4) Used in dry cell batteries.
5) Essential for plant growth.
6) It aids in the action of enzymes.
Sambalpur (Orissa) Shimoga(Kar)
Nagpur(Mah)
Singhbhm (Jha)
BAUXITE
(Metallic Minerals)
It is an oxide of aluminum and found in
tertiary deposits.
1)Raw material for aluminum.
2)Used in aircrafts, automobiles, rail
wagons- strong, rust free metal.
3)Used in electrical equipment as it is a
good conductor of electricity.
4) Used in making headlight reflectors
and mirrors in telescopes.
Goa, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh.
Copper
(Metallic Minerals)
Occurs in the native form and in three
combinations of sulphides, oxides and
carbonates.
1) Used for electrical appliances- good
conductor of electricity.
2) Used in automobile and defence
industries.
3) Alloyed with iron and nickel to make
steel.
4) Alloyed with zinc to form brass.
5) Used in ship building industry.
Balaghat and Betul (MP), Khetri Belt
(Raj), Bhandara and Chandrapur (Mah)

Chapter Six CONVENTIONAL

SOURCES OF ENERGY
Conventional sources are traditional
sources of energy used by man for a long
period of time. These include: Coal, fossil
fuels and hydel power. Most of these
sources lead to pollution and are non
renewable in nature.
Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Region
COAL
(Fossil Fuel)
Stratified rock of organic and mineral
matter.
Occurs in sedimentary rocks.
Vegetative matter is subjected to physical
and chemical changes due to heat and
pressure.
Types: Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite and
Peat
1)Basic source of energy.
2)Can be converted into gas, oil, electricity.
3)Raw material for production of chemicals,
dyes, fertilizers and explosives.
4)Used for smelting iron ore in blast
furnaces
5) By products obtained are ammonia and
benzol.
1) Reserves are scattered around in India.
2) Cost of production and transportation is
high.
3) Large scale pollution at mining site.

Damodar basin, Mahanadi and Godavari

valley.
Raniganj(WB)- Oldest coalfield
Jharia(Jh) – Largest coalfield
Gondwana and Tertiary coalfields

PETROLEUM (Fossil Fuel

Found in underground reservoirs in
sedimentary rocks
1)Source of power and fuel for automobiles.
2)Used for generating power.
3) Used as cooking gas(LNG), used for
vehicles (CNG)
4) Products obtained after refining
includes: Petrol, diesel, kerosene, tar, LPG,
lubricants and paraffin wax.
5) Used in production of synthetic rubber,
fiber, PVC, phenol, cosmetics, paint,
varnish and lubricating oil.

1) Non renewable fossil fuel.

2) Generates green house gases.
3) Cost is high because of limited supply
and high demand.
4) Highly inflammable.
5) Oil spills can lead to environmental
disasters.
Digboi (Assam)- oldest oilfield.
ONGC (Mum)
Cambay(Guj)
Kalol and Ankleshwar (Guj)

Natural Gas (Fossil Fuel)

Composed of propane, methane and
ethane.
Accompanies oil deposits.
Formed due decomposing of remains of
dead animal and plants.
Odorless gas, but due to presence of ethyl
mercaptan emits foul smell.

1) Causes less damage to the environment.

2) Easy to preserve and transport.
3) Can be piped into houses for cooking
and heating purposes.
4) Cleaner, cheaper fuel
5) Used for producing hydrogen, ammonia
for fertilizers and plastics.

1) Leaks can be very dangerous.

2) Non renewable
3) Infrastructure for preserving and
production of natural gas is expensive.

Mumbai High, Assam, Tamil Nadu,

Rajasthan and Tripura.
* Oldest refinery- Digboi (Assam)
* World’s largest refinery- Jamnagar (Guj)
* Eco friendly refinery – Panipat (Haryana)
Hydel Power
Produced when water falls from a height
and the blades of turbines located at the
bottom rotate and generate electricity.

1) Clean non polluting source of energy.

2) Does not produce any green house
gases.
3) Renewable source of energy.
4) Dams built to produce hydroelectricity
also help in storing of water
5) It is economical and sustainable.
1) Cost of building dams is high.
2) Dams can alter the natural water table
level.
3) Large dams can cause geological
damage.
Bhakra Nangal Dam (Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan)
Hirakud Dam (Orissa)
Sardar Sarovar Project (Narmada)

Chapter Seven Non

Conventional Sources Of Energy
They are those alternative energy sources
that have been harnessed in recent past as
an alternative to conventional sources of
energy. Example: Geothermal energy, solar
energy, nuclear energy, Biogas, Wind
energy and tidal energy.
Type
Generation
Advantages
Distribution
Solar energy

Solar cells: Known as photovoltaic cells.

Made of Silicon and gallium. Sun’s radiation
converts into electricity
Solar Cooker: Trap solar radiation through a
mirror on to a glass sheet which covers the
black insulated box. It is insulated from
outside so that heat cannot escape.
Solar water heater: Sunlight is collected on
flat plate collectors, the box is insulated and
has a glass lid, inside the box is a coil
which heats the water.

Renewable source of energy.

Can be used for diverse purposes
Does not require much maintenance.
Reduces electricity bills.

Bhadla- - Rajasthan (Largest solar park in

India)

Wind Energy
Obtained via windmills.
Windmills are installed in clusters called
Wind Farms.
They are installed on coastal regions, hilly
regions or open grasslands.
Renewable source of energy
Cleanest form of energy
Generates electricity.
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Lakshwadeep, Maharashtra.

Tidal Energy
Harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tide sea water moves in the
tidal barrage and moves the turbines.
Easy to harness as water moves in
predictable patterns.

Inexhaustible source of energy

Initial construction costs are high, but the
cost of maintenance is low.
Can be produced even if water moves at
low speed
No carbon emissions.
Gulf of Kutch, Cambay, Sunderbans,
Lakhwadeep, Andaman and Nicobar
islands.

GeoThermal Energy
Heat energy contained in rock and fluids
that fill the fractures of the earth’s crust.
Wells are drilled up to a thousand feet
beneath the earth’s surface
Hot water is pumped from the depth, when
it reaches the surface, the pressure is
dropped which causes the water to turn to
steam.
The steam spins a turbine which is
connected to a generator that produces
electricity.
The steam cools of in a cooling tower and
condenses back to water and the process is
repeated.
Easily accessible
Environmentally friendly

Manikaran(HP), Puga valley (Ladakh),

Naga-Lushai province, Andaman-Nicobar
province, Damodar and Mahanadi valley.
Nuclear Power
Atoms present in Uranium, Thorium and
Plutonium are split apart, nuclear fission
takes place.
This split produces heat and this is used to
harness energy.
Two types of nuclear reactors used to
generate electricity are: Pressurized (PWR)
and Boiling water reactor (BWR)

Reduces the use of fossil fuels.

Saves on raw materials, transportation and
handling cost and thus is cost effective.
The production of electric energy is
continuous.

Kaiga (Kar)
Tarapur (Mah)
Kudankulam (TN)
Narora (Raj)
BioGas
Composed of methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
Produced by anaerobic degradation of
animal and plant wastes in the presence of
water.
The fermentation of waste is carried out by
bacteria, which produces hydrocarbon.
The plants which use cattle dung are called
Gobar Gas Plants.
The residue left behind can be used as
manure.
Clean, Non-polluting and cheap.
No storage problem as it is directly supplied
from the plant.
The waste left behind is rich fertilizer.

The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy

Sources (MNES) – promotes Biogas
program.
Chapter 8 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA - I
Agriculture is defined as the cultivation of the soil in order to grow
crops and rear livestock.
Importance of Agriculture:
• Provides food for the population and fodder for our
livestock.
• It generates working capital for non agricultural
development, supplies raw materials for agro based industries.
• Provides a large part of the market for industrial
goods, especially the farm inputs like fertilizers, pesticides,
implements.
• Provides employment to millions of people.
• Accounts for a substantial portion of India’s exports.
PROBLEMS FACING INDIAN AGRICULTURE
• Environmental Factors:
• Unreliable rainfall
• Lack of irrigation facilities
• Soil erosion
• Primitive methods of cultivation
• Faulty cultivation of crops
• Reduction in Net sown area
• Institutional Factors:
• Small and fragmented holdings
• Exploitation of farmers
• Economic Factors:
• Subsistence farming
• Poverty among farmers
• Reduction in import duties, strike Indian farmers
• Challenges faced by globalization:
• Yield per hectare of crops is higher in developed
countries than India
• Reduction in import duties have affected Indian
produce.
 • Declining price at international market has affected
Indian farmers
SOLUTIONS:
• Green revolution:
• Use of large capital and technological inputs
• Adoption of modern scientific methods of farming
• Use of HYV seeds
• Consolidating of landholdings
• Rural electrification
• Establishment of horticulture development, breeding
centers, veterinary services, agricultural universities.
• Land reforms
• Creation of irrigation infrastructure
• Minimum support prices for agricultural commodities
• Subsidy on fertilizers and high yielding seeds
• National agriculture Insurance scheme
• Better credit facilities.
• National Agricultural policy:
• Plant varieties to be protected through legislation
• Review of tax structure
• Institutionalization of farm credit
Types Of Farming In India:
• Shifting Agriculture:
• Also known as Slash and Burn method
• Patch of forest is cleared and stumps are set on fire
• Patch is cultivated for few years until fertility is
restored.
• Farmer moves to a fresh piece of land and the same
process is carried on.
• Accelerates soil erosion and causes flood.
• Also known as Jhum (Assam), Ponam (Kerala), Hera
(Madhya Pradesh)
Crops Grown: Dry paddy, buckwheat, maize, millets and vegetables.
• Subsistence Farming:
• Small and scattered landholdings and use of primitive
tools.
• Less usage of fertilizers and high yielding seeds.
• Low productivity.
 • Intensive Farming:
• Small farms are cultivated intensively using large
inputs of manual labour.
• It is practiced in areas having dense population.
• Emphasis on high quality seeds, rich manure and
fertilizers.
• More than one crop is cultivated
Crops grown: Rice, Wheat.
• Extensive Farming:
• Farms are huge in size
• Machines are used
• Specialization in more than one commercial crop
• Highly capital intensive
• Crop yield is high and surplus is put out for sale.
Crops Grown: Rice, wheat, sugarcane.
• Plantation Farming:
• One crop is cultivated over a huge piece of land
• Chemical fertilizers, herbicides and modern methods
adopted
• Commercial crops are grown for sale
• Usually cater to export
Crops Grown: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Spices.
• Mixed Farming:
• Cultivation of crops and raising of animals
• Two or more crops grown together
• Ensures steady income for the farmers
• Rotation of crops is practiced.
• Commercial Farming:
• Crops mainly grown for sale
• Large farms are required
• Mechanized farming is practiced
• High yielding variety seeds, fertilizers are used for
high productivity.
Crops Grown: Sugarcane, tobacco, fibre crops, oilseeds.
• Dry Farming:
• Prevalent in areas where irrigation is lacking.
• Crops that withstand dry conditions are grown
 • Fields ploughed on regular basis before and during
rains to retain moisture
• Crops are sown only once during the year.
Crops Grown: Pulses, jowar, bajra, ragi, millets.

Chapter 9 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA - II

Agricultural Seasons:

Kharif
Rabi
Zayad
Sowing Season
June-July
October-Nov
Aug-Sept(Zay Kharif)
Feb-Mar (Zay Rabi)
Harvesting Season
Sept-Oct
March-April
Dec-Jan (Zay Kharif)
April-May (Zay Rabi)
Crops
Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, ragi, sugarcane, pulses, cotton, jute.
Wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, potatoes.
Oilseeds, Jowar, maize, vegetables and fruits.
 • Rice:
• Climatic Condition:
• Rainfall 150-300cms (Early stage requires only 5-
10cms of standing water)
• Temperature range: 18 – 32 degree Celsius
• Soil: Clayey or loamy soil, alluvial soil (As it can
retain water)
Methods of Cultivation:
• Dry system: Confined to areas where there is no
irrigational facility, seeds are sown in rows with the help of drill
during monsoon.
• Puddled or Wet method: Land is ploughed and filled
with 3-5cms of standing water till the seedling are well
established.
Steps involved in cultivation of rice:
• Sowing Of Seeds:
• Broadcasting Method: Prevalent in region where
labour is scarce. Seeds are scattered after the field is ploughed.
• Drilling Method: Used in Peninsular India. Seeds are
sown in furrows with help of a drill made of bamboo.
Germination level is high.
• Dibbling Method: Seeds are sown at regular intervals
in furrows by making holes in the ground.
• Transplanting Method: Seedlings are grown in
nurseries. After 4-5 weeks the saplings are transplanted into
fields flooded with water. This method helps in growth of healthy
crop and easy weeding.
• Japanese Method: Similar to Transplanting method.
Seeds are HYV called Japonica.
• Harvesting And Processing:
• Field is drained dry
• Stalk is cut with a sickle
• Each stalk is hand picked
• Threshing: Stalk is beaten against wooden bars. The
grain is separated from the stalk.
• Winnowing: Unwanted husk is removed by pouring
the grain from a height on a windy day.
• Milling: It is used to remove the yellowish husk .
 Milling is done by machines.
Distribution: West Bengal (3 types of rice crops: Aus, Aaman and
Boro), Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
B) Wheat:
• Climatic Condition
• Temperature: 10C – 15C (Sowing) 20C – 25C
(Harvesting)
• Rainfall: 80cms.
• Soil: Well drained loamy.
* Wheat is a winter crop thus it is not cultivated in West Bengal and
extreme south India.
Methods Of Cultivation:
• Sowing: Fields are ploughed before the seed is
grown. Drilling or broadcasting method is used to sow.
• Harvesting: Harvested in the month of April with
sickle or machines. Threshers are used to separate grain from
husk.
Distribution: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.
C) Millets (Inferior crops grown under conditions where the soil is
infertile)
Crop
Climatic Condition
Soil
Cultivation
Distribution
Jowar
Kharif and Rabi Crop
Temp: 27 -32C
Rainfall:45cms
Alluvium, Red, Black, Sandy
Broadcast method or Dibbling
Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka, AP and Telangana.
Bajra
Kharif Crop
Temp: 25 -30C
Rainfall: 50cms
Red, sandy, black
Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP, Maharashtra.
Ragi
Kharif crop
Temp: 20 – 30C
Rainfall: 50-100cms
(grown in draught region)
Red, black, sandy, alluvial
Broadcast method or drilling
Karnataka, TN, Maharashtra, AP.
Pulses
Kharif and Rabi crop
Temp: 20C – 25C
Rainfall:50-75cms
Dry and light soil

MP, Maharashtra, UP, Rajasthan and AP.

Chapter 10 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA - III

Cash Crops: Primarily grown for sale and not for use by the grower
and his family.
• Sugarcane: Main source of sugar, gur and khandsari.
• Climatic Condition:
• Temp: 20-26C (Frost is fatal )
 • Rainfall: 100-150cms (Continuous irrigation is
necessary)
• Soil: Well drained alluvial or lava soil. Reddish or
laterite soil with supplements of manure and nitrogenous
fertilizers.
Methods of Cultivation:
• Sowing:
• Sett Method: New canes are planted by taking
cuttings from old plants. These cuttings are known as setts.
Four to five stalks grow from each cutting. It takes 8 months to
mature.
• Ratooning: First harvest sugarcane is cut leaving a
little stalk in the soil. The stalk develops new shoots. This is
done for at least three times. The successive ratoon crop is less
productive than the earlier. Ratoons mature early and this
method is cheap, the only drawback is the yield is of thinner
canes with lower sucrose content.
• Seeds: Sugarcane can be planted by seeds. It is
planted in furrows and covered with soil.
• Harvesting: Harvested before winters. The crop is cut
with a knife. Usually done in Oct-Nov.
• Processing: After harvesting the cane is taken to the
mill within 48hrs to preserve sugar content. The cane is crushed
between rollers and then boiled with lime. The sugarcane juice
crystallizes and forms raw brown sugar.
Distribution: Bihar, UP, Punjab, Maharashtra, TN, AP, Telangana.
* South India has better yield due to favorable maritime climate free
from loo and winter frost, sufficient irrigation and new farming
techniques. But the winter rainfall along the TN coast is not beneficial
for the crop.
Problems of sugarcane cultivators:
• Sugarcane is soil exhausting crop and requires a lot
of fertilizers
• As the farms are far away from the mills, a delay can
lead to reduction of sugar content before the crushing process.
• Cost of transport increases the cost of production
• Requires high input of irrigation
• It is an annual crop and thus no other crop can be
grown.
Role Of Government in Solving Farmer’s Problems:
• Cooperative societies have been set up to help
farmers
• Rural credit banks provide loans to farmers at low
interest
• Better irrigation facilities are provided.

• Oilseeds: ( Groundnut, Castor, Linseed, Sesamum,

Soyabean, Cotton seeds, Sunflower, Rapeseed and Mustard)
• Groundnut: Used in making margarine, medical
emulsions and soap. The nuts are eaten raw and its oil is used
for cooking.
Two types of groundnut plants: Runner Type and Bunch type
• Climatic Condition: 20C – 25C (Dry weather is
required for ripening)
• Rainfall: 50 -100cms
• Soil: Sandy, black and red soil
Cultivation:
• Sowing: Sandy soil is ploughed. Broadcasting or
drilling method used to sow. When the plant flowers, the fruit
matures.
• Harvesting: The entire plant with the roots is
removed.
Distribution: Telangana, TN, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP,
Rajasthan.
• Mustard: Used for edible oil. Leaves are eaten as
vegetables and is used as manure.
• Climatic Conditions: 10-20C
• Rainfall:25-40cms
• Soil: Loamy soil
Distribution: UP, Rajasthan, MP, Haryana.
• Soyabean: Beans are eaten as vegetables or made
into soya sauce. Used as a substitute for animal protein.
Consumed as soya milk and tofu.
• Climatic Conditions: 13C -24C
• Rainfall: 40-60cms
• Soil: Loamy or acidic soil
Distribution: MP, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Chapter 11 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA - IV
• Cotton
Climatic Condition: Kharif crop
• 21C – 30C (Minimum temp should not go below 20C
as it retards the crop. The crop is extremely sensitive to frost,
therefore a period of 200 frost free days necessary for the plant
to mature)
• Rainfall: 50-75cms (rainfall during ball opening time is
extremely harmful)
• Soil: well drained clayey soil containing lime and
phosphates. Black soil of the Deccan and Malwa plateau, the red
and laterite soil of peninsular India.
Methods of Cultivation:
• Sowing: Tillage and manuring necessary before the
crop is sown. Broadcasting or drilling method used. Ground
should be cleared of weed on a regular basis.
• Harvesting: Crop is harvested in October when the
cotton balls ripe and burst open.
• Processing: After harvesting the crop passes through
the following process:
• After cotton is picked it is ginned. Ginning is the
process used to separate fibres from the seeds.
• Seeds are crushed to yield oil, the residue is used for
cattle fodder.
• Cotton lint (fibre) is baled for transport
• Fibres are washed and them combed to form a rope
like mass of fibres known as sliver.
• The sliver is fed to the spindles and spun to make
cotton yarn.
Varieties of Cotton:
• Superior long staple
• Long staple
• Superior medium staple
• Medium staple
• Short staple
Distribution: TN, Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra, AP, Telangana and
Punjab.
• Jute
Types: White jute and Tossa jute
making utility products like carpets, rugs, upholstery and cloth.
Mesta is a substitute for jute and can withstand drought situation.
Grown in Assam, Bihar and Odisha.
Climatic Conditions:
• Temp: 24-35C
• Rainfall: 150cms
• Soil: New alluvium
Methods Of Cultivation:
• Sowing: Drilling or Broadcasting method
• Harvesting: Harvested 8-10months after sowing.
When plants attain the height of 2-4mts and are mature, they are
cut, bundled and put in ponds for retting. After 20 days the bark
is peeled off and the fibre is removed. It is rinsed, washed, dried
and pressed into bales.
• Processing: It is dried and stripped of unwanted
leaves and is put in water to rot (retting). Retting softens the
outer bark and helps in removal of the fibre within it. After
drying, the fibres are spun and woven and are used for making
bags, carpets….etc.
Distribution: West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Tripura and UP.
• Tea:
Climatic Condition:
• Temp: 24 -30C (It is a shade loving plant, heavy dew
and morning fog is good for rapid development of young leaves)
• Rainfall: 150cms +
• Soil: Well drained deep friable loam or forest land with
rich organic matter. Soil should gently role so as to prevent
water logging.
Methods Of Cultivation:
• Seeds: High quality seeds are sown in nurseries, the
saplings are transplanted within a year.
• From Cuttings: Tea shrubs are grown from cuttings of
high yielding varieties. It is known as clonal planting.
• Harvesting: Pruning starts after two years. Tea is
 picked every ten days. Frequent pruning encourages the rapid
production of fresh leaves and shoots. Two tender leaves and a
bud or shoot are usually plucked from each stem.
• Processing: There are 4 types of processing :
• Black Tea: Following steps are involved:
Withering: Gathered leaves are dried in the sun for a day or two to
extract moisture.
Rolling: They are rolled mechanically between steel rollers to break
the fibres. The leaves are baked lightly over charcoal fire, until they
turn brownish reddish in colour.
Fermentation: Leaves are allowed to ferment and this reduces the
tannic acid in the tea.
Drying: The next process includes roasting and drying the leaves in a
oven until they are black in colour.
Blending: Expert blenders then blend the tea with special aroma and
pack them into brands.
• Green Tea: Tea leaves are dried in oven and crushed
in machines. It is not fermented.
• Oolong Tea: Prepared by partially drying and
fermentation.
•
• Brick Tea: Inferior variety from coarser leaves, stems
and tea-dust are compressed into rectangular blocks of brick
tea.
Distribution: Assam, West Bengal, TN, Kerala.

Types:
• Coffee Robusta: Grown in lower elevation. Hardy and
yields poor quality of coffee. It is disease resistant.
• Coffee Liberica: Hardy and disease resistant, grown
in lowland and upland. Moderate quality of coffee. Suitable for
making instant coffee.
• Coffee Arabica: Finest coffee, delicate and
susceptible to leaf and other disease. Produces superior quality
of beans.
Climatic Conditions:
• Temp: 15C-30C (cannot withstand frost, snowfall or
 very high temperature)
• Rainfall: 150-200cms
• Soil: Rich, well drained loamy soil.
Methods Of Cultivation:
• Sowing: Grown from seed or cuttings. Plants are
pruned annually . Plants are grown on slopes so that water does
not stagnate.
*Covercrop: Since coffee does not require direct sunlight, it is planted
under the shade of trees.
• Harvesting: Begins in the third year, coffee picking is
done by hand by removing the ripe berries from the stalk.
• Processing: Two methods of processing coffee:
• Wet Parchment Method: The fruit covering the bean is
removed before they are dried and then pulping, fermenting,
washing and drying takes place.
• Dry Parchment Method: It involves the following
process:
• Harvested cherries are sorted and cleaned to separate
the unripe, overripe and damaged cherries.
• Then are spread out to dry
• Beans are then fermented by drying in the sun for a
week
• After drying, machines peel off the two layers of inner
husks
• They are sorted according to size and quality
• The beans are roasted and then ground into coffee
powder.
Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala, TN.
Chapter Twelve
TRANSPORT
Importance of Transportation:
• Helps in better utilization of
resources in backward areas by
linking them with more advanced
areas.
• Aids in the process of
industrialization and urbanization.
• Removes scarcity of goods
during any crisis.
• Helps in minimizing the effects
of natural disasters.
ROADS
Two major projects undertaken by
National Highway Authority Of India
(NHAI):
• Golden Quadrilateral: Connects
the four metropolis.
• North-South and East –West
Corridor.
Express Highways:
• Yamuna expressway (Greater
Noida to Agra)
• Ahmedabad-Vadodara
expressway
• Delhi-Gurgaon expressway
• Mumbai-Pune expressway
Features of Expressways:
• Six lane concrete highway
• Separate tunnel for traffic in
each direction
• Complete fencing
• No two or three wheelers
allowed
• Provision of petrol pumps,
motels, workshops and emergency
phones
• Mobile radars installed
State Highways: Constructed and
maintained by the state government.
District Roads: Important roads
connecting areas of production with
markets, they also connect small towns
with one another.
Rural Roads: Being modernized due to
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna
(PMGSY)
Border Roads: Maintained by the Border
Roads Organisation (BRO)
Advantages of Roadways:
• Every village and hamlet can
be reached
• Construction cost is low
• Roads can be constructed on
difficult terrain
• Roads offer door to door
service. Help farmers to move their
perishable products quickly to the
markets.
• Provides link between railway
stations and ports and their
hinterlands.
Disadvantages of Roadways:
• Many roads are unsurfaced and
thus not suitable for regular vehicular
 traffic.
• Multiple check points, toll tax
and octroi duties make it a source of
irritation.
• Traffic on Indian roads causes
congestion
RAILWAYS
Track System:
• Broad Gauge: The distance
between rails is 1.67mt. Almost all
main routes are broad gauge.
• Meter Gauge: The distance
between rails is one meter.
• Narrow Gauge: The distance
between rails is 0.76mt. It is mainly
confined to hilly areas.
Advantages of Railways:
• Helps in easy movement of
bulky goods and perishable
commodities to distant places.
• Have brought villages closer to
the cities.
 • Helps in reducing sufferings
during natural calamities
• Facilitate easy movement of
police, troops and defense
equipment.
• Provides comfortable journey.
Disadvantages of Railways:
• Train tracks cannot be laid in
every region.
• Trains which run on coal
produce a lot of pollution
• Trains cannot cross oceans.
AIR TRANSPORT
Airports Authority Of India manages the
air transport and traffic. Pawan Hans
helicopter Ltd. was established with the
objective of providing support services
to oil sector and for promotion of
tourism.
Advantages of Airways:
• It is the fastest and comfortable
mode of transport.
 • It can cross any barriers easily
• It is of utmost importance
during natural calamities
Disadvantages of Airways:
• It is very costly
• It depends on weather
conditions
• Can carry small tonnage but
has high freight charges.
Water Transport
Can be divided into Inland waterways
and Oceanic waterways.
The Inland waterways authority has
declared five inland waterways as
National Waterways:
• NW1: Ganga –Bhagirathi-
Hooghly system
• NW2: Brahmaputra system
(Connects NE region with Kokota and
Bangladesh)
• NW3: Runs from Kollam to
Kottapuram in Kerala
 • NW4: Connects the state of
Andhra Pradesh with Tamil Nadu
Oceanic Waterways: Besides
international trade, these routes are
used for transportation between islands
and for tourism.
Major Ports:
• Kolkota: Riverine port located
on the banks of Hooghly river.
• Haldia: Developed to relieve
pressure from Kolkota port.
• Paradip (Orissa): Handles iron
ore and coal
• Vishakapatnam: Deepest
landlocked port
• Chennai: Second largest port
and is the oldest artificial harbor on
the eastern coast.
• Kandla: Tidal port and free
zone
• Mumbai: Natural harbor and
biggest port in India
• JNPT: Biggest ultra modern
 port of India
• New Mangalore: Handles iron
ore of Kudremukh
• Kochi: Natural harbor and
handles export of tea, coffee and
petroleum products.
• Ennore Port: First public
company port.
Advantages of Waterways:
• Cheaper means of transport
• Suitable for carrying heavy and
bulky material
• Comfortable travel
• Safe and has less traffic
Disadvantages of Waterways:
• Depends on weather
conditions
• Needs long travelling hours
• Limited to areas where rivers
are navigable and oceanic routes
exist.
Chapter Thirteen AGRO BASED
INDUSTRIES
Need for rapid industrialization in India:
• India is predominantly an
agricultural country and cannot
support the growing population.
• Industrialization provides
support and strength to our
agricultural base.
• Industries produce goods and
equipments required for the defense
of the country.
• It is needed to make India self
reliant and independent for all its
needs.
 • Expansion of industries in
backward areas is needed to correct
the regional imbalance.
Factors affecting the Location of
Industries:
Geographical Factors:
• Raw materials: Availability of
raw material in a particular area
reduces the cost of transportation
and thus industries are set near such
areas. E.g. Because of availability of
cotton in Gujarat, cotton textiles are
found in the state of Gujarat than any
other state.
• Water Supply: All industries
depend heavily on the availability of
water, as water is needed in the
process of manufacturing, cleaning,
cooling, washing, etc.
• Energy: Energy is required to
process raw materials into
manufactured goods. The availability
of energy in one form or the other is
 an important factor in deciding the
location of a particular industry.
• Transport: The availability of
transport facilities has led to the
development of industries near the
port towns that are linked with rail
and road to the hinterland.
• Labour: The availability of
skilled and unskilled manpower is an
important factor in location of
industries. The mobility of labour is
also significant factor.
• Market: The existence of
market is the ultimate requirement of
every industry because whatever is
produced needs to be sold.
• Climate: It plays a significant
factor in the location of industries
especially agro based industries.
Commercial Factors:
• The government: It is the
government which makes policies
and takes decisions to protect and
 encourage indigenous industries.
• Capital: It is required at every
stage of industrialization. Major cities
and industrial centres have good
banking and credit facilities which
are necessary for setting up large
scale industries.
Classification Of Industries:
• On the basis of Raw Material:
• Ago based industries: Cotton,
jute, tea, sugar.
• Mineral Based industries: Iron
and steel, light chemicals, fertilizers
• Forest Based Industries:
Rubber, wood, lac, resin.
• Animal based industries: Dairy,
silk, woolen, poultry.
• On the Basis of Nature of
Products:
• Heavy Industries
• Light Industries
• On the Basis of Size and
Investment:
 • Large scale industries
• Medium scale industries
• Small scale industries
• On the Basis of Ownership:
• Public Sector Industries:
Owned and managed by the Central
or State government
• Private Sector Industries:
Owned and managed by individuals
or group of individuals.
• Joint Sector Industries:
Managed and controlled jointly by the
government and private
entrepreneur.
• Co-operative Sector Industries:
People pool in their resources and
come together to start an industry.
Distribution Of Industrial Regions:
• Hooghly Belt
• Mumbai Pune Belt
• Ahmedabad Vadodra Belt
• Mathura Delhi Saharanpur
Ambala Region
Industry
Distribution
Products & By products
Problems

Sugar
Maharashtra, U.P., T.N; A.P.
Sugar, gur, Khandsari, bagasse, used for
making wax, shoe polish, Molasses,
press mud.
Poor quality with low sucrose content.
Cost of production is high.
Location of sugarcane producing areas
far away from the factories.
If the prices offered to farmers are not
attractive they switch over to other
crops.
Old and obsolete machinery is used.
Tendency to move to the South:
1. Favorable climate.
2. Black soil found here is more suitable.
3. The quality of sugarcane is higher.
4. Excellent transport facilities.
5. New machinery and crushing devices.

Cotton
Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Coimbatore,
Kanpur.
Shortage of raw materials.
Sick Industrial Units due to lack of
modernization and competition.
Loss of foreign markets because of
competition from developed countries.
Shortage of power
Outdated machinery
Importance of Ahmedabad and Mumbai
as Cotton centers:
Closeness to raw materials
Favourable climatic conditions
Excellent transport facilities
Port facilities
Cheap labour
Being commercial centers they have
enough capital.
Availability of market.
Handloom and Khadi Industries
Manipur, West Bengal, Nagaland,
Karnataka.
Raw materials are not adequate neither
of good quality.
Lack of technical skills
Old and outdated technology
Competition from mill made cloth.

Silk
Karnataka, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Assam.
Four varieties:
Mulberry
Eri
Tasar
Muga
Competition from artificial silk.
Import of cheaper and better quality of
silk from China.
No systematic testing and grading.
Chapter Fourteen
MINERAL BASED INDUSTRIES
• IRON AND STEEL
INDUSTRY
• Raw Materials: Iron ore,
manganese, limestone, silica,
feldspar, flux and fuel. Manganese is
used for hardening steel and for
removing impurities.
• Steel Making Process:
• Ore Reduction: Ore and coke
are fed continuously in blast furnace,
small quantities of limestone and
dolomite are added as flux to
combine the impurities as slag. The
slag floats on molten iron and can
easily be separated. The molten iron
collected is known as pig iron.
• Steel Melting Furnaces:
impurities from pig iron is removed
 through deoxidation, carbon is added
to get the desired quality.
• Rolling Mills: The steel is then
cast into ingots and rolled into
different sizes.
Major Iron And Steel Plants:
• Tata Iron And Steel Company
(TISCO)
• Location: Jamshedpur (Oldest
steel plant of India) Kolkota
• Availability of raw materials:
Iron ore from Singhbhum (Jh) and
Mayurbhanj (Od), Coal –Jharia and
Bokaro
• Power supply: Coal from Jharia
and Bokara
• Water Supply: Kharkai and
Subarnarekha rivers.
• Market: Kolkota
• Transport Facilities: Kolkota
port and Eastern railways.
• Labour Force: Bihar, West
Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Uttar
Pradesh.
• Products Manufactured: High
grade carbon steel, railway wheels,
axles, bulletproof armor plates.

• Bhillai Iron And Steel Plant

• Location: Chhattishgarh
• Availability of raw materials:
Iron ore from Rajhara and Dalli
mines, manganese from Balaghat.
• Power Supply: Coal – Jharia
and Bokaro and thermal station at
Korba
• Water Supply: Reservoir at
Tendula
• Transport Facility: Mumbai-
Nagpur-Kolkota rail line
• Labour Force: Bihar,
Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh
• Products Manufactured: Heavy
rails, rolled wires, by products such
as ammonium sulphate, coal tar and
sulphate acid.
 • Rourkela Steel Plant
• Location: Sundargarh(Odisha)
• Availability of Raw Material:
Iron ore from Sundargarh and
Keonjhar, manganese from Barajmda
• Power Supply: Coal is obtained
from Jharia and Korba fields
• Water Supply: Mahanadi
• Transport Facilities: Kolkota-
Nagpur rail line
• Labour Force: Bihar, West
Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha
• Products Manufactured:
Galvanized sheets, electrical steel
plates, manufactures – fertilizers and
various chemicals.

• Vishakapatnam Steel Plant

• Location: Andhra Pradesh
• Raw Materials: Iron ore from
Chhattisgarh, manganese from
Andhra Pradesh.
• Power Supply: Coalfields of
 Damodar valley.
• Products Manufactured: Liquid
and saleable steel- exported to China
and SE Asia.
Problems of Iron and Steel Industry:
• Requires huge amount of
capital investment
• Outdated Machinery
• Limited availability of coking
coal required for smelting
• Limited margin for profits due
to government interference
• High rate of import due to
excessive demand

2. ELECTRONICS
a) The Indian Telephone Industries
(Bengaluru) – Produces equipments for
post and telegraph departments,
railways, defence and electricity boards.
b) The Electronics Corporation of India
Ltd (Hyderabad) – Metal oxide resistors,
analog computers and online digital
process control computers are
produced.
c) Bharat Electronics Ltd (Bengaluru) –
Communication, radar, fire control
system, tanks and optical systems.
d) Indian Space Research Organisation
(Bengaluru) Satellites.
• PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
This industry produces: Fertilizers and
insecticides, resins, adhesives, plastic
sheets, carbon black.
Petro chemicals are cost effective and
its raw materials are easily available.
Indian Petrochemical Corporation Ltd
(Vadodara)
Reliance Industries (Gujarat)
Haldia Petrochemical Ltd. (West Bengal)