PRIYADARSHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING NAGPUR

AERODYNAMICS 2
IV SEMESTER (2022-2023)
NOTES UNIT WISE

UNIT 1:
Differentiate between the 'flow over an airfoil' and the 'flaw over a finite
wing''.
Ans:

Flow over an Airfoil:

1. Definition: Flow over an airfoil refers to the airflow around a two-

dimensional shape, typically with a curved upper surface and a flat or
slightly curved lower surface.
2. Dimensionality: Airfoil flow is considered two-dimensional because it
involves the study of flow properties along the chord length of the airfoil,
neglecting the spanwise variation.
3. Cross-sectional shape: An airfoil has a characteristic cross-sectional shape,
commonly referred to as the airfoil's profile. It consists of a curved upper
surface (camber) and a flatter lower surface.
4. Aerodynamic forces: The primary aerodynamic forces acting on an airfoil
are lift and drag. Lift is the upward force generated due to the pressure
difference between the upper and lower surfaces, while drag is the resistance
encountered by the airfoil as it moves through the air.
5. Lift and stall: Airfoil flow is often characterized by the generation of lift.
When the angle of attack (the angle between the airfoil's chord line and the
oncoming airflow) exceeds a certain value, the flow can separate from the
upper surface, leading to a decrease in lift and an increase in drag. This
phenomenon is known as stall.

Flow over a Finite Wing:

1. Definition: Flow over a finite wing refers to the airflow around a complete
wing structure, including the wing's spanwise variation.
 2. Dimensionality: Unlike airfoil flow, flow over a finite wing is three-
dimensional since it accounts for the flow properties varying along both the
chord length and the span of the wing.
3. Spanwise variation: A finite wing has a non-uniform cross-sectional shape
along its span. The wing's shape changes from the root (where it attaches to
the fuselage) to the tip, typically tapering towards the tip.
4. Wingtip vortices: Flow over a finite wing leads to the formation of wingtip
vortices, which are swirling masses of air generated at the wingtips due to
the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces. These vortices
can have implications for nearby aircraft in terms of turbulence and induced
drag.
5. Aerodynamic forces: In addition to lift and drag, flow over a finite wing also
involves the generation of other forces, such as induced drag and yawing
moment. Induced drag is the drag component caused by the generation of
lift, while yawing moment relates to the tendency of the wing to yaw or
rotate around its vertical axis.

Write short notes on the following.

a) Induce drag.
 Definition: Induced drag is a component of aerodynamic drag that is
generated due to the production of lift by an airfoil or a wing.
 Lift production: When an airfoil or wing generates lift, there is a pressure
difference between the upper and lower surfaces. This pressure difference
causes airflow to spill from the high-pressure region below the wing to the
low-pressure region above the wing, resulting in the creation of vortices.
 Wingtip vortices: The primary cause of induced drag is the formation of
wingtip vortices. As air spills from the lower surface to the upper surface of
a wing, it wraps around the wingtips and forms swirling masses of air called
wingtip vortices. These vortices create a downward flow behind the wing,
resulting in a net force opposite to the direction of motion, which is the
induced drag.
 Energy loss: Induced drag is associated with the conversion of some of the
aircraft's kinetic energy into the energy of the wingtip vortices. This
conversion results in a loss of energy, and hence, an increase in drag.
 Inverse relationship with speed: Induced drag is inversely proportional to the
square of the aircraft's speed. As the speed increases, the induced drag
 decreases, and vice versa. This relationship is expressed by the equation Di
= K * (L^2 / V^2), where Di is the induced drag, K is a constant factor, L is
the lift, and V is the velocity.
 Angle of attack influence: Induced drag is also affected by the angle of
attack. Higher angles of attack produce more lift but also increase the
induced drag due to the larger pressure differential and stronger wingtip
vortices.
 Span efficiency factor: The span efficiency factor (e) is a measure of how
efficiently a wing generates lift with minimal induced drag. It represents the
effectiveness of the wing's span in reducing the strength of the wingtip
vortices. Higher values of e indicate better span efficiency and lower
induced drag.
 Downwash effect: Induced drag is closely related to the downwash effect. As
the wing generates lift, it creates a downward flow of air behind it, known as
downwash. This downwash contributes to the formation of wingtip vortices
and the resulting induced drag.
 Aspect ratio impact: The aspect ratio of a wing (the ratio of its span to its
average chord) influences induced drag. Wings with higher aspect ratios
produce less induced drag since they generate weaker wingtip vortices
compared to wings with lower aspect ratios.
 Minimizing induced drag: Aircraft designers employ various strategies to
minimize induced drag. These include using wingtip devices like winglets or
wingtip fences, increasing wing aspect ratio, optimizing the wing planform
shape, and employing advanced aerodynamic designs such as laminar flow
airfoils.

b) Wash in & wash out.

Wash in
 Definition: Wash-in refers to a twist in which the wing's root has a greater
angle of incidence compared to the wingtip. This means that the wing is
twisted in such a way that the wingtip is at a lower angle of incidence than
the wing's root.
 Stall behavior: Wash-in is often incorporated to promote a more gradual stall
progression from root to tip. By increasing the angle of incidence at the
wing's root, wash-in helps delay or prevent the wingtip from stalling before
the rest of the wing. This improves the overall stall characteristics of the
wing.
 Lift distribution: Wash-in alters the local lift distribution along the span of
the wing. By increasing the angle of incidence at the root, wash-in increases
the lift generated by the inner portion of the wing, resulting in a more
uniform lift distribution from root to tip.
 Control responsiveness: Wash-in can enhance the roll control responsiveness
of an aircraft. By increasing the angle of incidence at the wing's root, wash-
in can make the inner portion of the wing more effective in generating lift
during roll maneuvers, leading to improved roll control characteristics.
 Manufacturing considerations: Achieving wash-in can be accomplished
through various manufacturing techniques. For example, wing spars can be
tapered or twisted to achieve the desired wash-in distribution. Additionally,
composite materials offer flexibility in controlling wash-in during the
manufacturing process.

Wash out
 Definition: Wash-out refers to a twist in which the wingtip has a greater
angle of incidence compared to the wing's root. This means that the wing is
twisted in such a way that the wingtip is at a higher angle of incidence than
the wing's root.
 Tip stall prevention: One of the main purposes of incorporating wash-out is
to delay or prevent tip stall, which is when the wingtip stalls before the rest
of the wing. By reducing the angle of incidence at the wingtip, wash-out
promotes a more gradual stall progression from root to tip, enhancing the
wing's stall behavior.
 Lift distribution: Wash-out alters the local lift distribution along the span of
the wing. By reducing the angle of incidence at the wingtip, wash-out
reduces the lift generated by the outer portion of the wing, resulting in a
more gradual decrease in lift from root to tip. This helps in achieving a more
uniform lift distribution across the wing.
 Roll stability: Wash-out can contribute to improved roll stability of an
aircraft. With the reduced angle of incidence at the wingtip, the outer portion
of the wing produces less lift during roll maneuvers. This tendency for the
outer wing to generate less lift helps provide roll stability and prevents
excessive roll during flight.
 Manufacturing considerations: Achieving wash-out can be done through
various manufacturing techniques. For example, the wing structure can be
designed with a tapered or twisted shape to create the desired wash-out
distribution. Additionally, the use of composite materials offers flexibility in
controlling wash-out during the manufacturing process.
c) Aerodynamic twist & Geometric twist
 Definition: Aerodynamic twist refers to the variation in the angle of
incidence along the span of a wing, resulting from the need to optimize the
lift distribution and manage aerodynamic effects.
 Purpose: The main purpose of aerodynamic twist is to achieve a more
efficient and desirable lift distribution across the wing, which can enhance
the aircraft's stability, control, and overall performance.
 Local angle of attack: Aerodynamic twist aims to ensure that the local angle
of attack (the angle between the chord line and the local airflow) remains
relatively constant along the wing's span, leading to a more uniform lift
distribution.
 Aerodynamic considerations: Aerodynamic twist is typically designed based
on factors such as minimizing drag, delaying or preventing stall, optimizing
control response, and managing adverse effects like tip stall.
 Computational tools: Modern computational tools and simulations are often
used to analyze and optimize aerodynamic twist, allowing engineers to
evaluate the performance of different twist distributions.
 Factors influencing aerodynamic twist: Aerodynamic twist is influenced by
various factors, including the aircraft's mission profile, desired flight
characteristics, desired lift distribution, and structural constraints.

 Geometric Twist:

 Definition: Geometric twist refers to the physical variation in the angle of

incidence along the span of a wing resulting from the wing's actual shape.
 Structural considerations: Geometric twist can occur due to factors such as
wing taper, varying airfoil sections, wing wash-in or wash-out, or intentional
design choices.
 Manufacturing techniques: Geometric twist can be achieved through specific
manufacturing techniques, such as varying the spar thickness or using
different airfoil sections along the wing's span.
 Influence on aerodynamics: Geometric twist can have aerodynamic
implications as it directly affects the wing's local angle of incidence, leading
to variations in lift distribution and the aircraft's aerodynamic characteristics.
 Wing design flexibility: Geometric twist provides flexibility in wing design,
allowing engineers to tailor the wing's shape and lift distribution according
to specific requirements and constraints.
  Structural efficiency: Geometric twist can contribute to structural efficiency
by redistributing the loads across the wing's span and optimizing the wing's
structural integrity.
 Impact on roll characteristics: Geometric twist can affect the roll
characteristics of an aircraft by influencing the wing's aileron effectiveness
and roll control response.
 Manufacturing challenges: Achieving the desired geometric twist can pose
manufacturing challenges, as it requires precision in constructing the wing
structure and maintaining the intended twist distribution.
 Trade-offs: Designing the appropriate geometric twist involves trade-offs
between aerodynamic performance, structural considerations,
manufacturability, and other design constraints.
 Testing and validation: Geometric twist is typically analyzed through wind
tunnel testing, flight testing, or computational simulations to assess its
impact on the aerodynamic behaviour and performance of the aircraft.

Draw the neat labeled sketches of the top view and front view of the
streamline pattern over a finite wing and wing tip vortices

 Top View of Streamline Pattern over a Finite Wing:

 Start with a top-down view of a finite wing, where the wing is oriented
horizontally, with the root on the left side and the tip on the right side.
 Streamlines are imaginary lines that represent the flow of air around the
wing. These lines are drawn such that they are tangent to the direction of the
airflow at each point.
 Near the root of the wing, the streamlines start parallel to the leading edge,
indicating smooth flow over the wing surface.
 As the streamlines move toward the tip of the wing, they curve upward due
to the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
 Near the wingtip, the streamlines curve more sharply, forming distinct
vortex patterns. These are the wingtip vortices, which are swirling masses of
air that form at the wingtips.

 Front View of Streamline Pattern over a Finite Wing:

  Imagine a front-facing view of a finite wing, where you can see the span of
the wing from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
 The streamlines are drawn perpendicular to the wing's surface at each point,
indicating the flow direction.
 Near the root of the wing, the streamlines are straight and evenly spaced,
indicating smooth and uniform flow over the wing.
 As the streamlines move toward the wingtip, they start to curve outward,
depicting the spanwise flow from the root to the tip.
 At the wingtip, the streamlines curve sharply outward, forming large vortex
patterns. These wingtip vortices represent the swirling motion of the air as it
flows around the wingtip.

Why are the aerodynamic characteristics of a finite wing different from the
properties of its airfoil section, Explain it briefly with neat sketch

 Spanwise flow: Flow of air across the entire wing, from root to tip, affects
how lift is distributed and creates more drag.
 Wingtip effects: Airflow at the wingtip creates swirling air patterns called
wingtip vortices, which affect lift, drag, and stall behavior.
 End effects: How the wing interacts with the surrounding air affects its
aerodynamics, including lift, drag, and other properties.
 Three-dimensional flow: Flow around the wing is not flat like an airfoil
section but takes into account factors like sweep, dihedral angle, and twist,
which impact lift, drag, and stability.
 Interference drag: Interaction between the wing and other aircraft
components (fuselage, engine nacelles, etc.) creates additional drag.

Explain the effect of downwash?

A. Definition: Downwash refers to the downward flow of air produced by the
wings of an aircraft as it generates lift.
B. Lift generation: Downwash is a byproduct of lift generation. As the wings
generate lift, the air above the wing flows faster and creates a lower
pressure, causing air from below the wing to be pushed downward.
 C. Induced drag: One of the effects of downwash is the creation of induced
drag. Downwash contributes to the formation of wingtip vortices, which are
swirling masses of air at the wingtips. These vortices induce additional drag
on the aircraft.
D. Lift distribution: Downwash affects the distribution of lift along the span of
the wings. It causes a decrease in the angle of attack and lift towards the
wingtip compared to the root. This results in a spanwise variation in lift
distribution.
E. Aerodynamic efficiency: Downwash reduces the overall aerodynamic
efficiency of the aircraft. It increases the drag and reduces the lift-to-drag
ratio, resulting in a higher energy requirement for sustained flight.
F. Pitching moment: Downwash also influences the pitching moment of an
aircraft. It creates a downward force behind the center of gravity, causing a
nose-down pitching moment. This pitching moment affects the aircraft's
stability and control characteristics.
G. Control effectiveness: Downwash can affect the effectiveness of control
surfaces, such as elevators and ailerons. The presence of downwash alters
the airflow over these surfaces, impacting their ability to control pitch and
roll.
H. Ground effect: Downwash is intensified when an aircraft operates close to
the ground. This is known as the ground effect, where the downwash is
reflected off the ground and interacts with the wing, resulting in changes in
lift and drag.
I. Wingtip interference: Downwash plays a role in wingtip interference
between neighboring wings, such as in multi-wing aircraft configurations. It
affects the flow patterns and aerodynamic interactions between the wings.
J. Design considerations: Engineers take downwash into account during the
design of aircraft wings to optimize lift distribution, reduce induced drag,
and improve overall aerodynamic performance. Techniques such as wing
twist, winglets, and wingtip fences are employed to mitigate the effects of
downwash.

What are the General features of finite wing aerodynamics?

 Lift generation: The finite wing generates lift by creating a pressure

difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, allowing the
aircraft to stay airborne.
 Spanwise flow: Air flows across the entire span of the wing, from the root to
the tip, affecting the distribution of lift and inducing drag.
  Wingtip vortices: The wingtip produces swirling air patterns called wingtip
vortices, which are formed due to the pressure difference between the upper
and lower surfaces of the wing. These vortices contribute to induced drag.
 Lift distribution: The lift is not evenly distributed along the wing's span. It is
typically higher near the wing's root and decreases towards the wingtip due
to factors like downwash and wing geometry.
 Angle of attack: The angle between the chord line of the wing and the
oncoming airflow is known as the angle of attack. It influences the lift, drag,
and stall characteristics of the wing.
 Induced drag: The finite wing generates induced drag due to the creation of
wingtip vortices. This drag is an unavoidable consequence of lift generation.
 Stall behavior: When the angle of attack exceeds a certain limit, the wing
can experience a stall. A stall occurs when the airflow over the wing
becomes separated, resulting in a decrease in lift and an increase in drag.
 Roll control: Finite wings provide roll control through the use of ailerons,
which are control surfaces located near the wingtips. Ailerons can be used to
selectively increase lift on one side of the wing, causing the aircraft to roll.
 Wing twist: Finite wings often have a twist, where the angle of incidence
changes along the span of the wing. This twist helps optimize the lift
distribution and improve the wing's performance.
 Ground effect: When an aircraft operates close to the ground, it experiences
the ground effect, where the proximity of the ground influences the airflow
patterns and aerodynamic characteristics of the wing, resulting in changes in
lift and drag.

Geometric angle of attack.

Definition: Geometric angle of attack refers to the angle between the shape
of an airfoil (or wing) and the direction of the incoming air.
Chord line reference: The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading
and trailing edges of the airfoil. The angle of attack is measured with respect
to this line.
Airflow direction: The angle of attack is determined by comparing the
orientation of the airfoil with the direction of the oncoming airflow.
Lift generation: Changing the angle of attack alters the distribution of
pressure over the airfoil, resulting in lift generation. Increasing the angle of
attack typically increases lift until a certain point.
 Stall risk: If the angle of attack becomes too high, the smooth airflow over
the airfoil may become disrupted, leading to a stall. A stall causes a decrease
in lift and an increase in drag.
Control input: Pilots can adjust the angle of attack using control surfaces
such as elevators or ailerons to control the pitch and roll of the aircraft.
Critical angle of attack: The critical angle of attack is the maximum angle at
which the airfoil can operate before stalling occurs.
Effects on stability: The angle of attack can affect the stability and handling
characteristics of an aircraft. High angles of attack may reduce stability or
cause an aircraft to be more maneuverable.
Drag variation: The angle of attack influences the drag experienced by the
airfoil. Higher angles of attack generally result in increased drag.
Design consideration: Engineers optimize the shape and angle of attack of
airfoils to achieve desired aerodynamic performance, considering factors
such as lift, drag, and stall characteristics.

How lift is generated on the wing surface

 Curved shape: The wing surface is curved, with the top surface being more
curved (convex) than the bottom surface (concave).
 Bernoulli's principle: As the air flows over the wing, it travels faster over the
curved top surface, creating a region of lower pressure according to
Bernoulli's principle.
 Pressure difference: The faster-moving air on the top surface results in lower
pressure compared to the relatively slower-moving air on the bottom surface,
where the pressure is comparatively higher.
 Lift force: The pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces
creates an upward force called lift. The higher pressure below the wing
pushes it upward, supporting the weight of the aircraft.
 Newton's third law: According to Newton's third law of motion, for every
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The wing deflects the air
downward, resulting in an equal and opposite reaction force that lifts the
wing upward.
 Angle of attack: The angle between the wing's chord line (a straight line
from the leading edge to the trailing edge) and the oncoming airflow is
known as the angle of attack. Increasing the angle of attack increases lift up
to a certain point, after which the wing may stall.
 Coanda effect: The curved shape of the wing and the air flowing over it
adhere to the surface due to the Coanda effect. This helps in maintaining
smooth airflow and efficient lift generation.
  Lift distribution: The lift generated is distributed along the span of the wing.
It is typically higher near the wing root and decreases towards the wingtip
due to factors such as downwash and wing geometry.
 Wingtip vortices: The flow of air around the wingtips leads to the formation
of wingtip vortices, which contribute to induced drag but also assist in lift
generation.
 Control surfaces: Control surfaces such as ailerons and flaps allow pilots to
manipulate the shape and lift distribution of the wing, enabling control over
the aircraft's roll, pitch, and overall lift characteristics.

formation of wing tip vortex.

When an aircraft is in flight, the wingtip creates a swirling mass of air known as a
wingtip vortex. This phenomenon occurs because of the pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. As air moves around the
wingtip, the air on the top surface experiences lower pressure compared to the air
on the bottom surface. This pressure difference causes the air to flow from the
bottom to the top, resulting in the formation of a rotating flow pattern.

The wingtip vortex has distinct characteristics. It appears as a spiraling column of

air trailing behind the wingtip. The vortex rotates in a circular motion and creates a
swirling effect. This swirling motion contributes to the creation of induced drag,
which is an undesirable force that opposes the aircraft's forward motion. The
vortex represents a transfer of energy from the aircraft's kinetic energy to the
surrounding air.

The formation of wingtip vortices is most pronounced when the aircraft is

operating at higher angles of attack or at low speeds. It is particularly significant
during takeoff, landing, or when flying at slow speeds. The strength and size of the
vortex depend on various factors, including the aircraft's weight, speed, wing
geometry, and angle of attack.

The presence of wingtip vortices has important implications for other aircraft
operating in the vicinity. Following aircraft need to be cautious of these vortices as
they can affect their own flight stability and control. The vortices can induce
turbulence, causing momentary disturbances in the airflow and potentially
affecting the aircraft's handling.

Momentum theory of wing

1. Consider an airfoil moving through a fluid with a free-stream velocity (V∞)

and an angle of attack (α).
2. According to the momentum theory, lift is generated by the downward
deflection of air and the resulting change in momentum.
3. We assume that the airfoil is thin, and the flow over the upper and lower
surfaces can be approximated as inviscid and irrotational.
4. By applying Bernoulli's principle, the pressure difference between the upper
and lower surfaces of the airfoil creates a net force.
5. To derive the momentum theory of lift, we focus on the circulation (Γ)
around the airfoil.
6. The circulation is a measure of the rotational motion of the fluid particles
around the airfoil and is related to the lift generated.
7. According to the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, the lift coefficient (Cl) is given
by:

Cl = (2 * Γ) / (ρ * V∞ * c)

where ρ is the air density and c is the chord length of the airfoil.

8. The circulation (Γ) can be related to the velocity distribution around the
airfoil using the following equation:

V = V∞ * (1 + (2 * Γ) / (ρ * V∞ * c))

where V is the local velocity magnitude at a point on the airfoil.

9. From the velocity equation, we can determine the pressure distribution using
Bernoulli's equation:

P = P∞ + 0.5 * ρ * V^2
where P is the local pressure and P∞ is the freestream pressure.

10.Integrating the pressure distribution along the airfoil surfaces, we obtain the
lift force (L) as:

L = ∫(P - P∞) * dA

where dA represents an infinitesimal area element on the airfoil surfaces.

11.Using the velocity equation and the lift coefficient formula, the lift force can
be expressed as:

L = ρ * V∞ * Γ

12.By substituting the lift coefficient formula into the lift force equation, we
have:

L = ρ * V∞ * (2 * Γ) / (ρ * V∞ * c)

L=2*Γ/c

13.Simplifying the equation, we obtain:

Cl = 2 * Γ / (ρ * V∞ * c)

This final equation represents the momentum theory of lift, which relates the lift
coefficient (Cl) to the circulation (Γ), air density (ρ), freestream velocity (V∞), and
chord length (c) of the airfoil.

Helmholtz vortex theorem?

The Helmholtz vortex theorem states that the circulation around a closed loop in a
fluid remains constant as long as there are no external forces acting on the loop. In
simple words, it means that the total circulation, which is the measure of the
rotation or vorticity in a fluid flow, is conserved in the absence of external
influences.

Formula: The mathematical representation of the Helmholtz vortex theorem is

given as follows:

Γ = ∮v · dl

where Γ represents the circulation around a closed loop, v is the velocity vector of
the fluid, and dl represents an infinitesimal element along the loop's path.

Unit 2

How flaps affect the performance of an aircraft. Also explain the types of
flaps.

Effect of Flaps on Aircraft Performance:

 Lift augmentation: By extending the flaps, the effective camber of the wing
increases, resulting in an increase in the lift generated at a given angle of
attack. This allows the aircraft to generate more lift at lower speeds,
facilitating takeoff and landing at shorter distances.
 Decreased stall speed: Flaps increase the maximum lift coefficient of the
wing, which reduces the stall speed. This enables the aircraft to operate at
lower speeds without stalling, improving safety and maneuverability during
approach and landing.
 Increased drag: Flaps significantly increase the drag produced by the wing.
This is beneficial during landing as it helps the aircraft to reduce speed and
descend more rapidly. However, it also increases fuel consumption during
cruise, so flaps are typically retracted after takeoff.
  Pitching moment: Deploying flaps alters the pitching moment of the aircraft,
causing the nose to pitch up. Pilots can use this effect to adjust the aircraft's
attitude and trim during different phases of flight.
 Shorter takeoff and landing distances: By increasing lift and drag, flaps
allow an aircraft to take off and land at lower speeds. This reduces the
required runway length, making operations possible at airports with shorter
runways.

Types of Flaps:

 Plain Flaps: These are simple hinged sections that extend downward from
the trailing edge of the wing. They increase both lift and drag. Plain flaps are
commonly used on light aircraft and some commercial aircraft.
 Split Flaps: Split flaps are separate sections that extend downward and
backward from the trailing edge of the wing. They primarily increase drag
and are less effective at increasing lift compared to other flap types. Split
flaps are often found on older aircraft designs.
 Slotted Flaps: Slotted flaps are similar to plain flaps but feature a slot
between the flap and the wing surface. The slot allows high-pressure air
from below the wing to flow over the top surface, delaying stall and
improving lift characteristics. Slotted flaps are commonly used on many
modern commercial aircraft.
 Fowler Flaps: Fowler flaps are more complex in design and can be extended
backward and downward. This increases both camber and wing area, leading
to significant lift augmentation. Fowler flaps are commonly found on larger
aircraft, including commercial jets.
 Krueger Flaps: Krueger flaps are located on the leading edge of the wing.
They extend forward during deployment, effectively increasing the wing's
camber and lift capabilities. Krueger flaps are commonly used on certain
commercial aircraft models.

Prove that, the downwash and induce angle of attack, are constant along the
span, for a wing with elliptical distribution.
 1. Elliptical Lift Distribution: Let's consider a wing with an elliptical lift
distribution. The lift coefficient (Cl) along the span of the wing can be
represented by the equation:

Cl = Cl0 * sqrt(1 - (y/b)^2)

where Cl0 is the maximum lift coefficient of the wing, y is the distance from the
centerline of the wing to a particular spanwise location, and b is the wingspan.

2. Induced Angle of Attack: The induced angle of attack (αi) is related to the
lift coefficient and the downwash. It can be expressed as:

αi = Cl / (π * AR)

where AR is the aspect ratio of the wing.

3. Downwash: The downwash (w) at a particular spanwise location can be

calculated using the Biot-Savart Law. For an elliptical lift distribution, the
downwash equation becomes:

w = (2 * Cl0 * V) / (π * b)

where V is the freestream velocity.

4. Proof of Constant Downwash: Let's take two arbitrary spanwise locations,

y1 and y2, on the wing. We need to prove that the downwash at these two
locations is the same, i.e., w1 = w2.

Substituting the lift coefficient equation into the downwash equation, we have:

w1 = (2 * Cl0 * V) / (π * b) * sqrt(1 - (y1/b)^2) w2 = (2 * Cl0 * V) / (π * b) *

sqrt(1 - (y2/b)^2)
To prove that w1 = w2, we need to show that sqrt(1 - (y1/b)^2) = sqrt(1 -
(y2/b)^2).

Squaring both sides of the equation, we get:

1 - (y1/b)^2 = 1 - (y2/b)^2

Simplifying, we find:

(y1/b)^2 = (y2/b)^2

Taking the square root of both sides, we have:

y1/b = y2/b

Since y1 and y2 are arbitrary spanwise locations, the equation above holds for any
spanwise location on the wing.

Therefore, we can conclude that the downwash (w) is constant along the span of
the wing with an elliptical lift distribution.

5. Constant Induced Angle of Attack: Since the downwash is constant along

the span, the induced angle of attack (αi) is also constant. This means that
the wing experiences the same induced angle of attack at every spanwise
location.

Derive the expression of Prandtl's lifting line theory and discuss the limitation
of this theory with formula

1. Consider a wing with a finite wingspan (b) and an arbitrary planform shape.
 2. Prandtl's lifting line theory assumes that the lift distribution along the span
of the wing can be represented by a continuous distribution of bound
vortices located along a straight line called the lifting line.
3. The lift generated by each bound vortex is proportional to its strength, which
is determined by the circulation distribution along the lifting line.
4. The circulation distribution is approximated as a polynomial series, typically
a Fourier series or a Bessel function expansion.
5. The lift coefficient at a specific spanwise location y on the wing can be
calculated using the lift equation:

Cl(y) = (2 * π * Γ(y)) / (V∞ * c(y))

where Cl(y) is the local lift coefficient, Γ(y) is the local circulation, V∞ is the
freestream velocity, and c(y) is the local chord length.

6. The circulation distribution along the lifting line can be determined by

solving a system of integral equations, known as the Kutta-Joukowski
condition and the downwash equation.
7. The Kutta-Joukowski condition states that the circulation along the lifting
line must be equal to the circulation around the wingtip, which is typically
assumed to be zero.
8. The downwash equation relates the downwash at a specific spanwise
location to the strength of the bound vortices and their induced velocities.

Limitations of Prandtl's lifting line theory:

1. Prandtl's lifting line theory assumes that the wing operates in two-
dimensional flow and neglects three-dimensional effects, such as wingtip
vortices. This limitation becomes more significant at higher angles of attack
and lower aspect ratios.
2. The theory assumes that the lift distribution is solely determined by the
bound vortices along the lifting line, neglecting the influence of other factors
like wing planform, wingtip effects, and viscous effects.
3. Prandtl's lifting line theory assumes a linear variation of circulation along
the lifting line, which may not accurately represent the lift distribution for
wings with highly non-planar geometries.
4. The theory assumes that the lift coefficient is solely determined by the
circulation distribution, neglecting the effects of airfoil shape, flow
separation, and other complex aerodynamic phenomena.
How taper twisted wing affect the aircraft performance, Explain it with
formula

1. Lift Distribution: The lift distribution along the span of the wing determines
the aerodynamic characteristics and performance of the aircraft. In the case
of a taper twisted wing, the lift distribution is non-uniform, with varying lift
coefficients along the span.
2. Improved Efficiency: A taper twisted wing design can lead to improved
efficiency by reducing induced drag. The lift distribution tapers towards the
wingtip, which helps to minimize the strength of the wingtip vortices,
reducing the induced drag.
3. Increased Lift at Wing Root: The taper twisted wing design often results in
higher lift coefficients near the wing root compared to a wing with a
constant chord length. This is due to the increased surface area and higher
local angle of attack at the root section.
4. Improved Control: The varying lift distribution along the span of a taper
twisted wing can enhance the aircraft's control characteristics. It allows for a
more favorable control response and stability, particularly during maneuvers.
5. Formula for Lift Distribution: The lift distribution on a taper twisted wing
can be approximated using the Prandtl lifting line theory. The lift coefficient
(Cl) at any spanwise location y can be calculated using the lift equation:

Cl(y) = (2 * π * Γ(y)) / (V∞ * c(y))

where Cl(y) is the local lift coefficient, Γ(y) is the local circulation, V∞ is the
freestream velocity, and c(y) is the local chord length.

In the case of a taper twisted wing, the chord length (c) and twist angle (β) vary
along the span. The local chord length can be expressed as a function of spanwise
location:

c(y) = c_root * (1 - k * y / b)

where c_root is the chord length at the wing root, k is the taper ratio, and b is the
wingspan.
The local twist angle (β) can be expressed as a function of spanwise location:

β(y) = β_root + (β_tip - β_root) * (y / b)

where β_root is the twist angle at the wing root, β_tip is the twist angle at the
wingtip, and y is the spanwise location.

By considering the varying chord length and twist angle, the lift distribution along
the span of the taper twisted wing can be determined using the lifting line theory
and the lift equation mentioned above.

Why not all aircraft have high aspect ratio?

1. Structural Considerations: High aspect ratio wings tend to be longer and

narrower, which can result in increased structural complexity and weight.
For smaller aircraft or aircraft with specific design requirements (such as
maneuverability or load-carrying capability), lower aspect ratio wings may
be preferred to ensure structural integrity.
2. Aerodynamic Considerations: High aspect ratio wings are more prone to
bending and twisting due to aerodynamic forces. This can lead to increased
flexibility and potential loss of control effectiveness, particularly at higher
speeds or in turbulent conditions. Lower aspect ratio wings provide better
structural stability and resistance to aerodynamic loads.
3. Operational Considerations: The operating environment and mission
requirements of the aircraft can influence the choice of aspect ratio. For
example, aircraft operating in confined spaces or with short takeoff and
landing requirements may benefit from lower aspect ratio wings that offer
better maneuverability and lower stalling speeds.
4. Aspect Ratio Formula: The aspect ratio (AR) of a wing is calculated as the
ratio of the wingspan (b) to the average chord length (c). The formula for
aspect ratio is:

AR = b / c
where AR is the aspect ratio, b is the wingspan, and c is the average chord length.

Applying Bio-Savart law to a straight vortex filament of semi infinite length,

Calculate the Induce velocity

The Biot-Savart law describes the relationship between a current-carrying filament

and the magnetic field it generates. In aerodynamics, the Biot-Savart law is used to
calculate the induced velocity caused by a vortex filament. When applied to a
straight vortex filament of semi-infinite length, the induced velocity at a point can
be calculated using the following formula:

v = (Γ / (4 * π)) * (1 / r)

where:

 v is the induced velocity at the point,

 Γ is the strength of the vortex filament (circulation),
 π is the mathematical constant pi (approximately 3.14159),
 r is the distance between the point and the vortex filament.

To calculate the zero lift angle of attack and coefficient of induced drag, we need to integrate the
circulation distribution along the wing span. Given the circulation distribution as:
Γ(y) = (2y/b) - (2/b)

where y represents the spanwise location and b is the wingspan, we can proceed with the
calculations:

1. Zero Lift Angle of Attack (α0): The zero lift angle of attack occurs when the lift
coefficient (Cl) is zero. We can find this angle by integrating the circulation distribution
and setting the result equal to zero.

∫(2y/b - 2/b) dy = 0

Integration of the first term gives: (y^2 / b) Integration of the second term gives: (2y / b)

Setting the overall integral equal to zero:

(y^2 / b) - (2y / b) = 0

Simplifying the equation:

y^2 - 2y = 0

Factoring out y:

y(y - 2) = 0

This equation has two solutions: y = 0 and y = 2.

Therefore, the zero lift angle of attack occurs at the spanwise locations y = 0 and y = 2.

2. Coefficient of Induced Drag (CDi): The coefficient of induced drag (CDi) can be
calculated using the following formula:

CDi = (Cl^2) / (π * AR)

where Cl is the lift coefficient and AR is the aspect ratio of the wing.

Since we are looking for the coefficient of induced drag at zero lift, Cl is zero.

CDi = (0^2) / (π * AR) = 0

Hence, the coefficient of induced drag at zero lift is zero.

What do you mean by vortex? How lifting effect of wing is represented by

vortex line
A vortex is a region of fluid flow characterized by swirling motion or a circulating
pattern. In aerodynamics, vortices play a crucial role in understanding the
generation of lift on a wing.

When an aircraft wing generates lift, it does so by creating a circulation of air

around it. This circulation can be represented by a theoretical line called a vortex
line. The vortex line represents the circulation of air around the wing and helps
explain the lifting effect.

The lifting effect of a wing can be represented by a vortex line using the concept of
the Kutta-Joukowski theorem. According to this theorem, the lift generated by a
wing is directly proportional to the strength of the bound vortex associated with the
wing.

The formula for the lift (L) generated by a wing can be expressed as:

L = ρ * V∞ * Γ
where:

 ρ is the air density,

 V∞ is the freestream velocity of the air,
 Γ is the strength of the bound vortex associated with the wing.

The strength of the bound vortex (Γ) can be determined by integrating the
circulation distribution along the wing span. The circulation distribution represents
the distribution of vorticity or circulation around the wing.

The vortex line concept helps us understand how the circulation of air around the
wing generates lift. It represents the flow pattern and the swirling motion of the air
particles associated with the wing's lifting effect.

Consider a vortex filament of strength ( G ) in the shape of closed circular loop

of radius R. Obtain an expression for the velocity induced at the centre of the
loop in terms of G and R.

Consider a circular vortex loop with a radius R and a strength of circulation Γ. The
circulation Γ represents the total circulation around the loop.

To calculate the velocity induced at the center of the loop, we can use the Biot-
Savart law. The Biot-Savart law states that the velocity induced at a point in a fluid
by an infinitesimally small section of a vortex filament is directly proportional to
the strength of the circulation and inversely proportional to the distance between
the point and the filament.

In the case of a circular vortex loop, we can approximate it as a series of

infinitesimally small vortex filaments forming a closed loop. Each infinitesimal
filament has a small circulation element dΓ.

To find the velocity induced at the center of the loop, we need to integrate the
contributions from all the infinitesimal vortex filaments around the loop.
The velocity induced at the center of the loop (v) can be calculated using the
following integral:

v = (1 / (4 * π)) * ∫ (dΓ / r)

where the integral is taken over the entire loop, and r represents the distance
between the infinitesimal filament and the center of the loop.

Since we have a circular loop with a constant radius R, the distance (r) between
any point on the loop and the center of the loop is always equal to R.

Substituting the values into the integral, we get:

v = (1 / (4 * π)) * ∫ (dΓ / R)

As the loop is closed, the total circulation Γ is constant around the loop. Hence, we
can replace dΓ with Γ in the integral:

v = (1 / (4 * π)) * ∫ (Γ / R) = (1 / (4 * π * R)) * ∫ dΓ

The integral of dΓ over the entire loop simply gives the total circulation Γ:

v = (1 / (4 * π * R)) * Γ

Thus, the expression for the velocity induced at the center of the circular vortex
loop is:

v = (Γ / (4 * π * R))
This expression shows that the induced velocity at the center of the loop is directly
proportional to the circulation strength Γ and inversely proportional to the radius of
the loop R.

Applying Bio -Savart Law to a straight vortex filament of semi -infinite

length, calculate the induced velocity

The Biot-Savart law states that the velocity induced at a point in a fluid by an infinitesimally
small section of a vortex filament is directly proportional to the strength of the circulation and
inversely proportional to the distance between the point and the filament.

Consider a straight vortex filament of semi-infinite length aligned along the z-axis. We want to
calculate the induced velocity at a point located at coordinates (x, y, z) in a three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system.

We assume that the vortex filament extends from z = 0 to z = +∞, and its circulation strength per
unit length is denoted by Γ.

To calculate the induced velocity at the point (x, y, z), we divide the vortex filament into
infinitesimally small sections. Each section has a length element ds and a circulation element dΓ.

The velocity induced at the point (x, y, z) by an infinitesimal section of the vortex filament can
be given by the Biot-Savart law as:

dV = (dΓ / (4 * π)) * (ds / r)

where:

 dV is the infinitesimal induced velocity at the point (x, y, z),

  dΓ is the circulation element of the infinitesimal section,
 π is the mathematical constant pi (approximately 3.14159),
 ds is the infinitesimal length element of the vortex filament,
 r is the distance between the infinitesimal section and the point (x, y, z).

Now, to find the total induced velocity at the point (x, y, z), we need to integrate the
contributions from all infinitesimal sections of the vortex filament. Since the vortex filament is
semi-infinite, the integration will be performed from z = 0 to z = +∞.

The induced velocity at the point (x, y, z) can be obtained by integrating the expression for dV
over the length of the vortex filament:

V = ∫[(dΓ / (4 * π)) * (ds / r)]

Since the filament is straight and semi-infinite, the length element ds can be expressed as ds =
dz.

The distance r between the infinitesimal section and the point (x, y, z) can be calculated using the
distance formula:

r = √((x - 0)^2 + (y - 0)^2 + (z - z)^2) = √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)

Substituting ds = dz and r = √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2) into the integral, we get:

V = ∫[(dΓ / (4 * π)) * (dz / √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2))]

Now, integrating over the semi-infinite length of the vortex filament, we have:

V = ∫[dΓ / (4 * π * √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2))]

The limits of integration are from z = 0 to z = +∞.

Evaluating the integral, we get the induced velocity at the point (x, y, z) due to the semi-infinite
straight vortex filament:

V = (Γ / (4 * π * √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2))) [evaluated from z = 0 to z = +∞]

Since the vortex filament is semi-infinite, the contribution to the induced velocity at the point (x,
y, z) from z = +∞ is negligible. Therefore, we can approximate the induced velocity as:

V = (Γ / (4 * π * √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)))

This formula represents the induced velocity at the point (x, y, z) due to the straight vortex
filament of semi-infinite length. It shows that the induced velocity is directly proportional to the
circulation strength Γ and inversely proportional to the distance between the point and the vortex
filament.

Explain in brief the effect of twist for a given wing platform with neat and
well labelled diagram
The effect of twist on a wing refers to the variation in the angle of attack along the
wing span. Twist can be defined as the change in the geometric angle of attack
from the root to the tip of the wing. It is a design feature that helps optimize the
aerodynamic performance of the wing.

The primary purpose of twist is to improve the lift distribution across the span of
the wing. By varying the angle of attack along the span, twist helps achieve a more
uniform lift distribution. This is important because an uneven lift distribution can
lead to undesirable effects such as increased drag, decreased maneuverability, and
reduced stability.

Here is a brief explanation of the effect of twist on a wing:

1. Aerodynamic Twist: Aerodynamic twist refers to the variation in the

effective angle of attack along the span of the wing. It is achieved by
changing the wing's twist angle or twist distribution.
 2. Lift Distribution: A wing with uniform twist has a more evenly distributed
lift. This means that different sections of the wing generate lift
proportionally, resulting in better overall performance.
3. Center of Pressure: Twist helps to position the center of pressure (CP) closer
to the center of gravity (CG) of the aircraft. This improves the aircraft's
stability and reduces the likelihood of stalling.
4. Stall Characteristics: Twist can also affect the stall characteristics of the
wing. By carefully designing the twist distribution, the root section of the
wing can stall later than the tip section. This provides a warning before the
wing reaches its critical angle of attack, improving the aircraft's
controllability.
5. Roll Control: Twist can impact the roll control of the aircraft. With
appropriate twist, the wing can provide more lift at the tip, resulting in
improved roll response and maneuverability.

Unfortunately, as a text-based AI model, I'm unable to provide visual diagrams.

However, you can easily find well-labeled diagrams and illustrations of wing twist
effects through online resources, textbooks, or aircraft design references.

The formula for calculating the angle of attack at any given spanwise position on
the wing due to twist is:

α = α0 + ∆α

Where:

 α is the effective angle of attack at the given spanwise position,

 α0 is the zero-lift angle of attack at the wing root (geometric angle of
attack),
 ∆α is the change in angle of attack due to the twist.

The actual formula to calculate the specific twist distribution and its effect on lift
distribution is more complex and involves considering the wing's airfoil
characteristics, spanwise lift distribution, and other factors.
What do you mean by Horse - Shoe vortex? How the wing can be replaced by
the horse - shoe vortex?
The Horse Shoe vortex is a conceptual model used to represent the flow pattern
around a wing. It is an approximation that simplifies the complex flow phenomena
into a more manageable representation. The concept of the Horse Shoe vortex is
based on the observation that vortices are shed at the wingtips, creating a flow
pattern resembling the shape of a horse shoe.

The Horse Shoe vortex model assumes that the flow around a wing can be
represented by a set of vortices. These vortices include a bound vortex along the
wing's span and two trailing vortices, one shed from each wingtip. The bound
vortex is formed due to the circulation around the wing, while the trailing vortices
are formed as the wing generates lift.

To replace the wing with the Horse Shoe vortex model, the bound vortex is placed
along the span of the wing, and the trailing vortices are positioned at the wingtips.
The bound vortex starts at the wing's leading edge, extends along the span, and
loops around the trailing edge to complete the "horseshoe" shape. The trailing
vortices originate from the wingtips and extend downstream.

This conceptual model simplifies the flow representation and allows for the
analysis of various aerodynamic properties and phenomena. It can be used to
estimate parameters such as lift, induced drag, downwash, and spanwise flow.

Mathematically, the Horse Shoe vortex model can be described using various
formulas and equations. Some of the key relationships include:

1. Circulation (Γ): The circulation around the wing is related to the lift
generated. The circulation can be calculated using the formula:
Γ = ∫(V · dl)
where Γ is the circulation, V is the velocity vector, and dl is the infinitesimal
length element along the wing span.
2. Downwash (w): The downwash is the vertical component of the induced
velocity caused by the circulation. It can be determined using the formula:
 w = (Γ / (2 * b))
where w is the downwash, Γ is the circulation, and b is the wingspan.
3. Induced Drag (Di): The induced drag is a result of the lift generation and is
related to the circulation and downwash. It can be calculated using the
formula:
Di = (Γ^2 / (ρ * V^2 * b))
where Di is the induced drag, Γ is the circulation, ρ is the air density, V is
the freestream velocity, and b is the wingspan.

For a straight vortex filament (from + ¥ to – ¥ ) calculate the induced

velocity.

Consider a straight vortex filament with a circulation strength Γ per unit length.
We want to find the induced velocity at a point P located at coordinates (x, y, z) in
a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

The Biot-Savart law states that the infinitesimal induced velocity at point P, dV,
due to an infinitesimal section of the vortex filament, can be calculated using the
following formula:

dV = (Γ / (4 * π)) * (ds / r)

where:

 dV is the infinitesimal induced velocity at point P,

 Γ is the circulation strength per unit length of the vortex filament,
 π is the mathematical constant pi (approximately 3.14159),
  ds is the infinitesimal length element of the vortex filament, and
 r is the distance between the infinitesimal section and point P.

Now, to find the total induced velocity at point P due to the entire vortex filament,
we need to integrate the contributions from all infinitesimal sections of the
filament.

Since the vortex filament extends from positive infinity to negative infinity, we
consider the entire length of the filament in the integration.

The induced velocity at point P can be obtained by integrating the expression for
dV over the entire length of the vortex filament:

V = ∫[(Γ / (4 * π)) * (ds / r)]

To simplify the integration, we assume that the vortex filament has a constant
circulation strength Γ per unit length along its entire length.

Integrating the expression, we get:

V = (Γ / (4 * π)) * ∫[(ds / r)]

The integration is performed over the entire length of the vortex filament.

Since the vortex filament is straight and extends from positive infinity to negative
infinity, the distance r between the infinitesimal section and point P can be
calculated using the distance formula:

r = √((x - 0)^2 + (y - 0)^2 + (z - z)^2) = √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)

Substituting ds = dz and r = √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2) into the integral, we get:

V = (Γ / (4 * π)) * ∫[(dz / √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2))]

The limits of integration are from z = -∞ to z = +∞.

Evaluating the integral, we obtain the induced velocity at point P due to the straight
vortex filament:

V = (Γ / (4 * π)) * ln[(√(x^2 + y^2 + z^2) + z) / √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)]

This formula represents the induced velocity at point P due to the straight vortex
filament extending from positive infinity to negative infinity. It demonstrates that
the induced velocity is directly proportional to the circulation strength Γ and
depends on the distance between the point and the vortex filament.

UNIT 3

Compare between high and low aspect ratio wings.

1. Lift-to-Drag Ratio: High aspect ratio wings generally have a higher lift-to-
drag ratio compared to low aspect ratio wings. This means that high aspect
ratio wings produce more lift relative to the drag they generate, resulting in
improved efficiency.
2. Lift Distribution: High aspect ratio wings tend to produce a more evenly
distributed lift along the span. This is because the longer wingspan allows
for a larger wing area and reduced wingtip vortices, resulting in a smoother
and more uniform lift distribution.
3. Induced Drag: High aspect ratio wings generate less induced drag compared
to low aspect ratio wings. Induced drag is caused by the creation of wingtip
vortices, and with a longer wingspan, the size and strength of these vortices
are reduced, leading to lower induced drag.
 4. Span Efficiency: High aspect ratio wings are more efficient in terms of their
span efficiency. Span efficiency is a measure of how effectively the wing
converts lift force into induced drag. High aspect ratio wings typically have
higher span efficiencies due to reduced wingtip vortices and less energy loss.
5. Maneuverability: Low aspect ratio wings offer better maneuverability
compared to high aspect ratio wings. The shorter wingspan allows for
quicker roll rates and better response to control inputs, making them suitable
for agile aircraft such as fighter jets.
6. Structural Considerations: High aspect ratio wings require a lighter and more
structurally efficient design. The longer wingspan distributes the
aerodynamic forces over a larger area, reducing the structural stress on the
wing. This can result in weight savings and improved structural
performance.

Formula: The aspect ratio (AR) of a wing can be calculated using the following
formula:

AR = Wingspan / Average Chord Length

Where:

 Wingspan is the total distance from one wingtip to the other.

 Average Chord Length is the average distance from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the wing.

The induced drag (Di) of a wing can be estimated using the following formula:

Di = (Cl^2 / (π * AR * e))

Where:

 Cl is the lift coefficient of the wing.

 AR is the aspect ratio of the wing.
  e is the Oswald efficiency factor, which represents the wing's efficiency in
terms of induced drag.

Explain the lift characteristics of a complete aircraft?

1. Lift Equation: The lift force generated by an aircraft can be calculated using
the lift equation:
L = 0.5 * ρ * V^2 * S * Cl
Where:
 L is the lift force
 ρ is the air density
 V is the velocity of the aircraft
 S is the wing surface area
 Cl is the lift coefficient
2. Lift Coefficient (Cl): The lift coefficient is a dimensionless parameter that
represents the efficiency of the wing in generating lift. It is determined by
the wing's shape, angle of attack, airfoil characteristics, and other factors.
The lift coefficient can be expressed as:
Cl = L / (0.5 * ρ * V^2 * S)
It relates the lift force to the dynamic pressure of the airflow and the wing
surface area.
3. Angle of Attack (AoA): The angle of attack is the angle between the chord
line of the wing and the direction of the oncoming airflow. It plays a crucial
role in determining the lift characteristics of an aircraft. As the angle of
attack increases, the lift coefficient initially increases up to a maximum
value (Clmax), after which it starts to decrease.
4. Lift Curve: The lift coefficient varies with the angle of attack and follows a
lift curve. The lift curve provides a graphical representation of the
relationship between the lift coefficient and the angle of attack. It typically
exhibits a linear region of positive slope followed by a region of diminishing
returns.
5. Stall: When the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack (AoAcr),
the airflow over the wing becomes separated, leading to a sudden decrease in
lift and an increase in drag. This phenomenon is known as a stall. The
 critical angle of attack is typically higher than the angle of attack at which
the maximum lift coefficient occurs.
6. Maximum Lift Coefficient (Clmax): The maximum lift coefficient
represents the highest value of the lift coefficient that can be achieved before
the wing stalls. It is an important parameter that determines the aircraft's
ability to generate lift at high angles of attack.
7. Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D): The lift-to-drag ratio is a measure of the efficiency
of an aircraft in terms of producing lift while minimizing drag. It is
calculated by dividing the lift force by the drag force. A higher lift-to-drag
ratio indicates a more efficient aircraft design.
8. Ground Effect: When an aircraft is flying close to the ground, the ground
effect can significantly affect the lift characteristics. The ground effect refers
to the increased lift and reduced drag experienced by the aircraft due to the
presence of the ground surface. This effect can enhance the aircraft's
performance and stability.
9. Influence of Configuration: The lift characteristics of a complete aircraft are
influenced not only by the wing design but also by other components such as
the fuselage, tail, and control surfaces. These elements contribute to the
overall lift generation and affect the aircraft's stability and control.
10.Nonlinearities: It's important to note that the lift characteristics of a complete
aircraft can exhibit nonlinear behavior. Factors such as flow separation,
vortex formation, and three-dimensional effects can introduce complexities
that may deviate from ideal lift predictions based solely on airfoil
characteristics.

Solve Integro-differential equation and derive the expression for the

coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag for general wing.
1. Lift Coefficient (Cl): The lift coefficient is derived by dividing the lift force
by the dynamic pressure (q) and the reference area (S) of the wing. It can be
expressed as:

Cl = Lift / (0.5 * q * S)
The lift force can be determined using the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, which relates
the lift to the circulation (Γ) and the freestream velocity (V). The formula for the
lift force is:

Lift = ρ * V * Γ

Where:

 ρ is the air density

 V is the freestream velocity
 Γ is the circulation
2. Drag Coefficient (Cd): The drag coefficient is derived by dividing the drag
force by the dynamic pressure (q) and the reference area (S) of the wing. It
can be expressed as:

Cd = Drag / (0.5 * q * S)

The drag force is the sum of the parasitic drag and the induced drag. The parasitic
drag can be further divided into the form drag and skin friction drag. The induced
drag is caused by the generation of lift and the resulting wingtip vortices.

The formulas for the different components of drag can vary depending on the
analysis method used, such as potential flow theory, computational fluid dynamics
(CFD), or wind tunnel testing. These methods involve solving the flow equations,
applying appropriate boundary conditions, and considering factors such as airfoil
shape, wing geometry, angle of attack, and Reynolds number.

Explain in brief drag characteristics of a complete aircraft

 Parasitic Drag:
o Form Drag: It is caused by the pressure difference between the
aircraft's frontal area and the surrounding airflow. The formula for
form drag is: Df = 0.5 * Cd_f * ρ * V^2 * Af Where:
 Df is the form drag
 Cd_f is the form drag coefficient
  ρ is the air density
 V is the velocity
 Af is the reference frontal area
o Skin Friction Drag: It is caused by the friction between the aircraft's
surface and the airflow. The formula for skin friction drag is: Dsf =
0.5 * Cd_sf * ρ * V^2 * S Where:
 Dsf is the skin friction drag
 Cd_sf is the skin friction drag coefficient
 ρ is the air density
 V is the velocity
 S is the reference surface area
 Induced Drag:
o Induced drag is generated due to the production of lift by the wings. It
is related to the wing's aspect ratio and the lift coefficient. The
formula for induced drag is: Di = 0.5 * Cd_i * ρ * V^2 * S Where:
 Di is the induced drag
 Cd_i is the induced drag coefficient
 ρ is the air density
 V is the velocity
 S is the wing reference area
o The induced drag is influenced by the lift coefficient (Cl), which can
be determined using the lift equation: Cl = L / (0.5 * ρ * V^2 * S)
Where:
 L is the lift force
 Total Drag:
o The total drag is the sum of the parasitic drag and the induced drag:
D_total = Df + Dsf + Di
 Drag Coefficient (Cd):
o The drag coefficient represents the ratio of the drag force to the
dynamic pressure and the reference area. It is derived as: Cd = D_total
/ (0.5 * ρ * V^2 * S)
o The drag coefficient can also be expressed in terms of the form drag
coefficient (Cd_f) and the skin friction drag coefficient (Cd_sf) as: Cd
= Cd_f + Cd_sf + Cd_i
Discuss flow past over slender bodies

Flow past slender bodies refers to the aerodynamic behavior of bodies that have a
high length-to-diameter ratio, such as cylinders, airfoils, and missiles. The flow
characteristics around slender bodies can be analyzed using various approaches,
including potential flow theory, boundary layer theory, and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD). Here are the key aspects of flow past slender bodies, along with
relevant formulas:

1. Potential Flow Theory:

 Potential flow theory assumes that the flow is irrotational and
inviscid, neglecting the effects of viscosity and turbulence.
 The flow around slender bodies can be represented using the potential
flow equations, such as the Laplace equation or the Euler equation.
 The potential flow theory provides a simplified representation of the
flow field and can be used to calculate important parameters like
pressure distribution and velocity field.
2. Boundary Layer Theory:
 Boundary layer theory considers the thin layer of fluid adjacent to the
body's surface, where the flow transitions from viscous to inviscid.
 The boundary layer thickness and its separation from the body's
surface affect the flow characteristics and the body's aerodynamic
performance.
 The boundary layer equations, such as the Navier-Stokes equations or
the boundary layer equations derived from them, can be solved to
analyze the flow behavior near the body's surface.
3. Drag and Lift Forces:
 The drag force acting on a slender body is mainly composed of two
components: pressure drag and skin friction drag.
 Pressure drag is caused by the difference in pressure between the front
and rear surfaces of the body. The drag force can be calculated using
the formula: Drag = 0.5 * Cd * ρ * V^2 * A Where:
 Cd is the drag coefficient
 ρ is the air density
 V is the velocity
 A is the reference area
  The lift force acting on an airfoil or slender body is generated due to
the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces. The lift
force can be calculated using the formula: Lift = 0.5 * Cl * ρ * V^2 *
A Where:
 Cl is the lift coefficient
4. Flow Separation:
 Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer detaches from the
body's surface, leading to a loss of lift and an increase in drag.
 The occurrence of flow separation depends on factors such as the
body's shape, angle of attack, and Reynolds number.
 Flow separation can be mitigated by optimizing the body's shape,
using flow control devices, or adjusting the angle of attack.
5. Vortex Shedding:
 Vortex shedding is a phenomenon that occurs when a fluid flow past a
slender body generates vortices that alternate on each side of the body.
 Vortex shedding can cause oscillations, known as von Kármán vortex
shedding, and can have significant effects on the body's stability and
drag.

Explain in brief jones theory.

The key principles of the Jones Classical Aerodynamic Theory are as follows:

1. Thin Airfoil Assumption: The theory assumes that the airfoil is thin,
meaning the thickness of the airfoil is small compared to its chord length.
2. Zero Camber Line: The camber line of the airfoil is assumed to be
symmetric, resulting in zero camber.
3. Linear Lift Distribution: The theory assumes a linear variation of lift
coefficient along the span of the airfoil.

Based on these assumptions, the Jones Classical Aerodynamic Theory provides a

simplified way to estimate the lift and drag characteristics of airfoils at low angles
of attack. Here are the main formulas and relationships used in the theory:
 1. Lift Coefficient (Cl): The lift coefficient is given by: Cl = 2πα Where:
 Cl is the lift coefficient
 α is the angle of attack
2. Lift Slope (dCl/dα): The lift slope represents the change in lift coefficient
with respect to the angle of attack and is constant for airfoils analyzed using
the Jones theory. It is equal to: dCl/dα = 2π
3. Drag Coefficient (Cd): The drag coefficient is calculated using the following
formula: Cd = Cd0 + (Cl^2 / πAR) Where:
 Cd is the drag coefficient
 Cd0 is the airfoil's zero-lift drag coefficient
 Cl is the lift coefficient
 AR is the aspect ratio of the airfoil (span^2 / reference area)

Why strakes are important for an aircraft? Discuss the types of strakes
Strakes, also known as vortex generators, are small aerodynamic surfaces typically
attached to the wings, fuselage, or vertical stabilizer of an aircraft. They serve
various purposes and provide important benefits to the aircraft's performance and
handling. Here's why strakes are important and an overview of the types of strakes:

Importance of Strakes:

1. Flow Control: Strakes are primarily used to enhance flow control over the
aircraft surfaces. They help in maintaining attached airflow, especially
during low-speed and high angle-of-attack conditions, reducing the risk of
flow separation and improving overall aerodynamic performance.
2. Stall Prevention: By generating small vortices or controlling the flow
patterns, strakes help delay or prevent the onset of a wing stall. They
enhance the effectiveness of control surfaces, such as ailerons and elevators,
improving the aircraft's handling and control characteristics.
3. Increased Lift: Strakes can increase the lift generated by the wings by
energizing the boundary layer and promoting better airflow attachment. This
is particularly beneficial during takeoff, landing, and low-speed maneuvers.
 4. Improved Control Authority: Strakes can enhance the control authority of
the aircraft, especially during high-angle-of-attack and low-speed flight
regimes. They provide additional aerodynamic forces and moments, making
the aircraft more responsive to pilot inputs.
5. Reduced Buffeting and Vibration: Strakes can help reduce aerodynamic
buffeting and vibration experienced by the aircraft, improving passenger
comfort and reducing structural fatigue.

Types of Strakes:

1. Forebody Strakes: These strakes are typically located on the fuselage ahead
of the wings. They help improve the flow attachment over the wing and
enhance the aircraft's stability and control characteristics.
2. Wing Strakes: Wing-mounted strakes are attached along the leading edge or
the upper surface of the wings. They control the airflow and improve the
wing's performance during high angles of attack, reducing the risk of stall.
3. Vertical Stabilizer Strakes: These strakes are installed on the vertical
stabilizer or the fin of the aircraft. They help improve the stability and
control of the aircraft, especially during yawing maneuvers or crosswind
conditions.
4. Inlet Strakes: Inlet strakes are located near the air intakes of jet engines.
They help control the airflow and reduce the risk of inlet distortion or
separation, improving the engine performance and efficiency.

Enlight the function of winglet. How if affect the aerodynamic performance.

Winglets are aerodynamic devices attached to the tips of aircraft wings. They serve
several functions and have a significant impact on the aerodynamic performance of
the aircraft. Here's an explanation of the function of winglets and their effect on
aerodynamics, along with a formula that quantifies their impact:

Function of Winglets:

1. Reduction of Induced Drag: One of the primary functions of winglets is to

reduce the induced drag of an aircraft. Induced drag is generated due to the
creation of wingtip vortices, which result from the pressure difference
 between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. Winglets help mitigate
the formation of these vortices, reducing the induced drag.
2. Improved Lift-to-Drag Ratio: By reducing induced drag, winglets enhance
the lift-to-drag ratio of the aircraft. This means that the aircraft can generate
more lift with less drag, resulting in improved fuel efficiency and range.
3. Enhanced Stability and Control: Winglets contribute to the lateral stability of
the aircraft, particularly during crosswind conditions. They help improve the
roll damping and overall control response, making the aircraft more stable
and easier to handle.

Effect on Aerodynamic Performance:

The effect of winglets on the aerodynamic performance of an aircraft can be

quantified using a formula known as the Winglet Efficiency Factor (η):

η = 1 - (Cd_winglet / Cd_no-winglet) Where:

 η is the Winglet Efficiency Factor

 Cd_winglet is the drag coefficient of the wing with winglets
 Cd_no-winglet is the drag coefficient of the wing without winglets

The Winglet Efficiency Factor provides a measure of the drag reduction achieved
by the winglets. A higher η value indicates a greater reduction in drag and
improved aerodynamic performance.

How swept back wing configuration affect aerodynamic performance of an

aircraft?
The swept-back wing configuration refers to the design in which the wings are
angled backward from the root to the tip. This wing configuration has a significant
impact on the aerodynamic performance of an aircraft. Here's an explanation of
how a swept-back wing affects aerodynamics, along with a formula that relates the
sweep angle to the critical Mach number:
 1. Drag Reduction: The swept-back wing configuration helps reduce drag,
particularly at high speeds. The angled wings cause the airflow to be
deflected inwards towards the fuselage, reducing the wave drag that occurs
as the aircraft approaches the speed of sound. This reduction in drag allows
the aircraft to achieve higher speeds more efficiently.
2. Delay of Flow Separation: The sweep angle of the wings helps delay flow
separation. As the aircraft's speed increases, the airflow over the wings tends
to separate, leading to a decrease in lift and an increase in drag. The swept-
back wing configuration helps delay this separation, allowing the aircraft to
maintain lift and minimize drag at higher speeds.
3. Improved Transonic Performance: The swept-back wings are beneficial in
the transonic speed range, which is close to the speed of sound. In this
regime, shock waves can form on the wings, causing adverse aerodynamic
effects. The sweep angle helps reduce the intensity of these shock waves,
resulting in improved aerodynamic performance and reduced drag.

The formula that relates the sweep angle (Λ) to the critical Mach number (Mcrit) is
given by the empirical rule known as the NACA rule:

Mcrit = 0.9 / cos(Λ) Where:

 Mcrit is the critical Mach number

 Λ is the sweep angle of the wing

This formula provides an estimation of the critical Mach number at which the
airflow over the wings becomes compressible and shock waves start to form. It
indicates that as the sweep angle increases, the critical Mach number also
increases, allowing the aircraft to operate at higher speeds before experiencing
adverse compressibility effects.