Project #077-DP SCAA The Brewing HB-Eng FINAL

THE COFFEE BREWING HANDBOOK
A Systematic Guide to Coffee Preparation
By
Ted R. Lingle
Second Edition
Specialty Coffee Association of America

Long Beach, California
Founded in 1982, the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) is the world’s largest
non-profit trade association representing the coffee industry. With more than 2,000 member
companies from the United States and nations throughout the world, SCAA’s mission is to
foster coffee excellence and consumption through education and information exchange. This
mission is undertaken both for and with the help of the Association’s membership, including
coffee growers, exporters, importers, roasters, and retailers, as well as food-service professionals
and representatives of allied industries.
Copyright © 2011 by Specialty Coffee Association of America
ISBN 1-882552-02-4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Chapter 1: Essentials of Good Brewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2: Analysis of the Finished Brew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Chapter 3: Coffee Brewing Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 4: The Brewing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 5: Grind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 6: Time, Temperature, and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 7: Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Chapter 8: Filtering Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Appendix A: Relationship of Coffee Bed Depth to Volume of Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Appendix B: Quality Aspects of Paper Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 9: Holding and Serving Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 10: Selection of Brewing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Ted R. Lingle was born and raised in Southern In 1991, Mr. Lingle was appointed Executive Director
California. He graduated from the United States Military of the Specialty Coffee Association of America. As the
Academy in 1966, receiving a Bachelor of Science degree. first full-time staff member of SCAA, he helped guide the
He completed four years on active duty in the U.S. Army, Association’s activities during its remarkable growth from
serving in both Germany and Vietnam. In 1978 he 350 members in 1991 to over 2,400 members in 1995.
received a Masters degree in Business Administration During this period the Association established a number
from Woodbury University in Los Angeles. of technical standards that advance quality guidelines in
During the first twenty years of his coffee career, Mr. all facets of coffee, from seed to cup.
Lingle was Vice President of Marketing for Lingle Bros. In 1995, Mr. Lingle wrote the Coffee Brewing Handbook
Coffee, Inc., a business started by his grandfather in to promote excellence in beverage preparation. This work
1920 in Los Angeles. During this period he directed the is a compendium of the various scientific studies on coffee
company’s sales programs for the food service, office coffee brewing conducted by the coffee industry during the past
service, and specialty coffee market segments. His principle fifty years, beginning with the important research of Dr.
responsibilities included establishing quality standards for Ernest Lockhart, who served as the Scientific Director for
the company’s products and conducting training programs the Coffee Brewing Center from 1952 to 1964. The book
for both company personnel and customers. In addition, focuses on the science that supports the industry’s standards
Mr. Lingle represented the company on various coffee and recommendations for good brewing practices.
industry boards and committees. In 1998 he was awarded the National Medal of Merit
Mr. Lingle served as a member of the National Coffee by the Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia for his
Association’s Out-of-Home Market Committee from 1974 to scientific efforts to improve quality. In 2004 he was
1990. He served on the Board of Directors of the National awarded the Oren Flor del Café award from the National
Coffee Service Association and was elected an honorary Association of Coffee Growers of Guatemala for his work in
member in 1990. He was one of the founding Co-Chairmen promoting sales of coffee based on denomination of origin.
of the Specialty Coffee Association of America. In 2007, he was awarded the Bwana Kahawa Lifetime
In 1975, Mr. Lingle pioneered the development of the Achievement award by the Eastern Africa Fine Coffee
coffee Conductivity Meter, an electronic instrument used for Association for his efforts to assist the coffee growers in
the measurement of soluble solids in the coffee beverage. East Africa increase the value and volume of coffee sales
This was the first new method for assessing beverage to the specialty coffee industry. In 2009, he was given
quality since the coffee hydrometer, which was created the Lifetime Achievement Award by the Specialty Coffee
in 1955. In designing the coffee Conductivity Meter, Mr. Association of America.
Lingle conducted extensive studies that developed the data In 2006 after 15 years of service to SCAA, Mr. Lingle
base relating conductivity to brew strength and to beverage retired from his position as Executive Director of SCAA to
temperature that allowed for electronic calibration of the become the new Executive Director of the Coffee Quality
instrument. Institute (CQI), a non-profit foundation established by
Mr. Lingle played a key role in the formation and growth SCAA in 1996.
of the Coffee Development Group (CDG), a U.S. agency
of the International Coffee Organization. He was the first
chairman of both the Foodservice Education Task Force
and the College Campus Task Force. He served on CDG’s
Board of Directors and as its Chairman in 1985-86.
In 1985, Mr. Lingle wrote the Coffee Cupper’s Handbook
to explain the science and chemistry behind the techniques
used in coffee cupping. Coffee cupping is the traditional
means for professional coffee tasters to make sensory
evaluations of the coffee beans they select for their blends.
The Coffee Cupper’s Handbook deals with the basics of
flavor chemistry and how the aroma, taste, and body of
the coffee beverage relate to chemical make up, type and
intensity of the components, and temperature and cooling
of the various flavor compounds found in coffee.
i
FOREWORD INTRODUCTION
I wrote the Coffee Brewing Handbook as a companion The first organized, scientific study of the coffee
piece to the Coffee Cupper's Handbook. You don’t need to beverage in the United States began in 1952 with the
spend a lot of time at the cupping table to realize that most formation of the Coffee Brewing Institute Inc., an entity of
coffee brewers do not bring out the full potential of coffee’s both the National Coffee Association and the Pan American
flavor, particularly for truly fine specialty coffees. Coffee Bureau. Dr. E.E. Lockhart, a professor of food
Coffee brewing creates the illusion of being a simple science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, became
process. In fact, it is a very complex interaction of the institute’s first Scientific Director. From 1952 until
many variables, all of which must be tightly regulated 1964, Dr. Lockhart collected, organized, and interpreted
if the resulting brew is to become a delicious beverage. a wide range of scientific data on coffee. He conducted
This handbook presents the science behind the craft of some of the most advanced coffee research of the time, and
controlling the variables to achieve your desired result. his personal leadership brought science, agriculture, and
The Coffee Brewing Handbook represents the lessons industry together in understanding the complex nature of
learned over a 20-year period of identifying, understanding, coffee’s flavor.
and resolving coffee brewing problems encountered in the As Dr. Lockhart wrote in May 1957, “The acceptability
foodservices industry. It is based on the initial work of of this beverage, like that of all other products enjoying
Dr. E.E. Lockhart, compiled while he served as Scientific wide distribution, depends upon a harmonious interaction
Director of the Coffee Brewing Institute. It also draws of many factors which, taken together, comprise its history.
heavily on the research conducted by Michael Sivetz and A few of these factors are controlled by nature, but for the
presented in his book, Coffee Technology. most part, both agriculture and industry are responsible
Like most technical manuals, the handbook was greatly for acceptability. How well they are able to take care of
improved by the individuals who so generously reviewed their obligation can be directly related to the extent of their
the initial manuscript and made numerous important experience. As is well known, experience can be developed
and constructive criticisms. It would particularly like to through trial and error into an industrial art, or though
thank John Adinolfi, John Heuman, Michael Sivetz, and research rigorously organized into an industrial science.
Carl Staub for their assistance. I would also like to thank In the case of coffee, agriculture and industry
my editor, Sandy Sabo, for taking my often confusing and have fostered an art. Only recently, as the age of the
tangled technical jargon and turning it into readable and commodity is reckoned, have they recognized the need for
understandable prose. an organized scientific attack on the variety of unsolved
It has been said that the human mind creeps up on the problems with which they are confronted.”
secrets of Mother Nature through a series of small guesses, Dr. Lockhart was responsible for conducting most of the
which is sometimes known as the scientific method. I hope technical and scientific programs of the Coffee Brewing
you well enjoy using the Coffee Brewing Handbook as your Institute and publishing the results. He also developed
guide in attempting to unravel the mystery and science of the concept of relating the intensity of coffee’s flavor, the
coffee brewing. solubles concentration, to its acceptability. With a few
simple analytical tools of physical chemistry, he was able to
Ted R. Lingle develop a model for acceptability that remains valid today.
January 15, 1996 Virtually all of what the industry knew about its product
during the 1950s and early 1960s was the result of Dr.
Lockhart’s research.
It may not be entirely a coincidence that the highest
point of coffee consumption in the United States was
attained in 1962 during the peak of the Coffee Brewing
Institute’s influence. At the time, coffee was still regarded
as an inexpensive commodity and the entire industry was
focused on improving all aspects of its acceptability for the
consumer. Following the close of the Institute, the industry
began to shift its focus to meet the intense price competition
developing in the commercial trade; most scientific
research was refocused on maintaining acceptability while
using lower grades and obtaining higher yields.
ii
The Coffee Brewing Institute was dissolved in 1964 and Standardized package weights were also introduced into
immediately replaced by the Coffee Brewing Center, which the foodservice market. Additionally, the Center developed
was formed as a department of the Pan American Coffee a program for the approval of brewing equipment in both
Bureau. Dr. Lockhart left during this transition and was markets that resulted in significant increases in coffee
replaced by Kenneth Burgess. The Coffee Brewing Center consumption.
shifted its focus to the foodservice industry and developed From 1987 to 1991, the International Coffee
several programs that promoted good brewing practices Organization (ICO) in London managed CBC-Norway. The
in this segment of the industry, especially the Golden Technical Unit of the ICO confirmed and expanded much
Cup Award program. It also offered numerous training of the Center’s research and distributed it though other
programs for industry trade members and conducted ICO Centers in London, Washington, and Paris. Following
additional consumer research. The Coffee Brewing Center the collapse of the International Coffee Agreement in
employed a small field staff, and under the leadership of 1989, the ICO eventually closed all of its centers for lack
John Adinolfi, provided training and assistance to the of funding.
large number of regional roasters selling to the foodservice In January 1991, the board of the Norwegian Coffee
trade. In addition to its own programs and publications, Association initiated the re-establishment of the CBC.
the Center continued to reprint most of the Coffee Brewing Its important tasks now include approving preparation
Institute’s publications. equipment, developing and approving different degrees
The Center closed at the end of 1975. For those of us of grind, recommending correct brewing ratios, and
lucky enough to have attended its classes or obtained its providing ongoing support to the Norwegian coffee trade
printed pamphlets, the CBC’s work represented the total and equipment manufacturers to ensure they are able to
research material available to provide any scientific basis offer their consumers a product of high quality.
for understanding the complex inter-relationships of coffee For the most part, the recommendations of the Coffee
cupping, roasting, and brewing. Although the research had Brewing Center in the United States (while still in
become obsolete by the 1990s, some of it at least offered a operation), the Coffee Brewing Center in Norway, and
place to start. the Coffee Brewing Handbook are identical. While there
A reprieve from this serious lack of scientific information is a slight difference in converting from the metric to the
on coffee came from Michael Sivetz, a chemical engineer foot-pound system (for example, 200ºF is actually 93.3ºC,
who had an extensive background in all aspects of coffee while 94ºC is actually 201.2ºF), these differences are not
processing, thanks to a variety of job assignments that significant for the range of temperatures recommended for
included developing, engineering, and installing soluble coffee brewing as a general rule (195-205ºF versus 92-
processing plants in Central America for a number of 94ºC). However, standards for brewer evaluation are based
international companies. In 1963 he published Coffee on the metric system and are identical to those of the Nordic
Processing Technology, Volumes I and II, along with H. Brewing Center. Throughout the Coffee Brewing Handbook,
Elliott Foote. In 1979, together with Norman W. Desrosier, metric measurements appear in italics and are intended to
he published Coffee Technology. Both are excellent pieces be equivalent to the foot-pound system measurements, as
of work, and go a long way in adding to the initial research both are rounded to whole numbers.
of Dr. Lockhart. The Coffee Brewing Handbook deals with coffee brewing
In 1971 the Norwegian Coffee Association opened conditions found most often in drip filtration brewers. It
its own Coffee Brewing Center as part of the Norwegian does not address the differences encountered in pressurized
Committee for Coffee Information. Initially, the information infusion methods, such as espresso preparation. This
was aimed at the foodservice market, and a lot of work method of brewing creates a much more complex coffee
was directed toward improving the standard of coffee beverage that requires its own analysis and text.
preparation in this market segment. Many of the guidelines Coffee trade professionals who develop the skills to
issued by the Norwegian Coffee Brewing Center were based understand and utilize the science presented in The Coffee
on the original studies of Dr. Lockhart while at the Coffee Brewing Handbook will enhance their ability to provide
Brewing Institute. Many were later refined through further their customers with the very best products the coffee
testing and evaluation, particularly in the area of brewing industry has to offer. To effectively compete with the other
equipment evaluation. beverage industries in the 21st century, coffee industry
Like its U.S. counterpart, CBC-Norway worked with members must advance their understanding of both the
industry trade members to develop standardized degrees methods and the science of coffee brewing.
of grinding for both the foodservice and consumer markets.
iii
CHAPTER 1 maximum amount of material available is removed.
Consequently, for optimum results, the brewing process
ESSENTIALS OF GOOD BREWING must be stopped before the point of maximum extraction.
Although roasted coffee is purchased either in its
whole bean or ground form, it is consumed as a beverage. Six Essential Elements
Therefore, the quality of the coffee relates directly to one’s Here are the six elements necessary to transform roasted
ability to transform it into an enjoyable beverage. To make beans into a good-tasting beverage:
the beverage flavorful, the six essential elements of good
brewing practices must be observed. 1. Correct coffee-to-water ratio. The finished brew
is a balance between strength (solubles concentration)
Coffee begins this transformation as a green bean. The
and extraction (solubles yield). Shifting the balance
beans come from many growing regions around the world,
either way greatly affects the final product. For
each with its own distinctive flavor characteristics. Often
example, coffee is an extremely concentrated
the green beans are blended. The types of beans, and the
flavoring agent and must be diluted with water. The
proportion in which they are blended, largely determine the
most acceptable ranges of concentration fall between
flavor found in the beverage. The way beans are roasted-
1% and 1.5% coffee and between 99% and 98.5%
including the rate and length of heating-also plays a critical
water. Coffee strength less than 1% is too weak, and
role in determining the ultimate flavor of the brew.
coffee strength above 1.5% is too strong. The most
Before they can be brewed, however, the beans must be
acceptable ranges of yield lie between 18% and
ground into small particles that range in size from slightly
22%, with under-developed yields (those below 16%),
coarse to extremely fine. A specified portion of these coffee
creating flavors that are grassy to peanut-like, and
particles is then immersed in the predetermined portion of
over-extracted yields (those above 24%) resulting in
water. The size of the particles, the specific ratio of coffee
bitter and astringent flavors.
to water, the time the coffee is in contact with the water,
and the quality of brewing water all affect the flavor. It’s also possible to extract a large amount of
coffee flavoring material and dissolve it in a small
The Flavor of Coffee amount of water or, conversely, to extract a small
amount of material and dissolve it in a large volume
Coffee gets most of its flavor from the great variety of
of water. The brewing formula becomes the guide for
chemical compounds released when the ground particles
selecting proper coffee-to-water ratio to control both
make contact with water. Under normal circumstances, the
the solubles concentration and yield.
water extracts about 80% of the available water soluble,
flavoring compounds, which constitute the beverage’s 2. A coffee grind that matches the brewing time.
aroma, taste, body, and color. Together, these compounds Once the coffee brewing formula is established, the
create the sensory aspects of coffee’s flavor. method of brewing and the operation of the equipment
Coffee beverage flavors differ, not only because of come into play. To prevent under-development or over-
difference in blend and roast, but also because the extraction of the flavoring compounds, the correct
water removes each flavoring compounds significantly particle size (grind) of the coffee must be matched to
contributing to the perception of beverage flavor. The the brewing method and type of equipment used. As
compounds responsible for taste (which dissolve in the a general rule, longer brewing times should be paired
water) and for body (which don’t dissolve) are less easily with larger (coarser) particles, and shorter brewing
removed. Both sets of aromatic and taste compounds times should be paired with smaller (finer) particles.
contain many different chemical components, which 3. Proper operation of brewing equipment.
combine to produce different beverage flavors. Brewing equipment normally controls three
During brewing, the total amount of flavoring material variables:
in the beverage changes, as does the proportion of each • T
ime of contact between the coffee grounds
compound. In other words, the flavor changes continuously and water. It takes time for the coffee particles
as time elapses. As a general rule, the most flavorful to absorb the water, for the water to dissolve and
compounds are extracted first. The longer coffee particles extract the soluble material in the particles, and for
remain in contact with the water, the greater the quantity the dissolved material to migrate into the beverage.
of less-flavorful compounds released. Prolonged extraction Because water extracts different chemical
results in an unacceptable beverage flavor. The most compounds from ground coffee at different rates,
desirable mixture of flavor elements occurs before the the mixture of soluble materials in the beverage
1
changes continuously. Therefore, controlling the through the grounds. In this case, the time of
brewing time contributes to optimal extraction contact depends upon grind size, the temperature of
and produces uniform results. the water or extract, and the rate of recirculation.
• T
emperature of the water. Cold water doesn’t • D
rip filtration. As with percolation, the grounds
extract coffee as completely or as rapidly as hot are placed in a container that serves both as a
water. Water that ranges in temperature from brewing chamber and as a means of separating
195ºF to 205ºF (92ºC-96ºC) liberates the aromatic the grounds from the beverage. In this method,
materials more rapidly and permits proper however, the hot water flows through the coffee
extraction of other solubles within a reasonable only once. The extract drips from the brewing
time. As a general rule, the temperature should chamber into a pot or other beverage receiver. The
remain constant throughout the brewing cycle. time of contact depends principally upon the rate
• T
urbulence. As water passes through and over that water flows into the brewing chamber and the
the coffee grounds, it creates a mixing action known size of the grind. Other important factors include
as turbulence. Sufficient turbulence is necessary the water temperature, the chamber’s shape, and
to first wet the coffee particles and then to cause the type of filter.
the water to flow uniformly through them. Wetting • V
acuum filtration. This method, which uses a
allows the water to penetrate the particle fibers, two-chamber device, is a variation on the steeping
and a uniform flow allows the soluble material method. Steam pressure forces hot water from the
to dissolve. In addition, adequate turbulence lower chamber up through a filtering unit and
prevents the water that is in immediate contact into the upper chamber, which contains coffee.
with the coffee from becoming so saturated with Escaping vapor and stirring serve to agitate the
dissolved material that it can no longer remove coffee and water. When heat is removed after an
additional flavoring compounds. arbitrary length of time, steam condenses in the
4. Optimum brewing method. Using the same lower chamber and creates a vacuum. The vacuum
type of coffee in different brewing equipment will pulls the beverage down through the filter and into
create coffee beverages with different taste and body the lower chamber but leaves the grounds behind.
characteristics. The equipment’s design will use one The time of contact depends on how quickly a
of six basic methods to extract the flavoring materials vacuum forms, the properties of the filter unit, and
for the ground coffee: the particle size of the ground coffee.
• S
teeping. In this brewing method, coffee grounds • P
ressurized infusion. Pressurized water (between
in a container are mixed with hot water, left in 2 to 10 atmospheres of pressure) is forced through
contact with the water for a specified length of the coffee grounds, which are compacted into a small
time, and then separated from the extract or brew. cake in the brewing chamber. The combination of
The time of contact depends on the particle size, heat and the force of the water extracts soluble
the water temperature, how much the grounds flavoring materials, emulsifies insoluble oils, and
are agitated, and how quickly the grounds are suspends both ultra-fine bean fiber particles and gas
separated from the beverage. bubbles. This creates a beverage with an extremely
high solubles concentration. To produce a uniform
• D
ecoction. Loose coffee grounds are mixed in beverage with this method, rapid brewing times
a container with water that continues to boil for and extremely fine particle sizes are essential. The
an arbitrary length of time. Complete extraction brewing temperature, 190ºF-195ºF (88-92ºC) is
usually occurs during this preparation method, slightly lower than for other methods.
due to the elevated water temperature of 212ºF
(100ºC), and the extreme turbulence created by Most of these brewing methods will produce a
boiling water. quality coffee beverage; decoction and percolation
are the exceptions because over-extraction leads to
• P
ercolation. The ground coffee is placed in a undesirable tastes.
container that serves both as a brewing chamber
and as a means of separating the grounds from 5. Good-quality water. When preparing a coffee
the beverage. A pump moves the hot water to and beverage, water is just as important as the coffee.
through the coffee repeatedly. First the water, In fact, water represents more than 98% of the
followed by the beverage extract, recirculates beverage. Water that contains some minerals favors
2
the development of optimum beverage tastes. As a • W
oven wire screens. Compared to metal
rule, water containing 50-100 parts per million (3-6 plates, wire screens provide a greater number of
grains) of dissolved minerals will produce the best smaller holes in the filter barrier. The screens can
tasting beverage. The water should taste like fresh, be woven to hold back different amounts of the
good-quality drinking water, have no odor, and fine particles but, compared to perforated metal
contain no visible impurities. plates, offer only slightly better clarification of the
Water that’s very soft or very hard doesn’t yield beverage.
the most acceptable beverage and should be treated • C
loth. Either sewn into bags or shaped to cover
before being used for coffee brewing. For example, various forms, cloth can serve as a filtering
water filters can remove insoluble materials and medium. The type of cloth and weave determine its
sediments, and demineralization can remove excessive retentive capabilities. Very good beverage clarity
dissolved solids. Activated charcoal-or preliminary can be achieve with material having, at most, a
chlorination that’s followed by an activated charcoal weave of 64 x 60 threads per inch and a weight of
treatment-can take away odors. In many instances, 5.75 square yards per pound.
polyphosphate treatment of the water will prevent Before their first use, cloth filters require
scaling and corrosion of brewing equipment without soaking and rinsing in hot water. With ongoing
affecting beverage flavor. use, special procedures are necessary to prevent
Water softening treatment that substitutes sodium the filter from absorbing oils that later decompose
ions for dissolved minerals is not recommended and alter beverage flavor. Cloth filters should be
especially for water containing high concentrations stored in cold water after each use.
of bicarbonate solids. This treatment often increases • P
aper. Of the four types of filters, paper yields
alkalinity, which has an undesirable physical the clearest beverage. With paper, however, it is
effect on coffee’s taste. In addition, this method of difficult to establish ideal brewing conditions:
treatment will increase the coffee’s contact time with
Paper is weak and, without adequate support,
water, causing over-extraction of the grounds and
often resists the flow of beverage to such an
objectionable bitterness in the beverage.
extent that over-extraction occurs. Paper filters
6. An appropriate filtering medium. Unless should be strong enough to permit the use of wire
something separates the extract from the coffee supports that does not impede the flow of extract.
grounds, the resulting beverage will be murky and In addition, paper should not transfer any tastes to
difficult to drink. Filters, to varying degrees, clarify the brew or by itself impede the flow of extract.
the beverage by separating the insoluble material from
the brew. As a result, the filtering method directly A Successful Transformation
affects the body of the beverage-and indirectly affects Ultimately, the coffee beverage’s quality depends
the flavor of the beverage. on one’s ability to follow the steps outlined above. Even
Body, which contributes to flavor, is created in if one begins with one of the world’s finest coffees the
part by the insoluble materials that the water carries result may be a less-than-ideal beverage, if, for example,
into the finished brew. These insoluble materials an inappropriate brewing method or poor quality water is
(principally oils and small particles of bean fiber) used. A successful transformation from beans to beverage
create brew colloids, which trap soluble material and requires understanding – and adhering to – these six
gases that are later released on the palate. This time- essential elements of brewing.
delayed release of flavoring materials adds to the
overall enjoyment of the beverage.
Filters fall into four general categories:
• P
erforated metal plates. These plates have
holes that allow extract to leave the brewing
chamber yet hold back some of the fine particles in
the coffee grounds. The size and number of holes
vary but must relate to the size of the grind used in
the brewing equipment. Perforated plates provide
virtually no clarification of the beverage, enabling
most fine and very fine particles to pass through.
3
CHAPTER 2 2. Filter the sample through a coffee-type paper filter to
remove any insoluble sediments or fine grounds. (It
ANALYSIS OF THE FINISHED BREW may be necessary to filter to brew two or three times
When coffee is brewed, hot water removes most of to obtain a sediment-free solution.)
the water-soluble material in roast-and-ground coffee by
3. Using an analytical balance, weigh a small, clean, and
a process that combines dissolving and extracting. The
dry aluminum dish to the nearest tenth of a milligram.
water first penetrates the grounds, dissolves some of the
Transfer a small portion (exactly 10 milliliters) of the
chemical components it encounters, makes a solution of
clarified solution to the dish.
these materials, and then exits the grounds to produce
the familiar beverage or extract. Coffee contains many 4. Put the dish, with its contents, into a drying oven that
chemical compounds, and each one behaves differently. maintains a constant temperature of 221ºF to 230ºF
Depending on their chemical nature, some compounds (105ºC-110ºC). Let three hours elapse. During this
dissolve rapidly when they come into contact with water; period, the heat drives off all the water; only the non-
other dissolve slowly. volatile material that was extracted from the coffee
Measuring the solubles yield and concentration–how remains.
much soluble flavoring material is removed from the 5. When the drying period has ended, transfer the dish
grounds and how much is present in the beverage–relates to a desiccator – a small vessel, containing a drying
directly to organoleptic (sensory) studies of what constitutes agent that can be tightly sealed. In the desiccator, the
acceptable beverage flavor. In other words, measuring dish and the solids cool to room temperature without
solubles concentration and solubles yield focuses on the picking up moisture from the air. This requires 15
taste aspect of the beverage’s flavor, providing a means of minutes.
assessing cup quality. 6. Re-weigh the dish. The difference between the first
However, analyzing or objectively measuring the quality and second weighing represents the amount of soluble
of brewed coffee – or of any food or beverage product – solids in the brewed coffee expressed in grams per 10
often proves difficult. The Coffee Brewing Institute (CBI) milliliters of beverage. To obtain the concentration of
studied this problem during the late 1950s and eventually soluble material in the beverage expressed in terms of
developed a method to measure the amount of dissolved percent solubles concentration, multiply the weight of
flavoring material present in the beverage. the residue by 10, which now represents the number
Much simpler to do than chemical analysis, CBI’s method of grams per 100 milliliters of beverage that can be
provided the coffee industry with an objective approach to directly interpreted as percent. (Note: the metric
beverage evaluation and offered a reasonable language for system defines a milliliter as the volume of 1 gram of
discussing coffee, brewing, and equipment performance. It water at 4ºC and 760mm pressure.)
introduced a simple, practical, and useful control system
for monitoring and maintaining beverage quality. TABLE 1
CBI’s method was based on measuring the concentration
Analysis of Coffee Beverage for Soluble Solids
of soluble coffee flavoring material dissolved in the beverage
relative to the amount of water, and then graphically Weight of dish plus
solids = 1.5007 grams
calculating the solubles yield given the specific coffee-to- Weight of dish alone = 1.3689 grams
water ratio used to produce the brew. This simple method Weight of solids = 0.1318 grams
of evaluation continues to be a highly useful analytical
tool, even by today’s advanced technology standards. Percent soluble solids in – Weight of solids in
beverage 10-milliliter portion times 10
Oven-Dehydration Method = 0.1318 X 10
= 1.32 percent
When using the oven dehydration method to measure
solubles concentration, the manner of beverage preparation
Ounces of soluble material
= percent soluble
doesn’t matter. The steps in the analysis, however, do not per gallon solids times 1.333
vary. They are: = 1.32 X 1.333
= 1.76 oz per gallon
1. Obtain a representative portion of brewed coffee-
about four ounces. Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No.27
4
The beverage described in Table 1 shows a solubles The beverage described in Table 2 has a soluble solids
concentration of 1.32%. If 60 grams of roast-and-ground content of 1.396%. When converted to ounces per gallon
coffee per liter of water were used in preparing this brew, the (1.396 x 1.333) this equals 1.86 ounces per gallon. Using
quality of finished brew would be 0.875 liters. Therefore, two gallons of water and one pound of coffee in the urn
the quantity of soluble flavoring material removed during would produce 1.75 gallons of finished brew. Therefore, the
the brewing process was 11.55 grams (1.32 grams/0.1 quantity of material extracted from the pound of coffee is
liters x 0.875 liters). This translates into a solubles yield 3.25 ounces (1.86 x 1.75) or 20.3% (3.25 oz. ÷ 16 oz.).
of 19.25% (11.55 grams divided by 60 grams). Expressed Here’s another way to express the same findings: If 3.25
another way, if 11.55 grams of soluble flavoring material ounces (20.3%) of soluble material are extracted from one
are extracted from 60 grams of roast-and-ground coffee and pound of coffee and dissolved in 1.75 gallons of water, the
dissolved in 0.875 liters of water, the resulting beverage beverage would contain 1.86 ounces of solids per gallon
would contain 13.20 grams of flavoring material per liter or have strength of 1.396% soluble solids. This simple
or have a solubles concentration of 1.32%. analysis clearly shows the relationship between solubles
The quantity of soluble material can also be calculated concentration and solubles yield. It is possible to extract a
from one gallon of beverage by multiplying the percent large amount of material and dissolve it in a small volume
soluble solids by the appropriate conversion factor. The of water or, conversely, to extract a small amount of material
conversion factor changes grams to ounces and liters to and dissolve it in a large volume of water.
gallons and equates the result to 100 milliliters of brew To some extent, the brewing formula controls both
(0.0352 ounces/gram ÷ 0.2642 gallons/liter ÷ 0.1 liters/100 solubles concentration and yield. If the values for two of
milliliters = 1.333). the three factors – percent solubles concentration, percent
TABLE 2 solubles yield, and brewing formula – is known, one can
calculate the value of the third. For purposes of illustration
Weights of Soluble Solids in 10 Replicate
10-Milliliter Volumes from an Urn and calculation, assume that each pound of coffee will
absorb and retain 32 ounces of the water used in preparation
Sample No. Weight of Solid Grams Soluble Solids
% (one gram absorbs 2.086 ml). Table 3 shows the numerical
1 0.1395 1.395
2 0.1392 1.392
interrelationship between soluble solids in the beverage,
3 0.1395 1.395 extraction from the grounds, and brewing formula.
4 0.1397 1.397
5 0.1397 1.397
For example, if the beverage contains 1% soluble solids
6 0.1395 1.395 (read across the top of 1.00) and the extraction from the
7 0.1401 1.401 grounds is assumed to be 20% (read down the left column
8 0.1393 1.393
9 0.1396 1.396
to 20), then the only way to satisfy these conditions would
10 0.1396 1.396 be to use 2.63 gallons of water in preparation (move down
Average 0.1396 1.396 the column under 1.00 and across to the right from 20%
Standard Deviation
= 0.0001 55/9 = 0.00025
to 2.63). Only one brewing formula will result from each
specific combination of soluble solids and extraction.
95% confidence
limits
= 0.1396 ± √ 2.228 (0.00025) Figure 1 illustrates the data that appear in Table 3.
= 0.1396 ± 0.0006
= 0.1390 and 0.1402 This graph, which is used in the same manner as Table
3, depicts the relationship of the three factors. Although
Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 27
it may be necessary to estimate the values on each scale,
approximations of extraction values within one tenth of one
Table 2 demonstrates the precision of this method. It percent (0.1%) are quite possible. For example, to obtain
shows the results of testing 10 identical portions (each 10 a beverage that contains 1.00% soluble solids, one would
ml in volume) of a beverage prepared in an urn; the brewing need to extract 15.0% of the coffee if the brewing formula
formula called for two gallons of water per pound of coffee. were 2 gallons per pound. If the formula were 3 gallons per
The average of the 10 weights equals 0.1396 grams. The pound, 24.0% of the coffee must be extracted to give the
standard deviation, which measures dispersion or variation same solubles concentration value.
of results, equals 0.00025 grams. Given the confidence Many coffee roasters and foodservice operators
level, if the analysis of this beverage is repeated 100 times, expressed interest in using oven-dehydration to objectively
95 of the measurements would fall between the limits of evaluate coffee beverages and to standardize their brewing
0.1390 and 0.1402 grams. The actual precision of this procedures. However, few organizations had the laboratories
method is about 0.5% when dealing with quantities of this or personnel to make the required measurements. Others
magnitude.
5
TABLE 3
Interrelationship between
Soluble Solids, Extraction and Brewing Formula
Soluble Solids, oz./gal. 0.07 0.13 0.27 0.40 0.54 0.67 1.34 1.47 1.61 1.74 1.88 2.01 2.14 2.28 2.41 2.55 2.68
Soluble Solids, % 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00
Brewing Formula, Gallons per Pound

Extraction %, oz. / lb.
5 0.80 12.18 6.21 3.23 2.24 1.73 1.43 0.86 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.54
10 1.60 24.12 12.18 6.21 4.22 3.23 2.63 1.43 1.32 1.23 1.16 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.84
15 2.40 36.06 18.15 9.20 6.21 4.71 3.82 2.03 1.87 1.73 1.62 1.52 1.43 1.36 1.29 1.23 1.18 1.13
16 2.56 38.45 19.34 9.79 6.60 5.01 4.06 2.15 1.98 1.83 1.71 1.60 1.51 1.43 1.36 1.30 1.25 1.19
17 2.72 40.84 20.53 10.39 7.01 5.31 4.30 2.26 2.08 1.93 1.80 1.69 1.59 1.51 1.43 1.37 1.31 1.25
18 2.88 43.22 21.73 10.99 7.40 5.61 4.54 2.39 2.19 2.03 1.89 1.77 1.67 1.58 1.50 1.43 1.37 1.31
19 3.04 45.61 22.92 11.58 7.79 5.91 4.78 2.50 2.30 2.13 1.98 1.86 1.75 1.66 1.57 1.50 1.43 1.37
20 3.20 48.00 24.12 12.18 8.19 6.21 5.01 2.63 2.41 2.23 2.08 1.94 1.83 1.73 1.64 1.57 1.49 1.43
21 3.36 50.39 25.31 12.78 8.60 6.51 5.25 2.74 2.52 2.33 2.17 2.03 1.91 1.81 1.71 1.63 1.56 1.49
22 3.52 52.78 26.51 13.37 8.99 6.81 5.49 2.87 2.63 2.43 2.26 2.11 1.99 1.88 1.78 1.70 1.62 1.55
23 3.68 55.16 27.70 13.97 9.40 7.10 5.73 2.98 2.74 2.53 2.35 2.20 2.07 1.96 1.85 1.76 1.69 1.61
24 3.84 57.55 28.90 14.57 9.79 7.40 5.97 3.10 2.84 2.63 2.44 2.29 2.15 2.03 1.92 1.83 1.75 1.67
25 4.00 59.94 30.09 15.17 10.18 7.69 6.21 3.22 2.95 2.73 2.54 2.37 2.23 2.10 1.99 1.90 1.81 1.73
30 4.80 71.88 36.06 18.14 12.18 9.20 7.40 3.82 3.49 3.22 2.99 2.80 2.63 2.48 2.34 2.22 2.13 2.03
35 5.60 83.82 42.03 21.13 14.17 10.69 8.60 4.42 4.04 3.72 3.46 3.22 3.02 2.85 2.69 2.56 2.44 2.33
40 6.40 95.76 48.00 24.12 16.16 12.18 9.79 5.01 4.58 4.22 3.91 3.65 3.43 3.22 3.04 2.90 2.75 2.63
did not want to spend the money and effort required to water – or some other liquid such as coffee at the proper
properly equip a laboratory. Consequently, the CBI offered temperature – it floats. The depth to which it floats
a mail-service program for analysis of beverages prepared depends not only on the size of the tube and amount of lead
anywhere in the world. shot in the lower end, but also on the temperature of the
liquid and, in the case of coffee, on the amount of dissolved
EXTRACTION - PERCENT
material in the beverage.
FIGURE 1
DIAGRAM 1
Interrelationship between Soluble
Solids, Extraction, and Brew Formula
Coffee Hydrometer
Brewing Committee,
National Coffee Ass'n
Midwest Research Institute

SOLUBLE SOLIDS - PERCENT
Stem
Read Here
NOT Here
Coffee
Body
Thermometer
BREW FORMULA - GALLONS PER POUND
Cement
CBC also developed a simpler, more practical method Lead Shot
for use in roasting plants, equipment manufacturing Mercury Bulb
facilities, and foodservice operations. The new method used
a specially designed hydrometer to measure the specific
gravity of the coffee beverage. The specific gravity directly
relates to the amount of flavoring material in solution. In the small closed tube at the top of the coffee hy-
drometer, a scale is divided into seven major units; each
Coffee Hydrometer Method is subdivided into five smaller units. To calibrate the
A hydrometer is a closed glass tube. One end is hydrometer, it must be suspended in pure water at 140˚F
weighted with a lead shot; a small closed tube, containing (60ºC). Once it sinks until almost completely immersed,
a measuring scale, tops the other end. The lower portion of adjust the scale so that the top mark, which is 0, is level
the hydrometer also contains a thermometer that registers with the liquid surface. The hydrometer is now calibrated.
liquid temperatures. When the hydrometer is placed into
6
When the hydrometer is floated in coffee, however, it DIAGRAM 2
will not sink quite so deeply. The dissolved solids tend
to support it. The greater the amount of dissolved solids, Direct-Reading Coffee Hydrometer
the higher the instrument will float. The scale reading,
between 0 and 7, measures the buoyancy, or strength, of the
beverage relative to pure water. A weak, under-developed,
or diluted beverage would register a lower number reading Stem
near 2 or 3. A strong, over-extracted, or concentrated
beverage would raise the reading to 5 or 6.
Read Here
By itself, a reading on the hydrometer scale means NOT Here
nothing. Instead, one must convert the arbitrary scale in
the stem into percent solubles concentration. Empirical Coffee
testing showed that correlation factor equal to 3.97. In
other words, one could calculate the percent solubles
concentration at 140˚F (60ºC) by dividing the scale Body
reading by 3.97. CBC developed a table to permit simple

Thermometer
conversions of hydrometer readings.
It often proved inconvenient, or even impossible, to read
the hydrometer when the coffee’s temperature was exactly
140ºF (60ºC). Consequently, CBC calculated a series of
correction factors so that hydrometer readings could be Cement
taken in the range of 130ºF-150ºF (55ºC-65ºC). Either Lead Shot
subtract the correction factor for temperatures below 140ºF Mercury Bulb
(60ºC), or add it for those above.
Direct-Reading Hydrometer Method Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 61
The hydrometer was not as precise a measuring

technique as the over-dehydration method. Cleanliness 20-30 minutes. Best measurements are obtained when the
of the hydrometer and the user’s skill played a role in results of three readings are averaged.
determining the final results. The units themselves often
showed slight variations in readings. Conductivity Meter Method
The development of a direct-reading hydrometer In the mid 1970s, a new measurement technique was
refined the process of evaluating the coffee beverage in developed. It used conductivity – the property of a fluid to
terms of strength and extraction. The new hydrometer conduct an electric current – as the basis for analysis. As a
featured a temperature correction scale directly under the weak electrolytic solution, coffee acts as a partial conductor
thermometer capillary. Calibration involved calibrating of an electric current. The quality of electric current that
the hydrometer stem to percent soluble solids instead of the beverage conducts in relationship to a fixed voltage, is
specific gravity numbers. proportional to the amount of soluble material present in
These changes eliminated the need for separate solution. By measuring the current, one can determine the
conversion and correction tables, greatly simplifying the percentage of solubles concentration.
task of obtaining final soluble solids figures. In addition, The coffee conductivity meter is an adaptation of
the expanded thermometer capillary enabled users to Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) instruments that are used to
obtain improved accuracy when reading the temperature determine the quantity of dissolved solids in water. Because
corrections. the quality of dissolved solids in parts per million weight
In spite of these improvements, hydrometers remain is directly proportional to conductivity in micromhos per
awkward and time-consuming to use in the field. The glass unit volume, a conductivity measurement can indicate the
instruments are fragile and require constant cleaning. amount of dissolved solids in the water sample. Table 4
They are also slow. To ensure accurate readings, beverages shows the relationship of coffee total dissolved solids to
brewed at a temperature of 200ºF (93ºC) must cool to conductivity as measure in micromhos.
140ºF (60ºC). On average, the cooling-down period takes
7
TABLE 4 DIAGRAM 3
Relationship Between Conductivity and Dissolved Solids

Presto- Tek Corporation
Dissolved Solids
Conductivity Coffee Test Meter
Michromhos Water TDS Coffee TDS NaCl-ppm CaCO3-ppm
15,000 10,000 8,734.9 8,400 7,250
10,000 6,660 5,767.8 5,500 4,700
7,500 5,000 4,283.7 4,000 3,450
6,000 4,000 3,393.5 3,200 2,700
4,500 3,000 2,544.9 2,300 2,000
3,000 2,000 1,680.4 1,550 1,300
1,500 1,000 840.2 750 640
1,125 750 623.9 560 475
1,000 666 549.0 490 420
750 500 411.7 365 315
600 400 326.0 285 250
375 250 201.6 175 150 TEST
SWITCH
150 100 80.6 71 60
100 66 53.1 47 40
75 50 39.8 35 30 WATER COFFEE
ADJ. ADJ.
60 40 31.5 28 24
37.5 25 19.6 17.5 15 BATTERY
ADJ.
10 6.6 5.2 4.7 4 9 VOLT
BATT.
Source: Presto-Tek Corporation Pamphlet Coffee Test Meter - Model DP-17
Published 1975
MODEL DP-17
The average drinking water contains other dissolved In 1996, Agtron, Inc., in cooperation with the Specialty
solids as well as calcium carbonate. These other minerals Coffee Association of America, conducted further research
often have a higher weight per ion and, therefore, are using new testing procedures with more advanced
higher in parts per million for a given conductivity value. analytical equipment. The study refined the correlation
TDS meters are generally calibrated to more closely between conductivity and solubles concentration for
approximate municipal water characteristics. Arabica coffee blends roasted to Agtron/SCAA roast value
Not all dissolved coffee flavoring material ionizes when #50, and extracted at a 20% solubles yield in a full range
extracted by water during the brewing process. Empirical of values from 0.20% to 2.20% solubles concentration.
testing has demonstrated that the proportion of ionized This advanced research combined with a new generation of
compounds to non-ionized compounds remains constant microprocessor-based TDS meters, allows for a correlation
in the typical range of solubles concentration of the coffee between conductivity and solubles concentration with an
beverage. By determining the conversion relationship of the accuracy within 10 ppm (0.01% solubles concentration), in
dissolved solids found in the coffee to conductivity – and the range of 1% to 1.60% dissolved solids.
calibrating the way the instrument reads in the solution The coffee conductivity meter performs the same
of known conductivity – one can align the measurement function as the coffee hydrometer, but has several distinct
reading so that the numerical values for parts per million advantages: It measures solubles concentration almost
(ppm) and solutions concentration correspond. This instantaneously, requiring only a few seconds for the
requires using a multiplier of 10; for instance, 1,000 ppm measurement. It records a direct read-out of the percent
is equivalent to 1% solubles concentration, or 1,250 ppm solids in solution, eliminating the need for interlocking
is equivalent to 1.25% solubles concentration. This makes charts and graphs. It is compact, portable, and easy to use.
possible a direct reading of solubles concentration from a In addition, a conductivity meter can measure dissolved
TDS meter. solids (hardness) of the water used to prepare the beverage.
The first correlation studies between conductivity and Once the water hardness is determined, one can make a
coffee solubles concentration were undertaken in 1974, by mathematical adjustment that eliminates the effect of these
Presto-Tek Corporation, in cooperation with Lingle Bros. solids on the measurement of the dissolved coffee solids.
Coffee, Inc. The studies showed that, in the range of 0.50% Continued development in electronic circuitry has
to 1.50% solubles concentration, a nearly linear relationship resulted in instruments that are smaller, more accurate,
existed between conductivity and coffee dissolved solids and less expensive than units originally available. Once
(1% solubles concentration equaled a conductivity reading properly calibrated, the conductivity meter provides
of 1,803 micromhos). This work led to the first coffee rapid, accurate, and portable analytical tool for direct
conductivity meter, which was produced in 1975.
8
measurement of soluble concentrations. analysis of the coffee beverage remains a fundamental part of
The simple calibration procedure requires a standard understanding and evaluating the many factors that influence
sample fluid and some training of the user. Because brew quality. During their years of operation (1952-1975),
temperature affects the relationship between conductivity the CBI, and later the CBC, conducted extensive research in
and dissolved solids, the instruments are calibrated at room all facets of coffee brewing. Much of that work centered on
temperature (77ºF/25ºC). Most modern instruments feature objectively measuring strength and extraction and led to the
a temperature-compensating circuit that automatically creation of a Coffee Brewing Control Chart (See page 12).
corrects for measurements taken at non-standard Although the chart’s subjective parameters for strength
temperatures. For practical considerations, the units are and extraction caused debate within the coffee industry,
designed to operate in the range of temperature values most CBI’s and CBC’s approach to analyzing brewing methods
often encountered, but tend to make the quickest reading and equipment brought many necessary improvements
when measuring fluids at room temperature. Typically in beverage quality. The Coffee Brewing Control Chart
a small portion of the coffee beverage is allowed to cool is extremely useful for objectively analyzing the coffee
below 120ºF (49ºC) before the measurement is taken. beverage, particularly when evaluating appropriate grinds
for use with specific types of coffee brewers, or when
Development of the Coffee Brewing evaluating brewing equipment performance with a given
Control Chart product.
Regardless of the method of measurement used, objective
COFFEE BREWING CONTROL CHART

FORMULA - GALLONS PER POUND
1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
1.50
STRONG STRONG
UNDER- STRONG
BITTER
1.40 DEVELOPED
2.75
EXTRACTED SOLIDS IN SOLUTION - PERCENT
1.30
UNDER-
IDEAL BITTER FORMULA - GALLONS PER POUND
DEVELOPED 3.00
1.20
3.25
1.10
3.50
WEAK WEAK
1.00 UNDER- WEAK
BITTER
DEVELOPED
3.75
0.90 4.00
0.80
2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50
EXTRACTION - OUNCES PER POUND

THIS TEST DOES NOT INDICATE BLEND QUALITY
THE COFFEE BREWING CENTER

120 WALL STREET
NEW YORK, N. Y. 10005
PUB. NO. 15
9
CHAPTER 3 As shown in Diagram A, the left-hand side of the
Coffee Brewing Control Chart indicates strength. Strength,
COFFEE BREWING CONTROL CHART expressed both as a percentage and in total dissolved
The Coffee Brewing Control Chart provides a simple, solids (TDS), starts with 0.80% TDS at the bottom of the
graphic representation of the inter-relationship between chart and extends to 1.60% at the top. Each horizontal line
the three primary variables of strength, extraction, and represents one hundredth (1/100) of a percent TDS change
brewing formula. Together, these three variables create in the beverage’s strength.
the aroma, taste, and body of the coffee beverage. For example, if measurement of the coffee brew resulted
Strength is a measure of the solubles concentration. in a reading of 1.18% TDS, that would mean the brew
It is expressed as a percentage, comparing the amount of contained 1.18% coffee and 98.2% water. This result is
coffee flavoring material to the amount of water in the final represented on Diagram A by a horizontal line intersecting
beverage. Extraction is a measure of the solubles yield. It the left-hand axis at 1.18% TDS.
is also expressed as a percentage, comparing the amount of
coffee flavoring material in the beverage to the amount of Extraction (Solubles Yield)
coffee grounds used to prepare the beverage. The brewing Approximately 28% of the organic and inorganic matter
formula is expressed as the ratio of coffee to water used contained in roasted coffee beans will readily dissolve in
when brewing the coffee. water. The remaining 72% is cellulose bean fiber that isn’t
water soluble under normal brewing conditions.
Strength (Solubles Concentration) The water-soluble flavoring material is bound up in the
Coffee is an extremely intense flavoring agent. A typical cellulose fiber of the roasted beans. Only after the beans
coffee beverage contains approximately 1.2% coffee are ground and the particles immersed in hot water will the
flavoring material and 98.8% water. The weakest coffee solid flavoring materials dissolve, changing into liquid and
acceptable to the average person is about 0.5% coffee and gases. The solid materials dissolve at different rates, which
99.5% water. The strongest acceptable beverage (excluding means that different solubles yields will contain different
espresso) is about 1.8% coffee and 98.2% water. mixtures of liquids and gases. Each mixture, or unique
combination of solubles yield, will exhibit a different
flavor.
DIAGRAM A
DIAGRAM B
Example = 20%
STRENGTH - Solubles Concentration
98.82% = Water
Example = 1.18% EXTRACTION - Solubles Yield

Coffee Flavoring Material
Dissolved in Water
As shown in Diagram B, the bottom of the Coffee
Brewing Control Chart indicates solubles yield. The
amount of extraction, expressed as a percentage, starts
with 14% on the left-hand side of the chart and extends to
1.18% = Coffee
26% on the right-hand side. Each vertical line represents
one-fifth percent (0.20%) change in the yield of soluble
flavoring material from the amount of roast-and-ground
coffee used to prepare the brew.
10
For example, a reading of 20.0% at the bottom of the DIAGRAM C
chart would indicate that 3.20 ounces of flavoring material COFFEE BREWING CONTROL CHART
had been removed from each pound (16 oz.) of coffee; or a BREWING RATIO : Grams per 6.0 fl.oz. Cup
0.70 ounces yield from a 3.5-ounce batch; or that 2 grams 1.60%

12.0g 11.5g 11.0g 10.5g 10.0g
were extracted from each measure (10 g) of coffee used in 15500 TDS
9.5g
preparing the brew. 1.50% 15000 TDS
9.0g
Brewing Formula (Coffee-to-Water-Ratio) 14500 TDS
1.40% 14000
The coffee brewing formula is a ratio, which is defined

TDS
8.5g
BREWING RATIO : Grams per 6.0 fl.oz. Cup

as the weight of ground coffee to the volume of water used 13500 TDS
1.33%
EXAMPLE 2
in preparing the brew. For simplicity, the brewing ratio is 1.30% 13000 TDS 8.0g
often expressed as the weight of coffee required to prepare 12500 TDS
a standard-size batch. For example: 1.20% 12000 TDS

1.18%
EXAMPLE 1 7.5g
• Grams of coffee per each serving, either 6 fluid ounces 11500 TDS
(180 ml) per standard U.S. cup or 125 milliliters (4.25 1.10% 11000 TDS
fl. oz.) per standard European cup from home brewing

devices.
10500 TDS
1.00%
• Grams of coffee per liter of water for European
10000 TDS
brewers. 9500 TDS
• Ounces of coffee for each 64 fluid ounces of water .90% 9000 TDS
18.4%
for half-gallon to gallon-and-a-half batch commercial
20.8%
8500 TDS
brewers. .80%
14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 26%
• Gallons of water per pound of coffee for urn brewers. EXTRACTION - Solubles Yield
On the Coffee Brewing Control Chart, as shown in

Diagram C, the diagonal lines that cross the chart from left
to right represent brewing formulas. The specific coffee- Objective Measurement
to-water ratio is displayed across the top of the chart and This simple analysis clearly shows the relationship
down the right-hand side. Each diagonal line represents a between strength and extraction. It is possible to remove a
different coffee-to-water ratio; the strongest ratios appear in large amount of flavoring material and dissolve it in a small
the upper left-hand corner, and the weakest ratios appear volume of water. This results in a beverage with a very high
in the chart’s lower right-hand corner. concentration of solubles – espresso is a good example.
Once a coffee-to-water ratio has been established, Conversely, it is possible to extract a small amount of
one can draw a linear relationship between the strength material and dissolve it in a large volume of water. That
of the beverage and the amount of soluble flavoring would result in a beverage with a very low concentration
material extracted from the coffee. For any given brewing of solubles – tea is a good example. To some extent, the
formula, increases in solubles yield will cause proportional brewing formula will control both solubles concentration
increases in solubles concentration; and decreases in and solubles yield (See Table 1).
solubles yield will cause proportional decreases in solubles If the values for any two of the three factors (strength,
concentration. extraction, and brewing formula) is known, one can
Assume, for example, one uses 10 grams of coffee and calculate the value of the third. In this manner, one can
6 fluid ounces of water to prepare a single serving. If, objectively measure and study the inter-relationships of
during the brewing process, 1.84 grams of coffee flavoring the critical variables in the brewing process, which involve
material were removed (18.4% extraction), the resulting the blend, roast, grind, time, temperature, turbulence, and
beverage would show strength of 1.18% TDS dissolved water quality.
coffee flavoring material (See Diagram C, Example 1).
On the other hand, suppose it was determined the Subjective Evaluation
resulting beverage showed strength of 1.33% TDS dissolved The coffee beverage derives its flavor from two sources
flavoring material. Then the yield of material removed from – aroma (gases) and taste (liquids). During the brewing
the grounds during the brewing process would be 2.08 process, aroma is extracted much more rapidly than taste.
grams (20.8% extraction) for this brewing formula (See In fact, the gases are almost immediately driven out of
Diagram C, Example 2). the grounds when they come in contact with hot water.
11
TABLE 1
Interrelationship between
Soluble Solids, Extraction and Brewing Formula
Soluble Solids, oz./gal. 0.07 0.13 0.27 0.40 0.54 0.67 1.34 1.47 1.61 1.74 1.88 2.01 2.14 2.28 2.41 2.55 2.68
Soluble Solids, % 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00
Brewing Formula, Gallons per Pound

Extraction %, oz. / lb.
5 0.80 12.18 6.21 3.23 2.24 1.73 1.43 0.86 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.54
10 1.60 24.12 12.18 6.21 4.22 3.23 2.63 1.43 1.32 1.23 1.16 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.84
15 2.40 36.06 18.15 9.20 6.21 4.71 3.82 2.03 1.87 1.73 1.62 1.52 1.43 1.36 1.29 1.23 1.18 1.13
16 2.56 38.45 19.34 9.79 6.60 5.01 4.06 2.15 1.98 1.83 1.71 1.60 1.51 1.43 1.36 1.30 1.25 1.19
17 2.72 40.84 20.53 10.39 7.01 5.31 4.30 2.26 2.08 1.93 1.80 1.69 1.59 1.51 1.43 1.37 1.31 1.25
18 2.88 43.22 21.73 10.99 7.40 5.61 4.54 2.39 2.19 2.03 1.89 1.77 1.67 1.58 1.50 1.43 1.37 1.31
19 3.04 45.61 22.92 11.58 7.79 5.91 4.78 2.50 2.30 2.13 1.98 1.86 1.75 1.66 1.57 1.50 1.43 1.37
20 3.20 48.00 24.12 12.18 8.19 6.21 5.01 2.63 2.41 2.23 2.08 1.94 1.83 1.73 1.64 1.57 1.49 1.43
21 3.36 50.39 25.31 12.78 8.60 6.51 5.25 2.74 2.52 2.33 2.17 2.03 1.91 1.81 1.71 1.63 1.56 1.49
22 3.52 52.78 26.51 13.37 8.99 6.81 5.49 2.87 2.63 2.43 2.26 2.11 1.99 1.88 1.78 1.70 1.62 1.55
23 3.68 55.16 27.70 13.97 9.40 7.10 5.73 2.98 2.74 2.53 2.35 2.20 2.07 1.96 1.85 1.76 1.69 1.61
24 3.84 57.55 28.90 14.57 9.79 7.40 5.97 3.10 2.84 2.63 2.44 2.29 2.15 2.03 1.92 1.83 1.75 1.67
25 4.00 59.94 30.09 15.17 10.18 7.69 6.21 3.22 2.95 2.73 2.54 2.37 2.23 2.10 1.99 1.90 1.81 1.73
30 4.80 71.88 36.06 18.14 12.18 9.20 7.40 3.82 3.49 3.22 2.99 2.80 2.63 2.48 2.34 2.22 2.13 2.03
35 5.60 83.82 42.03 21.13 14.17 10.69 8.60 4.42 4.04 3.72 3.46 3.22 3.02 2.85 2.69 2.56 2.44 2.33
40 6.40 95.76 48.00 24.12 16.16 12.18 9.79 5.01 4.58 4.22 3.91 3.65 3.43 3.22 3.04 2.90 2.75 2.63
(Compared with ground coffee, the perception of aromatics tastes. Extraction levels between 18% and 22%
decreases by 75% when the coffee is brewed.) Although exhibit the most desirable flavors.
they are an important part of the overall flavor profile, 2. Concentration levels of soluble flavoring material
the volatile aromatic components don’t contribute to taste. have a broader range. Solubles concentrations below
The taste components come from the soluble flavoring 1.15% coffee TDS are considered weak. They tend
material removed from the coffee grounds that remain in not to present the flavor of the coffee at an intensity
a liquid form. Flavoring material that does not dissolve where all of the components are above the taste
(transform into a liquid) cannot be tasted. It does, however, threshold of the average person. Concentration levels
create mouthfeel and is referred to as the coffee’s body. above 1.35% coffee TDS are considered strong. They
Compared to aroma, taste is extracted more slowly. tend to present the flavor components at too intense a
Because body also slowly increases during the brewing concentration to be easily perceived. For the average
period, taste and body are closely associated. Consequently, person, solubles concentrations between 1.15%
one can use the concentration of the dissolved flavoring and 1.35% tend to offer the most enjoyable level of
material as a measure of taste and body build-up. When intensity. (Note: Flavor intensity can also relate to
taken in conjunction with objective measurements that the degree of the coffee’s roast, which will cause the
pinpoint solubles yields, subjective evaluations will confirm threshold between too weak and too strong to vary
under-development – characterized by either undesirable slightly for different roast values. Research done by
grassy or peanut-like tastes due to low solubles yield – or the Coffee Brewing Institute and the Nordic Brewing
over-extraction, which results in astringency and bitterness Center involved roast values in the range of Agtron/
due to high solubles yield (see Table 2). SCAA color tiles #65-#55.
3. To reach the optimum flavor, solubles concentration
Balance Between Strength and Extraction needs to be in balance with solubles yield. In other
Repeated studies by the Coffee Brewing Center (CBC) words, the most flavorful mixture of soluble flavoring
identified three principals that define the relationship material is presented at the most pleasing level
between strength and extraction. Later studies conducted of concentration. To reach this optimum balance
by the Nordic Coffee Brewing Center confirmed these between strength and extraction (which CBC referred
same principles: to as Ideal), brewing formulas must fall within these
specified ranges:
1. A narrow range exists from extraction of the most
flavorful soluble material. Solubles yields below 18% • 9-11 grams of coffee per 6 fluid ounces of water for
tend to have grassy and peanut-like tastes and are single cup brewers – or 6.25 - 7.75 grams of coffee
per 4.25 ounces of water for European (125 ml) size
classified as under-developed tastes. Solubles yields
cups.
above 22% tend to have unpleasant astringent and
bitter tastes and are classified as over-extracted • 50-60 grams per liter for brewers calibrated in the
metric system. (Note: The Brewing Center of Norway
recommends brewing formulas in the range of 60-70
12
Extraction
Percent
Ounces per Pound
TABLE 2
Preferred Taste Range for Solube

Solids, Extraction, and Brew Formula
Brewing Committee,
National Coffee Association
Soluble Solids - Ounces/Gallon

Midwest Research Institute
Soluble Solids - Percent
Brewing Formula - Gallons per Pound
grams of coffee per liter of water.) theoretically extends to 100% at each end. The working
• 3.25 - 4.25 ounces of coffee per 64 fluid ounces of range of the graph actually extends to 2% strength and 35%
water for half-gallon brewers. extraction. Because the useful range for meaningful study
• 2.5 - 2.0 gallons of water per pound of coffee for urn of coffee brewing lies between 0.80%-1.60% strength and
brewers. 14.0%-26.0% extraction, only this range appears on the
Coffee Brewing Control Chart.
With coffee-to-water ratios that exceed the specified
range, it is impossible to maintain a solubles concentration The Coffee Brewing Analysis Graph shows brewing
level low enough to be pleasurable when removing all of ratios in grams per liter. These ratios can be converted to
the desirable flavoring material. On the other hand, if either ounces-per-half-gallon or gallons-per-pound using
coffee-to-water ratios fall below the specified ranges, it is Tables 3 and 4.
impossible to achieve solubles concentrations high enough
to be pleasurable without removing the flavoring materials Using the Chart
that cause the beverage to become astringent and bitter. As noted above, the Coffee Brewing Control Chart allows
one to study the inter-relationship between strength and
Brewing Analysis Graph extraction and to evaluate the various effects of changing
The Coffee Brewing Control Chart is excerpted from the coffee’s blend, roast, or grind. It can also be used to
a larger Coffee Brewing Analysis Graph that depicts the measure differences caused by the time, temperature, and
full range of possible outcomes from any set of brewing turbulence of various brewing methods.
parameters. The full graph starts at 0% on each axis and To use the Coffee Brewing Control Chart, first measure
13
BREWING RATIO: Grams per Liter
70g 65g 60g 55g

1.60%
15500 TDS
1.50% 15000 TDS
Strong Strong
Under-Developed Strong Over-Extracted 50g
14500 TDS
Tastes Tastes
1.40% 14000 TDS

13500 TDS
BREWING RATIO : Grams per Liter

1.30% 13000 TDS 45g
Most
Optimum
12500 TDS Enjoyable
Balance
Strength
1.20% 12000 TDS
11500 TDS
40g
1.10% 11000 TDS
10500 TDS
Weak Weak
1.00% 10000 TDS Under-Developed Weak Over-Extracted
Tastes Tastes
9500 TDS
.90% 9000 TDS
Most
8500 TDS Flavorful Taste
.80%
14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 26%
EXTRACTION - Solubles Yield
14
the strength of the coffee beverage being studied by using
TABLE 3
one of the methods previously discussed (See Chapter 2).
Formula Conversion Table for Half-Gallon Coffee Brewers
Once the strength is known, locate the intersection of the Conversion of Water - Ounces Formulas to Gallons per Pound
horizontal line on the graph corresponding to the strength Coffee (Ounces)
and the diagonal line depicting the brewing ratio used to 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.20 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25
prepare the coffee. At this intersection, draw a vertical line 50 3.12 2.78 2.50 2.27 2.08 1.95 1.92 1.79
51 3.18 2.83 2.55 2.32 2.13 1.99 1.96 1.82 1.70
to the bottom of the chart to represent the extraction of the 52
53
3.25
3.31
2.89
2.95
2.60
2.65
2.37
2.41
2.17
2.21
2.03
2.07
2.00
2.04
1.86
1.89
1.73
1.77
flavoring material from the coffee. Then read the percent 54
55
3.37
3.43
3.00
3.06
2.70
2.75
2.46
2.50
2.25
2.29
2.11
2.15
2.08
2.12
1.93
1.96
1.80
1.83 1.72
of solubles yield from the bottom of the chart.
Water (Fluid Ounces)

56 3.50 3.11 2.80 2.55 2.34 2.19 2.15 2.00 1.87 1.75
57 3.56 3.17 2.85 2.59 2.38 2.23 2.19 2.03 1.90 1.78
58 3.62 3.23 2.90 2.64 2.42 2.27 2.23 2.07 1.94 1.82 1.71
The four Coffee Brewing Control Charts that follow 59 3.68 3.28 2.95 2.68 2.46 2.31 2.27 2.11 1.97 1.85 1.74
60 3.75 3.34 3.00 2.73 2.50 2.35 2.31 2.14 2.00 1.88 1.76
depict strength and extraction relationships for these 61 3.81 3.40 3.05 2.77 2.54 2.38 2.35 2.18 2.03 1.91 1.79
62 3.88 3.45 3.10 2.82 2.59 2.42 2.38 2.22 2.07 1.94 1.82
brewing formulas: 63 3.94 3.50 3.15 2.86 2.63 2.46 2.42 2.25 2.10 1.97 1.85
64 4.00 3.56 3.20 2.91 2.67 2.50 2.46 2.28 2.13 2.00 1.88
65 4.06 3.62 3.25 2.96 2.71 2.54 2.50 2.32 2.17 2.03 1.91
66 4.12 3.67 3.30 3.00 2.75 2.57 2.54 2.36 2.20 2.07 1.94
• Grams per 6 fluid ounces. 67
68
4.19
4.25
3.72
3.78
3.35
3.40
3.04
3.09
2.79
2.83
2.61
2.65
2.58
2.51
2.39
2.43
2.23
2.27
2.10
2.13
1.97
2.00
• Grams per liter. Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 15A
• Ounces per half gallon.

• Gallons per pound.
TABLE 4
Benefits to the Industry Formula Conversion Table for Gram-Liter Coffee Brewers
Conversion of Water - Gram Formulas to Ounces per Half-Gallon
Measuring taste and body build-up as an objective Coffee (Grams)
means of evaluating cup quality and beverage acceptability 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
has many uses. The exercise aids in understanding 50

51
1.57
1.59
1.82
1.86
2.08
2.12
2.34
2.39
2.60
2.66
2.86
2.92
3.12
3.19
3.39
3.45
3.65
3.72
3.91
3.99
4.17
4.25
the inter-relationship between blend, roast, and grind 52
53
1.62
1.65
1.89
1.92
2.16
2.21
2.44
2.48
2.71
2.76
2.98
3.04
3.25
3.31
3.52
3.59
3.79
3.87
4.06
4.14
4.33
4.42
– an important consideration as coffee roasters seek to 54
55
1.68
1.72
1.98
2.00
2.25
2.29
2.53
2.58
2.81
2.86
3.09
3.15
3.37
3.44
3.66
3.72
3.94
4.01
4.22
4.30
4.50
4.58
Water (Fluid Ounces)
improve product quality. Equipment manufacturers find it 56

57
1.75
1.78
2.04
2.08
2.33
2.37
2.62
2.67
2.92
2.97
3.21
3.27
3.50
3.56
3.79
3.86
4.08
4.16
4.36
4.45
4.67
4.75
helpful to understand the inter-relationship between time, 58
59
1.81
1.84
2.11
2.15
2.42
2.46
2.72
2.76
3.02
3.07
3.32
3.38
3.63
3.69
3.93
4.00
4.23
4.30
4.53
4.61
4.84
4.92
1.87 2.19 2.50 2.81 3.12 3.44 3.75 4.60 4.38 4.69 5.00
temperature, and turbulence as they evaluate the design 60
61 1.90 2.22 2.54 2.86 3.18 3.49 3.81 4.13 4.45 4.77 5.09
62 1.94 2.26 2.58 2.91 3.23 3.55 3.85 4.20 4.52 4.85 5.17
of new brewing equipment and modifications to brewers 63 1.97 2.30 2.62 2.93 3.28 3.61 3.94 4.27 4.60 4.92 5.25
64 2.00 2.33 2.67 3.00 3.33 3.67 4.00 4.33 4.67 5.00 5.34
already in use. Such measurements also help pinpoint the 65 2.03 2.37 2.71 3.05 3.39 3.72 4.06 4.40 4.74 5.08 5.42
66 2.06 2.40 2.75 3.09 3.44 3.78 4.13 4.47 4.81 5.16 5.50
effects of water composition on coffee brewing and can 67 2.09 2.44 2.79 3.14 3.49 3.84 4.19 4.54 4.89 5.24 5.59
68 2.12 2.48 2.83 3.19 3.54 3.90 4.25 4.61 4.96 5.32 5.67
serve as the basis of quality control programs for business
Source: SCAA
selling coffee beverages.
In short, systematically studying coffee brewing in all
its aspects, using objective measurements of dissolved
coffee flavoring material, provides all coffee professionals
with a greater knowledge and understanding of how to
transform high-quality beans into high-quality beverages.
15
BREWING RATIO: Grams per Liter
80g 75g 70g 65g 60g

2.00%
55g
Area Covered by
1.75% Coffee Brewing
Control Chart 50g
1.50%
45g

40g
1.25%
35g
Range of
Optimum Balance
1.00%
(Strength & Extraction) 30g
.75%
.50%
.25%
0%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
16
BREWING RATIO : Grams per 6.0 fl.oz. Cup
12.0g 11.5g 11.0g 10.5g 10.0g
1.60%
9.5g
15500 TDS
1.50% 15000 TDS
9.0g
BREWING RATIO : Grams per 6.0fl.oz. Cup

14500 TDS
1.40% 14000 TDS
8.5g
13500 TDS
1.30% 13000 TDS

8.0g
Optimum
12500 TDS
Balance
7.5g
1.20% 12000 TDS
11500 TDS
1.10% 11000 TDS
10500 TDS
1.00% 10000 TDS
9500 TDS
.90% 9000 TDS
8500 TDS
.80%
14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 26%
17
70g 65g 60g 55g
1.60%
15500 TDS
1.50% 15000 TDS
50g
14500 TDS
1.40% 14000 TDS

13500 TDS
1.30% 13000 TDS
45g
Optimum
12500 TDS
Balance
1.20% 12000 TDS
11500 TDS
40g
1.10% 11000 TDS
10500 TDS
1.00% 10000 TDS
9500 TDS
.90% 9000 TDS
8500 TDS
.80%
14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 26%
18
BREWING RATIO : Ounces per Half-Gallon
4.75oz. 4.50oz. 4.25oz. 4.00oz. 3.75oz.
1.60%
15500 TDS
3.50oz.
1.50% 15000 TDS

BREWING RATIO : Ounces per Half-Gallon

14500 TDS
3.25oz.
1.40% 14000 TDS
13500 TDS
1.30% 13000 TDS

3.00oz.
Optimum
12500 TDS
Balance
1.20% 12000 TDS
2.75oz.
11500 TDS
1.10% 11000 TDS
10500 TDS
1.00% 10000 TDS
9500 TDS
.90% 9000 TDS
8500 TDS
.80%
14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 26%
19
BREWING RATIO : Gallons per Pound
1.5gal 1.75gal 2.00gal
1.60%
2.25gal
15500 TDS
1.50% 15000 TDS
14500 TDS
1.40%
Brewing ratio: Gallons per Pound

14000 TDS
2.50gal
13500 TDS
1.30% 13000 TDS
Optimum 2.75gal
12500 TDS
Balance
1.20% 12000 TDS
11500 TDS
3.00gal
1.10% 11000 TDS
10500 TDS
1.00% 10000 TDS
9500 TDS
.90% 9000 TDS
8500 TDS
.80%
14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% 26%
20
CHAPTER 4 Roasted coffee contains vastly different amounts of
aroma and taste materials. The beverage gets its taste from
THE BREWING PROCESS the extractable non-volatile materials, which potentially
There’s a craft in brewing good coffee. For any given amount to about 30 pounds in each 100 pounds of coffee.
product, the key lies in finding the optimum balance In contrast, the extractable volatile materials amount to
between the strength of the brew and the degree of less than one-half ounce to each 100 pounds of coffee.
extraction from the roast-and-ground coffee. In other words, the ratio of taste to aroma components is
Strength refers to the brew’s intensity – how concentrated about 1,000 to 1. Consequently, the perception of beverage
it is – and needs to be adjusted for consumers’ individual strength relates directly to the perception of taste.
tastes, just as the volume on a stereo would be adjusted. The acceptability of the taste perception is also tied
Strength can be quantified as the percentage of solubles to the brew’s chemical composition, which changes
concentration in the brew. Extraction refers to the continuously during the brewing cycle. The changes occur
brew’s acceptability – which specific flavoring materials because each flavoring compound dissolves at a different
have been removed from the grounds – and needs to be rate.
controlled to optimize taste, much like the mix of treble
and bass coming from the stereo’s speakers needs to be Three Phases of the Brewing Process
adjusted. Extraction can be quantified as the percentage To achieve the optimum balance between strength and
of solubles yield from the amount of coffee grounds used in extraction, it is essential to control the brewing process.
preparing the brew. The brewing process itself proceeds in three stages:
Aroma + Taste = Flavor 1. Wetting. As the bean fiber absorbs hot water, gas is
driven from the coffee particles and interstitial voids
The strength of coffee is associated with the chemical
(the small space inside the particles). This phase
compounds that hot water can extract from the roasted,
prepares the particles for extraction of the solubles.
ground beans. Some of these solubles evaporate easily and
are responsible for the brew’s aroma, while others are not 2. Extraction. During this second phase, the water-
so volatile and are the source of the brew’s taste (see Table soluble flavoring compounds dissolve, rapidly moving
1). Aroma and taste combine to produce coffee’s flavor. out of the bean fibers and entering the water.
The insoluble compounds – those that don’t dissolve – 3. Hydrolysis. At this point, large molecules of water-
become the coffee’s body. insoluble carbohydrates break down into smaller
molecules that are water soluble. These are mostly
TABLE 1
reducing sugars but also include some proteins.
Chemical Compositions of Soluble and Insoluble
Portions of Roasted Coffee*
(Approximate, Dry Basis)
24 Variables of Coffee Brewing
Nonvolatiles % Solubles % Insolubles
Because the brewing process proceeds in three distinct
Carbohydrates (53%) phases – wetting, extraction, and hydrolysis – the design
Reducing Sugars 1-2 —
Caramelized Sugars 10 - 17 0-7
and operation of the brewing equipment have a direct
Hemi-cellulose (hydrolyzable) 1 14 bearing on the composition of the flavoring material in the
Fiber (not hydrolyzable) — 22 brew. Therefore, controlling the brewing process means
Oils — 15
Proteins (N x 6.25); Soluble Amino Acids 1 - 2 11 controlling not only the variables related to the coffee, but
Ash (oxide) 3 1 the variables related to the brewing equipment as well.
Acids (nonvolatile)
Chlorogenic 4.5 — In total, 24 variables interact during the brewing
Caffeic 0.5 —
Quinic 0.5 —
process. Controlling all these variables to achieve the
Oxalic, Malic, Citric, Tartaric 1.0 — optimum balance between strength and extraction is a true
Volatile Acids 0.35 —
Trigonelline 1.0 —
craft. The variables can be categorized as follows:
Caffeine (Arabicas 1.0%; Robustas 2.0%) 1.2 —
Phenolics (estimated) 2.0 —
Volatiles
Carbon Dioxide trace 2.0
Essence of Aroma and Flavor 0.04 —
Total 27 - 35% 73 - 65%
*Source: Sivetz and Desrosier (1979)
21
TABLE 2
Variables Affecting Strength and Extraction
Coffee Product
Blend Components: 1. Ratio of blend components

2. Bulk density of beans
3. Chemical composition of beans
Roast Development: 4. Methodology of roasting
5. Rate of roasting
6. Degree of roast
7. Rate of degassing
Grind: 8. Average size of particles
9. Size distribution of particles
10. Particle shape
Brewing Equipment
Time of Brewing: 11. Time of water contact

Temperature: 12. Contact temperature
13. Temperature gradient during brewing
Turbulence: 14. Complete wetting
15. Uniform flow
16. Particle movement
Filtering Method: 17. Method of separation
18. Degree of clarification
Holding Conditions: 19. Length of time and method of holding
20. Holding temperature
Ingredients
Brewing Forumla: 21. Coffee (by weight)

22. Water (by volume)
Water: 23. Water composition
24. Water treatment
22
Coffee Product TABLE 4
The coffee roaster usually has the responsibility for
Particle Size and Distribution for Typical Grinds
controlling the 10 variables related to the coffee product.
• Blend components. The (1) ratio of different Regular Drip Fine
coffees used in the blend can range from a single Percent on
origin coffee on one extreme, to a mix of Arabica and #10 mesh 13% 0% 0%
Robusta coffees on the other. Also affecting the blend #14 mesh 20% 7% 0%
is the beans’ (2) bulk density – a measure of the #20 mesh 25% 33% 10%
beans’ weight in relation to their physical volume. #28 mesh 30% 40% 60%
Finally, the (3) chemical composition of the beans
themselves affects the brew’s resulting flavor and Percent thru
intensity. Chemical composition varies by the type of #28 mesh 12% 20% 30%
coffee plant and the micro-climate in which it grows.
Source: Coffee Brewing Center, Publication #118
• Roast development. The (4) methodology of
roasting, particularly the efficiency of heat transfer
within the beans, determines if the beans are Brewing Equipment
uniformly roasted from the outside to the center of
the bean. The (5) rate of roasting controls both the Ten of the variables balancing strength and extraction
structural expansion of the bean fibers (which affects relate to the brewing equipment. Of these, six involve time,
extraction rates) and the chemical composition of the temperature, and turbulence, which are usually controlled
roasted beans (which affects the flavor of the extract). by the equipment manufacturer.
Other variables include the (6) degree of roast, • Time of brewing. The (11) contact time (how long
usually evaluated by the beans’ color, and the (7) rate coffee remains in contact with the water) determines
of degassing, which generally relates to the method the percentage of solubles yield. The longer the contact
of storage, or length of time before brewing. time, the greater the extraction of soluble materials.
• Grind. Relative to brewing, a critical aspect of the Generally speaking, rapid extraction occurs during
coffee product is the grind, or particle size. Within the first third of the brewing cycle, yielding as much
certain limits, the amount of soluble material extracted as 70% of the available soluble material.
from the coffee varies inversely with the particle size: • Temperature. For proper extraction to occur, water
The smaller the particles, the greater the extraction must reach the coffee at (12) contact temperatures
(see Table 3). In controlling the particles size, both near 200ºF (94ºC), and the (13) temperature
the (8) average size of the particles and the (9) size gradient must remain in a constant range between
distribution of the particles creating the average, 195ºF and 205ºF (92ºC -96ºC) (See Table 5).
must be taken into account (see Table 4). In addition, • Turbulence. Turbulence is affected by the way the
the (10) particle shape will affect the rate at which water is distributed over the bed of grounds, leading
soluble material can be extracted from the coffee. to (14) complete wetting of the coffee; the velocity
TABLE 3 of the water flowing through the coffee bed, creating a
(15) uniform flow rate; and the bed’s size, depth,
Effect of
Particle Size of Coffee Grounds
on Extraction of Soluble Solids configuration, and degree of containment, limiting the
(16) particle movement. The design of the brewer’s
Particle Size Contact Time Soluble Solids Extraction
(Tyler Screeen #) (in seconds) (as percent) ( oz. lb. ) spray head and brew basket controls turbulence. A
on #10 142 0.63 1.67 successful design results in complete wetting of all
on #14 143 0.73 1.93 of the coffee particles in the brew basket, a uniform
on #20 136 0.93 2.45
on #28 156 1.28 3.40 flow of water though the entire bed of coffee, and a
on #40 292 1.46 3.87 separation of the particles while they are in contact
• Water: coffee ratio at 2 ¼ gallons per pound with the water.
• Water temperature at 200° F
• Results averaged from ﬁve trials with each size fraction
23
TABLE 5 • Brewing formula. The most important variable
related to ingredients is the (21) ratio of coffee
Effect of Change in Water Temperature on
(by weight) to (22) water (by volume). To bring the
Beverage Solids and Extraction from Grounds
variables related to both the product and equipment
Temperature Beverage Solids Grounds Extraction into play, the coffee-to-water ratio must fall within the
( °F ) (as percent) ( oz. / lb. ) range of preferred strength and desired extraction (See
205 1.22 2.85 Table 6).
195 1.30 3.00
185 1.24 2.87
Too much coffee (or too little water) will result
165 1.11 2.58 in beverages that have an under-developed flavor if
125 0.98 2.08 brewed at the preferred strength, or too strong a taste
85 0.63 1.48 if brewed at the desired degree of extraction. Too little
• Urn grind coffee
coffee (or too much water) will result in beverages
• Water: coffee ratio at 2.00 gallons per pound that have an over-extracted and often bitter flavor if
• Time of contact at 3 minutes served at the preferred extraction, or too weak a taste
if brewed at the desired degree of extraction.
TABLE 6
Effect of Water: Coffee Ratio on Beverage Solids

The person preparing the beverage usually has control of and Extraction from Grounds
the four remaining variables related to brewing equipment.
Water: Coffee Ratio Beverage Solids Grounds Extraction
• Filtering method. The type of filter determines (gallons per lb.) (as percent) ( oz. / lb. and % )
1.62 1.76 3.35 - 20.9%
the (17) method of separation of the finished 2.00 1.22 2.85 - 17.8%
brew from the coffee grounds and the (18) degree 2.35 1.13 3.15 - 19.6%
of clarification – the extent to which the non- 2.67 1.00 3.20 - 20.0%
3.33 0.79 3.25 - 20.3%
soluble materials are removed from the brew as it 4.00 0.67 3.30 - 20.6%
passes into the holding container. The type of filter
often establishes the configuration of the brew basket, • Urn grind coffee
• Water temperature at 205°F
while the degree of clarification relates directly to the • Time of contact at 3 minutes
amount and size of brew colloids suspended in the
beverage. Source: Coffee Brewing Center, Publication #40
• Holding conditions. The (19) length of time and

method of holding are critical aspects of preserving • Water. (23) Water composition is a critical aspect
the coffee’s flavor. For best results, coffee should be of coffee brewing. Water contains dissolved minerals
served immediately after brewing or held in a sealed that not only give it taste, but also contribute to
thermal container when not immediately served. coffee’s taste. If present in too great an amount, these
Coffee stored in a heated, open vessel increases in dissolved inorganic substances will interfere with the
strength as water evaporates from the brew; it also brewing process by either restricting the flow of the
changes in flavor because the applied heat causes water through the coffee particles, or by preventing
the chemical compounds to change. A (20) holding soluble material in the coffee from entering the
temperature between 175ºF and 185ºF (80ºC-85ºC) extract. Water may also contain excess concentrations
should be maintained throughout the holding period for of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions, which unfavorably
optimum flavor and serving temperature requirements. alter its chemical properties. Water may also contain
Important chemical compounds in coffee’s tastes are organic compounds that give it an unpleasant odor.
most stable in this temperature range. At no time (24) Water treatment can improve the flavor of
should the temperature drop below 175ºF (80ºC). the coffee by removing unwanted chemicals, such as
chlorine. Certain methods of water treatment, however,
Ingredients may also detract from the brew by adding unwanted
Once the coffee product and brewing equipment have compounds, such as sodium, which interfere with the
been selected, the person preparing the beverage directly brewing process, or affect the beverage acidity.
controls the final four variables.
24
Maintaining Control coffee extract. Greater surface exposure also increases
the amount of fats, oils, and ultra-fine particles that form
To master the craft of coffee brewing, the many variables
colloidal suspensions in the coffee brew.
that contribute to both the strength (intensity) and extraction
(acceptability) of coffee flavor must be controlled. The skill The process of reducing whole, roasted coffee beans
lies in learning how to control all of the variables so that to small particles is called grinding. This general
the solubles concentration is balanced with the solubles term encompasses crushing, rubbing, grating, cutting,
yield, resulting in the perfect cup of coffee that exceeds tearing, milling, compressing, and any other process
consumers’ expectations of its pleasure. that progressively reduces the size of coffee particles.
No process will produce complete uniformity of particle
Although the possible combinations of the 24 variables
size. Therefore, the goal in grinding is to create a uniform
are virtually limitless, one can provide reasonable control
distribution of particle sizes within a specified range.
over the process by adhering to the key principles of good
brewing: Quality blends, excellent equipment, clean water,
and the proper brewing ratio. Factors Influencing Grinding
The individual properties of the coffee beans greatly
influence grinding results. For example, one should never
CHAPTER 5 grind warm beans immediately after roasting. They would be
too soft, and grinding would leave them crushed, flattened,
GRIND
and scarred. It is best to grind coffee beans after they have
If a whole, roasted coffee bean is placed in water and
cooled and become hard and brittle. Understanding the
subjected to heat and agitation long enough, the coffee
differences in bean properties enables one to make grind
flavoring material eventually would be extracted from the
adjustments, and thus achieve the desired distribution of
bean. Obviously, such a brewing method would require too
particles sizes. These differences include:
much time to be practical.
• Moisture content. Beans are physically softer when
If, however , a whole, roasted bean is cut in half before
they have been cooled by water quenching. They
brewing, the water would have two new surfaces to touch.
are most brittle when air-cooled without additional
If these pieces were again cut in half, four new surfaces
moisture.
would be presented to the water. By continuing to reduce
• Degree of roast. When ground, light roast coffees
the size of the bean’s particles from whole bean to fine
tend to be tenacious, pliable, and tough. They do not
grind, ultimately there would be more than 4,000 times the
break apart as easily as hard, brittle, dark roasted
number of particles, and 16 times the surface area per unit
beans. Darker roasts, consequently, will always
weight of coffee immersed in hot water, when compared
produce more fine particles than lighter roasts.
to the whole, roasted bean (See Table 1). Consequently,
roasted coffee beans are broken down into smaller particles • Brittleness. Even the natural origin of the coffee
for brewing. makes a difference in terms of strength, resilience,
pliability, and hardness during grinding. Given the
TABLE 1
same degree of roast, new-crop coffees give fewer fine
Particle Size vs. Number of Particles per Unit Weight
particles that past-crop coffees. Compared to Arabica
coffees, Robusta coffees differ in the particle size
Particle Size Size No. Particles Increase Ratio of Total Area
Description mm per Gram Part. / gm Increase sq. cm / gm distribution. And high-grown coffees show different
Whole bean 6.00 6 — — 8 characteristics than those grown at lower elevations.
Cracked bean 3.00 48 42 1 16
Coarse grind 1.50 384 336 8 32 TABLE 2
Regular grind 1.00 1,296 912 22 48
How Degree of Roast Affects Grinding
Drip grind 0.75 3,072 1,776 42 64
Fine grind 0.38 24,572 21,500 512 128 Screen Grind Set #4 Grind Set #5 Grind Set #6 Grind Set #7
Espresso grind 0.20 491,440 466,868 11,115 240 Mesh Light Dark Light Dark Light Dark Light Dark
#10 0.0% 0.0% 0.5% 0.1% 5.8% 3.0% 14.7% 13.6%
Source: Sivetz and Foote (1963) #14 15.4% 6.5% 27.9% 18.3% 42.7% 31.5% 43.5% 37.2%
#20 48.9% 45.3% 43.7% 41.4% 30.3% 33.4% 21.8% 23.2%
#28 20.6% 26.3% 15.3% 20.9% 10.8% 16.0% 9.9% 12.4%
PAN 14.8% 21.7% 11.9% 18.9% 10.2% 15.4% 10.0% 13.0%
Cutting apart the coffee bean exposes much greater Total 99.7% 99.7% 99.3% 99.6% 99.8% 99.3% 99.9% 99.4%
surface area, allowing for the liberation of carbon dioxide *Light = "Cinnamon" - (Agtron / SCAA Color tiles #95 - #85)
* Dark = "Italian" - (Agtron / SCAA Color Tiles #35 - #25)
(CO2) gas and for absorption of hot water. At the same time, Grind Setting # 4 = Fine
Grind Setting # 7 = Coarse
it shortens the distance from the center of each particle
to the surface, thereby greatly reducing the distance (and Source: Sivetz and Foote (1963)
time) the coffee flavoring materials travel to reach the
25
Setting Grind Standards Within each grind classification, extensive tests
determined which particle size distribution achieved
In the late 1940s, the U.S. Department of Commerce
satisfactory extraction results when used with appropriate
established a simple laboratory testing procedure for
coffee brewers, based on the average length of time in the
measuring particle size distribution. The equipment
brewing cycle. For example, tests demonstrated that if a
consisted of four sieves – each with a different size wire
coffee grind was called drip it would work best in the drip-
screen – and a Ro-Tap shaking machine. The sieves were
filtration brewing method when the sieve analysis showed
stacked one atop the other, with the coarsest screen at the
that 20% of the grind would pass though a 28-mesh sieve.
top and the finest on the bottom. (Note: The wire screens
originally used in the procedure were manufactured Both cup tests and laboratory analysis showed that
by the W.S. Tyler Co. and classified by Tyler’s standard the most important variable in each designation was the
mesh sieve sizes of #10, #14, #20, and #28 screens. The percentage of the ground coffee that passed through the
corresponding U.S. Standard sieves are #12, #16, #20, and 28-mesh sieve. The tests also indicated that each grind
#30, respectively.) classification could allow some tolerance while still
maintaining efficient grind standards.
The procedure involved placing a measured sample
(usually 100 grams) into the top sieve, covering it, and Matching Grind to Brewing Method
placing the stack of four sieves into the Ro-Tap shaker for
five minutes. When the shaking cycle ended, all the sieves The grind, or particle size distribution, plays a critical
were removed from the shaker and each one was carefully role in the brewing process. For proper extraction
weighed with its contents. In this manner, one could to occur, the grind must be appropriate for the
determine the percentage of coffee particles remaining in coffee maker being used. For example, suppose a
each sieve. Those percentages translated into a particular coarse grind of coffee is used in a filter-drip brewer, which
grind designation. normally operates on a 3-to-4 minute brewing cycle.
Insufficient surfaces will be exposed to the water during
Based on this method of analysis, the coffee industry
the short length of the brewing time, resulting in the weak
adopted a common set of grind designations in 1948.
and tasteless coffee brew. On the other hand, if a fine grind
At the time, a majority of the coffee roasters voluntarily
is used in a coffee urn, which operates on a 6-to-8-minute
agreed to follow the system of classification, which divided
brewing cycle, the coffee will be over-extracted and bitter.
grinds into three groups: regular, drip, and fine. The new
terminology was intended to replace the variety of names Coffee brewed in single-cup brewers, such as those
used throughout the industry, although some of the non- found in the vending industry, requires much smaller
standard terms still exist today. particles. (To measure smaller particles sizes in a Ro-Tap
shaker, replace the top two sieves with two smaller sieves
TABLE 3
at the bottom of the stack.) Table 5 gives examples of fine
U. S. Department of Commerce grinds for single-cup brewers.
Recommended Coffee Grinds
Amount of Coffee Amount of Coffee Tolerances TABLE 5

Grind Retained On Passing Through Passing Through
Designation 10 & 14 20 & 28 28 Mesh Not Less Not More Examples of Single Cup Vending Grinds
Regular 33% 55% 12% 9% 15%
Drip 7% 73% 20% 16% 24%
Fine 0% 70% 30% 25% 40%
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce Mesh Sieve Rowe Batch Vendo Batch
Size Brewer Brewer Single Cup Brewer
# 10 0% — —
# 14 3% ± 3% 2% ± 2% —
TABLE 4 # 20 32% ± 5% 33% ± 5% 1% ± 1%
# 28 43% ± 5% 40% ± 5% 15% ± 4%
Coffee Industry Grind Terminology # 35 — 15% ± 2% 37% ± 5%
Non-Standard Usage # 48 — — 27% ± 5%
Pan 22% ± 3% 10% ± 2% 20% ± 3%
Regular Drip Fine

Coarse Urn Silex
Percolator All-Purpose Vacuum
Open Pot Medium Very Fine
Steel Cut Universal Extra Fine Espresso brewing, which takes between 20 and 30
Roller Cut Pulverized seconds for each cup (1.0-1.5 fluid oz./ 30-45 ml) requires
Electric Percolator
even finer grinds. In an espresso grind, each gram of coffee
Source: Coffee Brewing Center, Publication #54 contains approximately 500,000 particles of ground coffee
– that is 20 times finer than conventional fine grind coffee.
26
Because espresso is a multi-phases system (it produces a If the coffee brew was analyzed in terms of its flavor,
solution, an emulsion, a suspension, and a foam), grind as quantified by the solubles concentration and pH of
control is absolutely essential for proper brewing and to the eluted beverage (See Diagram 1), one would find that
produce a flavorful beverage. Generally, espresso grinds the extract removed during the first third of the brewing
are set individually for each specific combination of coffee process (samples 1-6) would have the best flavor with the
beans, brewing equipment, and ambient conditions at the least bitterness and astringency. It would also have the
location of preparation. highest solubles concentration (ratio of coffee flavoring
If the particle size is further reduced to finer than that material to water) than at any other point in the brewing
required for espresso brewing, the ground coffee becomes cycle, as well as the lowest pH (greatest acidity). If the
a coarse powder. This process is pulverization. Stone- coffee brew was analyzed during the second third of the
ground, pulverized coffee is used to prepare Turkish coffee, extraction process (samples 7-12), this effluent would have
a beverage popular in the Moslem cultures in Arabia an average solubles concentration three times lower than
and Indonesia. This brewing method calls for mixing the the first third, while exhibiting a decrease in acidity of
powdered (also mashed and flaked) grounds with water almost five times the level of the first third.
and sugar and brining the mixture to a boil three times. If the brewing cycle continues through the final third
The resulting beverage is then poured away from the (samples 13-18), the effluent coffee beverage would be
grounds into a cup. In Arabia it is often toped with ground unpalatable. During this phase, the desirable solubles have
cardamom for additional flavoring. been exhausted and the solubles that produce bitterness
In selecting the proper grind for any given brewer, it and astringency have become dominant. The point at
is essential to match the particle size with the brewing which bitterness and astringency dominate the coffee’s
time. Too coarse a particle size will result in grassy, under- taste characteristic is referred to as over-extraction.
developed coffee tastes. Too fine a particle size will result
DIAGRAM 1
in bitter, over-extracted tastes.
FLAVOR ANALYSIS
% Solubles Concentration and pH Value
CHAPTER 6 % Solubles Concentration
TIME, TEMPERATURE, AND TURBULENCE pH Value

% Solubles Concentration
The brewing process starts the moment hot water
pH Value
touches the coffee grounds and stops when the water and
coffee grounds are separated. The period during which the
water remains in direct contact with the coffee is known
as the brewing time. The most desirable beverage results
when the brewing process is completed within the time
period prescribed for the coffee’s grind.
Sample # - 20 ml. portion
Using a fine grind of coffee, the correct brewing time
would range from 1 to 4 minutes. A drip grind requires SOURCE: Braun inc. - engineering study
4 to 6 minutes, and a regular grind calls for a 6 to 8

minute brewing time. These times apply regardless of Time’s Relationship to Extraction
the equipment used, or the quantity being prepared. The As shown in Figure 1, controlling the grind is the most
finer the grind, the greater the surface area exposed to the effective way to control the bitterness and astringency
water. That means the dissolved flavoring materials have a associated with over-extraction. Making the particle
shorter distance to travel to reach the water; therefore, the sizes larger will noticeably decrease these two taste flaws
solubles extraction is more rapid and thorough. without seriously reducing the brew’s acidity of body.
Hot water removes the coffee-flavoring solubles
effectively and rapidly. This holds true both in quantity and
quality. The coffee brew extracted during the beginning
of the brewing cycle is very dense and dark caramel in
color. As water extraction continues, the eluted (extracted)
beverage becomes less concentrated and lighter in color.
Near the end of the brewing cycle, the extract is pale and
appears almost like water.
27
FIGURE 1 TABLE 1
Chemical Changes Resulting from Variations in Grind Conditions

Effect of Grind Size on Coffee Taste and Mouthfeel
FATTY ACIDS, SUCROSE, ORGANIC ACIDS AND CAFFEINE CONTENT OF
COFFEE BREWS PREPARED USING DIFFERENT BREWING CONDITIONS¹
BREWING CONDITIONS
Slightly
Strong
Extra Fine Grind - 5 Minutes
Brewed at 201ºF (94ºC)
Grind Change
4.5 oz./64 fl. oz. (60 grams/liter)
Coffee Grind Extra Fine Fine Coarse
Fine Grind - 5 Minutes Brewing Temperature (°C) 94 94 94
4.5 oz./64 fl. oz. (60 grams/liter) Contact Time (min) 5 5 5
Intensity
Moderate
Coarse Grind - 5 Minutes
Brewed at 201ºF (94ºC) Coffee Constituent Concentration (mg/l)
Fatty Acids
Palmitic acid (16:0) 3.63 5.90 5.03
Slightly
Moderate Linoleic acid (18:2) 4.50 5.96 6.27
Sucrose² 37.33 126.67 126.67
Lactic acid 308.33 194.50 109.67
Acetic acid 209.00 225.67 242.67
Weak Citric acid 440.00 461.00 325.00
Acidity Bitterness Body Astringency
Malic acid 163.67 137.00 119.33
Phosphoric acid 82.00 77.33 68.33
Sensory Characteristics Quinic acid 510.00 495.00 435.33
Chlorogenic acids 1,177.00 1,064.67 700.00
Source: ICO Technical Unit - Quality Series - Report No. 9 Caffeine 727.67 685.00 531.33
Chemical analyses indicate that all coffee brews ¹ Average of three coffee brew analysis
contain very low concentrations of amino acids. However, ² Poor reproducibility of HPLC method due to the low content on all coffee brews
those made from coarsely ground coffee contain a lower Source: ICO Technical Unit - Report No. 9
concentration of amino acids compared to brews made from
finely ground coffee. Similarly, concentrations of other non-
volatile acids vary with grind sizes. Acetic, citric, malic,
FIGURE 2
and phosphoric acids appear in lower concentrations in
brews made from coarsely ground coffee compared to Effect of Grind Size on Coffee Taste and Mouthfeel
brews made with either finely, or extra finely, ground
coffees. Quinic acid increases as the grind size decreases,
but the differences among concentrations are small.
Slightly
Concentrations of chlorogenic acids and caffeine – two

Fine Grind - 1 Minutes
Strong
important components of the coffee beverage – clearly Fine Grind - 5 Minutes
reflect the effect of grind size on the extraction of coffee

Intensity
solids. Tests have detected the highest concentrations of Moderate

both in brews (extracts) prepared with extra finely ground

coffee, intermediate amounts in brews made with finely

Slightly
ground coffee, and the lowest concentrations in brews Moderate
prepared with coarsely ground coffee.

Compared to grind or temperature, brewing time plays
a smaller role in determining the relative differences in Weak
Acidity Bitterness Body Astringency
the taste characteristics of acidity, bitterness, body, and Sensory Characteristics

astringency (See Figure 2). Once the brewing time is
determined – usually by the design of the equipment – Source: ICO Technical Unit - Quality Series - Report No. 9
the coffee’s flavor only can be controlled by selecting the

correct grind.
28
TABLE 2 FIGURE 3
Chemical Changes Resulting from Variations in Time Conditions

Effect of Grind Size on Coffee Taste and Mouthfeel
COFFEE BREWS PREPARED USING DIFFERENT BREWING CONDITIONS¹
BREWING CONDITIONS
Time Change Slightly

Strong
Coffee Grind Fine Fine Fine 4.5 oz./64 fl. oz. (60 grams/liter)
Brewing Temperature (°C) 94 94 94

Contact Time (min) 1 5 14 Brewed at 201ºF (94ºC)
Intensity
Moderate
Coffee Constituent Concentration (mg/l) Fine Grind - 5 Minutes
Fatty Acids
Palmitic acid (16:0) 4.97 5.90 5.87
Linoleic acid (18:2) 6.70 5.97 6.37 Slightly
Moderate
Sucrose² 135.00 126.67 275.00
Lactic acid 56.67 194.50 125.67
Acetic acid 261.00 225.67 242.00
Citric acid 343.33 461.00 355.33
Weak
Malic acid 109.33 137.00 100.33 Acidity Bitterness Body Astringency
Phosphoric acid 75.00 77.33 75.67 Sensory Characteristics

Quinic acid 525.00 495.00 556.67
Chlorogenic acids 955.33 1,064.67 988.33
Caffeine 665.33 685.00 688.67
Source: ICO Technical Unit - Quality Series - Report No. 9
¹ Average of three coffee brew analyses

² Poor reproducibility of HPLC method due to the low content on all coffee brews TABLE 3
Chemical Changes Resulting from Variations in Temperature

Temperature’s Effect on Taste COFFEE BREWS PREPARED USING DIFFERENT BREWING CONDITIONS¹
Second to grind, temperature has the greatest influence BREWING CONDITIONS
on the brew’s taste attributes. Sensory evaluation shows that Temperature Change
both acidity and body increase when the coffee is brewed Coffee Grind Fine Fine Fine
Brewing Temperature (°C) 70 94 100
at higher temperatures, whereas bitterness and astringency Contact Time (min) 5 5 5
decrease with lower temperatures. The rate at which each
Coffee Constituent Concentration (mg/l)
chemical component in roast-and-ground coffee in contact
with water is dissolved, not only is different because of Fatty Acids 3.26 5.90 6.53
each compound’s nature, but also directly depends upon Palmitic acid (16:0) 3.83 5.97 8.30
Linoleic acid (18:2) 83.33 126.67 110.00
the temperature of the water at the time of extraction. Sucrose² 121.00 194.50 187.33
Figure 3 illustrates the difference in sensory evaluation Lactic acid 151.33 225.57 187.00
Acetic acid 388.33 461.00 332.00
based on changes in brewing temperature. Citric acid 131.00 137.00 122.50
Malic acid 86.33 77.33 80.00
Phosphoric acid 348.33 495.00 383.33
Quinic acid 872.67 1,064.67 1,067.67
Chlorogenic acids 579.33 685.00 694.33
Caffeine
¹ Average of three coffee brew analysis

² Poor reproducibility of HPLC method due to the low content on all coffee brews
Source: ICO Technical Unit - Report No. 9
Changes in Both Time and Temperature

While extra fine grinds – those in which 70% or more
of the particles will pass through a #28 mesh sieve – show
the least variation in solubles yield with either time or
temperature changes; conventional fine, drip, and regular
29
grinds show significant variations in the extraction rates typically leads to the formation of a brownish color and
for total solubles concentration, as well as concentrations familiar toasted (or roasted) type tastes and aromas that
of specific flavor compounds. are water soluble. The resulting flavors that develop are
Figure 4 shows what happens to the total soluble influenced by the specific chemical composition of the
solids when both time and temperature during brewing coffee beans and the rate and degree of the roasting
are increased. During the first two minutes of brewing, process.
the coffee grounds rapidly release soluble material. Caramelized sugars represent the largest category –
The solubles yield during this period is approximately about one-half of water-soluble material found in the coffee
18%-20%, which represents 65%-75% of the available beverage. From a taste standpoint, they contribute to the
flavoring material. Although the rate of release remains overall perceived caramel-like taste of the coffee beverage.
similar for all time periods, the amount of soluble material Their contributions to coffee’s aroma are difficult to assess
released relates directly to the brewing temperature. because of the great number, complexity, and stability
Figure 4 also shows that, in terms of quantity of of the aromatic compounds. In general, the caramelized
flavoring materials released, only a slight change takes sugars tend to contribute the aromatic sensation perceived
place between 2 and 5 minutes, but almost no change as nutty, caramelly, or chocolaty.
occurs between 5 and 10 minutes. Beyond 5 minutes of Pigmentation (often referred to as color) is an
brewing time, the water has removed more that 80% of approximation of the amount and degree of caramelized
the available soluble material, which represents a solubles sugars entering the extracted beverage. As Figure 5
yield of approximately 24%. Because the goal in coffee indicates, the majority of the extractable material related
brewing is to extract between 18% and 22% of the available to color enters the brew within the first 2 minutes of the
flavoring material, this shows that brewing times greater brewing cycle and depends upon the water reaching the
than 5 minutes tend to result in bitter and astringent tastes, correct temperature.
unless prepared from grinds that are sufficiently coarse.
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 4
Extraction Rates for Color in Coffee Brew
Extraction Rates for Soluble Solids in Coffee Brew
% Extractable
% Extractable
Time in Minutes
Source: CBC Publication #47 Time in Minutes

(fine grind; commercial blend; 53.25 grams/liter;
A.O.A.C. methods of analysis, 8th ed. 1955)
Source: CBC Publication #47
Color in the Coffee Brew (fine grind; commercial blend; 53.25 grams/liter;
Caramelized sugars present in the coffee after roasting

create the color of brewed coffee. The sugars change to
caramel during the roasting process via a sugar-browning
reaction that involves amino compounds and carbohydrate
compounds. This classic chemical browning reaction
30
Other Brew Components experienced in over-extraction results from a build-up
in the concentrations of chologenic acids and phenolic
Table 4 illustrates how both the amount of coffee solubles
compounds during the later stages of the brewing process.
and the brew’s chemical composition change during the
Possibly, the non-volatile acids are interacting with the
extraction process. A comparison of extraction rates for a
higher levels of potassium found in the minerals – ashes
2-minute contact time at a temperature of 200ºF (94ºC) –
(salts) present in brewed coffee that may contribute to the
the conditions recommended for coffee brewing – showed
displeasing aspects of over-extracted brews. The exact
the highest rate for trigonelline, followed by caffeine,
causes of the flavor change created by over-extraction are
soluble solids, chlorogenic acid, phenolic compounds
currently not known.
(originally and incorrectly classified as tannins), and
color. Therefore, it appears that extraction proceeds more Here are brief descriptions of the five major components
rapidly for trigonelline and caffeine under normal brewing of coffee brew:
conditions than for the other components. • Trigonelline. A bitter organic compound that occurs
naturally in green coffee at about 1% by weight (the
TABLE 4
same percentage as caffeine in Arabica coffees). Light
Average Values for Selected Components in Coffee Brew
roasting will degrade about 10% of the trigonelline
Caffeine Chlorogenic
Soluble Color dry basis acid Phenolic when bean temperatures rise above 425ºF (218ºC).
Time in minutes soilds dry basis per g Trigonelline dry basis Compounds
When bean temperatures reach 455ºF (235ºC), as in
200°F Temp. (93°C) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
0.0 13.8 73 0.77 0.69 2.69 1.06 medium to moderately dark roasts, as much as 80% of
1.0 15.2 81 0.86 0.76 3.00 1.23
2.0 17.3 93 0.99 0.83 3.54 1.36 the trigonelline can be degraded. For very dark roasts,
5.0 19.5 108 1.07 0.88 4.15 1.52
10.0 20.4 113 1.10 0.89 4.37 1.57 above bean temperatures of 475°F (246°C), nearly
180°F Temp. (82°C) 100% of the trigonelline will be degraded.
0.5 13.5 68 0.75 0.66 2.58 0.91
1.0 14.7 75 0.79 0.72 2.82 1.12
2.0 16.5 85 0.92 0.76 3.33 1.27
5.0 18.9 98 1.02 0.87 3.92 1.49 TABLE 5
10.0 19.6 107 1.06 0.88 4.16 1.51
160°F Temp. (71°C)

0.5 12.8 63 0.67 0.58 2.36 0.51
Chemical Composition of Brewed Coffee¹
1.0 13.4 67 0.71 0.67 2.51 0.63
2.0 15.3 73 0.81 0.73 2.96 0.84
Rothfos Pictet Sivetz
5.0 17.9 90 0.98 0.88 3.72 1.00 Constituent
10.0 19.0 94 1.07 0.88 3.84 1.37 (1986) (1987) (1987)
140°F Temp. (60°C)
Polysaccharieds (%) 24.00 24.10 —
0.5 12.3 54 0.59 0.52 2.23 0.45 Soluble Carbohydrates (%) — — 35.00
1.0 12.6 59 0.68 0.65 2.30 0.50 Chlorogenic Acids (%) 14.80 15.00 —
2.0 13.7 64 0.72 0.68 2.67 0.70
5.0 16.9 82 0.92 0.85 3.39 0.89 Minerals-Ashes (%) 14.00 14.10 16.00
10.0 18.6 89 1.02 0.88 3.73 1.23 Proteins (%) 6.00 6.00 5.00
120°F Temp. (48°C) Caffeine (%) 4.80 4.80 5.00
0.5 11.0 50 0.57 0.51 2.08 0.30 Trigonelline (%) 1.60 1.60 —
1.0 12.2 53 0.67 0.64 2.22 0.47 Monosaccharides (%) 0.40 1.20 —
2.0 12.9 58 0.67 0.66 2.63 0.65
5.0 15.7 71 0.86 0.81 2.98 0.83 Carboxylic Acids (%) — 3.00 —
10.0 18.2 80 0.99 0.86 3.49 1.17 Non Volatile Acids (%) 1.60 — 31.00
110°F Temp. (37°C) Volatile Acids (%) 1.40 — —
0.5 9.04 40 0.48 0.40 1.58 0.23 Saccharose (%) 0.80 — —
1.0 9.43 42 0.50 0.48 1.69 0.29
2.0 11.60 49 0.58 0.62 2.26 0.47
Lipids (%) 0.80 — 1.00
5.0 14.30 62 0.77 0.77 2.68 0.47 Volatile Aromatic Substances (%) 0.40 — 2.00
10.0 15.80 65 0.82 0.79 2.98 0.77
Nicotinic Acidds (%) 0.08 — —
Source: CBC Publication #47 Unknown Substances (%) 29.40 29.90 —
¹ Percentages given on a dry basis.

Extraction rates for each compound increased with Compositions reported are as published by authors.
increasing temperatures of extraction. In respect to time,
Source: ICO Technical Unit - Report No. 9
extraction rates for soluble solids, pigmentation (color), and
chlorogenic acid increased during the 10-minute brewing
period, although the increase was less pronounced after
the first two minutes. Extraction rates decreased in the As shown in Figure 6, more than 80% of the
following order: trigonelline, caffeine, soluble solids, available trigonelline enters the eluted beverage during
chlorogenic acid, phenolic compounds, and pigmentation the first two minutes of the brewing cycle. Time has
(color). Time had no apparent effect on extraction rate after no apparent effect after the first five minutes for this
the first five minutes for trigonelline at temperatures from component at temperatures of 180ºF (82ºC), 160ºF
140ºF (60ºC) to 200ºF (94ºC). (71ºC), and 140ºF (60ºC). The very slight difference
Table 4 also suggests that the bitterness and astringency for 200ºF (94ºC) is not significant.
31
FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7
Extraction Rates for Trigonelline in Coffee Brew Extraction Rates for Caffeine in Coffee Brew
% Extractable
% Extractable
Time in Minutes
Time in Minutes
Source: CBC Publication #47 Source: CBC Publication #47

(fine grind; commercial blend; 53.25 grams/liter; (fine grind; commercial blend; 53.25 grams/liter;
A.O.A.C. methods of analysis, 8th ed. 1955) A.O.A.C. methods of analysis, 8th ed. 1955)
• Caffeine. Along with other alkaloids such as quinine

• Chlorogenic acid. Chlorogenic acid occurs in
and strychnine, caffeine is a bitterness stimuli for taste
green coffee at about 7%, but roasting decomposes
receptors on the back of the tongue. In its pure form,
caffeine is a white, crystalline powder that is odorless, about one-third to one-half of it. Chlorogenic acid,
but has a bitter taste. Caffeine has no significant effect which is completely water soluble, greatly affects the
on the perception of saltiness or sweetness in the brew, ultimate taste of the brew. It constitutes between 12%
but significantly enhances the perception of sourness and 18% of the total solubles.
and bitterness. The organoleptic (sensory) properties of chlorogenic
Arabica beans contain caffeine at approximately acids haven’t been studied in depth, but it is generally
1.1% by weight and Robusta beans at approximately believed that they tend to have slightly bitter but
2%-2.2% by weight. Caffeine also is found in tea markedly pronounced astringent characteristics. The
leaves (2.0%-4.0% by weight), cola nuts (1.5% by lower chlorogenic acid contents of Arabica coffees
weight), and cocoa pods (0.1% by weight). presumably relate to the superior beverage quality of
Chemically, caffeine remains stable during the those coffees. Also, it’s believed that chlorogenic acids
roasting process, except for minute amounts sublimed are part of the lingering bitter aftertaste associated with
at temperatures above 300ºF (149ºC) that collect in some coffees.
roaster exhaust pipes. Reduced roasting temperatures When heated, chlorogenic acid breaks down into
and lighter roasts reduce caffeine loss. caffeic and quinic acids. This breakdown increases
As shown in Figure 7, caffeine is readily water- the total acid content of the beverage, which can be
soluble at temperatures above 175ºF (80ºC). More measured as a pH change. Such acid increases and
than 80% of the available caffeine enters the eluted changes bring unpleasant taste changes, creating an
beverage within the first two minutes of the brewing acerbic (bitter and sour) beverage taste.
cycle. Caffeine values for the two highest temperatures Chlorogenic acids can be divided into three broad
tend to level off after the first two minutes. For classifications, each showing a slightly different
temperatures of 160ºF (71ºC), 140ºF (60ºC), and 120ºF chemical composition. Studies have shown that each
(49ºC), caffeine levels gradually increase over the classification reacts in a distinctly different manner
10-minute period. For the 100ºF (37ºC) temperature, during the roasting process. Some are destroyed
values begin leveling off after the first two minutes. rapidly, and others appear at virtually identical levels
for dark roasted coffees.
32
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 8
Extraction Rates for Phenolic Compounds in Coffee Brew

Extraction Rates for Chlorogenic Acid in Coffee Brew
% Extractable
% Extractable
Time in Minutes
Time in Minutes
Source: CBC Publication #47

A.O.A.C. methods of analysis, 8th ed. 1955) Source: CBC Publication #47
Figure 8 shows the rapid extraction of chlorogenic

acids during the first minutes of the brewing cycle. • Potassium. In brewing roast-and-ground coffee,
While the extraction rate tends to level off after the first approximately 90% of the mineral constituents,
five minutes, extraction of chlorogenic acid during the particularly the potassium, is extracted into the brew.
last five minutes is greater than that of either caffeine of Like caffeine and chlorogenic acid content, potassium
trigonelline. is found in greater amounts in Robusta-type coffees
compared to Arabica coffees.
• Phenols. Usually present in light roasted coffee beans
Like all salts, there is a correlation between
at fairly low concentrations, phenols increase as roasting
the concentration of the salt and its perceived taste.
continues. They have smoky, burnt, spicy, clove-like,
Increasing concentrations of potassium initially start
and bitter aromas, and also impart astringency to the
as sweet, change to bitter, become salty and finally
beverage taste. Dark-roast and Robusta coffees tend to
become sour. It is also possible that the potassium
have relatively high concentrations of phenols.
present in the brew is interacting with other taste
Phenolic compounds correlate more with the components by modulating the type or intensity of
intensity of astringency rather than bitterness. In the their taste stimulation. Further research is needed to
early research on chemical compounds contained in more fully understand the potassium’s effect on the
coffee, those relating to astringency were thought to be brew.
tannins, similar to those found in tea.
As Figure 9 illustrates, extraction of phenolic
compounds tends to level off after the first two minutes
of brewing time for temperatures of 200ºF (94ºC) and
180ºF (82ºC). However, marked increases occur over
the 10-minute period for temperatures of 160ºF (71ºC),
140ºF (60ºC), and 120ºF (48ºC). The curve of 100ºF
(37ºC) remains comparatively flat.
33
TABLE 6 Some coffee particles accept water more readily
than others. This condition can be attributed to a
Estimated Coffee Ash Distribution
variety of factors, including the origin of the coffee,
the age of the green coffee, non-uniform roasting of
Green Roast Soluble Dry Spent
Coffee Coffee Powder Grounds the coffee bean, or an excess of oil surrounding the
Dry weight relations¹ 1.176 1.00 0.380 0.620 cellular structure of the ground particle. Surges of
Percent ash content, dry basis 4.00 4.71 10.00 1.47 carbon dioxide gas from freshly ground coffee, which
Weight ash per unit
weight roast coffee, dry basis 0.0471 0.0471 0.038 0.0091 form a protective envelope around each particle, can
also contribute to incomplete wetting. In addition,
Percentage Distribution of Ash Components unusually high concentrations of minerals in the
Mineral Percent Total brewing water, particularly calcium (Ca) and sodium
Green, (Na) bicarbonate (HCO3), will interfere with the
Oxide Roast Ash Solubles Ash Grounds Ash
% % Total % Sol % Tol % Grds. wetting process.
K2O 62.5 52.0 75.59 10.5 33.65
P2O3 13.0 3.0 4.36 10.0 32.05 Non-uniform wetting causes inconsistent
CaO 5.0 2.0 2.90 3.0 9.62 extraction. It tends to create a channeling of the
MgO 11.0 8.0 11.63 3.0 9.62
Fe2O3 1.0 0.4 0.58 0.6 1.92 water flow; some portions of the coffee bed are over-
Sa2O 0.5 0.4 0.58 0.1 0.32 extracted, due to excessive water flow, while other
SiO2 1.0 — — 1.0 3.21
SO3 5.0 2.0 2.90 3.0 9.61 portions deliver under-developed flavors because the
Ci 1.0 1.0 1.46 — — coffee particles weren’t fully extracted. This problem
100.0 68.8 100.00 31.2 100.00 becomes readily apparent in equipment using
relatively short brewing times, particularly single-
¹ Assuming 15 percent weight loss on roasting.
cup brewers.
Source: Sivetz and Desrosier, Coffee Technology
2. Control of the bed height. The coffee bed must
be level, and in gravity-fed brewing system, should
measure from 1 to 2 inches (2.5-5.0 cm) in depth. If
Turbulence’s Influence on Brewing the brewing equipment doesn’t meet these conditions,
under-or-over-extraction and inconsistency follow.
After time and temperature, turbulence is the third
factor that affects coffee brewing. Turbulence causes Beds less than 1 inch (2.5 cm) high will lead to
coffee particles to separate and thereby allow for a uniform a light, bitter brew. Those that exceed 2 inches (5.0
flow of water through and past them. Without sufficient cm) slow down the cycle and channel the water flow,
turbulence, the water will fail to uniformly extract thus creating off-flavors and bitter taste. Channeling
flavoring materials from all portions of the coffee bed. In results when water follows the path of least resistance
this situation, some sections of the coffee bed are under- through the coffee bed. The water bypasses many
extracted, adding grassy to peanut-like flavors to the brew, sections of the coffee, leaving them completely dry.
while other sections are over-extracted, mixing bitter and Areas where the coffee is mounded tend to cause
astringent tastes into the brew. over-extraction, while cavities tend toward under-
The three aspects of turbulence are: development of the flavor
1. Wettability of the coffee grounds. For extraction to 3. Proper feed of the brewing water over the
occur, the coffee particles must first absorb water. coffee bed. For uniform wetting and extraction of the
Wettability, a characteristic of roast-and-ground coffee flavoring material to occur, the brewing water
coffee, relates to the coffee’s ability to absorb water must lift and separate each coffee particle. Improperly
at a uniform rate. As a general rule, each ounce of applying water to the coffee bed can contribute to a
coffee will absorb two ounces of water (each gram faulty brew. Correct water feed depends upon the
will absorb 2.086 ml of water). brew basket and spray head working on concert.
Principally, the interstitial voids within each In addition to creating the proper bed depth of
particle of coffee absorb the water. Once the water 1-2 inches (2.5-5.0 cm), the brew basket must be
has completely surrounded a coffee particle (both large enough to allow the coffee grounds to expand.
inside and out), the coffee flavoring material begins During brewing, they swell up to approximately 50%
to move out of the bean’s cellular structure and into of their original size. Therefore, a coffee-bed depth of
the surrounding water. 2 inches (5.0 cm) requires a brew-basket depth of at
least 3 inches (7.6 cm).
34
The brew basket must also regulate the flow of uniformly wetted, particularly around the sides of the
the water through the coffee bed. Ideally the flow brew basket. A light tan foam spread evenly on the
is restricted, so that the coffee particles remain in surface of the grounds should be seen. If the foam
constant suspension in a pool of water throughout presents a discernible pattern reflecting the number
most of the brewing cycle. This requires that the exit and placement of water delivery points in the spray
spout of the brew basket allows a smaller amount of head, it indicates segregated flow dynamics and
water to flow out than is dispersed by the spray head probable channeling in the coffee bed.
– but not so little that the brew basket overflows. In some volume-brewing situations, all of the water
Feeding water to the ground coffee must be done may not be able to pass through the bed of coffee in
uniformly and gently to ensure that the entire area the prescribed amount of time. This is particularly
of the coffee bed receives equal treatment. If one true when the bicarbonate content of the brewing
section of the bed is wetted down with more pressure water is high enough to restrict the water flow. In
than other areas, the brew will be totally inconsistent these cases, it may be necessary to divert some of the
and over-extracted. When manually feeding water, for water (up to 40%) around the coffee. This procedure,
example, pour it slowly, and in a circular fashion, to known as “bypassing,” prevents over-extraction.
guarantee complete and uniform wetting.
When brewing equipment feeds the water Brewing Standards
automatically, the design of the spray head becomes Table 7 summarizes the standards that must be met to
of prime importance. To determine the spray head’s produce a flavorful beverage – one that has been extracted
efficiency, examine the spent coffee grounds after the properly from roast-and-ground coffee and contains the
brewing cycle has ended. The entire bed should be ideal amount and composition of flavor compounds.
TABLE 7
Standards Established for Brewing Coffee

by the Coffee Brewing Center (USA)
and the Nordic Coffee Center (Norway)
Standard CBC¹ NCC²
STRENGTH
(% Solubles Concentration) 1.15 - 1.35% 1.30 - 1.55%
EXTRACTION
(% Solubles Yield) 18 - 22% 18 - 22%
BREWING FORMULAS 3.25 - 4.25 OZ. 60 - 70 grams

(Coffee to Water Ratios) per 64 FL. OZ. per 1.0 liter
BREWING TEMPERATURE 195 - 205° F 92 - 96° C
BREWING TIME 1 to 4 min. - fine grind 1 to 5 min. - fine grind

4 to 6 min. - drip grind 5 to 8 min. - coarse grind
6 to 8 min. - regular grind
HOLDING TEMPERATURE 175 - 185° F 80 - 85° C
¹ Source: The Coffee Brewing Center (1966) Equipment Evaluation

Publication No. 126. New York.
² Source: The Norwegian Coffee Brewing Center (1980) Evaluation
and Approval of Home Coffee Makers Publication No. 6B.
35
CHAPTER 7 Regional Differences
WATER The U.S. Department of Interior views water as a
Coffee drinkers in the United States consume more valuable natural resource and has compiled information
than 18 million bags – or approximately 2 billion pounds about all of the principal water supplies used by more
– of coffee each year. Assuming that each pound of coffee than 2,300 of the country’s largest cities and towns. Table
is prepared with about 3 gallons of water, slightly more 1 shows several examples of chemical analyses of water
than 6 billion gallons of water are needed annually to supplies and illustrates the wide variation of chemical
quench the U.S. population’s thirst for coffee. Because composition that can occur. In fact, every water supply is
it typically represents 98%-99% of the coffee beverage, unique because it comes in contact with different soil and
water understandably has a major influence on beverage receives different municipal treatments.
quality. Some local water supplies have high levels of certain
Pure water is a simple combination of two gases, mineral ions. For example, salt-water intrusion into
hydrogen and oxygen. When they unite, these gases form a Galveston’s (Texas) water supply gives it more than 400
familiar liquid. Of course, water can take on other physical parts per million (ppm) chlorides. Sarasota’s (Florida) has
forms as well. When the temperature drops below 32ºF 800 ppm sulfates. Deep wells in Michigan and certain arid
(0ºC), it solidifies as ice. When the temperature rises geographical areas have more than 1,000 ppm minerals,
above the 212ºF (100ºC), water becomes a gas, as steam. It creating a high enough alkaline taste to be considered
will also contain hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions brackish.
that alter its chemical properties.
Standards for Drinking Water
As usually encountered, water is never pure. It contains
many chemical compounds in an infinite variety of Virtually all of the water (99%) flowing out of municipal
combinations and concentrations. Some of these materials, taps is used for general purposes – watering lawns, washing
if presented in relatively large amounts, can cause unusual clothes and dishes, disposing of waste, fighting fires, and
tastes, odors, and colors. These are called dissolved, or so forth. Less than 1% is destined for consumption in food
soluble, materials because they form such an intimate and beverages. With so much water literally poured down
and complete a mixture with the water, that even filtration the drain, cities do not find it economically feasible to use
cannot separate them. treatments that produce top-quality drinking water.
Water may also contain undissolved (or insoluble) To qualify as safe to drink, according to the U.S. Public
materials. Some of these are living organisms, such as Health standards, water must be clear, odorless, and
bacteria or molds that aren’t usually visible, or even large tasteless. It must be free of bacteria and contain less than
visible organisms. Insolubles may also include non-living the following: 0.2 ppm of copper, 0.3 ppm of iron, 250 ppm
materials, such as fine dirt and sand. Municipalities of sulfates, 250 ppm of chlorides, 100 ppm of magnesium,
use filters or fine screens to remove the undissolved and 1,000 ppm of total dissolved solids. The standards also
or suspended material and also chemically treat water specify no more than 10 ppm alkalinity (but no caustic
intended for human consumption to destroy any living alkalinity) and less than 50 ppm of sodium or potassium
organisms it may contain. alkalinity.
Water that is safe to drink, however, does not necessarily
TABLE 1
Analyses of Water Supplies Used by Large Cities in the United States

Component City
Boston, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Indianapolis, Cleveland, St. Louis, Kansas City, Galveston, Sarasota, Pittsburgh,
MA NY IL CA CA IN OH MO KS TX FL PA
( Fe ) Iron 0.10¹ 0.03 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.11 0.12 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.56 0.30
( Ca ) Calcium 4.00 13.00 39.00 25.00 1.10 67.00 39.00 23.00 75.00 30.00 14.00 60.00
( Mg) Mangnesium 0.40 4.30 10.00 5.00 1.40 20.00 7.30 9.70 22.00 9.70 0.30 18.00
( Na ) Sodium 1.80 3.00 3.30 34.00 0.40 6.20 8.70 33.00 59.00 351.00 530.00 49.00
( K ) Potassium 0.70 1.40 0.70 4.00 — 1.60 1.30 33.00 5.60 351.00 16.00 49.00
( CO3 ) Carbonate 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
( HCO3) Bicarbonate 7.00 36.00 132.00 138.00 7.00 206.00 103.00 20.00 237.00 336.00 161.00 17.00
( SO4 ) Sulfate 5.60 20.00 23.00 23.00 1.60 67.00 30.00 109.00 172.00 1.00 817.00 248.00
( Cl ) Chloride 3.40 5.80 7.20 17.00 1.00 10.00 20.00 17.00 29.00 422.00 168.00 58.00
¹ All data given in ppm

Source: CoffeeBrewing Center Publication No. 6
36
make the best coffee. Although safe and acceptable for TABLE 2
general use, municipal water often carries tastes and
Threshold Concentration of Ions in Water Solution
odors that can become objectionable when used for food or and Concentration in Coffee Beverage
beverage preparation.
Threshold in Water Concentration Detectable
Potential Problems Ion ppm in Coffee Beverage ppm
NaHCO3
When considering the level at which impurities in Na+ 290 377
the water will react adversely with coffee’s flavor, it is HCO3– 770 1000
important to view their concentration in relationship to the Na2CO3

Na+ 34 96
concentration of coffee flavoring material. CO3= 44 125
For example, a coffee beverage containing 1.0% coffee Na3PO4
and 99.0% water has a concentration of 10,000 parts of Na+ 75 —
coffee flavoring material for each 1 million parts of water. PO4= 105 —
If the coffee is brewed with water containing 100 ppm NaAc

Na+ 140 —
total dissolved solids, the resulting mixture of dissolved Ac– 360 —
solids to coffee flavoring material is 100-10,000 or 1.0%. NaCl
Depending on the type and nature of the dissolved solids, Na+ 135 258
a 1.0% concentration is high enough to affect the coffee’s Cl– 210 400
flavor, even though the concentration level in the water KCl
K+ 340 410
(100 ppm) produces no detectable odor or taste.
Cl– 310 450
Regard a water supply as a potential source of brewing KAc
problems if it has any of the following characteristics: K+ 680 —
• A total dissolved solids content above 300 Ac– 1020 —
ppm. Generally speaking, water with a total dissolved CaCl2

Ca++ 125 300
solids content below 300 ppm will not cause brewing Cl– 222 530
problems. In fact, a level of dissolved solids between MgSO
100 and 200 ppm gives water the “crystal fresh” taste Mg++ 100 200
of mountain spring water. SO4= 400 800
Demineralized water, which contains less than Fe(SO4)3

Fe+++ 10 10
10 ppm of dissolved solids, is not recommended for SO4= 25 25
coffee brewing. During the 1960s, the CBI conducted
extensive studies to establish taste thresholds for Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 6
both water and coffee containing the minerals most
commonly found in municipal drinking water. Table 2 7 ppm one can readily perceive a very definite and
shows the point at which the average person begins to unpleasant greenish cast.
detect various minerals.
• A combined calcium and magnesium content
Therefore, if the total concentration of dissolved above 100 ppm. Calcium and magnesium are
solids of all types is below 300 ppm, there should not principal elements in the earth’s crust. They dissolve
be a problem in brewing coffee, unless the mixture of in water as it percolates through the soil. The build-
dissolved solids also contains iron. up of dissolved calcium and magnesium make water
• An iron content above 2 ppm. Preparing coffee hard and is responsible for scaling, liming, and other
with water that contains iron at concentrations as undesirable mineral deposits on brewing equipment.
low as 10 ppm, yields a beverage that stands out, not These deposits occur as the water is heated and the
because of flavor changes, but for changes in color calcium and magnesium combine with silica, sulfate,
or appearance – particularly when cream is added. and carbonate to precipitate out of solution and attach
Although the concentration in the water is extremely to metallic surfaces. While not directly affecting the
low, the iron combines with the phenols in the coffee flavor of the brew, scale and lime deposits in boilers
extract to produce typical greenish (iron-like) colors. prevent efficient heating of the water, cause failure
Differences are detectable even at 1 ppm levels of of thermostat-relay operation, block inlet and feed
concentration. At levels ranging from 4 to 7 ppm, some pipes, and lead to other difficulties that cause brewing
question of acceptability arises. At levels exceeding equipment to malfunction.
37
Hardness (ppm)
TABLE 3
FIGURE 1
City Waters as Received
Brewing Times of 400 ppm of Various
Hardness Sodium Potassium Carbonate Bicarbonate
(as CaCO3) (as NaCl) (as KCl) (as CO3–) (as HCO3–)
Inorganic Compounds in Deionized Water
pH ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
Dallas, TX 8.6 421 299 3 nil 439
Los Angeles, CA 9.1 266 115 7 nil 210
Denver, CO 8.5 116 64 3 nil 89
Memphis, TN 8.9 63 29 2 nil 94
Philadelphia, PA 8.1 89 27 4 nil 45
Woonsocket, RI 5.0 16 7 1 nil 11
Providence, RI 8.3 33 9 1 6 18
Boston, MA 7.0 16 7 1 nil 14
Four City Waters After Softening

Total Brewing Time (seconds)
Hardness Sodium Potassium Carbonate Bicarbonate

(as CaCO3) (as NaCl) (as KCl) (as CO3–) (as HCO3–)
pH ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
Dallas, TX 9.2 18 963 2 nil 461
Los Angeles, CA 9.5 9 700 5 nil 306
Denver, CO 9.6 6 350 3 nil 77
445 sec.
308 sec.
306 sec.
388 sec.
330 sec.
305 sec.
485 sec.
333 sec.
669 sec.
470 sec.
620 sec.
351 sec.
595 sec.
517 sec.
517 sec.
316 sec.
Philadelphia, PA 7.8 7 155 1 nil 75
• A carbonate-bicarbonate alkalinity above Inorganic Compounds Tested
100 ppm. More than any other group of compounds Note: Reference line at 350 seconds is brewing time using pure deionized water.
normally found in municipal water supplies, carbonates
and bicarbonates retard the flow of water through
the coffee bed, especially when their concentration
The flow-rate problem is further compounded if the
exceeds 100 ppm (See Figure 1). The greatest change
water has been treated by a zeolite softening system.
of the flow rate occurs at the beginning of the brewing
Through ion exchange, this process replaces the
cycle (See Figure 2). The flow rate decreases as the
minerals in the water – principally calcium and
concentration of carbonate-bicarbonate compounds
magnesium – with sodium. When combined with
increases (See Figure 3). The retarding effect can be
the bicarbonates already in the water, the sodium
so great that it prevents all the water from passing
bicarbonate forms a shiny, slimy material that
through the coffee bed within an acceptable time. In
binds the coffee particles together and blocks the
these instances, the coffee brewing system requires passageways through which the water would normally
the addition of a water bypass device. flow. As shown in Figure 4, this extends the brewing
38
time, thereby causing over-extraction of the flavoring FIGURE 4
material and leading to excessive astringency and
Effect on Zeolite Softening Process on the
bitterness. Total Brewing Time of Carbonate Hard Waters
FIGURE 2
Time Effect of Varying the Sodium Bicarbonate

Concentration on the Brewing Rate
Philadelphia Water After Softening

Los Angeles Water After Softening
Philadelphia Water as Received

Los Angeles Water as Received
Denver Water After Softening

Dallas Water After Softening
Memphis Water as Received
Woonsocket Water as Rec'd
Providence Water as Rec'd

Time Increment (seconds)
Denver Water as Received

Dallas Water as Received
Boston Water as Rec'd

City
Note: Reference line at 350 seconds is brewing time using

pure deionized water.
Volume Collected (mm)

• A combined sodium-potassium content above
Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No.31 50 ppm. At low concentrations, these salts actually
add to the perception of sweetness in the brew.
However, as its concentration increases, the sodium
tends to increase the perception of sourness in the
FIGURE 3
fruit acids present in the beverage. At the same
Effect on Total Brewing Time of Varying time, the potassium increases the perception of the
Concentrations of Compounds in Solution bitterness of the phenolic compounds present in the
brew. Fortunately, few municipal water systems are
plagued by excessive concentrations of either sodium
or potassium.
• An Acidity (pH) below 7.0 and alkalinity (pH)
above 7.0. Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Chemically, its
pH is neutral, acting neither as an acid nor a base. At
this point an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide

ions are present in the water. (Note: The pH scale values,
which range from 0.00 to 14.0, are exponential: As they
300 sec.
304 sec.
388 sec.
336 sec.
595 sec.
491 sec.
374 sec.
316 sec.
decrease from 7.0, each pH whole number indicates 10

times greater concentration of hydrogen ions; as they
increase from 7.0, each pH whole number indicates 10
times greater concentration of hydroxide ions.
Inorganic Compounds Tested
As the pH measurement of the water decreases
Note: Reference line at 350 seconds is brewing
time using pure deionized water. below 7.0, it shows an increase in the presence of
hydrogen ions, which lead to aqueous solutions that have
sour tastes. In addition, when water becomes a weak
acid because of an excess of hydrogen ions, it tends to
increase the water solubility of other compounds. As
the pH measurement of the water increases above 7.0,
it shows an increase in the presence of hydroxide ions,
which lead to aqueous solutions that have bitter tastes.
In addition, when water becomes a weak base because
39
of an excess of hydroxide ions, it tends to reduce the TABLE 4
acidity of aqueous solutions through the formation of
salts. Threshold Concentrations of Selected
Coffee usually has an acidity of approximately 5.0 Odor-Producing Chemicals
on the pH scale. Acidy coffees will reach a pH between
4.7 to 4.8, while mild coffees range from 4.9 to 5.1. Odor-producing chemicals
Robusta coffees, noted for their lack of acidity, typically Threshold in
Threshold in
fall in the range of 5.2-5.5. Most people can detect pH Compound coffee brew
water ppm
changes in the range of 0.1. Try to avoid neutralizing ppm
the acidity of the coffee beverage through preparations Ammonia 34.0 140.0¹
using alkaline waters (pH above 7.0), particularly for Chlorine 5.2 108.0
Chlorophenols
coffees whose distinguishing characteristic is good ortho - 0.006 0.001
acidity. para - 0.9 3.60
• A detectable odor. Never use water with a detectable para - 1.35² 1.33²
odor for coffee brewing. Generally, detectable odors Hydrogen sulfide 0.05 0.12³
Phenol 60.0 105.0
can be traced to the presence of hydrogen sulfide (the
rotten egg-like aroma), chlorine (the cleaning solvent- Detergent: water softeners
like aroma), or ammonia (the uric acid-like aroma). Threshold in
Threshold in
Different odors in water may also be the result of Compound coffee brew
water ppm
decaying organic material. ppm
Hydrogen sulfide, a problem in some southern Calgon 200.0 935.0
Disodium dihydrogen
states, is easily detectable at low levels of concentration
versenate 120.0 825.0
– 0.05 ppm in water and 0.12 ppm in coffee. Water Tide 12.0 100.0
containing hydrogen sulfide can normally be treated Trisodium phosphate 225.0 1,550.0
by adding chlorine to oxidize the hydrogen sulfide
¹ Color change prevented use of higher concentrations.
before using it to brew coffee. ² Tap water substituted for redistilled water in water
solution and coffee brew.
Chlorine Treatment ³ Losses by volatilization made higher levels difficult
to measure.
Municipalities commonly add chlorine to water to kill
any bacteria present. Because it is easy to use, readily Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 38
available, inexpensive, and effective, chlorine has become
a popular anti-bacteria agent. More than 96% of people Cleaners: An Additional Problem
living in municipalities have access to water treated with One additional problem indirectly related to water
chlorine. quality can occur. Cleaning compounds are used both on
When treatment is properly done, the chlorine the brewing equipment and coffee cups to remove coffee
completely oxidizes as it attacks the bacteria and leaves tars, accumulations of insoluble proteins in the brew. If
no residue. Most municipalities, however, choose to over- the cleaning compounds are not thoroughly rinsed off,
chlorinate the water to make absolutely certain it cannot they’ll dissolve into the coffee beverage as it is brewed or
transport infectious bacteria. Consequently, residual served. Some compounds such as alkyl sulfonate, found in
chlorine in municipal water supplies is a common problem many dishwashing detergents, have unpleasant tastes that
when brewing coffee. become detectable at concentrations above 100 ppm.
Chlorine by itself has a low taste threshold concentration
for both water (5 ppm) and for coffee (100 ppm). But the Water-Always a Potential Source of Problems
chlorine from the water often combines with the phenols Even water that appears safe to drink, with no apparent
from the coffee to create chlorophenol. This compounds tastes or odors, may contain impurities that interact
has a highly objectionable, medicinal taste that can be unfavorably with the flavor compounds in the coffee once
detected at a very low level of concentration (0.001 ppm) it’s brewed. In general, one can assume that the same
in the coffee beverage. Chlorine must be removed by some coffee will exhibit different flavor characteristics when
type of activated carbon filter before coffee brewing. prepared with waters taken from different municipalities.
Always remember that water accounts for more than 98%
of the coffee beverage.
40
CHAPTER 8 same time, multiple points prevent over-extraction
FILTERING DEVICES of those parts of the coffee bed that would otherwise
remain in prolonged contact with the water.
The primary purpose of the filtering device is to Wire screens and perforated metal plates perform
separate the grounds from the coffee beverage after the this important function if kept clean and unclogged.
brewing cycle has concluded. The device usually consists Cloth filters generally require special shapes and
of two parts: support devices to prevent them from sagging, which
1. A rigid structure that shapes and contains the bed would cause the water to drain in a single stream
of coffee grounds as water passes through them. from the lowest point. Paper filters require some type
2. A filtering medium – usually wire mesh, woven of supporting grid or cradle. Otherwise, the paper
fabric, or pre-formed paper-that prevents the grounds collapses against the brew-basket wall and limits the
from passing through into the finished beverage. drainage area to a small center section of the filter.
When operating effectively, the filtering device also • Allows water to pass through in the proper
achieves the following objectives: amount of time. Using a fine grind of coffee, the
correct brewing time ranges from 1-4 minutes. For
• Provides a level bed of coffee. This is necessary
a drip grind, the appropriate time is 4-6 minutes; a
for uniform extraction from each particle of coffee. In
regular grind required 6-8 minutes. These times apply
general, this is accomplished manually as the grounds
regardless of the equipment used or the quantity being
are placed in the filtering device. If the coffee bed is
prepared.
not level – if some sections are deeper than others –
the water will not pass through at an even rate. As a Ideally, the filter retards the flow of the water
result, some sections will be more highly extracted than long enough to create a slight steeping of the coffee
others. The net result is uneven extraction throughout particles. This brief steeping period allows the coffee
the bed of coffee. flavoring material to migrate from the center of the
coffee particles to the surface, where it enters into
• Provides a proper depth of the bed of coffee.
solution with the water flowing past. If the water passes
For the best results, the filter device should provide
through the coffee particles too rapidly, rinsing occurs:
a bed depth of 1.5 inches (3.8 cm), plus or minus
The water removes flavoring material only on or near
0.5 inches (1.2 cm). (See Appendix A for equations
the surface of the coffee particles.
relating coffee volumes to the size of filtering devices.)
To create the optimum flow rate, perforated plates
If the bed is too thin, less than 1-inch (2.5 cm)
and metal discs need a sufficient number of properly
deep, the water will pass through too rapidly. The
sized holes. For example, wire-mesh screens should
result will be weak, poorly extracted coffee. Beds that
range from 60 to 100 mesh to adequately separate
exceed 2 inches (5.0 cm) in depth lend themselves
the coffee particles from the brew while still allowing
to the possibility of channeling. This occurs when
the water to flow freely through the coffee bed. In
water, in following the path of least resistance, sets up
cloth filters, the weave of the material will control the
a channel through which it flows most readily. Some
flow rate. Paper filters also have varying degrees of
areas in the bed of coffee will remain completely dry,
permeability. Select both cloth and paper filters on the
while the coffee grounds surrounding the channels
basis of which permeability will provide the correct
will become over-extracted. Channeling results in
flow rate for the brewing application.
bitter, unpleasant flavors.
• Allows the desired amount of undissolved
• Supports the grounds so they don’t touch the
materials, both sediment and oils, to pass into
finished beverage. If the grounds are left hanging in
the final beverage. This is the most important role
the brew, the brewing time is extended indefinitely. The
played by the filtering device. Removing the oil and
result is over-extraction. Also, separating the grounds
undissolved material (often referred to as sediment)
after brewing becomes more difficult because a large
is known as clarification. The degree of clarification
volume of finished beverage surrounds the coffee bed,
is largely a matter of personal choice. Turkish coffee
requiring additional time for complete drainage.
brewed in ibriks, for example, is served without any
• Provides multiple drainage points. More than physical separation of the grounds. At the other
one point is necessary to promote uniform flow of the extreme is instant coffee, which is completely water
water through the coffee bed. This ensures proper soluble and contains no oil or sediment. It is virtually
wetting and extraction of the coffee grounds. At the lacking in body or mouthfeel.
41
The type of filter directly affects the body of the beverage clarity can be achieved by using material that
finished brew, which, in turn, affects the flavor of has a weave of 64 x 60 threads per inch and a weight of
the beverage. The body is created by the insoluble 5.75 sq. yards per pound.
materials, principally oils and micro-fine pieces of
bean fiber, that are rinsed off the coffee particles. Pros and Cons of Paper
These insoluble materials create brew colloids, which Although chemical laboratories have used filter papers
trap soluble flavoring materials and gases in the brew. for more than 100 years, the coffee industry began using
The colloids break apart as the coffee is consumed, them relatively recently. The application can be attributed
simultaneously releasing the aromas in one’s palate as to a coffee brewer, in the shape of an hourglass, exhibited
the brew reaches the taste buds. in New York City’s Museum of Art in 1943. The brewer,
This simultaneous presentation of taste and aroma which featured a paper filter, received an award in 1958
creates coffee’s flavor. Because the filter controls the for one of the best designed products of modern times.
amount of brew colloids present in the finished brew, Filter paper played a big part in the commercialization and
it has a direct bearing on the formation and retention widespread use of the half-gallon brewer.
of beverage flavor. Brew colloids create a time-delayed Paper filter brewers offer a number of advantages.
release of flavoring materials that adds to the overall The paper provides a high degree of beverage clarity and
enjoyment of the beverage. controls the flow rate of water thorough the coffee bed.
Paper filters don’t clog or permit excessive brewing times.
Metal and Cloth Filters In addition, they are very easy to handle – rather than
In terms of promoting or retarding formation of cleaning the filters, you simply dispose of them along with
brew colloids, each type of filter has advantages and the spent grounds.
disadvantages. In addition, some are easier to use or less However, paper filters have a number of potential
expensive to buy. For example, metal plates, discs, and drawbacks. For filter paper to give consistent results,
woven screens cost more to purchase initially. Compared it must not shed its fibers. It should be free of pinholes,
to the costs of disposable cloth or paper filters, however, possess an even texture, remain resistant to temperature,
they are far less costly over the life of the equipment. and have high wet-strength properties. If the paper’s fluting
Wire screen sizes from 100 to 200 mesh completely and shape don’t hold up during brewing, the filter will fall
separate the grounds from the finished brew yet still away from the sides of the brew basket and possibly cause
allow both oil and bean fibers to pass through and form the water to bypass the coffee bed.
large numbers of brew colloids. But these devices require Most important, filter paper should not leave an
constant attention and frequent cleaning. If not properly aftertaste. Unfortunately, most filter papers are not taste
maintained, they become clogged with coffee oils and free. Because of its porosity, paper easily absorbs foreign
residues that produce off-flavors. If roughly handled, their odors that are readily transmitted to the coffee beverage.
pores may become ruptured; this results in excessive and To combat this problem, filter papers must be properly
localized leakage of ground particles into the finished packaged and stored to prevent contamination from
brew. external sources and to prevent the development of mold
Cloth filters require the most attention to remain clean or mildew.
and free from foreign materials that can migrate into the The speed of beverage filtration has a direct bearing
beverage. If the cloth is of poor quality, or if the stitching on the paper’s contribution to taste. Highly permeable
stretches, the beverage will be muddy and contain excessive paper filters spend less time in contact with the coffee
sediment. Another difficulty in using cloth filters can be brew, thereby reducing their taste contribution to a low or
traced to the vegetable origin of the material used in their negligible level. Slower filter papers tend to impart more of
manufacture. The constant and high temperatures required their taste to the finished brew.
by the brewing equipment accelerate the breakdown of The filter device forms an integral part of the coffee
cloth fibers and increase the variety of chemicals absorbed brewer because it can affect contact time and water
into the cloth. turbulence. Even if the brewer stipulates the use of one type
The weave of the cloth will affect both the flow rate of filter, the quality of filter used can usually be selected.
of the water through the bed of coffee and the degree of In that way, one can choose the proper filter to achieve the
beverage clarification. In the typical manufacture of cloth desired level of convenience and beverage clarity.
urn bags, muslin offers the fastest flow rate and the least
clarification, while flannel offers the slowest flow rate and
the greatest clarification of the brew. In general, excellent
42
APPENDIX A As interest centers on diameters in relation to weights
of coffee for different depths, formula (4) may be rewritten
as follows:
RELATIONSHIP OF COFFEE BED DEPTH TO
10
VOLUME OF FILTER D = √ p (5)
√h
By E.E. Lockhart
These calculations apply only to devices in which water now let
is poured, sprayed, or dripped into a basket containing
ground coffee, and from which the extract drains, or is 10
drawn by action of gravity. F = (6)
√h
Condition 1: The depth of grounds will be maintained
within a range not exceeding 2 inches.
F = a factor, the value of which is determined by the
Condition 2: The roasted, ground coffee is assumed
depth
to have a bulk density of 22 pounds per cubic foot. One
pound of coffee will occupy 78.5 cubic inches.
Condition 3: The basket holding coffee, and in which Formula (5) then becomes:
extract is prepared, is assumed to be cylindrical in shape.
The volume of a cylinder is given by the following D = F √ h (7)
formula:
Table 1 gives F values for depths ranging from ½ to 2
π D² h inches.
V = (1)
4
TABLE 1
V = volume in cubic inches F Values in Relation to Depths of Dry Coffee

π = 3.142 (a constant) 10
F=
D = diameter in inches h
h 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
h = depth in inches 0.50 14.14 14.00 13.87 13.74 13.60 13.48 13.37 13.24 13.12 13.02
0.60 12.92 12.80 12.71 12.59 12.50 12.41 12.32 12.22 12.12 12.03
0.70 11.95 11.86 11.79 11.71 11.63 11.55 11.47 11.40 11.32 11.25
The diameter of a cylinder is given by the following 0.80 11.19 11.11 11.04 10.98 10.92 10.85 10.79 10.72 10.66 10.60
0.90 10.54 10.48 10.42 10.37 10.31 10.26 10.22 10.15 10.10 10.05
formula: 1.00 10.00 9.95 9.90 9.85 9.80 9.75 9.71 9.66 9.63 9.57
1.10 9.54 9.48 9.45 9.40 9.36 9.32 9.28 9.25 9.21 9.16
The relationship between weight of coffee and the 1.20 9.13 9.09 9.05 9.02 8.97 8.94 8.90 8.87 8.84 8.80
1.30 8.77 8.73 8.70 8.66 8.63 8.60 8.57 8.55 8.51 8.48
volume it occupies is as follows: 1.40 8.45 8.42 8.38 8.36 8.33 8.30 8.27 8.24 8.22 8.19
1.50 8.16 8.13 8.10 8.08 8.05 8.03 8.00 7.97 7.95 7.93
1.60 7.90 7.88 7.85 7.83 7.80 7.78 7.76 7.74 7.71 7.69
√
1.70 7.67 7.65 7.63 7.60 7.58 7.56 7.54 7.52 7.49 7.47
4 V 1.80 7.45 7.43 7.41 7.39 7.37 7.35 7.33 7.31 7.29 7.27
D= (2) 1.90 7.25 7.23 7.21 7.19 7.18 7.16 7.14 7.12 7.10 7.09
πh 2.00 7.07
V = 78.5 p Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 57
V = volume in cubic inches

p = weight in pounds With this formula (7), it is now possible to calculate the
One cubic foot = 1, 728 inches diameter of the coffee basket or urn riser, corresponding
to any weight of coffee in depths between ½ and 2 inches.
Formula 2 may also be written in terms of pounds as: This formula applies to both home and institutional
brewing devices. Table 2 applies to smaller, home coffee
4 x 78.5 x p
D=
π h √ (3)
makers. Table 3 applies to larger institutional equipment.
For convenience, Table 4 contains frequently used square
or roots.
Frequently, it is necessary to know the capacity of a
√
p coffee maker in terms of servings. If the diameter of the
D = 10 (4) coffee maker basket or urn riser is measured, the number
h
43
of servings for any depth of coffee between ½ and 2 inches TABLE 3
may easily be calculated. In the case of home equipment,
for which this calculation is often needed, note that one
service equals 0.35 ounces or 0.022 pounds; 45 portions
Coffee Urn Risers
of coffee are obtained from one pound of coffee if 2.25
gallons of water are used. Diameter of riser required to accommodate weights
of coffee in limiting depths
Consequently,
S = 45 p (8) Depth (inches)
Pounds 1 1½ 2
S = number of servings 0.25 5.0 4.08 3.5
p = pounds of coffee 0.5 7.1 5.77 5.0
1 10.0 8.16 7.1
S 2 14.1 11.53 10.0
p = (9) 3 17.3 14.1 12.2
45
4 20.0 16.3 14.1
5 22.4 18.3 15.8
or 6 24.5 20.0 17.3
Now substituting formula (9) in (7) above: 7 26.4 21.5 18.7
8 28.3 23.1 20.0
√
S 9 30.0 24.5 21.2
D = F (10) 10 31.6 25.8 22.4
45
15 38.7 31.6 27.4
20 44.7 36.5 31.6
or 25 50.0 40.8 35.4
30 54.8 44.7 38.7
45 D² 35 59.2 48.3 41.8
S = (11) 40 63.2 51.6 44.7
F²
45 67.1 54.7 47.4
50 70.7 57.7 50.0
TABLE 2 Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 57

Home Coffee Maker Baskets
Diameter of basket required to accommodate servings TABLE 4
and weights of coffee in limiting depths
Square Roots of Numbers to 100
Weight Depth (inches)
Servings* grams pounds
p 1/2 3/4 1 1½ 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 10 0.022 0.148 2.09 1.71 1.48 1.21 1.05 0.00 1.00 1.41 1.73 2.00 2.24 2.45 2.64 2.83 3.00
2 20 0.044 0.210 2.97 2.43 2.10 1.71 1.48 10 3.16 3.32 3.46 3.60 3.74 3.87 4.00 4.12 4.24 4.36
3 30 0.066 0.257 3.63 2.97 2.57 2.10 1.82 20 4.47 4.58 4.69 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20 5.30 5.38
4 40 0.088 0.297 4.20 3.44 2.97 2.42 2.10 30 5.48 5.57 5.66 5.74 5.83 5.92 6.00 6.08 6.16 6.24
5 50 0.110 0.332 4.69 3.84 3.32 2.71 2.35 40 6.32 6.40 6.48 6.56 6.63 6.71 6.78 6.86 6.93 7.00
6 60 0.132 0.363 5.14 4.20 3.63 2.97 2.57 50 7.07 7.14 7.21 7.28 7.35 7.42 7.48 7.55 7.62 7.68
7 70 0.154 0.392 5.55 4.53 3.92 3.20 2.77 60 7.74 7.81 7.87 7.94 8.00 8.06 8.12 8.18 8.25 8.31
8 80 0.176 0.420 5.94 4.85 4.20 3.42 2.97 70 8.37 8.43 8.48 8.54 8.60 8.66 8.72 8.77 8.83 8.89
9 90 0.198 0.445 6.30 5.14 4.45 3.63 3.14 80 8.94 9.00 9.06 9.11 9.16 9.22 9.27 9.33 9.38 9.43
10 100 0.220 0.469 6.64 5.42 4.69 3.83 3.32 90 9.49 9.54 9.59 9.64 9.70 9.75 9.78 9.85 9.90 9.95
11 110 0.242 0.492 6.97 5.70 4.93 4.02 3.48 100 10.00
12 120 0.264 0.514 7.27 5.95 5.15 4.20 3.63
15 150 0.330 0.574 8.13 6.64 5.75 4.69 4.06 Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 57
20 200 0.441 0.664 9.39 7.17 6.64 5.42 4.69
25 250 0.551 0.742 10.49 8.58 7.43 6.06 5.25
30 300 0.661 0.813 11.51 9.40 8.13 6.64 5.75
35 350 0.772 0.879 12.42 10.30 8.79 7.18 6.21
40 400 0.882 0.939 13.27 10.84 9.39 7.67 6.63
45 450 0.992 0.996 14.10 11.51 9.96 8.13 7.05 In some home and institutional coffee makers, coffee
50 500 1.102 1.049 14.82 12.13 10.49 8.58 7.42
75 750 1.652 1.286 18.18 14.85 12.86 10.49 9.10 baskets hold coffee in depths less than 1 inch, or more than
* One serving of beverage requires one Approved Measure of coffee equal to 10 grams, 2 inches. The useful depth depends largely on the design
0.35 ounce or 0.022 pound.
and efficiency of water spreader plates and filters. These,
Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 57 together with the coffee, impede the flow of water and control
brewing time. If they are designed to control the time of
44
beverage preparation within the limits recommended – 4-6 fractional voids (pores) of the paper (which is also
minutes for filter-drip makers – extraction should proceed known as muddying). Because the coffee particles
normally. don’t adhere to the filter paper’s surface, a better-
However, extremes in dimension should be avoided. known flow rate is achieved.
Experience indicates that baskets designed to accommodate All of the properties relating to the stability of the
coffee bed depths between 1 and 2 inches perform more filter paper during the brewing process are linked to
satisfactorily than others. The formulas given above can the paper’s density, which is commonly measured as
be used to determine compatible depths and diameters its basis weight. This property is usually expressed
outside the limits recommended. (E.E. Lockhart developed as the weight of 500 sheets (a ream) of 24-inch by
the above calculations while serving as head of the Coffee 36-inch paper. Lightweight papers fall between 16
Brewing Institute.) and 18 pounds, standard weight between 18 and 20
pounds, premium weight between 20 and 25 pounds,
and heavy weight greater than 25 pounds. The
APPENDIX B heavier the weight of the paper, the greater the ability
of the paper manufacturer and converter to build in
QUALITY ASPECTS the most desirable features that improve all aspects of
OF PAPER FILTERS the paper’s stability during the brewing process.
3. Minimum taste contribution to the coffee
For filter papers to give consistent results, they must
beverage. Filter paper is made from natural wood
exhibit the following four characteristics:
pulp, which inherently contains a great deal of oils,
1. Proper rate of water flow through the paper. tars, sugars, lignites, and other chemical compounds,
This property of the filter paper is referred to as such as turpentine. The manufacturing process
permeability and is typically measured based on the removes the vast majority of these impurities during
flow rate through a 1-inch diameter flow area under a bleaching and purifies the paper. Depending on the
2-inch pressure head of water. For best results in coffee type and amount of processing, the wood pulp changes
brewing, this flow rate should be approximately 16 in color from natural Kraft (brown) to varying degrees
fluid ounces (475 milliliters) per minute. If measured of white. After cleaning, resins are added to bond the
as a flow rate flow rate through a coffee brewer, as bleached wood fibers into roll-stock paper.
this translates into 40-55 fluid ounces (1,200-1,600
The taste residue remaining in the paper directly
milliliters) per minute.
relates to the manner in which the wood fibers
2. Stability throughout the brewing process. This have been cleaned and bonded. It is also directly
property is determined by four factors. proportional to the length of time the paper filter is in
• T
he number of flutes (ridges) on the sides contact with the water. Reduced contact time caused
of the filter. These allow the filter to hold its by faster flow rates reduces the taste contribution
shape after being saturated with water and also from the paper to lower or negligible levels.
allow the coffee extract to pass through it at a In addition, filter papers are porous and tend to
faster rate because of greater surface area. pick up foreign odors. These are readily transmitted
• T
he stiffness of the sidewall. This allows the to the coffee beverage during brewing. To prevent odor
filter to remain upright in the brewing basket and absorption, coffee filter papers should be packaged in
prevents it from collapsing onto the bed of coffee non-odor-permeable plastic.
grounds and diverting the water from the spray 4. Proper size for the brew basket and volume
head. of coffee. The filter paper must fit the basket
• T
he overall tensile (wet burst) strength. brew properly, allowing it to maintain its form when
This prevents the paper from bursting under the suspended on the metal grid of the brew basket and
weight of wet coffee grounds in unsupported areas. avoid becoming sealed against the solid wall of the
Wet burst strength is typically designed into the basket. It must be of sufficient height to allow for the
filter paper by the addition of resins during the swelling of the coffee grounds in the brew basket,
manufacture of roll-stock paper from wood pulp. which is caused by a faster in-flow of water than
outflow of beverage during the brewing cycle.
• T
he crepe surface. This feature prevents the
accumulation of micro-fine coffee particles in the
45
CHAPTER 9 TABLE 1
HOLDING AND SERVING Analysis of a Coffee Aroma Essence
TEMPERATURES BP
Relative
Flavor
Mol wt Percent C F Importance¹
In describing the shelf life, or stability, of green coffee, Acetaldehyde 44 19.9 21 70 1
Acetone 58 18.7 56 133 2
the industry normally expresses the time period in years Diacetyl 86 7.5 88 190 1
n - Valeraldehyde 86 7.3 102 216 2
– for example, new crop, current crop, or past crop. After 2 - Methylbutyraldehyde 86 6.8 91 196 2
it has been roasted, coffee’s shelf life is measured in days. 3 - Methylbutyraldehyde
Methylfuran
86
82
5.0
4.7
91
63
196
145
2
2
Although some disagree on the exact time frame, most Propionaldhyde 58 4.5 49 120 2
Methylformate 60 4.0 32 90 2
people concur that stale flavors become detectable 4 to Carbon Dioxide 44 3.8 -78 -108 —
Furan 68 3.2 32 90 1
14 days after roasting, unless adequate steps are taken to Isobutyraldehyde 72 3.0 63 145 1
Pentadience (isoprene) 68 3.0 30 86 2
protect the roasted coffee’s fresh flavor. Methylethyl ketone 72 2.3 80 176 2
C4 - C7 paraffins and olefins — 2.0 35 95 2
Methyl acetate 74 1.7 57 135 2
Beverage Stability Dimethyl sulfide 62 1.0 38 100 1
n - Butyraldehyde 72 0.7 75 167 1
During no other phase in the development of coffee’s Ethyl formate 74 0.3 54 129 2
Carbon disulfide 76 0.2 46 115 2
flavor, from the harvesting of the cherries to the roasting Methyl alcohol 32 0.2 65 149 3
Methyl mercaptan 48 0.1 6 43 1
of the beans, does the degradation of the flavor occur as 100.0
rapidly as it does once the coffee’s been brewed. After the ¹ 1.large; 2. medium; 3. small
roasted coffee is ground and brewed, the freshness of the SOURCE: Sivetz and Desrosier, CoffeeTechnology
beverage is measured in minutes. The change becomes
noticeable 15 minutes after brewing. After 30 minutes,
In an open container the gases escape into the
the beverage is no longer considered acceptable. After 60
surrounding air, causing a loss and change of coffee’s
minutes, the flavor will deteriorate to the point of being
aroma as they exit. In a closed container, however,
highly objectionable.
the gases can escape only until the vapor pressure
Maintaining brewed coffee’s freshness is a function in the container reaches an equilibrium level. After
of both the temperature and the conditions under which reaching this level, the volatile flavoring compounds
coffee is held after brewing. The objective is to create a return to the coffee brew as fast as they escape. The
stable environment for the volatile aromatic and fragile rate of escape and the equilibrium level for each
taste compounds that make up coffee’s delicate flavor. gaseous component of the aroma is a function of its
This is accomplished by holding the coffee in a manner boiling point.
that reduces the rate at which the volatile aromatic
The important exception to this change in the
compounds are driven out of the brew, reduces the rate at
brew’s aromatic components is the formation of
which the non-volatile taste compounds change within the
mercaptans (sulfur-containing organic compounds).
brew, and reduces the rate at which the water molecules
The mercaptans, although small in number, contribute
evaporate and thereby change the solubles concentration
significantly to pleasurable aspects of coffee’s
in the brew. Generally this is most readily accomplished
aroma. Studies have shown that at temperatures
by maintaining a holding temperature between 175º and
between 175ºF and 195ºF (80º-90ºC) the quantity of
185ºF (80ºC-85ºC) in a closed and insulated container.
marcaptans present in the brew actually increases.
Factors Causing Flavor Change It is almost as if a miniature roasting process were
taking place in the brew during the initial holding
Three primary factors cause the flavor change. They period. Beyond 60 minutes of holding time, these
are described below: important aromatic-flavor compounds are more likely
1. Coffee’s highly volatile aromatic substances to decompose rather than form.
constantly migrate from and to the brewed
coffee’s surface. As seen in Table 1, virtually all of
the compounds found in coffee’s aroma have boiling
points well below that of water. This means that they
are in a gaseous state and leave the surface of the
brew as soon as they reach it.
46
TABLE 2 become acerbic; An increasingly sour and bitter taste
Mercaptan Content Under Varying Holding Conditions characterizes these two acids.
Because chlorogenic acid accounts for such a large
The mecaptans content (expressed as sulfyhdryis) of standard coffee brew
portion of the solubles concentration in the finished
Time of Mercaptan concentration ( as - SH ) in parts per billion
holding Holding temperature
brew, holding coffee at a temperature where the
63° C 73° C 83° C 93° C chlorogenic acid remains stable is a key consideration.
p.p.b. p.p.b. p.p.b. p.p.b.
p.p.b. at "0" p.p.b. at "0" p.p.b. at "0" p.p.b. at "0" Studies have shown that it is most stable when the
(hours) % % % %
0 56.7 — 56.7 — 56.7 — 56.7 —
coffee beverage is held at temperatures between 175ºF
1
3
49.5
50.5
87.3
89.1
57.9
47.2
102.0
83.5
71.0
51.9
126.0
91.6
71.0
54.1
125.0
95.5
and 185ºF (80ºC-85ºC) for fewer that 60 minutes.
6 52.2 92.2 53.1 93.8 45.9 81.0 39.5 69.6 Held at lower temperatures or for longer periods of
24 37.0 67.0 31.2 55.0 28.0 49.4 24.1 42.6
time, chlorogenic acid decreases in its concentration
SOURCE: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 41 in the beverage, forming the by-products of caffeic
and quinic acids.
2. The elevated brewing temperature causes TABLE 4
coffee’s non-volatile liquid compounds to
Chlorogenic Acid Content Under Varying Holding Conditions
chemically change. As shown in Table 3, coffee’s
Recovery of chlorogenic acid from standard coffee brews
non-volatile flavoring compounds are composed ( Concentration of chlorogenic acid )
principally of sugars, proteins, ash (mineral oxides), Time of

Temperature of holding ( ° C )
holding
acids, trigonelline, caffeine, and phenolic compounds. 63° C 73° C 83° C 93° C
Std. Acid Std. Acid Std. Acid Std. Acid
The degree and rate of change relate to the chemical brew at "0" brew at "0" brew at "0" brew at "0"
stability of each of these compounds. (hours) ( u.g. / ml. ) % ( u.g. / ml. ) % ( u.g. / ml. ) % ( u.g. / ml. ) %
0 2450 — 2450 — 2450 — 2450 —
TABLE 3 1 2360 96.4 2370 96.8 2430 99.4 2410 98.5
3 2270 92.6 2270 92.6 2300 94.0 2270 92.5
6 2180 89.0 2160 88.2 2170 88.5 2060 84.1
Chemical Compositions of Soluble and Insoluble 24 2150 87.8 2120 86.5 2080 85.0 1980 80.9
Portions of Roasted Coffee
(Approximate, Dry Basis) SOURCE: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 41
Percent
Solubles Insolubles Studies show that quinic acid remains stable
1. Carbohydrates (53%)
Reducing Sugars 1-2 — under normal conditions for holding brewed coffee at
Caramelized Sugars 10 - 17 7-0
Hemi-cellulose (hydrolyzable) 1 14
temperatures between 175ºF and 185ºF (80ºC-85ºC).
Fiber (not hydrolyzable) — 22 Therefore, once the decomposition of chlorogenic
2. Oils — 15
3. Proteins (N X 6.25); amino acids are soluble 1-2 11 acid reaches this state, it doesn’t contribute to further
4. Ash (oxide) 3 1 changes in the beverage flavor. On the other hand,
5. Acids, non-volatile
Chlorogenic 4.5 — caffeic acid exhibits marked instability under the
Caffeic 0.5 — same holding conditions. That indicates caffeic acid
Quinic 0.5 —
Oxalic, Malic, Citric, Tartaric 1.0 — may be one of the principal sources of the unpleasantly
Volatile Acids 0.35 —
6. Trigonelline 1.0 —
sour taste changes that occur when brewed coffee is
7. Caffeine (Arabicas 1.0; Robustas 2.0%) 1.2 — held for extended periods.
8. Phenolics (estimated) 2.0 —
9. Volatiles Because applied heat also induces chemical
Carbon Dioxide changes, the beverage’s stability relates directly to
Essence of aroma and flavor Trace 2.0
0.04 — the manner in which the compounds are held. In
Total 27 - 35 73 - 65 general, high levels of direct heat increase the rate
of chemical change. To maintain the stability of the
Note: Volatiles may be classed chemically as acids, amines, sulfides, carbonyls majority of non-volatile compounds, avoid placing the
(aldehydes and ketones), and others. Non-volatiles may be classed chemically as
acids, carbohydrates, proteins, oils, phospholipids, minerals and others. holding vessel on a source of direct heat. This is best
accomplished by using an insulated container. By
SOURCE: Sivetz and Desrosier, CoffeeTechnology
avoiding the application of direct heat to the surfaces
of the vessel containing the brew, the rate at which
The most distinctive change is an increase in the the non-volatile flavoring compounds change form
coffee’s acidity. This occurs as the chlorogenic acid, will be reduced.
which constitutes approximately 15% of the solubles Studies have shown that caffeine and trigonelline
in the finished brew, breaks down into caffeic acid in the coffee brew stay completely stable at holding
and quinic acid during the holding period. This temperatures between 175ºF and 185ºF (80Cº-85ºC).
easily recognized taste change causes the coffee to
47
Their chemical compositions do not change, even hot coffee, or when drinking distilled beverages straight.
after 24 hours. Although these compounds contribute A certain degree of adaptation to this type of stimulation
to the bitterness of the brew’s initial flavor, it is highly is involved, in addition to the psychological differences
unlikely that any deterioration in the finished brew’s in the desirability of pain. While no quantitative data are
flavor can be attributed to the destruction, loss, or currently available on these phenomena, coffee needs to be
chemical action of caffeine or trigonelline. served at temperatures hot enough to meet the psychological
No studies have yet been undertaken to determine and physiological expectations of stimulation of the coffee
how other non-volatile flavoring compounds in the drinker.
coffee brew may change. The sugars, proteins, mineral The temperature of the brew also directly affects the
oxides, and phenolic compounds play a major role in amount and composition of the aromatic compounds
creating the beverage’s taste. Taste changes occur released from the fluid as it is sipped. Some of the most
as these compounds either decompose at elevated important components of coffee’s aroma have boiling points
temperature or react with other compounds during about 150ºF (65ºC); therefore, one cannot perceive them
the holding period. except at elevated beverage temperatures (See Table 1).
3. The water molecules vaporize and leave Temperature also has a direct bearing on one’s ability
the brew, causing the remaining flavoring to perceive different basic tastes, primarily reducing the
compounds to further concentrate. As the ability to perceive either sweet or salty taste sensations. As
flavoring materials become more concentrated, the temperature changes, the perceived taste characteristics
the strength of the brew increases and causes a of the coffee beverage also change. For the average person,
perceptible change in taste. With the simultaneous the most pleasing balance in the basic tastes (sweet, salty,
change in the type of soluble material present in the sour, and bitter) occurs when the beverage is served at
brew, such as chlorogenic acid breaking into caffeic temperatures above 160ºF (70ºC).
and quinic acid, this increased concentration level The actual temperature of the coffee beverage in the cup
creates a highly objectionable taste. differs from the temperature at which the brew reaches the
The rate of evaporation is a function of the tongue. The temperature of the beverage begins to decrease
beverage temperature, how much of the brew’s surface as soon as the brew leaves the holding container. The vessel
is exposed to air, and the pressure over the exposed into which it is poured acts as a thermal sump, absorbing
surface area. Holding coffee in a closed and insulated heat at a rate dependent on the type, density, and existing
container, or at least minimizing the surface area temperature of the cup. In addition, the temperature on the
exposed to air, greatly reduces the amount of water surface of the fluid in the cup decreases at a rate much
driven out of the brew through evaporation. faster than the body of the fluid because the surface fluid
Serving Temperatures is attempting to reach an equilibrium temperature with the
air above it.
The serving temperature of the beverage plays a key As the fluid on the surface is sipped into the mouth, it
role in both the physiological and psychological enjoyment undergoes a final temperature drop as the brew is sprayed
of coffee’s flavor. The temperature is important because in small quantities over the surface of the tongue. This is
of the expectations that link certain temperatures with the temperature experienced by the coffee drinker and
certain foods, its effect on the volatility of aroma-creating normally falls within the moderately hot temperature range
compounds, and the change in sensitivity to the primary of 130ºF-155ºF (55ºC-70C). [Note: 125ºF-130ºF (50ºC-
tastes as temperature varies. 55ºC) is the typical exit temperature of hot water from the
Serving temperatures preferred for hot beverages of all sink faucet.]
types typically range from 155ºF to 175ºF (70ºC-80ºC)
for the average consumer. On a psychological level, the Hold and Serve at the Correct Temperatures
preferred temperature relates to a person’s tactile pain Although relatively little is known about the rapid and
threshold – the point at which the kinetic energy of the intense transformations that occur in coffee’s flavor after
fluid triggers an initial response on the free nerve endings it’s brewed, studies have shown the changes occur in a
of the tongue. matter of minutes.
It is difficult to separate the threshold sensation of
To maintain the freshness of brewed coffee’s flavor,
pain from an individual’s reaction to the sensation. Some
hold it at a uniform temperature between 175ºF and
people derive pleasure from an excessive stimulation of
185ºF (80ºC-85ºC) in a closed and insulated container,
the free nerve endings on their tongues, as when eating
without the application of direct heat. While the actual
excessively hot curries or chilies, when sipping simmering
serving temperature is a matter of individual preference,
48
coffee should be served in the average temperature range Regardless of the method used, the equipment
for hot beverages, 155ºF-175ºF (70ºC-80ºC) to be both must be capable of wetting the entire bed of coffee
physiologically and psychologically pleasing. grounds evenly and thoroughly in the first 10% of
the brewing cycle. Because coffee brewing proceeds
in three distinct phases – wetting, extraction, and
CHAPTER 10 hydration – the wetting process must be completed
SELECTION OF BREWING EQUIPMENT before extraction begins. Otherwise, the brewing
water will not uniformly extract the soluble flavoring
Just as roasting creates the components of coffee’s material as it passes through the bed of coffee
flavor from green beans, brewing releases those flavoring grounds.
materials from roast-and-ground coffee and into the
final brew. The method of brewing – whether filtration, Uniform extraction also requires evenly distributed
percolation, decoction, steeping, or pressurized infusion – water turbulence. This is easy to accomplish when
greatly affects the type and amount of flavoring material the water is poured by hand or when the brewer
uses pressurized infusion. It is more difficult to
removed. In addition, the filtering device, mechanical
obtain sufficient turbulence using a spray head,
operation of the brewer, and the material used in its
particularly when the water is gravity fed. Ideally,
construction, all contribute to the final quality of the
the water turbulence will lift, separate, and tumble
coffee’s flavor.
each particle of coffee in the bed, thereby allowing
Four Operational Performance Criteria for a uniform extraction rate from each particle and
causing a slight foaming on the surface of the coffee
As a result, selecting brewing equipment requires one bed.
to objectively evaluate its operational parameters: Ensure
the equipment has the capability of delivering 3. Brewing time. Brewing begins the instant the
all of the coffee’s flavor created by the roasting water comes in contact with the coffee grounds and
process. To do this, a brewer must fulfill the following ends when a vast majority of the non-absorbed water
four criteria: has passed through the filter device. To control the
extraction of the flavoring material, the water contact
1. Water temperature and recovery time. A coffee time must match the particle size of the ground
brewer must be able to deliver a steady supply of hot coffee.
water so that brewing temperatures are maintained
at 195ºF - 205ºF (92ºC-96ºC) during at least 90% Correct brewing time depends on the grind of
of the brewing cycle. It is not acceptable for the coffee used. These times are 1-4 minutes for fine
grinds, 4-6 minutes for drip grinds, and 6-8 minutes
equipment to begin the brewing cycle at the correct
for regular grinds. Large-volume brewers generally
temperature and then, because of insufficient heating
operate on longer brewing cycles because so much
capacity, finish the cycle 10ºF - 15ºF (5ºC-10ºC)
water must pass over the coffee; therefore, these
lower. Brewing temperatures that fall below 195ºF
brewers use regular grinds. However, some small,
(92ºC) do not extract the full flavor of the coffee –
automatic filter brewers also have extended brewing
particularly high-quality, specialty-grade coffees.
times because of the way they heat and deliver the
The recovery time refers to how quickly the brewer water; such brewers require coarsely ground coffee.
can attain the proper brewing temperature again after
4. Brew basket and filtering device. Both the
completing a brewing cycle. When determining the
brew basket’s size and shape, as well as the filtering
brewer’s capacity, factor in the recovery time. For
method, must work together with the water feed to
example, a half-gallon brewer may be able to brew
achieve uniform wetting and extraction.
a pot of coffee every 5 minutes, which indicates a
capacity of 12 pots per hour. However, if the brewer The brew-basket design must allow for a level bed
requires an additional 10 minutes to recover to of coffee, 1-2 inches (2.5 - 5.0 cm) in depth. It must be
the proper brewing temperature, its true capacity large enough to hold the necessary amount of ground
decreases to 4 pots per hour. coffee that will achieve the required balance between
strength and extraction. Ideally, the brew basket
2. Water delivery. Brewers offer three methods for
will hold from 9-11 grams of coffee for each 6-fluid-
bringing hot water in contact with the bed of coffee
ounce cup of its rated capacity (6-8 gr per 125 ml
grounds: hand pouring, application by spray head,
cup). Also, it should offer multiple drainage points, be
and pressurized flow.
large enough to prevent backup and overflow of coffee
49
grounds, and be strong enough to prevent the wetted brewing cycle plus recovery time. When considering the
grounds from touching the finished brew. Finally, amount of beverage needed for slack periods, figure the
make sure the brew basket is easy to clean and equipment should prepare no more than the amount served
compatible with the type of filtering method used. in a 15-minute period. Otherwise, make provisions to store
The preferred filtering method depends on how the brew in sealed, insulated containers.
much clarity is desired in the final beverage. Paper, Most home brewers call for manual activation.
cloth, wire screens, and perforated metal plates all Foodservice brewers are often automated, meaning they are
work well, providing they do not impart any taste to more expensive and require a higher level of service and
the finished brew. For example, ensure reusable cloth preventive maintenance. While manual coffee brewing can
and metal filters can be easily cleaned. be easily controlled if the personnel involved are properly
trained and permanently assigned to the task, automatic
Evaluating Efficiency equipment presents significant savings in labor costs –
One can objectively measure all four of the brewer’s although it doesn’t guarantee a high-quality beverage.
operational performance criteria described above with Water, the universal solvent, also plays a role in the
just a few basic tools. For example, one can determine reliability of brewing equipment. As it flows through city
the time of the water flow, the temperature gradient of the pipes, most municipal water carries small particulates –
water during the brewing cycle, and the size of the brew small pieces of sediment. To prevent these from clogging
basket with a watch, a thermometer, a tape measure, and a the water valves in the brewer, some type of water-straining
measuring scale. device is needed.
To evaluate the interaction of the water-delivery method Also, water dissolves various minerals as it percolates
and brew basket, use a device that measures the coffee’s through the earth and into the water table. These minerals
strength in conjunction with the Coffee Brewing Control attach themselves to the metal surfaces in the heating
Chart to calculate the extraction rate from the bed of chamber, causing scale build-up. To keep the brewer
coffee grounds (See Chapter 3). In this manner, it can be operating correctly, periodically remove these mineral
determined whether the brewer extracts the desired amount deposits from the brewer’s heated surfaces.
of soluble flavoring materials from the required amount of
ground coffee, as determined by the capacity of the coffee Materials of Construction
brewer. Coffee reacts chemically on certain materials. Avoid
For example, a 10-cup filter-drip brewer with a 6-minute tin plate, aluminum, copper, and nickel as materials of
brewing cycle should have a brew basket that can hold construction for parts that come in contact with the coffee
100 grams, plus or minus 10 grams, of drip-grind coffee. brew. Bitterness, astringency, and metallic tastes will result
Water passing over the 1-inch to 2-inch (2.5cm - 5.0 cm) when these materials touch the beverage and produce
bed of coffee grounds at 195ºF - 205ºF (92ºC-96ºC) should a chemical reaction. Copper and nickel are especially
extract between 18% and 22% of soluble material from detrimental to coffee’s flavor.
the coffee. That would result in beverage strength (solubles Brewers made with plastic components, especially brew
concentration) between 1.15% and 1.35% of flavoring baskets, should meet the established criteria for food-grade
material in solution. plastics. Surfaces that are in long-term contact with water
must meet NSF and FDA food-zone guidelines on water
Mechanical Reliability contact, and be non-leachable (meaning no migration of
Mechanical reliability is a function of both the volume chemicals entering the water). Further, the plastic surfaces
of coffee prepared by the brewing equipment and its degree must not absorb water, nor impart a taste or odor to the
of automation. Performance criteria differ from home and water. Surfaces that are in short-term contact with water
commercial applications. At home, a brewer with an 8-10 must have a high surface hardness, must not absorb coffee
cup capacity is usually sufficient. Commercial locations, stains readily, should have a nice cosmetic look, and must
however, require brewers large enough to meet demand at meet UL and NSF guidelines for food-zone materials.
peak periods, yet not so large that coffee is held for a long All of the plastics must comply with FDA Regulation 21,
time during slow periods. which applies to materials used in the area of food contact.
For commercial use of coffee brewers, base the As long as plastics meet or exceed these requirements,
calculations on the number of people served, multiplied they will be suitable for all non-commercial applications
by the typical serving size; Include refills if applicable. in coffee brewer construction. In many commercial
Determine the brewer’s output based on the complete applications, plastic surfaces tend to pit and warp when
50
exposed to prolonged high temperatures. Pitting makes SCAA Brewer Certification Program
it difficult to remove coffee residues, increasing the
The Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA)
likelihood that residual coffee oils will lead to off-flavors.
will evaluate coffee brewing devices for the coffee industry,
For high volume commercial applications, it is generally
based on the parameters outlined on the SCAA website
best to select brewers with glass, porcelain, and food-
(www.scaa.org). In its role as an independent testing
grade stainless steel components. These materials have
authority, SCAA will analyze the data obtained from
no effect on the flavor of the brewed coffee. In addition,
detailed examination of a brewer’s operating performance
electro-plating of other materials, such as silver, can create
criteria and report the results to its manufacturer. If
composite materials chemically inert to coffee.
appropriate, SCAA will also recommend modifications
Pay special attention to materials that come in contact that can enhance the brewer’s performance.
with the water heated to brewing temperatures. Near 205ºF
(96˚C), water can leach out both taste and odors from Benefits of Precise Standards
various materials-particularly plastic tanks and rubber
Adhering to precise brewing standards that are
tubing.
universally understood offers numerous benefits. First
Ease of Sanitation and foremost, the standards will lead to a higher level of
consumer satisfaction. The more nearly perfect beverages
Any part of the equipment that comes in contact with that are available for consumption whenever coffee is
the finished brew must be accessible for easy cleaning. prepared, the more coffee will be sold. In turn, the more
Avoid equipment with hidden areas, narrow channels, or equipment will be needed, and the more reasonable
parts not removable for cleaning. In addition, thoroughly and rewarding use of accessory features will prevail. In
rinse off all cleaning materials so they do not leave any addition, standards form a firm foundation for successful
taste residues on the brewer’s surface. advertising and promotion efforts.
Whether used in the home or in foodservice locations, People do not buy or consume coffee for its nutritional
brewing equipment must be free of electrical and value. Rather, they buy and consume it for the pleasure and
mechanical hazards and easy to clean. It should combine satisfaction that comes through the aroma, taste, and body
maximum mechanical efficiency, maximum reliability, of the coffee brew. To the specialty coffee industry feels
and ease of service. Its size and capacity should match the responsibility to ensure that pleasurable experience
the volume of coffee required. Most importantly, however, takes place. By accepting this responsibility, the specialty
brewers should meet four operational performance criteria coffee industry can ensure a growing number of cups sold,
related to water temperature and recovery time, water pounds purchased, and consumers satisfied.
delivery, brewing time, and brew-basket capacity.
Evaluation of brewing equipment

The extraction of flavoring material from roast-
and-ground coffee proceeds along pathways dictated
by the natural laws of physics and chemistry. Only by
understanding and applying those laws can an equipment
designer create a brewer that delivers a high quality
beverage.
Although appearance and aesthetic aspects of
equipment certainly play a role in overall design, the
first requirement of a brewing device is to deliver a coffee
beverage of desirable flavor. Similarly, the convenience
of assembly/disassembly and easy access to parts for
efficient, economical service of equipment come into
play. These factors, however, also take a back seat to the
brewer’s performance. A brewer that looks good and is easy
to assemble offers no benefit to the consumer if it prepares
a poor tasting beverage. As a result, equipment designers
must know as much about the science of brewing as they
know about the art of design.
51
NOTES
Coffee Brewing Handbook
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THE COFFEE BREWING HANDBOOK

A Systematic Guide to Coffee Preparation

Specialty Coffee Association of America

Copyright © 2011 by Specialty Coffee Association of America

Chapter 1: Essentials of Good Brewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Analysis of the Finished Brew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Chapter 3: Coffee Brewing Control Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Chapter 4: The Brewing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Chapter 6: Time, Temperature, and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Chapter 8: Filtering Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Appendix A: Relationship of Coffee Bed Depth to Volume of Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Appendix B: Quality Aspects of Paper Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 9: Holding and Serving Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Chapter 10: Selection of Brewing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Brewing Formula, Gallons per Pound

Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 27

Midwest Research Institute

Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 27

reading by 3.97. CBC developed a table to permit simple

taken in the range of 130ºF-150ºF (55ºC-65ºC). Either Lead Shot

Direct-Reading Hydrometer Method Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 61

The hydrometer was not as precise a measuring

Relationship Between Conductivity and Dissolved Solids

Source: Presto-Tek Corporation Pamphlet Coffee Test Meter - Model DP-17

COFFEE BREWING CONTROL CHART

EXTRACTION - OUNCES PER POUND

THE COFFEE BREWING CENTER

Example = 1.18% EXTRACTION - Solubles Yield

0.70 ounces yield from a 3.5-ounce batch; or that 2 grams 1.60%

preparing the brew. 1.50% 15000 TDS

Brewing Formula (Coffee-to-Water-Ratio) 14500 TDS

The coffee brewing formula is a ratio, which is defined

BREWING RATIO : Grams per 6.0 fl.oz. Cup

often expressed as the weight of coffee required to prepare 12500 TDS

a standard-size batch. For example: 1.20% 12000 TDS

fl. oz.) per standard European cup from home brewing

brewers. 9500 TDS

On the Coffee Brewing Control Chart, as shown in

Brewing Formula, Gallons per Pound

Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 27

Preferred Taste Range for Solube

Soluble Solids - Ounces/Gallon

Brewing Formula - Gallons per Pound

Source: Coffee Brewing Center Publication No. 27

70g 65g 60g 55g

1.50% 15000 TDS

1.40% 14000 TDS

BREWING RATIO : Grams per Liter

1.10% 11000 TDS

.90% 9000 TDS

EXTRACTION - Solubles Yield

Water (Fluid Ounces)

• Ounces per half gallon.

has many uses. The exercise aids in understanding 50

improve product quality. Equipment manufacturers find it 56

80g 75g 70g 65g 60g

BREWING RATIO : Grams per Liter

EXTRACTION - Solubles Yield

1.50% 15000 TDS

Source: CBC Publication #47 Time in Minutes

Source: CBC Publication #47