ELECTRICAL MACHINES

INTRODUCTION

An electrical machine is an electromechanical energy conversion device. The

device which converts electrical energy in to mechanical energy is called a
motor. The device which converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy is
called a generator.

D.C GENERATOR
D.C generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy in to electrical
energy. Direct -current generators are used to supply power for radio
equipment, battery charging, electrolytic cells etc. A disadvantage common to
all d.c machines is the complexity of design, mainly due to the usage of brush
gear. This brush gear can also cause sparking.

1. Construction of D.C Generator

D.C generators and D.C. motors have same general construction.

A d.c machine consists of two main parts:

(i) stationary part, called the field structure, it is mainly used for producing
magnetic flux. 

(ii) a rotating part called, the armature, where mechanical energy is converted
into electrical energy (generator), or electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy (motor). 

The stationary and rotating parts are separated from each other by an air gap.
The main parts of a d.c machine (a generator or a motor) are described below. 

1) Yoke

It is the outermost cylindrical part of the machine. The yoke is made up of solid
cast iron or cast steel or forged steel. The yoke acts as the protecting cover for
the

machine and also provides a return path for magnetic flux created by filed
windings. In small d.c machines, yoke is made up of cast iron. In large d.c
generators, the yoke is made of cast steel from the consideration of better
magnetic properties.

2) Poles

Poles are also called as field magnets. It consists of pole core, pole shoe and
pole coils.

Pole core: The pole core are made of cast steel or forged steel. In some
machines, pole core are made from laminated sheet steel. Pole cores holds pole
coils.

Pole shoe:

It is the lower portion of the pole.

The main function of the pole shoe are

(a) it supports the field coil.

(b) it spreads out the magnetic flux in the air gap. Since pole shoe is of large
cross section, it reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path.
3) Field coils

The field coils are wound on pole cores. They are connected in series and the
connections are so arranged on different poles that when a direct current is
passed through this winding, the poles get magnetized to N and S polarities
alternatively. Thus filed system is responsible for producing the required
working flux in the air gap. The field coils are made from enameled copper
wire.

4) Armature

The armature is that part of the d.c machine where an e.m.f is induced as it
rotates relative to the main field. The armature consists of the toothed core, a
winding dropped in the core slots, and a commutator mounted on the armature
shaft.

Iron material is used for armature core. The rotation of solid iron core in the
magnetic field results in eddy currents. The eddy currents flows in the core
causes the wastage of energy and heat dissipation problem. To reduce the eddy
current loss, the armature core made up of thin silicon - steel laminations.

The laminations are usually 0.4 to 0.5mm thick and are insulated with varnish.
The armature winding consists of sections or coils.
The armature winding is housed in slots on the surface of the armature. The
conductors of each winding/coil are so spaced that when one side of the coil is
under a north pole, the opposite side is under a south pole.

Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to
the commutator degments, there are two types of armature windings in d.c.
machine:

a) Lap winding: Lap winding is suitable for low voltage, high current
generators. Normally it is used for generators of capacity more than 500A. In
lap winding, number of parallel paths equal to number of poles in the machine
(A=P). Also, number of brush sets required is equal to number of poles.

b) Wave winding: Wave winding is suitable for high voltage, low current
generators. It is mainly preferred for generators of capacity less than 500 A. In
wave winding number of parallel paths A=2. Also number of brush required is
always equal to 2.
5) Commutator

The commutator, which is a typical component of d.c machines. It is shown in

figure 2.6. It is used to collect the current from armature conductor. The
commutator is a hollow cylindrical structure and made up of wedge shaped
segments of high conductivity hard drawn copper. The segments are insulated
from each other by thin layer of mica. The function of the commutator is to
convert the e.m.f induced in the armature conductors in to unidirectional voltage
across the load impedance.

6) Brushes

The function of the brush is to collect current from the rotating commutator and
deliver it to the external load impedance. The brushes are made of carbon. The
brushes are mounted in a box type of brush holder and are held on the
commutator by a spring.

7) Bearings

Bearings are used to help the rotor shaft to rotate smoothly. Ball bearings or
roller bearing are preferably used. For small machine, ball bearing is used and
for heavy

a) Lap winding: Lap winding is suitable for low voltage, high current
generators. Normally

it is used for generators of capacity more than 500A. In lap winding, number of
parallel paths equal to number of poles in the machine (A=P). Also, number of
brush sets required is equal to number of poles.
b) Wave winding: Wave winding is suitable for high voltage, low current
generators. It is mainly preferred for generators of capacity less than 500 A. In
wave winding number of parallel paths A=2. Also number of brush required is
always equal to 2.

Consider a single turn loop ABCD is rotating clockwise direction in a uniform

magnetic field with a constant speed. As the loop rotates, the flux linking the
coils sides AB and CD changes continuously. Therefore emf induced in these
coils sides also changes but the emf in one coil side adds with that induced in
other.

If a load is connected across the ends of the loop, then alternating current will
flow through the load. The alternating voltage generated in the loop is converted
into direct voltage by a device known as commutator.

E.M.F. EQUATION OF A GENERATOR

Let

P = number of poles,

ϕ = flux/pole, webers (Wb),

Z = total number of armature conductors,

= number of slots × number of conductors / slot,

N = rotational speed of armature, r.p.m,

A = number of parallel paths in armature and

E = generated e.m.f. per parallel path in armature.

Average emf generated per conductor = dϕ/dt volt

Now, flux cut per conductor in one revolution, dϕ = Pϕ Wb.

Number of revolutions / second = N/60

⸫ Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N seconds

Hence, according to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction,

E.m.F. generated per conductor = PϕN/60 volts

For a lap wound generator:

Number of parallel paths, A = P

Number of conductor (in series) in one path = Z/P

⸫ E.m.f generator per path =

For a wave wound generator :

Number of parallel paths, A = P

Number of conductor (in series) in one path = Z/2

⸫ E.m.f generator per path =

In general, generated e.m.f

where

A = P ... for lap winding

= 2 ... for wave winding.

TYPES OF D.C. GENERATORS

D.C. Generators are classified on the basis of the method of exciting the field
coils as

1. Separately excited DC generator

2. Self excited DC generator

Self excited DC generator can again be classified as

1) DC Series generator 

2) DC Shunt generator and 

3) DC Compound generator.

1. Separately excited DC generator

In separately excited type, the field coils are excited from an independent D.C.
source.

Fig. 2.9 shows the connections of a separately excited generator. The voltage
output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field current (E g

=Pϕ ZN/60A). The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated
e.m.f. It may be noted that separately excited d.c. generators are rarely used in
practice. The d.c. generators are normally of self-excited type.

Armature current, I = I
a L

Terminal voltage, V = E – I R
g a a

Electric power developed = E I g a

Power delivered to load = E I – I R = I (E − I R ) = VI

g a a
2
a a g a a a

Where, I = Armature current

a

I = Load current
L

V = Terminal voltage
E = Generated emf
g

R = armature resistance
a

2. Self excited DC generator

In self excited type, excitation of the field coils are done by feeding back a part
of the output of the generator.

These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by the electric
current supplied by themselves. In these type of machines field coils are
internally connected with the armature. Due to residual magnetism some flux is
always present in the poles. When the armature is rotated some emf is induced.
Hence some induced electric current is produced. This small electric current
flows through the field coil as well as the load and thereby strengthening the
pole flux. As the pole flux strengthened, it will produce more armature emf,
which cause further increase of electric current through the field. This increased
field electric current further raises armature emf and this cumulative
phenomenon continues until the excitation reaches to the rated value.

There are three types of self-excited generators depending upon the manner in
which the field winding is connected to the armature, namely;

1. Series wound generators

2. Shunt wound generators

3. Compound wound generators

1. Series Wound Generator

In these type of generators, the field coils are connected in series with armature
conductors as shown in figure 2.10. So, whole electric current flows through the
field coils as well as the load. As series field winding carries full load current
they consists of relatively few turns of thick wire. The electrical resistance of
series field winding is therefore very low (nearly 0.5Ω).
Let, R = Series coil resistance
se

I = Current flowing through the series field(series field current)

se

Then,

I = I = I = I (say)
a se L

Voltage across the load, V = E - I (R + R ) – V

g a se brush

where, V brush = brush drop

Power generated, P = E × I g g

Power delivered to the load, P = V × I L

2. Shunt wound generators

In these type of DC generators the field coils are connected in parallel with
armature conductors as shown in figure 2.11. In shunt wound generators the
voltage in the field winding is same as the voltage across the terminal.

Let,

R = Shunt winding/coil resistance

sh
I = Current flowing through the shunt field
sh

Shunt field current,

I = V/R
sh sh

Armature current I = I + I
a sh

Voltage across the load, V = E - I R g a a

Power generated, P = E × I  
g g a

Power delivered to the load, P = V × I L L

3. Compound wound Generator

It is a combination of few series and a few shunt windings and it may be either
short shunt or long shunt.

(a) Short Shunt compound wound in which armature and shunt field winding
are connected in parallel and series field windings are connected in series with
this combination.

Series field current, I = Ise L

(b) Long Shunt compound wound in which the armature and the series field
coils are connected in series and the shunt field circuit is connected in parallel
with this combination.

Series field current, I = I = I + I

se a L sh

Shunt field current, I = V/R

sh sh

Terminal voltage, V = E - I (R + R )
g a a se

Power developed in armature = E I g a

Power delivered to load = VI L

In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field.
When the series field assists the shunt field, generator is said to be
commutatively compound wound. On the other hand if series field opposes the
shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compound wound.

APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS
1. Separately Excited DC Generators

These types of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited

DC generators because of their requirement of separate excitation source.
Because of that their applications are restricted. They are generally used where
the use of self-excited generators are unsatisfactory.

I. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are
generally used for testing purpose in the laboratories.

II. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation
in field excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of
DC motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for various applications.
Example-Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.

Shunt Wound DC Generators

The application of shunt generators are very much restricted for its dropping
voltage characteristic. They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated
very close to its position. These type of DC generators generally give constant
terminal voltage for small distance operation with the help of field regulators
from no load to full load.

I. They are used for general lighting.

II. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant
output voltage.

III. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.

IV. They are also used for small power supply.

Series Wound DC Generators

These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply because of
their increasing terminal voltage characteristic with the increase in load current
from no load to full load. We can clearly see this characteristic from the
characteristic curve of series wound generator. They give constant electric
current in the dropping portion of the characteristic curve. For this property they
can be used as constant current source and employed for various applications.

I. They are used for supplying field excitation electric current in DC

locomotives for regenerative breaking.

II. This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop
in the feeder in various types of distribution systems such as railway service.

III. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.

Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators

The compound wound DC generators are most widely used than other types of
DC generators, because of its compensating property.

I. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used lighting, power

supply purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage
property. They are mainly made over compounded.

II. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.

III. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices,
homes and lodges, the flat compounded generators are generally used.

IV. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large

demagnetization armature reaction, are used for arc welding where huge voltage
drop and constant electric current is required.

DC MOTOR
Principle:
A device which converts DC electrical energy to a mechanical energy is known
as d.c. motor. Its operation is based on the principle that whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a static magnetic field, it experiencès a
mechanical force. This force is employed on the conductor and hence the
conductor is moved away from the field.

The direction of this force is given by fleming's left hand rule and magnitude is
given by

F = BIl newtons

Generally, there is no constructional difference between de motor and dc

generator. The major parts of a d.c. motor are yoke or frame, main field system,
brushes, armature and commutator.

Fleming's left hand rule:

It states that if the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of left hand are
extended mutually perpendicular to each other and if the fore finger represents
the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicates the direction of electric
current, then the thumb represents the direction in which force is experienced by
the shaft of the dc motor.

Working of d.c. motor:

A dc supply is connected to both the armature and field windings, it passes

current in the armature winding through brushes and commutator. When the
armature conductors carrying current in the presence of magnetic field, they
experiences a force due to electromagnetic torque on the armature conductors,
the armature starts rotating. When the armature rotates in the magnetic field, it
cuts the magnetic flux. According to the electromagnetic induction, an emf is
induced in the armature conductors. But according to lenz's law, this induced
emf will oppose the voltages applied to the armature, hence it is called Counter
emf or back emf. A potential drop also occurs in the armature circuit due to the
armature resistance.

The back emf like in case of a generator is represented by

Where, P = no of poles

ϕ = flux per pole

z = No. of conductors

A = No. of parallel paths

and N is the speed of the DC Motor.

From the above equation, it is noted that, E is proportional to speed 'N'. That is
b

whenever a d.c. motor rotates, it results in the generation of back Emf.

Figure 2.22 shows electrical equivalent circuit of dc motor.

E = back emf in volts.
b

I = current flowing in armature circuit in amperes.

a

R = resistance of armature circuit in volts.

a

V = applied voltage in volts.

Thus characteristics of de motor or voltage equation of a dc motor is V = E + I

b a

R a

Where, I R represents the potential drop in the armature circuit.

a a

If the motor speed is high, back emf is large and hence armature current is
small. If the motor speed is low, back emf is less and hence armature current is
more.

1. Voltage Equation of DC motor

Let in a d.c motor

V = applied voltage

E = back e.m.f.
b

R = armature resistance
a

I = armature current
a
Since back emf E acts in opposition to the applied voltage V, the net voltage
b

across the armature circuit is V - E . The armature current I is given by :

b a

This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor.

2. Power Equation

If equation (3), is multiplied by I throughout, we get

a

VI = E I + I R
a b a a
2
a

This is known as power equation of the d.c. motor.

VI = electric power supplied to armature (armature input)

a

E I = mechanical power developed by armature (armature output)

b a

I R - electric power wasted in armature (armature Cu loss)

a
2
a

Thus out of the armature input, a small portion (about 5%) is wasted as- I R
a
2
a

and the remaining portion E I is converted into mechanical power within the
b a

armature.
3. Condition for maximum power

The mechanical power developed by the motor is P = E I

m b a

Now, P = VI - I R
m a a
2
a

Since, V and R are fixed power developed by the motor depends upon armature
a

current. For maximum power

TYPES OF DC MOTORS
The DC motors are classified into three types based on the field winding
connection with the armature.

1. DC shunt motor

2. DC series motor

3. DC compound motor

(i) Long shunt DC compound motor 

(ii) Short shunt DC compound motor

1. DC shunt motor
● In DC shunt motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature as shown in figure 2.24. Here shunt field winding has more number of
turns and less cross sectional area. Hence, shunt field winding resistance (R ) is
sh

high and less shunt field current

● The relationship between V, E and I .

b a

V = E + IR
b a a

2. DC Series motor
● In DC series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature
as shown in figure 2.25

● The series field winding has less number of turns of thick wire and hence will
posses a low resistance.

3. DC Compound Motor

● In DC compound motors, both series field and shunt field windings are
connected with the armature.

● It is classified into two types. They are:

(i) Long shunt DC compound motor:

● In long shunt DC compound motor, the shunt field winding is connected in

parallel with the series combination of series field windings and armature.

● The relationship between V, E and I is given below.

b a

V = E + I (R + R )
b a a se

I =I
a se

I =I +I
L a sh
(ii) Short shunt DC compound motor

● In short shunt DC compound motor, the series field winding is connected in

series with the parallel combination of armature and shunt field winding.

The relationship V, E and I is given by

b a

V=E +I R +I R b L se a a

V =V-I R
sh L se

I =I
se L
4. Applications of DC motors

DC shunt motor

1. Lathe machines

2. Blowers and fans

3. Centrifugal pumps

4. Reciprocating pumps

5. Machine tools

6. Drilling machines

7. Rolling mills

8. Conveyor belt and

9. Wood-working machines

DC Series Motor

1. Electric traction (i.e.,) Electric trains, 

2. Cranes, 

3. Hoists, 

4. Conveyors, 

5. Elevators, 

6. Trolleys.

DC Cumulative Compound Motor

1. Punching machines, 

2. Elevators, 

3. Shears, 

4. Rolling mills, 

5. Printing presses,
6. Air compressors, 

7. Flywheel, 

8. Metal stamping machine and 

9. Reciprocating pumps.

Differential DC Compound Motor

● Increase in speed with increase in load.

● Not suitable for any practical applications.

APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS
1. Separately Excited DC Generators

These types of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited

DC generators because of their requirement of separate excitation source.
Because of that their applications are restricted. They are generally used where
the use of self-excited generators are unsatisfactory.

I. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are
generally used for testing purpose in the laboratories.

II. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation
in field excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of
DC motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for various applications.
Example-Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.

Shunt Wound DC Generators

The application of shunt generators are very much restricted for its dropping
voltage characteristic. They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated
very close to its position. These type of DC generators generally give constant
terminal voltage for small distance operation with the help of field regulators
from no load to full load.

I. They are used for general lighting.

II. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant
output voltage.

III. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
IV. They are