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The Use of Palm Kernel Shell and Ash for Concrete Production

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 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Civil, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:9, No:3, 2015

The Use of Palm Kernel Shell and Ash for Concrete

Production
J. E. Oti, J. M. Kinuthia, R. Robinson, P. Davies

 and other environmental gains. The applications of

Abstract—This work reports the potential of using Palm Kernel agricultural wastes as aggregate or cement replacement
(PK) ash and shell as a partial substitute for Portland Cement (PC) material in concrete have engineering potential and economic
and coarse aggregate in the development of mortar and concrete. PK advantage especially in low-cost non-load bearing lightweight
ash and shell are agro-waste materials from palm oil mills, the
concrete, where compressive strength is not important.
disposal of PK ash and shell is an environmental problem of concern.
The PK ash has pozzolanic properties that enables it as a partial Previous studies have shown that palm kernel shell can be
replacement for cement and also plays an important role in the used as a lightweight aggregate for concrete production [1].
strength and durability of concrete, its use in concrete will alleviate Although the compressive strength of the concrete made with
the increasing challenges of scarcity and high cost of cement. In order palm kernel shell fulfils the requirement for lightweight
International Science Index Vol:9, No:3, 2015 waset.org/Publication/10000699

to investigate the PC replacement potential of PK ash, three types of concrete, higher strength of is preferred for medium strength
PK ash were produced at varying temperature (350-7500C) and they
structural members [1]. The results of another work on the
were used to replace up to 50% PC. The PK shell was used to replace
up to 100% coarse aggregate in order to study its aggregate ductility behaviour of reinforced palm kernel shell concrete
replacement potential. The testing programme included material beams showed that the mode of failure observed in palm
characterisation, the determination of compressive strength, tensile kernel shell was ductile [2]. The work by another worker [3]
splitting strength and chemical durability in aggressive sulfate- reported on the engineering properties of concrete
bearing exposure conditions. The 90 day compressive results showed incorporating palm kernel shell and demonstrated that that
a significant strength gain (up to 26.2 N/mm2). The Portland cement
concrete made with palm kernel shell has lower modulus of
and conventional coarse aggregate has significantly higher influence
in the strength gain compared to the equivalent PK ash and PK shell. elasticity when compared to conventional concrete; however,
The chemical durability results demonstrated that after a prolonged palm kernel shell concrete has sufficient strength to be
period of exposure, significant strength losses in all the concretes accepted as structural lightweight. Shafigh et al. [4] reported
were observed. This phenomenon is explained, due to lower change on a new method of producing high strength oil palm shell
in concrete morphology and inhibition of reaction species and the lightweight concrete and showed that crushed oil palm shells
final disruption of the aggregate cement paste matrix.
are hard and also have a stronger physical bond with the
hydrated cement paste, in addition, the study demonstrated
Keywords—Sustainability, Concrete, mortar, Palm kernel shell,
compressive strength, consistency.
that it was possible to produce lightweight concrete with palm
oil shell with significantly lower cement content.
I. INTRODUCTION The focus of this paper is to report on the material
characterisation, the compressive strength and chemical
T O mitigate the continuously increasing demand for low
cost and environmental friendly construction materials,
while strengthening economic growth and competitiveness,
durability and statistical modeling of concrete made with palm
kernel shell and ash. This is an attempt to come up with up-to-
date information on palm kernel ash as partial substitutes for
agricultural wastes can be used as replacement material in cement and the use of palm kernel for aggregate replacement.
construction industry, especially, in countries where abundant The use of PK ash and shell for cement and aggregate
agricultural wastes are discharged. The production of palm oil replacement will help to alleviate the disposal problems of
for example, result in various waste product materials such as which is an environmental concern and will potentially reduce
empty fruit bunches, palm kernel ash and palm kernel shells. the increasing challenges of scarcity and high cost of cement.
In most countries, these waste product materials are being This paper will be of interest to civil engineers and other built
stockpiled in open land-fields and thus it had negative impact environment professionals who need quick access to new
on environment. These palm kernel ash and shell have the generation concrete through the application of new
potential to be used as a partial replacement for cement and technologies.
aggregate, leading to reduction in the cost of construction, and
a convenient means of waste disposal, resource preservation II. METHODOLOGY
A. Materials
J.E. Oti is with the Department of Engineering, Faculty of Computing,
Engineering and Science, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, CF37 1DL, The materials used in the research consisted of Portland
UK (phone: +44 1443 483452; Fax: +44 1443 48345, E-mail: cement, limestone aggregate, palm kernel shell/ash and natural
[email protected] sea-dredged sand.
J.M. Kinuthia, R. Robinson, and P. Davies are with the Department of
Engineering, Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Science, University of
South Wales, Pontypridd, CF37 1DL, UK.

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International Journal of Civil, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:9, No:3, 2015

1) Portland Cement 2) Limestone Aggregate

Portland Cement (PC), manufactured in accordance with BS The limestone aggregates used throughout this investigation
EN 197-1 [5], supplied by Lafarge Cement UK, was used was size 10/4. The aggregates were supplied by a local quarry
throughout this research programme. Some of the oxide and and complied with the requirements of PD 6682-1[6] and BS
chemical composition of PC can be seen in Table I, the EN 12620 [7]. The results of sieve analysis of the limestone
physical properties of the PC in Table II and the particle size aggregate performed in accordance with BS EN 12620 [7] and
distribution for the PC as determined by light scattering in BS EN 933-1 [8] are given in Table IV. Some geometrical,
Table III. mechanical and physical properties of the limestone aggregate
in compliance with BS EN 1097-6 [9], BS EN 933-3 [10], BS
TABLE I EN 933-4 [11], BS EN 1097-6 [9] and BS 812-112 [12] are
THE OXIDE AND SOME CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PC
shown in Table V.
Oxide PC
SiO2 20.00
TABLE IV
TiO2 − THE SIEVE ANALYSIS OF THE AGGREGATES AND PALM KERNEL SHELL
Al2O3 6.00 WASTE
Fe2O3 3.00 Sieve Sizes (mm) Sand Limestone Palm kernel shell
MgO 4.21 10/4. 10/4.
MnO 0.03 - 1.11 31.5 100 100 100
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CaO 63.00 16 100 100 100

Na2O − 8 100 77 72.1
K2O − 4 100 2 1.9
P2 O 5 − 2 83 0.3 0.15
SO3 2.30 1 54 0.28 0.31
N2O − 0.5 21.8 0.19 0.13
S3- 0.25 6 0.14 0.11
CaCO3 − 0.125 1.2 0.1 0.11
Loss on Ignition 0.8
Chemical (%) TABLE V
SOME GEOMETRICAL, MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
Cl 0.03
AGGREGATES AND PALM KERNEL SHELL WASTE
Free lime 1.32
Limestone Palm kernel shell
Bogue's composition
Property Sand 10/4. 10/4.
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) 6.48
Water absorption (%) 0.85 1.5 12.8
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) 70.58
Saturated density (Mg/m3) 2.82 2.68 1.33
Dicalcium silicate (C2S) 6.09
Dry density (Mg/m3) 2.71 2.57 1.42
Tetracalcium alumunate-ferrite (C4AF) 6.45
Shape index (%) − 12 32
Impact value (%) − 18 12
TABLE II
SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PC Flakiness index (%) − 23 37
Properties PC 3) Palm Kernel Shell and Ash
Insoluble Residue 0.5
Palm kernel shell is a waste product of the palm mill
Bulk Density (kg/m³) 1400
Relative Density 3.1
industry; this industry extracts oil from oil palms fruits. The
Blaine fineness (m2/kg) 365 palm kernel shell used in this current work was supplied by a
pH local contractor. Palm kernel shell are hard, flaky and of
Liquid Limit (LL) (%) − irregular shape. The most important aspects of using palm
Plastic Limit (PL) (%) − kernel shell as aggregate replacement was to ensure that the
Plasticity Index (%) − palm kernel shells are properly prepared. This is of extreme
Maximu Dry Density {MDD} (mg/m3) − importance during the mixing of material for the various
Optimum Moisture Content {OMC} (%) − mixes. First, pre-treatment of the palm kernel shell was carried
Colour Grey out by removing oil coating with detergent and water, washing
Glass Content − and sieving the palm kernel shell into the required particle
TABLE III
sizes for the current work. Some of the Palm kernel shell were
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION FOR PC then burnt to a temperature of around 350- 7500C and grinded
Size(mm) PC (%) into fine as particles for use as palm kernel ash. The results of
>40 18 sieve analysis of the palm kernel shell performed in
20− 40 27 accordance with PD 6682-1 [6], BS EN 12620 [7] and BS EN
10−20 12 933-1 [8] are given in Table IV. Some geometrical,
>10 43 mechanical and physical properties of the palm kernel shell in
compliance with BS EN 1097-6 [9], BS EN 933-3 [10], BS

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International Journal of Civil, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:9, No:3, 2015

EN 933-4 [11], BS EN 1097-6 [9] and BS 812-112 [12] are In order to investigate the cement replacement potential of
also shown in Table V. PKS, the shell was burnt in an oven, at three different
temperatures (3500C, 5500C and 7500C) to produce PKS Ash
4) Sand
and they were used to replace up to 50% PC for the production
The sand used throughout this study was natural sea- of masonry mortar. The PKS Ash produced at a temperature of
dredged sand from the Bristol Channel. The sieve analysis 3500C were designates as PKS Ash 2, the PKS Ash produced
performed in accordance with PD 6682-1 [6], BS EN 12620 at a temperature of 5500C were designates as PKS Ash 3,
[7] and BS EN 933-1:1997. Some geometrical, mechanical while the PKS Ash produced at a temperature of 7500C were
and physical properties of the palm kernel shell in compliance designates as PKS Ash 4. The control mix for the masonry
with BS EN 1097-6 [9], BS EN 933-3 [10], BS EN 933-4 [11], mortar in the current research work was also adopted from an
BS EN 1097-6 [9] and BS 812-112 [12] are also shown in earlier work by the same authors [14]. The mix was prepared
Table V. with a water: binder ratio 1:2, using fine aggregate and a
Portland cement. A wide range of mortar mixes (20 mixes)
B. Mix Design, Sample Preparation and Testing
was prepared as part of the initial preliminary trial.
The control mix for the concrete in the current research The control masonry mortar mix in the current investigation
work adopted a mix used on various occasions in previous (PKS Ash 1) was prepared with a water: binder ratio 1:3,
studies by the authors. This mix had been used to assess the using natural sea-dredged sand and PC. After several trials
strength and consistency of concrete incorporating metakaolin with wide range of mixes, six mixes were selected in which
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(MK), pulverised fuel ash (Pfa) and slate waste [13]. The mix PKS Ash was used to replace the PC in the mortar control
used a binder: sand: aggregate proportion of 1 : 1.85 : 2.64, mix, in various combinations as shown in Table VII. For the
using limestone aggregate and a Portland cement content of first mix using PKS Ash (PKS Ash 2-30), the PC in the
390 kg/m3. The water/binder ratio was 0.5, with a slump of 70 control mix was replaced with 30% PKS Ash 2. For the
mm. Based on this control mix for the concrete, the current second mix (PKS Ash 2-50), the PC in the mortar control mix
investigation used Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) aggregates to was replaced with 50% PKS Ash 2. The third mix was
replace the limestone aggregate in the control mix (PKSC-1). designated PKS Ash 3-30 and the mix was produced by
The intention was not to maintain a specified consistency but replacing the PC in the mortar control mix with 30% PKS Ash
to obtain usable concrete, irrespective of consistency, using 3. The forth mix was designated PKS Ash 3-50 and the mix
PKS aggregate and, if possible, without using was produced by replacing the PC in the mortar control mix
superplasticisers, for cost-effectiveness. with 50% PKS Ash 3. The fifth mix was designated PKS Ash
After several trials with wide range of mixes, four mixes 4-30 and the mix was produced by replacing the PC in the
(PKSC-2 -PKSC-5) were selected, in which PKS aggregate mortar control mix with 30% PKS Ash 4. The final mix was
was used to replace the limestone aggregate in the control mix, designated PKS Ash 4-50 and the mix was produced by
in various combinations as shown in Table VI. For the first replacing the PC in the mortar control mix with 50% PKS Ash
mix using PKS aggregate (PKSC-2), the limestone aggregate 4.
in the control concrete mix was replaced with 25% PKS
TABLE VII
aggregate sizes 10/4. For the second mix (PKSC-3), the THE MIX PROPORTION FOR THE CONTROL MORTAR AND BLENDED MORTAR
limestone aggregate in the control concrete mix was replaced MIX
with 50% PKS aggregate. Binder proportion (%)
Mix Code w/b PC PKS Ash 2 PKS Ash 3 PKS Ash 4
TABLE VI
PKS Ash 1 (Control) 1.3 100 0 0 0
THE MIX PROPORTION FOR THE CONTROL CONCRETE AND BLENDED
CONCRETE MIX PKS Ash 2-30 1.3 70 30 0 0
Mix Code  w/b  Cement  Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Sand PKS Ash 2-50 1.3 50 50 0 0
Kg/m3 Limestone 10/4 PKS 10/4 Kg/m3 PKS Ash 3-30 1.3 70 0 30 0
PKSC-1 PKS Ash 3-50 1.3 50 0 50 0
(Control) 0.5 390 1118 0 755 PKS Ash 4-30 1.3 70 0 0 30
PKSC-2 0.5 390 837.5 280.5 755 PKS Ash 4-50 1.3 50 0 0 50
PKSC-3 0.5 390 559 559 755 Note : PKS = Palm kernel shell PC = Portland cement
PKSC-4 0.5 390 279.5 838.5 755
PKSC-5 0.5 390 0 1118 755 Cube (100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm) and cylinder (150
PKS = Palm kernel Shell Mass of water = 195 Kg/m3 mm × 300 mm) test specimens were used in the production of
all the concrete. On the other hand, 50mm x 50mm cube test
The third mix was designated PKSC-4 and the mix was specimens were used in the production of all the mortar. For
produced by replacing the limestone aggregate in the control all mix compositions, the test specimens, were prepared in
concrete mix with 75% PKS aggregate. The final mix was accordance with BS EN 206-1 [15], BS EN 12350-1 [16] and
designated PKSC-5 and the mix was produced by replacing BS EN 12390-1 [17]. The consistency of the fresh concrete
the limestone aggregate in the control concrete mix with 100% was measured using the slump test and compaction index test
PKS aggregate. in accordance with BS EN 12350-2 [18] and BS EN 12350-4

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[19]. The consistency of the fresh mortar was determined

using flow table test in accordance with BS EN 1015-3 [20].
De-moulding of the test specimens was done after 24 h. The
curing of the test specimens were carried out in accordance
with BS EN 12390-2 [21]. The cube test specimens were
cured under two curing regimes. The first curing condition
was the standard curing condition (in water). The second
curing condition was in aggressive sulfate-bearing solution.
All the cube specimens were tested for 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90-
day compressive strength in accordance with BS EN 12390-3
[22] and BS EN 12390-4 [23]. The concrete cylinders were
tested for 28-day tensile splitting strength in accordance with
BS EN 12390-6 [24]. For all mix compositions, the results
reported are the average obtained from five individual
specimens for compressive strength and three for tensile
Fig. 2 Consistency of fresh concrete measured by compaction index
splitting strength.
test
III. RESULTS
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Fig. 3 shows the mortar flow value for all the mortar mix
A. Consistency of Fresh Concrete and Mortar proportions. The mortar flow value for the control mortar mix
The results for Consistency of fresh concrete measured (PKS Ash 1) was observed to be 175. This value is within the
using slump test are presented in Fig. 1. The target slump of acceptable limit specified in the British Standard for masonry
70 mm was only achieved with the control mix (PKSC-1). It units, namely BS EN 1015-3 [20] and BS EN 413-2 [25]. For
was not possible to achieve this target slump for the mixes the mortar mix PKS Ash 4-30, where the PC in the control
containing PKS aggregate. All mixes incorporating PKS mortar mix was replaced with 30% of PKS Ash 2, the mortar
aggregate (PKSC-2 - PKSC-5) showed higher slump values. flow value was observed to be 169. The mortar flows values
Mix PKSC-2, where the limestone aggregate in the concrete for all the other blended mixes (PKS Ash 2-30, PKS Ash 2-50,
control mix was replaced with 25% PKS aggregate showed a Ash 3-30, Ash 3-50 and Ash 4-50), were considered low
marginally higher slump value of 100mm. The observed (154–160). The lowest mortar flows value of 154 was
slump value for mix PKSC-3 was 130mm. The slump value obtained for mix PKS Ash 2-50.
for the mix where 100% limestone aggregate was replaced
with PKS aggregate (PKSC-5) was significantly higher
(200mm). No segregation was observed in these mixes.

Fig. 3 Mortar flow value for all the mortar mix proportions
B. Compressive Strength
Fig. 4 shows the compressive strength development of the
Fig. 1 Consistency of fresh concrete measured by slump test
100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm test concrete cubes at the end of
the 90 days standard curing condition (in water). The highest
Fig. 2 shows the results of the compaction index test for all
3-day strength value of about 12 N/mm2 was obtained for the
the concrete mixes. As expected, the control concrete mix
control mix (PKC-1). The lowest 3-day strength value (3•8
show significantly higher compaction index value when
N/mm2) was obtained for mix PKSC-5, this was the mix
compared with the values obtained for the mixes incorporating
where 100% limestone aggregate was replaced with PKS
PKS aggregate. The lowest compaction index value was
aggregate. At the end of the 90-day curing period, the highest
obtained for PKSC-5.
compressive strength value (26.2 N/mm2) was also observed
from mix PKC-1. Mix PKSC-5 again showed the lowest
compressive strength at 90 days.

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PKSC‐1 (Control) PKSC‐2 PKSC‐3 PKSC‐4 PKSC‐5

27 PKSC‐5
Compressive Strength (N/mm2 )

22
PKSC‐4

Concrete mix code
17
PKSC‐3

12
PKSC‐2
7

PKSC‐1 (Control)
2
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98
2 3 4
Curing age (days)
Tensile splitting strength (N/mm 2)

Fig. 4 Compressive strength development of the 100 mm × 100 mm ×

100 mm concrete cubes up to 90 days Fig. 6 Tensile splitting strength for all concrete mixes

Fig. 5 shows the results of the compressive strength testing 100%

Variation in tensile splitting strength of 
the blended concrete relative to the 
for the 50mm x 50mm cube specimens for control and blended 80%
mortars, cured in water at ages of 3, 7,14, 28, 56 and 90 days.
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It can be seen from Fig. 5 that the blended mortars (PKS Ash 60%

conctrol
2-30, PKS Ash 2-50, Ash 3-30, Ash 3-50 and Ash 4-50),
40%
tended to have lower compressive strength, at all curing ages
when compared to the control mortar (PKS Ash 1). The 20%
highest compressive strength value (10.2 N/mm2) was
0%
obtained from mix PKS Ash 1 at the end of the 90 day curing
PKSC‐2 PKSC‐3 PKSC‐4 PKSC‐5
age. Mix PKS Ash 2-30 showed the lowest compressive Mix Code
strength value (5.7 N/mm2) at 90 days, this was the mortar
mix where the PC in the control mix was replaced with 30%
Fig. 7 The variation in tensile splitting strength for mixes PKSC-2 -
of PKS Ash 2 (the PKS Ash produced at a temperature of PKSC-5 with respect to the control
3500C).
D. Chemical Durability
Fig. 8 shows the compressive strength of the control and
blended concrete mixes, cured in water and in aggressive
sulfate-bearing exposure conditions up to 90 days. For the
control and blended concrete mixes cured in water, it can be
seen that there was a progressive increase in strength values
up to 90 days. The highest strength value was observed in the
control concrete mixture (PKSC-1). The strength value of the
PKS aggregate blended concrete (PKSC-2 - PKSC 5)
decreased as the PKS aggregate replacement level in the
concrete increased from 25–100%.
In the case of the concrete specimens cured in sodium
sulfate solution, it can be seen that the control concrete
(PKSC-1) showed a higher strength value at the curing ages of
Fig. 5 The compressive strength development of the 50 mm × 50 mm
× 50 mm mortar cubes up to 90 days.
3 to 28 days. At the late curing age (90 days) something
dramatic occurred: The control concrete in the sulfate-bearing
C. Tensile Splitting Strength exposure started losing strength. Visible signs of minor
Fig. 6 presents the results of the tensile splitting strength of cracking were also observed in the surface of the control
all the concrete mixes at the end of the 28-day curing period. concrete specimen. Similar trends were observed for the
The highest tensile splitting strength of 3.8 N/mm2 was blended concrete, a progressive increase in strength in the
obtained from mix PKSC-1. The lowest tensile splitting sulfate-bearing exposure up to 28 days and lost in strength at
strength was obtained from mix PKSC-5. The variation in late age. More significant cracking were also observed in the
tensile splitting strength value of mixes PKSC-2 - PKSC-5 surfaces of the blended concretes
relative to the control mix (PKSC-1) is presented in Fig. 7. It
can be observed that the variation was greater for mix PKSC-5
(42%).

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PKS aggregate (PKSC-3), the statistical model for the

concrete cured in water is y = 0.108x + 12.67 and R² = 0.446,
the equation for the concrete cured in sodium sulphate is y =
0.102x + 13.09 and R² = 0.38.
It can also be seen from Fig. 9 that for the third blended
concrete where the limestone aggregate in the concrete control
mix was replaced with 75% PKS aggregate (PKSC-4), the
statistical model for the concrete cured in water is y = 0.106x
+ 10.80 and R² = 0.472, the equation for the concrete cured in
sodium sulphate is y = 0.093x + 11.66 and R² = 0.355. For the
last blended concrete where the limestone aggregate in the
concrete control mix was replaced with 100% PKS aggregate
(PKSC-5), the statistical model for the concrete cured in water
is y = 0.099x + 9.219 and R² = 0.508, the equation for the
Fig. 8 Compressive strength of the control and blended concrete concrete cured in sodium sulphate is y = 0.089x + 9.982 and
cured in water and in sodium sulfate solution R² = 0.398. Overall, the highest R2 value was obtained for the
concrete made with the PKSC-5 mix.
E. Statistical Modeling
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In this part of study, the statistical relation (model) between IV. DISCUSSION
compressive strength of the concrete in water/sodium sulphate There were variations in the consistency of the concrete and
solution and curing age was introduced. Regression analysis mortar. Higher compaction index values were observed in the
method was used to obtain this type of relation. For the wide fresh concrete made with the limestone aggregate (PKSC-1) in
range of concrete formulations (see Table VI and Fig. 9), the comparison with the concretes made using PKS aggregate
relation between compressive Strength of the concrete in (PKSC-2 - PKSC 5) while, the observed slump values for the
water/sodium sulphate solution and curing age was found to concretes produced with PKS aggregate were by far higher
be approximately linear. than that of the control concrete. For the control and blended
mortar, higher mortar flow value was observed for the control
mortar mix (PKS Ash 1) when compared to the blended
30
PKSC‐1 (cured in water)

PKSC‐2 (cured in water) mortars. This is due to the difference in mix compositions,

coupled with the varying influence of the differences in
Compressive Strength (N/mm 2 )

PKSC‐3 (cured in water)

20 PKSC‐4 (cured in water) particle shape, grading and interlock effect.

PKSC‐5 (cured in water) There were variations in the compressive strength of
PKSC‐1 (cured in sodium sulphate) concrete and mortar with age. For the various concretes and
10 PKSC‐2 (cured in sodium sulphate) mortars investigated under this study, the compressive
PKSC‐3 (cured in sodium sulphate) strength at the time of testing appears to increase as the age of
PKSC‐4 (cured in sodium sulphate)
the specimen increases. The control concrete (PKSC-1) and
0
PKSC‐5 (cured in sodium sulphate)
mortar (PKS Ash) showed better compressive strength than
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 the strength values observed using PKS aggregate and PKS
Curing age (days)
Ash, throughout the 90 days of curing. The variation in
strength may be attributed to the differences in aggregate and
Fig. 9 The linear relationship between of the control and blended
concrete cured in water and sodium suphate stabiliser content, aggregate impact values and other varied
engineering factors. The higher strength development may
The statistical model for the control concrete (PKSC-1) also be attributed to either the gradual continued formation of
cured in water is y = 0.109x + 18.30 (where y is the C–S–H gel within the pore structure, blocking pores and
compressive strength in water, x is the curing age) and R² = providing strength as the gel develops and ages as reported in
0.484. On the other hand, the equation for the control concrete previous research studies [13], [14], [26]. The lower strength
(PKSC-1) cured in sodium sulphate solution is y = 0.086x + observed for the concretes incorporating PKS aggregate,
19.52 (where y is the compressive strength in sodium sulphate dependent upon the breakdown of the bond between the
solution, x is the curing age) and R² = 0.357. For the first aggregate and the paste, failure of the shell aggregate and the
blended concrete where the limestone aggregate in the aggregate paste interface.
concrete control mix was replaced with 25% PKS aggregate Like the compressive strength, there is variation in the
(PKSC-2), the statistical model for the concrete cured in water tensile splitting strength values of the concretes. The control
is y = 0.096x + 15.30 and R² = 0.430, the equation for the concrete (PKSC-1) showed better tensile splitting strength
concrete cured in sodium sulphate is y = 0.085x + 16.04, R² = than the strength values observed using PKS aggregate at 28
0.329. For the second blended concrete where the limestone day of curing. The variation in tensile splitting strength may
aggregate in the concrete control mix was replaced with 50% be attributed to multiple factors such as, for example,
aggregate type and particle size distribution, the curing

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process and air content. In addition, other factor such as replacement level in the concrete increased from 25–
aggregate–paste bond, which thus have a greater influence on 100%. The potential to replace up to 100% coarse
tensile than compressive strength may results to this aggregate with palm kernel shell is still low because of
variations. the low strength. However, the potential to replace up to
The chemical durability of concretes was demonstrated by 50% Portland cement with palm kernel ash burnt at oven
the positive effect of sodium sulfate solution on the strength of temperatures of 7500C is more feasible.
the concrete, as shown in Fig. 7. For both the control and 3. The concrete made with coarse aggregate showed better
blended concrete, the positive effect of sodium sulfate lasted tensile splitting strength than the strength values observed
for only 56 days and from 56 to 90 days the effect was using PKS aggregate at 28 day of curing.
negative (loss in strength). This effect may be attributed to 4. The chemical durability results demonstrated that after a
change in concrete morphology, inhibition of reaction species prolonged period of exposure, significant strength losses
and the final disruption of the aggregate cement paste matrix, in all the concretes were observed. This phenomenon is
resulting in loss of strength. This current observed trend explained, due to lower change in concrete morphology
supported the results of previous research studies by [27] on and inhibition of reaction species.
the salting-out effects in aqueous ionic liquid solutions. Their 5. The results of the statistical model for the control and
paper described the positive effects and consequences of blended concretes reveal that the coefficients of
sodium sulphate solution in strengthening. Sodium sulphate determination were positive and very close to unity. This
solution can enter into chemical reactions with cement-based means that the parameters being matched were highly
International Science Index Vol:9, No:3, 2015 waset.org/Publication/10000699

materials causing expansion, initial strength increase and loss dependent on each other.
in strength, cracking and spalling and disintegration [27].
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