RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quantitative
RESEARCH DESIGNS
vs. Qualitative
AND METHODS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGNS
AND METHODS
What is quantitative research?

a systematic investigation of phenomena by

gathering quantifiable data and performing
statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques.
Primary quantitative research
methods
Primary quantitative research designs
1. Survey Research
a. Cross-sectional surveys
b. Longitudinal surveys

2. Correlational research
3. Causal-comparative research
4. Experimental research
a. Pre-experimental research design
b. True experimental research design
c. Quasi-experimental research design
 SURVEY RESEARCH
 is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome
research methodologies and studies

 can be conducted with a specific target audience group and

also can be conducted across multiple groups along with
comparative analysis

 prerequisite for this type of research is that the sample of

respondents must have randomly selected members
 SURVEY RESEARCH
 Cross-sectional surveys
Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys conducted in situations
where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the target
population at a given point in time. Researchers can evaluate various
variables at a particular time.

 Longitudinal surveys
Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-
sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time
durations to observe a change in respondent behavior and thought-
processes. This time can be days, months, years, or even decades.
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
 a comparison between two entities is invariable
 is conducted to establish a relationship between two closely-
knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the
changes that are eventually observed
 is carried out to give value to naturally occurring
relationships, and a minimum of two different groups are
required to conduct this quantitative research method
successfully
 patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are
concluded as they exist in their original set up
 CAUSAL - COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
 depends on the factor of comparison
 to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more
variables
 the independent variable is established but not manipulated
 is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two variables but
extends to analyzing how various variables or groups change
under the influence of the same changes
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 this research method is reliant on a theory
 an analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement.

1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under

observation after implementing factors of cause and effect.

2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical

analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of
research.

3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-

experimental design is similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The difference
between the two is the assignment of a control group.
Data collection methodologies
 Data collection methodologies

1. Sampling methods
2. Use of survey questionnaires
 Sampling Methods

Probability sampling Non- Probability sampling

a. Simple random a. Convenience
b. Stratified random b. Consecutive
c. Cluster c. Snowball
d. Systematic d. Judgmental
 Use of Survey Questionnaire

Fundamental levels of Use of different Survey Distribution and

measurement question types Survey Data Collection

differential scale Printed survey

nominal
questions Email
ordinal Online survey forms
interval Likert rating scale
questions QR code
ratio Social distribution
close-ended questions
Embed survey on a
open-ended questions
website
What are the advantages of
quantitative research?
Collect reliable and accurate data

As data is collected, analyzed, and presented in numbers,

the results obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do
not lie. They offer an honest picture of the conducted
research without discrepancies and is also extremely
accurate. In situations where a researcher predicts conflict,
quantitative research is conducted.
Quick data collection

A quantitative research is carried out with a group of

respondents who represent a population. A survey or any
other quantitative research method applied to these
respondents and the involvement of statistics, conducting,
and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less time-
consuming.
Wider scope of data analysis
Due to the statistics, this research method provides a wide
scope of data collection.

Eliminate bias
This research method offers no scope for personal
comments or biasing of results. The results achieved are
numerical and are thus, fair in most cases.
Best practices to conduct
quantitative research
Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative
◦ Understand the difference between the two methodologies and apply the
one that suits your needs best.
Choose a suitable sample size
◦ Ensure that you have a sample representative of your population and large
enough to be statistically weighty.
Keep your research goals clear and concise
◦ Know your research goals before you begin data collection to ensure you
collect the right amount and the right quantity of data.
Keep the questions simple
◦ Remember that you will be reaching out to a demographically wide
audience. Pose simple questions for your respondents to understand easily.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGNS
AND METHODS
What is qualitative research?
allows for in-depth and further probing and questioning of
participants / key informants based on their responses,
where the researcher also tries to understand their
motivation and feelings.

is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they
think so
Major Characteristics
of Qualitative Research
 DESIGN STRATEGIES
1. NATURALISTIC INQUIRY — studies real-world situations as they
unfold naturally in a non-manipulative and non-controlling way
2. EMERGENT DESIGN FLEXIBILITY—With openness to adapting the
inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change, the
researcher avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminate
responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge.
3. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING—Cases for study are selected because they
are “information rich” and illuminative. Sampling, then, is aimed at
insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization from a
sample to a population
 DATA-COLLECTION
AND FIELDWORK STRATEGIES
1. QUALITATIVE DATA — Consist of observations that yield detailed, thick
description; inquiry in depth; interviews that capture direct
quotations about people’s personal perspectives and experiences;
case studies; and careful document review.
2. PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND ENGAGEMENT — The researcher has
direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and
phenomenon under study. The researcher’s personal experiences
and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to
understanding the phenomenon.
DATA-COLLECTION
AND FIELDWORK STRATEGIES
3. EMPATHIC NEUTRALITY AND MINDFULNESS — Researcher adopts an
empathic stance in interviewing seeks vicarious understanding
without judgment (neutrality) by showing openness, sensitivity,
respect, awareness, and responsiveness. In observation this means
being fully present (mindful).

4. DYNAMIC SYSTEMS — Attention is paid to process. Researcher assumes

change is ongoing whether the focus is on an individual, an
organization, a community, or an entire culture; therefore, the
researcher is mindful of—and attentive to—system and situation
dynamics.
 Analysis Strategies

1. UNIQUE CASE ORIENTATION — The researcher assumes that each case

is special and unique. The first level of analysis is being true to, respecting,
and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case
analysis follows from—and depends on—the quality of individual case
studies.
2. INDUCTIVE ANALYSIS AND CREATIVE SYNTHESIS — Researcher seeks
immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important
patterns, themes, and interrelationships. Begins by exploring, then
confirming; is guided by analytical principles rather than rules. Study ends
with a creative synthesis.
 ANALYSIS STRATEGIES

3. HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE — The whole phenomenon under study is

understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts.
The focus is on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that
cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few discrete variables and linear,
cause-effect relationships.
4. CONTEXT SENSITIVITY — Researcher places findings in a social,
historical, and temporal context and is careful about, even dubious of, the
possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space.
Emphasizes instead careful comparative case analyses and extrapolating
patterns for possible transferability to and adaptation in new settings.
 ANALYSIS STRATEGIES

5. VOICE, PERSPECTIVE, AND REFLEXIVITY — The qualitative analyst owns

and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible
voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness. Complete objectivity
being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the
researcher’s focus is on balance—understanding and depicting the world
authentically in all its complexity while being self analytical, politically
aware, and reflexive in consciousness
Primary qualitative
research methods
Primary qualitative research designs

1. Narrative Inquiry
2. Case Study
3. Phenomenology
4. Ethnography
5. Grounded Theory
NARRATIVE INQUIRY
What understandings can we gain from people’s storied experiences?

Study of experience when experience is understood as lived and told stories. It

is a collaboration between researcher and participants, over time, in a place or
series of places and in social interaction with their social milieus.

STRUCTURING
NARRATIVE
INQUIRY
 CASE STUDY
What are the characteristics of this single case or of these comparison cases?

A form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed

account of one or more cases

TYPES OF CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGNS

INTRINSIC CASE STUDY Interest is in understanding a specific case

INSTRUMENTAL CASE STUDY Interest is in understanding something more general than the particular case
COLLECTIVE CASE STUDY Studying multiple cases in one research study

Case study research methodologists (those researchers who write books about doing case study
research) tend to be pragmatic and advocate the use of multiple methods and multiple data sources.
 PHENOMENOLOGY
What is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon by
an individual or by many individuals?

In depth Significant
interviews Statements Meanings Themes
 ETHNOGRAPHY
What are the cultural characteristics of this group of people or of this cultural scene?
A form of qualitative research focused on discovering and describing
the culture of a group of people.

ETHNOLOGY The comparative study of cultural groups

ETHNOHISTORY The study of the cultural past of a group of people
Shared Beliefs AUTOETHNOGRAPHY focuses on self-examination, self-reflection, and
purposive inclusion of extensive cultural and
Shared Values contextual description and detail of one’s life

Norms Ethnographers talk to people, observe their behavior in their natural day-to-
day environments, and examine documents kept by the group members.
Subculture
One of the cardinal rules in doing ethnographic research is not to be
ethnocentric toward the people you are studying.
 GROUNDED THEORY
What theory or explanation emerges from an analysis of the data collected about this
phenomenon?

A general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data

systematically gathered and analyzed

It is important to understand that a grounded theory is not generated a priori.

Constant
comparative Open coding Axial coding Selective coding
method
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (Comparison)
Grounded Narrative
Phenomenology Ethnography Case Study
Theory Inquiry

Research To describe one To describe the To describe one To inductively To inquire into
Purpose or more cultural or more cases in generate a people’s lived
individuals’ characteristics depth and grounded and told stories
experiences of a of a group of address the theory that can add to
phenomenon people and to research describing and our
describe cultural questions and explaining a understanding
scenes issues phenomenon of personal
experiences
Disciplinary Philosophy Anthropology Multi- Sociology Historical
Origin disciplinary
roots
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (Comparison)
Grounded
Phenomenology Ethnography Case Study Narrative Inquiry
Theory

Primary Data In-depth Participant Multiple methods Interviews with Multiple

Collection interview with 10 observation 20 – 30 people; conversations
Method -15 people Over an extended observations with a participant
period of time; and inquiry into
interviews with related artifacts
informants and documents

Data Analysis List of significant Use holistic Use holistic Begin with open Attending to place,
statements, description and description and coding, then use time, and
determine meaning search for cultural search for themes axial coding, and relationships
of statements, and themes in data shedding light on end with selective researcher and
identify the essence the case study; coding participant co
of the phenomenon cross case analysis construct stories
using narrative
threads, tensions,
and plotlines.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (Comparison)

Phenomenology Ethnography Case Study Grounded Theory Narrative Inquiry

Narrative Rich description of Rich description of Rich description of Description of Showing

Report the essential of context and the context and topic and people participants’
Focus invariant cultural themes operation of the being studied; end evolving and
structures of the case or case; with a complex stories
experience discussion of presentation of over time,
themes, issues, the grounded relationships, and
and implication theory. May also place.
list propositions.
REFERENCES

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (8th Ed.) (2018). Research Methods in Education. Routledge, Taylor
and Francis Group.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (5th Ed.) Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 4th
ed. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.

VanderStoep, S. W. & Johnston, D. D. (2008) Research methods for everyday life : blending qualitative and
quantitative approaches. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.