What is a plant

Eukaryotic, Multicellular, autotroph, non motile and one

of the important character is that it develops from
embryo is known as plant. A plant is an organism that
has the following characterstics:
a) Chlorophyll a and b (b) Uses starch as a storage
molecule c) Two anterior whiplash flagella (those these
are lost in some land plants)

plant systemetics:
Derived from latin word which means systemetic
arrangment of organism

⦁ study and classification of plants.

⦁ deals with evalutionaray history of plants and their

relationships .

⦁ involved clssification ,naming , cladistics , and

polygenetics.

Taxonomy : branch of systemetics involved in

classification and naming only .

Aims : survey and study of international flora.

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introducing methods to study and describe new species.
creation of rules and system for classification .
to link evolutionaray trends with diversity of plants.
To introduce system of scintific naming of different
plants and their taxanomic groups. (both extinct and
living)
to provide coherent and universal system of
classification.

Importance : used to describe different species.

used to give scientific name to a plant or taxanomic
group
Develops evolutionary relationships among different
groups of plants.
provides informtion about patterns of geological changes
provides basis of genetics.
Have great imortant in agriculture and herbal medicines

classification
The arrangment of plants into groups and sub groups on
the basis of similarities and differences is called
classification.
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System of classification
⦁ many systems of classification of plants particulary
angiosperm have been proposed by different taxanomists
from time to time
⦁ these system of classification are grouped into following
four catagories.
(i)Artificial system of classification ( ii) Natural system of
classsification (iii) phylogenetic system of classification
Artificial system: These system of classification were based
on one few morphological characters E.g classification of
Linneaus.
Natural system: in these system the organisms are classified
on the basis of their natural aiffinities i.e (the basic similiraties
in the morphology ) rather than on a single character for
determing the effinities E.g Bentham and hooker,s classification
Phylogenetic systems: phylogenetic classification is a
system of organizing living things based on their characteristic
(physical and genetic ) and proposed evolutionary relationships .
Modren system : in these system, modren information from
the fields of palebotany ,biochemistry , anatomy, etc. have been
used in classifying the plants. system of classification proposed
by Armen Takhtajan (1980) are examples of modren system of
classification.

Brief history of taxanomy or systemetic

3
classification
Aristotle: birth 322- death 384 He is also know (as father of
scince)
Aristotle was one of the first scientists to organize living things.
Taxonomy is the science of how living things are grouped together.
Aristotle developed the first classification system, which divided all
known organisms into two groups i.e. animals and plants.
He used simple morphological characters to classify plants into
trees, shrubs, and herbs. He also divided animals into three groups
based on their habitats.
But the classification wasn’t justified. Animals in each group have
nothing in common, other than their habitat (except few).

The0phrastus
was an ancient greek philosopher and scientist who lived from
around 287 to 371 BCE.
⦁ student of Aristotle

⦁ he is known as father of botony

⦁ classified plants based on form Herbs , shrub , subshrubs ,

Trees ,
⦁ he wrote manay book ( Historia Plantarum , Causes of
plants , Eniquiry into plants , )
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theoprastus most notable work is his treatise '' Historia Plantarum
'' (The history of plants) which is considered one of the earliest
works on botony.
in this work theoprastus describe and classifies various plant based
on their physical characteristic and properties.

John ray classificaton

The John Ray classification, also known as Rayian taxonomy, is

an early system of biological classification developed by John
Ray, an English naturalist, in the late 17th century. In short, the
John Ray classification is a hierarchical system that categorizes
organisms based on their observable characteristics and
relationships.
Ray's classification system primarily focused on plants and was
based on morphological features such as the structure of
flowers, fruits, and seeds. He classified plants into three major
groups: herbs, shrubs, and trees. Within each group, he further
divided plants based on characteristics such as leaf structure,
growth habit, and reproductive features.
Carolus Linnaeus system classification
Carolus Linnaeus borne 1707 death 1778
The father of taxanomy
He gave outline of classification in systema nature published in
1735.
His system of classification is also known as artificial sexual

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system beacause it is based on single stamen character.
scheme of classification
He classified the plants into 24 classes on the basis of number ,
size and union stemans and carpel characteristic.
He placed all Algea, fungi ,mosses and ferns in class cryptogamia.
Gymnosperm were classified in class didynamia alongwith family
Labiatea ( angiosperma.
All other classes (22) were related to angiosperms.
Linnaeaus system merits
1. quick and easy identification of plants based on one or a few
characteristic.
2. The significance of flower structure was first recognized by
him.
3 . He emphasized the basic numerical characteristics of sexual
parts i.e (steman and carpel )
4. He introduced the concept of species and binomial
nomenclature in his system which is still used today.
Classification system of De Jussieu
(1699-to 1771)
improved the system of linnaeus.
This system was proposed by Bernard de Jussieu and Laurent
Jussiett. They
introduced Natural classification system. They divided the plants
into 100 orders and 15 classes. They recognized the difference
between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. They separated the
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cryptograms (nonseed producing) from seed producing plants.
They divided the plants
into three groups:
1. Acotyledons: They are non-seed producing plants.
2. Monocotyledons: They hat c single cotyledons.
3. Dicotyledons: They have two cotyledons.
Augustine Pyrame de Condone improved the Jussietis system. I
le divided the plants into 213 orders.
lie used morphological characteristics to differentiate between
these orders.
Armen takhtajan system of classification
takhtajan was borne in 1910 was died in 2009
takhtajan who is the head of the department of higher plants at
the komarov botonical institute in leningrad , Russia,
ptresented a sysytem of classification which was first published
in 1942.
His system of classification is basicallay of bessey-hailier
tradation which considered all evidences from different fields
including.
Morhological, anatomical, embryological, palynological,
palebotonical, chemical and ultrastucture evidences while
classifying Angiosperms.
He considerd Angiosperms to be monophylrtic in origin and that
arose from some ancient group of gymnosperms. the
monocotyledons are, considered to have been derived from
primitive disotyledons.
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Takhtajan divided the magnoliophyta (Angiosperms) into two
classes- Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons) and Liliopsida
(Monocotyledons) , of whuch magnoliopsida is considerde
primitiv and liliopsida to have been derived from magnoliales
under Magnoliopsida.
The two Classes have been further divided into 10 Subclasses, 7
under the Magnoliopsida and 3 under Liliopsida (1980).
Takhtajan’s system is based on 67 phyletic principles. Some of
the
important criteria used by him to evaluate the relative degree of
advancement of flowering plants are as follows:
1. Woody plants are primitive than herbaceous plants.
2. Deciduous woody plants are considered evolved from
evergreen plants.
3. Xylem fibers evolved from tracheids to libriform fibres,
through fibre tracheids.
4. Trilacunar or pentalacunar nodes are primitive to unilacunar
nodes.
5. Alternate leaf arrangement is primitive while parallel venation
is most advanced.
6. Stomata with subsidiary cells are primitive than those lacking
subsidiary cells.
7. Cymose inflorescence is primitive than racemose.
8. Flowers with an indefinite or variable number of floral parts
are primitive.
9. Pollen with un-sculptured exine is primitive to sculptured

8
pollen.
10. Apocarpous gynoecium is primitive.
Takhtajan system merits / Advontages
⦁ Based on phyloginetic relationships
⦁ Better organized than older- system
⦁ familay are small homogenes units
⦁ closely related genera combine to form families.
⦁ monocots oreginate from dicot
Negetive merits or Demerits

⦁ Unwanting spelitting of related groups.

⦁ Narrow criteria for depending Taxa

Monocots are derived from male Ancester ( Nymphale)
Monocots placed ofter dicot .

What is Nomenclature
A system through which organisms, including plants,
scientific names is animals, microorganisms and other
living things are given distinct called Nomenclature.

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Binomial Nomenclature:
The Binomial Nomenclature system is a formal system of
naming that was introduced by a scientist Carolus
Linnaeus. He is regarded as the founder of modern
taxonomy. His books are considered as the beginning of
modern biological nomenclature. They outlined the rules
for allocating names to plants and animals in a certain
format.

Rules Binomial Nomenclature

Some rules that are followed while writing these names
are mentioned hereunder.
 The name of the genus always begins with a capital
letter.  The species name begins with a small letter.
 The scientific names are always italicized.  When
handwritten, the genus name and species name have to
be underlined.

importance of bionomical nomenclature

(i) to avoid all confusion, scientific names are given
(ii) This system has great value and stability.
(iii) it required just two words.

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(iv) some names can be used in all over the world, at
avoid difficalaties of translation.
Example: common name scientific name
onion Allium cepa
House crow corrus splenders

ICBN
international code of botanical nomenclature icbn was
inticted in 1731 when linneaus published his first book
knowns as criteria botonica again in 1751 linnaeus
published another book ''philosophia botanica''

Principle of ICBN
1. Botonical nomenclature is independent of zoological
and bacteriological nomenclature.
2. The application of names of taxanomic group is
determined by means of nomenclature types.
3. The nomenclature of a taxanomic group is based
upon priority of publication .
4. Each taxanomic group with a particular
circumscription ,position, and rank can bear only

11
 one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance
with the rules, expect in specified cases.
5. scientific names of taxanomic groups are treated as
latin regardless of their derivation.
6. the rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless
expressly limited.

Paris code
The first International Botanical Congress was held at
Paris in August 1867. About 150 American and European
Botanists were invited to make laws for Botanical
Nomenclature (Lois de la nomenclature botanique). The
laws were called Paris code, as they were adopted at
French capital.
The main aganda was that of the decondole rules or
guidlines .

⦁ secand congress was held in 1913 in u.k

Morphology
Root
cylindrical plant organ without chlorophyll, growing
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towards gravity (downward) ,anchoring the plant and
absorbing nutrient and moisture.

Function
anchorage of the plant , absorption of water and
dissolved minerals and conduction of these to the stem,
and storage of reserve food.

Types of root
Tap root
a tap root is primary, central , and dominant root of a
plant that grows verticallay downward, anchoring the
plant and providing access to water and nutrients from
deep within the soil .
also called true root.
E.G beets, carrots, turnips, etc.
Tap root type
Conical root: this type of root tuber is conical in shape,
i.e. widest at the top and tapering steadily towards the
bottom: e.g. carrot.
Fusiform root: this root is widest in the middle and
tapers towards the top and the bottom: e.g. radish.

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Napiform roots : are the modifications of taproot which
become swollen and spherical at the upper end while
their lower end is tapered like a thread. Some examples
of napiform roots are- turnip (Brassica rapa), sugar beet.
adventitious roots
Adventitious roots are roots that grow out of any
structure of the plant excluding the roots of the plant.
Adventitious roots usually sprout from the stems of
plants.
Adventitious Root Types
Propagative Roots: These roots develop from stem or leaf
cuttings that are used for vegetative propagation. They
allow the cutting to establish itself as an independent
plant by absorbing water and nutrients from the soil.
Aerial Roots: Aerial roots are adventitious roots that
develop above the ground. They are commonly found in
plants like epiphytes or climbers and help the plant
anchor itself to a substrate or absorb moisture from the
air.
Storage Roots: Storage roots are thickened adventitious
roots that serve as a storage organ for the plant.
Examples include sweet potatoes and carrots, where the
adventitious roots store nutrients and water to support
the plant during periods of dormancy or drought.
Strangling Roots: These roots are characteristic of
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certain species, such as banyan trees. Strangling roots
begin as aerial roots, which grow downward and
eventually reach the ground. Once they make contact
with the soil, they continue to grow and eventually
surround the host tree, competing for nutrients and
water and eventually strangling and replacing the host.
Contractile Roots: Contractile roots are specialized
adventitious roots found in bulbs and corms. They have
the ability to contract and pull the plant deeper into the
soil, helping to anchor it and protect it from adverse
environmental conditions.
Parasitic Roots: Some parasitic plants, like mistletoe or
dodder, have adventitious roots that penetrate into the
host plant's tissues to extract water and nutrients. These
roots do not serve anchoring functions but are solely for
absorbing nutrients from the host.

Stem
a stem is a supportive Axis of the plants.
stem could be strong and woody
thin and green
Types of stem
1 Aerial stem 2. underground stem

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3 Subaerial Stems
Aerial stem
which found in above the ground in the air is called
Aerial stem
2 underground stem
found below the ground
underground ground stem also called subterranean
often thick and large
swallon and stored food
types of Aerial stem
1 Tendril
climbing organ
modified stem
leafless branched
sensitive to touch
Example graps
2 phylloclades
flattened. green. leaf like. photosynthesis
more then one internodes
e.g prickly pear
3 cladode
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flattened . Green.. leaf like .
contain only one internodes
e.g asparagus
4 thorns
These stem modifications appear as hard, woody and
sharp outgrowths that protect the plant. example: roses
underground stem types
1 corms
condensed form of underground stem
cantain few internodes
shealtus (scaly leaves)
example. colocusia
2 Bulb
much reduced
flashy leaves
reduced stem
cantain stored food material
dick like structure
e.g onion
3 rhizome

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elangated
horizontal are large amount of stored food
nodes and internodes
and scaly leaves at the nodes. Example: Ginger.
4 Tuber
nodes and internodes .eyes buds.
swallon . stored food
starch .example potato
3 Subaerial Stems
These stems run parallel to the ground and give off roots
at certain intervals or nodes.
They are further divided into the following types:
Runner- It grows parallel to the ground and has a
creeping stem with long internodes. On the lower
surface, the nodes give out adventitious roots at regular
intervals. A runner develops from the axils of lower
leaves of the aerial stem
E.g grass
Offset- These are shorter and thicker than the runner
and are often seen in aquatic plants
E.g agave
Stolon- It is similar to a runner but arises from the lower
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part of the main axis.
E.g jiosmine plant
Sucker- These stems are similar to the stolon but it
grows obliquely upwards and gives rise to a new plant.
function of stem
Their main function is to provide support to the plant,
holding leaves, flowers, and buds; in some cases, stems
also store food for the plant..

leaf
essential part of plant which is used for photosynthesis
and transcription

Main part of leaf

1 leaf blade
Leaf-blade is the expanded thin and green part of the leaf
which performs photosynthesis. It is also known as the
lamina.
2 petiole

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the stalk that joins a leaf to a stem
3 leaf base
The leaf base is the slightly expanded area where the leaf
attaches to the stem.
phyllotoxy
the arrangements of leaves the stem of the plant is called
phyllotoxy

types
1 alternate phyllotoxy
a single leaf arise from each node
example. mustard 2 sun flower

2 opposite phyllotoxy
When a pair of leaves develops at each node opposite to
each other, it is called opposite phyllotaxy.E.g. Guava
plants.

3 whorled phyllotoxy
When more than two leaves develop at the nodes to
form a whorl of leaves, it is called whorled phyllotaxy.
E.g. Alstonia.

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descriptive terms of leaf
1 caducus
early Fall of
e.g opuntia
2 decidous
complete of growing season.
e.g maple
3 beristant
leaf persist for large time
e.g eucalyptus

insertion of leaf
attachment of the leaf to the plant body.
1 cauline
leaf insertion directly of the stem
e.g sun flower
2 remal
leaf insertion in an branches
e.g mango
3 redical
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arise from reduced stem
e.g radish
types of leaf
simple leaf
a leaf with undivided lamina is called simple leaf.
attached to the stem by one petiole
E.g peach (pear)
compound leaf
A compound leaf is a leaf made up of two or more
leaflets. In a compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is
branched into different leaflets and is connected by a
single petiole. For eg., Pea, palm leaves.
compound leaf is further devides into two types.
1 pinnately compound leaf
2 palamately compound leaf

Pinnately Compound Leaf

In a pinnately compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is
divided into numerous leaflets and all connected by a
common axis. Eg., Neem. These can be further
differentiated into:
Pinnate: A compound leaf that has an axis on each side
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of the midrib is known as a pinnate leaf.
Unipinnate: The leaf with leaflets on each side of the
axis. Eg., cassia
Bipinnate: Here, a secondary axis bearing the leaflet is
produced by the central axis. Eg., Acacia
Tripinnate: Here, a tertiary axis bearing leaflets emerges
from the secondary axis. Eg., Moringa
Decompound: Leaf with more than three pinnate. Eg.,
old leaves of coriander
Parapinnate: A leaf without a terminal leaflet. Eg.,
Cassia
Imparipinnate: Leaf with an odd terminal leaflet. Eg.,
Pea
Palmately Compound Leaf
In a palmately compound leaf, the leaflets are attached
at the tip of the petiole. Eg., Silk cotton. These can be
differentiated into:
Unifoliate: These type of leaves have only one leaflet.
Eg., Citrus
Bifoliate: These leaves have two leaflets. Eg., Balanites
Trifoliate: These leaves have three leaflets emerging
from the same point. Eg., Oxalis

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Quadrifoliate: These leaves have four leaflets arising
from the same point. Eg., Marsilea
Multifoliate: This type of leaf has many leaflets arising
at a common pint. Eg., Bombax

inflorescence.
the arrangements of flowers on the mian axis- peduncle
in the form of a cluster is called inflorescence.
there are three types of inflorescence
(1) Recemose (2) cymose (3) special type

Recemose .
indeterminate inflorescence
acropetal succession
older flower are born at the base while younger flower
born at the apex (top)
Types of Recemose
1 Receme
indeterminate. elongated
pedicelate flower

24
E.g ranunculacea
2 spike
elongated Axis
flower sessile having no pedicle
E.g bottle brash
3 catkin
pendulaus
unisexual flower
E.g mulberry morus
4 spadix
much flashy
flashy spike
sessile flower
covered by spathe.
bracts
E.g maize banana
5 corymb
Receme in which all the flower reach the same leval due
to more elangation of the pedecil or older flower
E.g ibers amaria

25
6 umbel
flower stalk are more or less similar in length,
they arise from same point
E.g Hydroctyle

Cymose
having a usually flat-topped flower cluster in which the
main and branch stems each end in a flower that opens
before those below it or to its side.
Types of cymose
1 Monochasial cyme
Only one leteral branch arise at a time
scorpoid
lateral branch from zigzag.
E.g Ronunculus bulbosus
Helicoid
lateral branch develop on same side
E.g juncus , Begonia,
2 Dichasial
Each time 2 daughter Axis (lateral branch)

26
arises after main axis flowering
E.g ixora, sapoaria,
3 polychasial
many daughter axis arises after main axis flowering
E.g calotropis

3 special type of inflorescence

Special types of the inflorescence are strictly neither
racemose nor cymose. At the same time, they have
modified forms of the cymose type.
Types
1 capitulum
sessile flower on convex receptacle ( flat main axis)
surrounded by involucre of bracts
characteristic features of Asteracea
2 Cyathium
flower reduced to pistil ( female flower) and stamens
( male flower ) only.
1 female flower surrounded with many male flower
present in cup like involucre of bracts
nectaries present.

27
E.g Euphorbia
3 Verticilaster
node present on main axis from which Dichasial cyme
cluster arises,
flower are mostly sessile
E.g Lamiaceae
4 Hypanthodium
fleshy receptacle have cup like cavity inside, lined by
flower, small opening ostiole present E.g Ficus.

flower

Flowers are the reproductive structures found in plants,

specifically in the angiosperms, which are the largest
group of plants on Earth. They are known for their
vibrant colors, fragrances, and various shapes. Flowers
serve a crucial role in plant reproduction by facilitating
the process of pollination.
Morphology of flower
The morphology of a flower refers to its structure and
the arrangement of its various parts. Flowers are the
reproductive structures of flowering plants

28
(angiosperms) and are essential for sexual reproduction.
Here are the main parts of a typical flower:
Petals: These are the colorful, often fragrant, leaf-like
structures that surround the reproductive parts of the
flower. Petals are usually vibrant in color to attract
pollinators like insects or birds.
Sepals: Sepals are located at the base of the flower,
beneath the petals. They are usually green and protect
the developing flower bud before it blooms.
Stamen: The stamen is the male reproductive part of the
flower and consists of two main components:
Anther: This is the pollen-producing structure located at
the top of the stamen. It contains pollen sacs or pollen
grains.
Filament: It is a slender stalk-like structure that supports
the anther.
Pistil or Carpels: The pistil is the female reproductive
part of the flower and typically consists of several
components:
Stigma: It is the receptive tip of the pistil, where pollen
grains land during pollination.
Style: The style is a slender, elongated structure that
connects the stigma to the ovary.
Ovary: The ovary is the swollen base of the pistil that
29
contains one or more ovules. After fertilization, it
develops into a fruit.
Ovules: Ovules are located within the ovary and contain
the female gametes. If fertilized by pollen, the ovules
develop into seeds.
placentation
The arrangements of placentas in the ovary is called
placentation
placenta
cushion like ridges inside the ovary on which ovules are
attached is called placenta
Types of Placentation:
1. Marginal placentation:
The placenta forms a ridge that runs across the ovary's
ventral suture, and ovules are borne in two rows on the
ridge.
Example: Pea
2. Axile placentation:
The placenta is axial, and ovules in a multilocular ovary
are linked to it.
Lemon is a good example.
3. Parietal placentation:
30
Ovules form on the ovary's inner wall or the ovary's
periphery.
It is single-chambered at first but becomes two-
chambered with the creation of a false septum.
Mustard, is an example.
4. Basal placentation:
A single ovule is linked to the placenta, which develops
at the base of the ovary.
Marigold is an example.
5. Free central placentation:
Septa are lacking, and ovules are borne on the central
axis.Primrose, is an example.
6 superficial
ovule is borne an all inner margin of the carpels.
E.g Rush
7 pendulous
Each loculus of the ovary cantain single ovaule.
ovule is attached on the top of ovary
E.g fennel.

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Fruits
Fruits are seed-bearing structures. It develops from a ripe
ovary. They are a rich source of vitamins, minerals and
fibres. Grapes, bananas, papaya, watermelon are some
of the fruits consumed by humans. They are the main
source of a balanced diet.
Parts of a Fruit
A fruit comprises the following parts:
(1)Pericarp ( 2 )Seeds
Pericarp
The pericarp is the wall of the ovary that develops as the
wall of the fruits. The pericarp of the fruits might be
fleshy as in guava, mango, etc. or might be dry as in
mustard, walnut, etc. The pericarp is further
differentiated into three layers, namely:
Epicarp: Outermost layer, forms the peel.
Mesocarp: Middle layer, fleshy, edible portion of the
fruits
Endocarp: Innermost layer, the inner rough portion
where the seed is accommodated
Seeds
Seeds are ripened fertilized ovules. It is an embryonic

32
plant enclosed in a protective outer covering.
Types of Fruits
Based on the number of ovaries and the number of
flowers involved in the fruit formation, fruits are
classified into three major groups namely:
Simple Fruits
These fruits develop from a single matured ovary in a
single flower. Apple, banana, cherry pear, plum, tomato
are few examples of simple fruits. The simple fruits are
classified into the following categories:
Drupes: These are also known as stone fruits since it
contains a very hard seed inside the simple fruits. For eg.,
plum, cherry, peach.
Berries: These type of fruits have a single seed in the
center and are very juicy. For eg., grapes, blueberries.
Pomes: Such fruits bloom from trees. For eg., apple,
papaya
Hesperidium and Pepos: They are slightly similar to
the berries and include fruits such as watermelon, citrus
fruits.
Aggregate Fruits
These fruits develop from a number of matured ovaries
formed in a single flower. Individual ovaries are called

33
“fruitlets.” Blackberry, raspberry, strawberry are few
examples of aggregate fruits.

Composite Fruits
These fruits develop from a complete inflorescence.
these are also known as multiple fruits. Composite fruits
are of two types:
Sorosis: These are found in mulberry, jackfruits and
pineapple. They develop from catkin, spikes and spadix
type of inflorescence.
Syconus: This develops from hypanthodium type of
inflorescence.

Family
Ranunculaceae ( Butter cup family)
classification
Division : Angiospemea Class : Dicotyledons
sub class:Polypetalea series: Thalamiflorea

34
order: Ranales family: Ranunculacea
Distribution: 50 genera , 2000 species,
distributed worldwide. The largest genera are
Ranunculus , Delphinium,

Vegatative characters
Habit: The plant are annual or perenial herbs , or
climbing shrubs, rarely trees ,

Root : Tap root system . E.g Rarely tuberious

Leaf : simple , petiolate , exstipulate , compound and
alternate rearly opposite , reticulate venation

Stem : Branched , cylindrical , erect , climber , some time

woody

Floral characters
inflorescence : Usuallay cymose , panical (Anemone )
solitary axillary ( clematis) Or Receme ( Delphinium)

Flower : flower are usuallay borne on an elongated

receptacle. they are hermaphrodite and mostly
Actinomorphic , some times Zygomorphic , hypogynous ,

35
bracteate.

Perianth : usuallay undifferentiated in calyx and coralla ,

or may be simple petaloid , sometimes it is diffrentiated
into 5 sepals and 5 petals ( Renunculus ) nactaries occur
at the base of petals . The no. of perianth varies from 4 to
20. Delphinium sepals + petals spurs.

Androecium : usuallay consist of numerous , spirallay

arranged. free stamens . ( polyandrous, adnate, extrose ,
Basifixed )

Gynoecium : carpals usuallay many free ( apocarpous).

The carpals are spirallay arranged . in some cases E.g
Nigella carpels united. in Delphinium the carpal s only
one , ovules one or more, plecentation marginal , Basal

Fruit : Fruit is aggregate usuallay on ( etario of achenes

( Renunculus ) Fallicles ( Aconitun) or simple fallicles
( Delphiniun ) Capsular ( Nigella ) Raerly berry.

Floral formula

Floral diagram
36
plant body

37
pollination : is mostly by insect E.g a9 Delphiniun and
Aconitun

Ecnomic important
Ornomental plants
Delphiniun ( lork spur )

38
Anemone ( ornomental or medicinal )
Clematis ( Traveller joy )

Medicinal plants
Aconitun napellens ( inflamatory diseases
Ranunculus flacatun ( Baluchi ) skin diseases
Delphiniun zalil. used indropsy , jaudice and troble os
spleen .
Ranunculus ficoria . uropian plant ( pile
insictiside . Delphiniun brounianun , nigella . sativa , til
oil mix , medicinal,

2 Brassicaceae
classification
Division : spermatophyta sub division :
Angiosperms
class : Dicotyledans order : parietales
Family : brassicaceae
Distribution : 350 genera and 2500 species

39
vegetative characters
Habit:The members of this family are primarily
herbaceous. These herbs may be mostly annual or
perennial or rarely biennials.
Root : Tap root , branched. it is also modified into
different form Example . fusiform in radish and napiform
in turnip
Stem : Herbaceous , grenish , smooth in radish and turnip
it is reduced into disk like structure.
Leaves : petiolate , simple , reliculate venation , margin
of leaf is incised or lobed .

Vegatative characters
inflorescene : Receme or corymb
Flower : pedicellate , ebracteate, complete , bisexual ,
actinomorphic , hypogynous , tetra merous,
Calyx : 4 sepals in two whorle ( 2+2) polysepals ,
imbricate aestivation .
Corolla : 4 petals , polypetals , cruciform , Aestivation ,
E.g in cross like ( x) figure .
Androecium : 6 steman , tetradynamour ( outer 2 short
and inner 4 by ) polyandrour ( free) , Anther ditheciour,
40
basifixed .
Gynoecium : Bicarpellary , syncarpour, ovary superior ,
unilocular later on become due to formation of a false
septum .
plecentation : parietal
Fruit : siliqua fruit having two fused carpels
Seed : Exalbuminour seed that leake an andosperm at
maturity.

floral formula

41
Ecnomic important

Food

The plants of this family are cultivated as vegetable

crops. For eg., Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis, Brassica
oleracea var. Caulorapa.

Oil

The seeds of the plants of these families are used to

extract mustard oil that is extensively used in cooking.
For eg., Brassica campestris

The cake left behind after the extraction of oil is used as

cattle feed and fertilizer.

Medicines

The leaves and shoots of plants are used in asthma,

cough and bleeding piles. They also act as an appetizer
and stimulants. The seeds are used to treat bronchitis
and fever. The flowers help in paralysis and impotency.

42
Ornamentals

Few plants such as Iberis amara, Hesperis, and

Alyssum,bear beautiful flowers and are used for
ornamentalpurposes.

3 FABACEAE FAMILY
Classification
Division : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledons
Series : Calyciflorae Order : Rosales
Family : Fabaceae Sub family : Papilionaceae

Distribution : 375 genera which is mostly confined to

temprate zones .

Vegetative characters
Habit : Herbs ( E.g , groms , Pea , etc) Or undershrubs
(E.g corotaria alba, indigofera , etc) OR trees (E.g
shisham) climbers E.g sem
Root : Tap root , Branched . bearing nodules containing
nitrogen fixing bacteria.

43
Stem : Herbaceous or woody , erect , branched ,angular
or cylindrical ,
Leaves : simple or commonly comound , modified ,
alternate , stipulate , vicia the leaflets are modified into
tendrils .

Floral characters
inflorescence : usuallay recemose type , axillary perical or
corymbose recemes.
Flower : Zygomorphic , Bisexual , complete , bracteate ,
hypogynous , or perigrnous.
Calyx : 5 sepals , gymosepalous , valvate aestivation .
corolla : petal 5 , polypetalous (free) . these are large
upper ( adaxial ) posterior petal ( lagest called )
Androceium : stemans 10 or rarely nine. diadelphous or
monadelphous. posterior steman is free and filaments of
nine are fused to form a sheath around the ovary.
Gynoecium : Monocarpellary , ovary superior , unilocular,
marginal placentation , style long and bent at base ,
stigma flattend and hairy.
Seed : non- endospermic . pollination : insects

44
Floral formula

DIAGRAM

45
Family Rosaceae

systemetic position
Division : Angiospermeae Class : Dicotyleddons
Sub class : Polypetalae Series : Calycilorae Order :
Rosales Family : ROSACEAE
Distribution
115 genera and 3200 species

46
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: herbs ,shrubs ,(E.g Rosa sp) Or trees
Root:Tap root , branched sometimes adventitious arising
from stem cuttings.
Stem: Erect, prostrate or climber, branched, hard and
woody, runner or sucker. cylindrical,solid, some times
divide into nodes or internodes
Leaves: Alternate rarely opposite (Rhodotypos), simple
or compound sometimes pinnately compound, stipulate,
petiolate, reticulate venation

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:
Solitary (Potentilla, Rosa servica) or grouped in racemose
(Agrimonia). terminal corymbose (Rosa moschata),
terminal cyme (Geum) or corymbose cyme (Potentilla
sibbaldi).
Flower:
Actinomorphic very rarely zygomorphic
(Chrysobalanoideae), bisexual or rarely unisexual
(Spiraea aruncus), pentamerous or tetramerous,
hypogynous or epigynous
Calyx:

47
Sepals 5, gamosepalous, adriate to the receptacle;
imbricate , valvate, astivation ,bracteole forme epicalyx.
Corolla:
Petals 5, or multiples of 5, ( rarely 4 petals )polypetalous,
rosaceous, stemens transforme into petals.
Androecium:
consist of many stamens, some times ( 5 tolo) , the
anthers are small and bicelled, dorsifixed.
Gynoecium:
consist of many carpels , mostly apocorpus ( free) and
Superior but sometimes it syncarpous and inferior.
Fruit:
Variable; drupe (Prunus), etario of achenes (Potentilla)
berry (Eriobotrya japonica), pome (Pyrus).
Seed:
Non-endospermic.
Pollination:
Entomophilous-insects are attracted by nectar, colour,
aroma or protandrous nature.

Floral formula And diagramA

48
Economic Importance of Rosaceae:
1. Fruits:
The fruits of Pyrus malus (H. seb), Pyrus communis (H.
49
Nakh), Prunus persica (II. Aru), Prunus amygdalus (H.
Badam), Prunus domestica (H. Alucha), Prunus armeniaca
(H. Khuwani),
2. Medicinal:
The petals of Rosa are used in making Gulkand, rose
water and rose-scent.
3. Wood:
The wood of Cydonia indica, Crataegus oxyacantha is
used in making tool handles. The branches of Cydonia
indica are excellent walking sticks.
4. Ornamental:
Rosa alba, Rosa moschata, Potentilla, Spiraea are
commonly grown in gardens. Oil is extracted from
Prunus amygdalus (Badam oil).

Cucurbitaceae:

Classification
Division: Angiospermae class: Dicotyledones
sub class. polypetale. series .. calyciflorae
order.. passiflorales
Distribution:
50
cucurbitaceae is a fairly large family including 100 genera
and 975 species. they are found tropical and subtropical
regions. with a few species extending into temprete
climate.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:
Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs
(Acanthosicyos) or small trees (Dendrosicyos), usually
trailing, climbing by means of tendrils.
Root:Tap root, branched may be thickened due to
storage of food and water.
Stem: Herbaceous, climbing, angular, fistular, branched.
Leaves: Alternate, petiolate- petiole long and hollow;
simple, lobed, exstipulate, palmately veined; tendrils
present in the axil of leaf or opposite to the leaf.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:
There is great variation in the inflorescence. Flowers are
solitary, or racemose or cymose panicles
(Actinostemma).
Flower: Regular, mostly unisexual rarely bisexual
(Schizopepon), incomplete, epigynous, small or large,
mostly white or yellow, pentamerous.
51
Male flower:
Produced in large numbers.
Calyx:
Sepals 5, gamosepalous, sepals pointed, rarely petaloid,
campanulate, aestivation imbricate.
Corolla:
Petals 5, gamopetalous united at the base
polypetalous , imbricate or valvate aestivation.
Androecium:
Stamens 5, sometimes free or combined to form a central
column, anthers dithecous extrorse, dehiscence
longitudinal or curves;
Genoecium:
Reduced or rudimentary or absent.
Female flower:
They are fewer in number than the male flowers.
Calyx:
Sepals 5, gamosepalous, calyx tube adnate to the ovary
wall; imbricate aestivation, superior.
Corolla:
Petals 5, gamopetalous, inserted on calyx tube; imbricate
aestivation, superior.

52
Gynoecium:
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular with
parietal placentation, the intruding placentae make the
ovary to appear trilocular.
Fruit:
Soft, fleshy, indehiscent and either a berry or pepo.
Seed: Exalbuminous, flattened, numerous, embryo
straight, cotyledons large and oily.
plecentation: Entomopilous
Floral formula and Diagram

53
Ecnomic important
vegetable: immature fruits of several cucurbits are eaten
raw or cooked as vegetable.
Fruit: ripe fruits of some plants are eaten as desserts or
used to making refreshing juice.
Medicinal: fruit pulp of pumpkin used as poultice on
boils, burns , and inflammations.
fruit of Momordica charantia are used for stomach ache ,
rheumatism , liver and spleen problem and diabetes.

Family Euphorbiaceae
systemetic position
Division : Angiospermea Class : Dicotyledons
Sub class : Monochlamydeae Series : Unisexuales
Family : Euphorbiaceae

Distribution : large family comprising about 270 genera

and 7300 species which are of wide geographic
distribution , some abundunt in the wormer climates
and extanding into temprete regions of northern and
southern hemisphere but absence from ortic countries.

54
Vegatative characters
Habit : mostly herbs , shrubs , and trees also common in
tropics. some are cactus like appeorance.

Leaf : simple , alternate , some time opposite

( euphoriba hilta ) , stipulate , some time change into
spines .
palmately lobed ( Ricinus jatropha )

Stem : mostly herbaceous , some times wooy , eract ,

branched , cylindrical, angular , solid , spiny , some time
phyllolade.

Root : tap root

Floral characters
inflorescence : variable , usuallay complex , Recemose ,
cymose , special type E.g ( Cythiun )
Flower : small bracteate , regular , always unisexual ,
monoecious or dioecious hypogynous .
The calyx and corolla both may be present E.g jatropha
Male flower : Nacked i.e perionth absent , usuallay repre-
sented by single stamen , in case of Ricinus stamens

55
usually many.
Female flower : Naked e.g Euphoribia or with scaly
perionth . E.g Ricinus . The gynoecium is tricapellary ,
syncorpous , ovary 2-4 called superior , Axile
plecentation
Fruit : schizocarphic , capsule
Seed : Endospermic

floral formula and diagram

56
Ecnomic importnt
(1) Hevea Brasiliensis ( Rubber tree ) used is preparation
of rubber .
(2) Euphoribia hirta ( Dudhi) use in diseases of children ,
eough etc .
3) Phyllanthus emblica ( fruit pickle, murabba . or other
medicinal uses .
(4) putranjiva roxburgii ( fruits , hindu. ( leaves . used as
fodder.
(5) Ricinus Communis ( castor oil plants ) medicinal plants
(6) Jatropha ( Ornomental plants.

Solanacea family or potato family

Classification
kingdom : plantea Division : spermatophta
Class: Dicotyledones Order : Solanales
family : solanacea
Distribution: 85 genra and 2200 species
Tropical region and temprete region
57
Vegetative Characters
Habit :Herbs, shrubs,tree,anuual,biennial, perennial,
Root System: Taproot system.
Stem: Erect or climber; Solanaceae includes herbs,
shrubs, small trees, and climbers, underground stem
( potato) Tuber
Leaves: cauline, Ramal, Alternate, simple or pinnately
compound (rarely); exstipulate; reticulate venation.
Floral characters
Inflorescence: Racemose- terminal or axillary raceme;
Cymose- solitary in Solanum.
Flower: Complete, bisexual, actinomorphic,
hypogynous, pedicelate,
Calyx: Five sepals, gamosepalous; valvate aestivation.
Corolla: Five petals, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation.
Androecium: Five stamens, epipetalous; polyandrous,
anthers basifixed.
Gynoecium: Syncarpous, bicarpellary, bilocular,
superior ovary, axile placentation.
Fruit: Berry/ capsule.

58
Seed: Numerous, endospermous
floral formula:
K(5)C(3)G(2)
floral diagram:

59
Economic Importance
The economic importance of some plants belonging to
the Solanaceae family is as follows:
These are important sources of food. E.g.
tomato, brinjal and potato
These are important sources of spices. E.g. chilly
The leaves of Nicotiana tabacum are a major source of
tobacco.
These are also used as ornamental plants. E.g. petunia
Plants such as belladonna and ashwagandha are also
used as medicinal plants.

Apiaceae Family ( Umbelliferae)

systemetic position
Division : Angiospermae Class : Dicotyledones sub
class : Polypetalae
Series : Calyciflorae Order : Umbellales
Family : Apiacaleae
Distribution : It is the 16th-largest family of flowering
plants, with more than 3,800 species in about

60
446 genera.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:
Plants are mostly herbs which may be annual, biennial or
perennial, ( rarely shrubs) with aromatic odour due to
the presence of oil gland.
Root:
Tap root , branched sometimes swollen for the storage of
food material e.g., Carrot (Daucus carota).
Stem:
Erect or prostrate; climbing in Pseudocarum; swollen
nodes, sometimes ridged, usually fistular, glaucous or
glabrous.
Leaf:
Cauline and ramal; radical in young plants of Daucus,
usually exstipulate, stipulate in Centella; alternate,
opposite in some species or Apiastrum; simple or much
dissected, often decompound; petiolate, petiole usually
sheathing at the base, venation reticulate .

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:

61
Simple or compound umbel surrounded by thin leafy
bracts called involucre; in some reduced to single flower
e.g., in some species of Centella and Azorella; and to a
compact head in Eryngium.
Flower:
Pedicellate, bracteate (Centella) or ebracteate
(Foeniculum), perfect, complete, actinomorphic ;
hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous, discus present.
Calyx:
Sepals 5, gamosepalous, small teeth or scales or absent
(Foeniculum), adnate to the ovary, valvate, green.
Corolla
Petals 5, polypetalous, epigynous often emarginate, tips
inflexed, valvate (Foeniculum) imbricate, coloured.
Androecium:
Stamens 5, polyandrous, inserted under the disc, anthers
dithecous, versatile, introrse, filament long, equal in
length, bent in the bud but ultimately spreading out.
Gynoecium:
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, bilocular with a single
pendulous bvule in each loculus, antero-posteriorly
placed, axile placentation, style two; stigmas two; on the
top of the ovary an epigynous glandular-stylopodium is
present.
62
Fruit:
Schizocarpic cremocarp
Seed:
Endospermic, embryo small.
Pollination:
Entomophilous due to nectar, scent and protandrous
nature of flowers.
Floral diagram and Formuala

Economic Importance of Apiaceae

Food:

63
Carrot (Daucus carota), celery (Apium graveolens),
parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and sowa (Peucedanum
graveolens) are chiefly used as pot herbs.
Condiments:
Hing {Ferula foetida), Ajwain (Carum copticum), Zira
(Cuminum cyminum), Saunf (Foeniculum vulgare),
Dhania (Coriandrum sativum), are used as condiments or
carminatives. Hing is a oleogum resin obtained from the
roots. Ferula sumbul and F. galbaniflua also produce
hing. Dorema also produces oleogum resin.
Fodder
Several members as carrot, Heracleum, Angelica provide
fodder for cattle and horses.
Medicinal:
Centella (H. Brahmi) is a very good tonic for brain. Hing,
Saunf, Sowa, are used in digestive disorders.
Peucedanum, graveolens (H. Sowa) is used as Dill water
for children.
Ornamental:
Trachymene, Angelica, Eryngium, Heracleum are
cultivated in gardens for their beautiful flowers.

Family Labiatea ( Lamiaceae or Mint family )

64
systemetic position
Division : Angiosperme Class : Dicotyledons
Sub class : Gamopetalae Order : Lamiales
Family : Labiatae
Distribution : 260 gnera and 3200 species which are
distributed almost all over the temprete and tropical
regions .

Vegetative characters :
Habit : mostly annual and perenial ( oromatic ) herbs
and shurbs . tree habit is found in the brazilian genus
( Hyptis) and climber habit in american species of
scutellaria.

Root : Tap root , ( mentha advintitious root )

Stem : Herbecious or woody erect , Aerial , prostste ,
hairy , branched, solid , hollow, sometimes underground
sukers ( Mentha )

Leaves : simple , opposite,whorled (rarely),extipulate

with oilglands, petiolate or sessile,reticulate venation

Floral characters :
65
inflorescene : mostly verticillaster rarely solitary Or
capitulum.

Flower : Zygomorphic, ( rarely actinomorphic E.g

mentha)
mostly bisexual ( rarely unisexual E.g thymus )
complete, hypogynous,bracteate , pedicellate or sessile,

Calyx : consist of 5 - sepals, gamosepalous,mostly

bilabiate funnel shape or tubular, valvate or imbricate
aestivation

Corolla : consist of five petals , gamopetalous,

bilabiate,with imbricate aestivation

Androcium: consist of mostly 4 stemans ( 2 incase of

salivia) didynamous (2+2) epipetalous.

Gynoecium : Bicarpellary, syncarpous,overy

superior,Axile plecentation

Seed : Non endospermic

Fruit: usually schizocarphic
floral formula And Diagram
K(5) Co(5) S2, 2+2 P(2)
66
67
Ecnomic important
Ocimum sacnctum . this is the religous and medicinal
plant.
Lavandula versa ( Lavender plant ) used for extraction of
lavanderiol.
mentha arvensis ( podina ) used as medicin
Salivia officinalis ( Ornomental plant.
Coleus ( Ornomental and medicinal plant.

Asteracea family

Classification

Kingdom: Plantae Class: Angiosperms

Order: Asterales Family: Asteraceae
Distribution: There are 20,000 species of herbs, shrubs,
flowers, and trees in this family. Plants in this family are
found throughout the world in a variety of habitats.
Many of the herbs in this in the family grow in moist,
temperate, and subtropical areas.

68
Vegetative characters
.Habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs
(Helianthus annus) and trees (Veronia). Occasionally
marsh plants (Caesulia) also occur in this family.
Root system: Generally the root system is branched
taproot system. Tuberous are present in Dhalia.The roots
and stem may contain oil passages.
Stem: Herbaceous or woody, erect,
branched. Helianthus tuberoses produces stem tubers.
Many species have milky white sap. Stems are often
covered by trichomes.
Leaf: Leaves are simple, alternate or opposite
(Helianthus) or whorled (Eupatorium), exstipulate,
petiolate, hairy, reticulate venation
Floral character
inflorescence : Capitulum ( Head ) surrounded by
involucral bracts
Flower : Small called florest, two types Ray floret and
Disc floret
Ray floret : situated at periphery of disc or
receptacle,bracteate, sessile, zygomorphic, neutral or
unisexual female, epigynous

69
Calyx: 2 to many sepals, reduced to hair like outgrowth
or bristles above ovary.
pappus calayx
Corolla: 5 petals, gamopetalous opens and spreads at
apex forming ligulate or ray like

Disc florets : situated on disc/receptacle, Bracteate,

sessile, actinomorphic, bisexual epigynous.
Calyx: 2 to many sepals, reduced scales or papuus
Corolla : 5 petals, gamopetalous, tubular, valvate
astivation.
Androecium : 5 stamens, united by their anthers
forming a tube around the style
Gynoecium:2 united carpels, inferior ovary
(=epigynous), single style with two stigmatic lobes, single
ovule.
Fruit : achene, which is dry and single-seeded and does
not open at maturity.
Floral formula:
Ray floret: Br % ♀ K2 (pappus), C A0 G(2)
Disk floret: Br ♀♂ K2 (pappus), C(5) A(5) G(2)

70
Floral diagram

Ecnomic important
Food : family asteraceae important source of food . the
leaves and roots of a few angiosperms such as Lactuca

71
sativa and Helianthus Tuberosus are edible.
Oil : The seed of angiosperms are an important source of
oil.
Medicines : Solidago is used for dropsy, artemisia yields
santonin, and juices and root of a few plant are used in
bowel disorder and ahve a cooling effect.
Rubber : Traxacum and solidago laevenworthii are
important sources of rubber .

Liliacea family

Systematic Position Of Liliaceae

Kingdom: Plantae Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Super Division: Spermatophyta
Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Liliopsida
Subclass: Liliidae Order: Liliales Family: Liliaceae
Distribution : 240 genera and 3000 species
vegatative characters
Habit : Herbs , shrubs , Trees, Climber, Xerophytic
( yucca)
72
perinnial, annual,
Root : Advintitious root / fibrous Asparagus ( Tuberous
root )
Stem : Mostly Herbaceous,woody, eract, Climber,
underground stem ( bulb . (Onion)
corm.(colocusia).Rhizome.(Ginger)
Leaves : Leaves are mostly alternate, basal with parallel
venation. Leaves are exstipulate, petiolate or sessile with
variable shapes such as scaly, succulent or modified to
tendrils.

Floral character :
infloroscence : Racemose, Cymose, Solitary,Umbel, etc
Flower : Mostly bracteate, actinomorphic and
hermaphrodite. The flower is generally trimerous and
hypogynous.
Perionth : 6 tepals ( 2 whorled ) mostly united and have
valvate aestivation.
Androecium : Stamens 6, polyandrous and epiphyllous
or epitepalous. Present in two whorls.
Gynoecium : Tricarpellary, syncarpous with the superior
and trilocular ovary.
Plecentation : Axille
73
Fruit: Mostly capsule, rarely a berry.
Seed : Endospermic and with one cotyledon.

Floral formula :

74
Ecnomic important :
Many plants are used as vegetables, e.g. onion, garlic,
asparagus, etc.
Many plants are of medicinal importance, e.g. Aloe
vera, Smilax, etc. Colchicine is obtained from Colchicum.
Many ornamental plants also belong to this family. E.g.
Lilies, tulips, etc.
Some of the plants yield fibres, e.g Yucca.

Family poaceae ( Gramineae )

Systemetic position
Division : Angiosperme Class : Monocotyledons
Series : Glunacea Order : Poales Family : poaeae

Distribution : second (2) largest family of

monocotyledons containing about 625 genera and 5000
species . mostly they are world wide is distribution .

vegetative character

75
Habit : Mostly annual herbs , may be biannial and
perenial . a few climbers and some bamboos or woody

Root : Advintitious , fibrous

stem : Herbeceous ,hollow except maize and sugur
cane ,cylindrical with distinct nodes and internodes ,
arect ,prostrate

Leaves : simple , alternate, have long linear blade .

parallel venation , leaf sheath is well develop. sessile
except bambusa

floral characters
inflorescence : Spike or spikelets and penicle
Flower : Bracteate , Sessile , hermaphrodite, unisexual ,
zygomorphic , hypogynous

Perianth : Absent ,
Androecium : consist of 3 stemans ( rarely 6 e.g rice )
free long filament,Anther bicelled , versatile

Gynoecium : Monocarpellary , ovary superior ,

unilocular,with single ovule . style two in number ,basal
plecentation

76
Fruit : carypsis, some time berry or nut .
Seed : Endospermic
Pollination : cross pollination ( wind )
floral formula :

77
Economic Importance of Poaceae
Food
The plants of this family are an important food source.
For eg., Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Avena
78
sativa (oats), and Zea mays (Maize).
Fodder
Grasses such as Panicum, Cynodon dactylon,
Cymbopogon, and Poa are used as fodder.
Sugar
Jaggery and sugar are obtained from Saccharum
officinarum.
Building Material
Species of Bambusa are used for scaffolding and
thatching of huts.
Aromatic Plants
Many kinds of grass such as Vitiveria zizanioides yield
scented oil from its roots. The roots are also used to
weave curtains.
Medicines
Plants such as Phragmites karka, Claviceps purpurea,
Cymbopogon schoenanthus have medicinal values

Merestemetic Or ( meristem )

Meristematic tissue is the plant tissue that has the ability to

divide actively throughout its life.”

79
Meristematic tissues contain living cells with varied shapes. They
possess a large nucleus devoid of the vacuole. The cells have no
intercellular space. The zone where these cells exist is known as
meristem.

Characteristic of merestemetic tissue.

Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue
The cells of these tissues are commonly called meristems.
They have very small and few vacuoles.
The meristematic tissue is living and thin-walled.
The protoplasm of the cells is very dense.
The meristematic tissues heal the wounds of an injured plant.
The cells of the meristematic tissue are young and immature.
They do not store food.
They exhibit a very high metabolic activity.
They possess a single, large and prominent nucleus.

Types of Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic Tissue On the basis of Origin
Promeristem
The earliest and youngest meristematic tissue.
It originates from the embryo.

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The primary meristem arises from the promeristem.
It is found in the root and the shoot tips.
Primary Meristem
It arises from the promeristem.
Cells divide actively.
It is present below the promeristem and forms the permanent
tissue.
Secondary Meristem
It originates from the primary meristem.
The permanent tissue forms from the secondary meristem.

Meristematic Tissue On the Basis of Position

Apical Meristem
These are present at the tips of the roots and shoots and helps in
the increase of the height of the plants.
Various cell divisions facilitate the growth of the cells in the
roots and shoots and help in cellular enlargement.
Intercalary Meristem
It is located in the leaves and internodes at the intercalary
position.
These help to increase the length of the internode.
It is found in grass, monocots and pines.
It is a part of apical meristem and adds to the height of the plant.

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Lateral Meristem
It is located in the stems and roots on the lateral side.
It increases the thickness of the plant.
Vascular cambium and cork cambium are the two lateral
meristems.
These divide preclinically or radially and give rise to secondary
permanent tissues.

Meristematic Tissue On the Basis of Function

Protoderm
It is the outermost plant tissue and forms the epidermis.
It protects the plants from any mechanical shocks.
Procambium
It is the innermost tissue and gives rise to xylem and phloem.
It helps in the transport of water and nutrients to different parts
of the plant.
Ground Meristem
The cells are large with thick walls.
It forms the cortex, pericycle and pith.
Stem and root epices :
Apex is the growing terminal portions of the stem and roots in
plants. The apical portion of the stem is called 'Shoot Apex' and
that of the root is called 'Root Apex'. The apex portions of both

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stem and root possess a meristematic tissue called the 'Apical
Meristem'.

Primary growth in plant

Primary growth in plants refers to the increase in length or
height of the plant body. It occurs primarily in the apical
meristems, which are regions of actively dividing cells located at
the tips of shoots and roots. The two main types of primary
growth are the elongation of shoots and the elongation of roots.

Shoot Elongation: In the shoot system of a plant, primary

growth occurs at the shoot apical meristem (SAM). The SAM
consists of a dome-shaped group of cells at the tip of the stem.
These cells divide rapidly, giving rise to new cells that
differentiate into various tissues such as leaves, stems, and
flowers. As new cells are added at the apex, the shoot grows in
length. This growth allows the plant to reach for light and
maximize photosynthesis.

Root Elongation: In the root system, primary growth takes

place at the root apical meristem (RAM), which is located at the
tip of the root. The RAM produces new cells that elongate and
differentiate into various root tissues, including the root cap,
epidermis, cortex, and vascular tissues. As the cells in the RAM
divide, the root grows in length, allowing it to explore the soil for
water and nutrients.
Cell Division and Differentiation: During primary growth,
cell division occurs in the meristematic region, leading to an
increase in the number of cells. The newly formed cells then
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undergo differentiation, where they specialize into specific cell
types. These differentiated cells organize into various tissues,
contributing to the overall growth and development of the plant.
Primary growth is responsible for the vertical growth of the plant
body. It is essential for plant survival and plays a crucial role in
establishing the plant's architecture, enabling it to compete for
sunlight, access water and nutrients, and reproduce.

Secondary Growth in Plants

The secondary growth of plants increase in stem thickness and it
is due to the activity of the lateral meristems, which are absent
in herbs or herbaceous plants. There are two types of lateral
tissues involved in secondary growth, , vascular cambium and
cork cambium.
Vascular Cambium
The vascular cambium is a type of plant tissue responsible for
secondary growth in dicotyledonous plants, leading to an
increase in girth or thickness.
Definition: The vascular cambium is a meristematic tissue
found in the stems and roots of woody plants. It is a thin layer of
cells located between the xylem and phloem, two other types of
plant tissues involved in transportation.
Function: The primary function of the vascular cambium is to
produce new vascular tissue, which includes secondary xylem
(wood) towards the inside and secondary phloem towards the
outside. This allows the plant to grow thicker over time.
Structure: The vascular cambium consists of actively dividing
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cells that are elongated and arranged in radial rows. These cells
divide to form two different types of cells: cells that differentiate
into secondary xylem and cells that differentiate into secondary
phloem.
Secondary Xylem Formation: The cells produced towards the
inside of the vascular cambium differentiate into secondary
xylem cells. These cells mature into tracheids and vessel
elements, which are responsible for water and mineral
transportation within the plant.
Secondary Phloem Formation: The cells produced towards
the outside of the vascular cambium differentiate into secondary
phloem cells. These cells mature into sieve tube elements and
companion cells, which are involved in the transport of organic
materials such as sugars.
Annual Rings: The activity of the vascular cambium varies with
the seasons, resulting in the formation of annual growth rings in
the stem. During the growing season, larger and thinner-walled
cells are formed, resulting in lighter-colored early wood. In the
dormant season, smaller and thicker-walled cells are produced,
resulting in darker-colored late wood.
Bark Formation: As the vascular cambium continues to
produce new layers of secondary phloem, the older layers get
pushed outward, ultimately forming the bark of the plant.

Cork cambium
The cork cambium is a type of lateral meristem, which is a tissue
found in the stems and roots of woody plants. It is responsible
for producing the cork cells that make up the outer protective
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layer of the plant, called the cork or bark.
The cork cambium is a secondary meristem, meaning it develops
after the primary growth of the plant has occurred. It forms a
cylindrical layer of cells that divides and produces new cells both
towards the outside and towards the inside of the stem or root.
The cells produced towards the outside become cork cells, while
the cells produced towards the inside become secondary phloem
cells.
Cork cells are dead at maturity and have a thick, waterproof cell
wall that helps protect the plant from mechanical damage, water
loss, and pathogens. These cells also provide insulation and
prevent excessive temperature changes. The accumulation of
cork cells on the outside of the stem or root leads to the
formation of bark.
The activity of the cork cambium varies with the seasons.
During the growing season, the cork cambium is active and
produces new cork cells, leading to the expansion of the bark.

Root Structure & Developme

The root is an essential part of a plant's structure that serves

several important functions. It is typically found below the
ground, anchoring the plant and absorbing water and nutrients
from the soil. The structure and development of roots can be
divided into different components and stages.

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Root Structure:
The root consists of various specialized tissues that work
together to carry out specific functions. The primary structures
of a root include:
Root Cap: Located at the tip of the root, the root cap protects
the delicate root meristem (the region of cell division) as it
grows through the soil.
Meristem: This region contains actively dividing cells and is
responsible for root growth. It gives rise to different regions of
the root.
Root Hairs: These are tiny projections on the surface of the root
that greatly increase its surface area for absorption of water and
nutrients.
Xylem and Phloem: These vascular tissues transport water,
nutrients, and sugars throughout the root and the rest of the
plant.
Cortex: The cortex is the outer layer of the root that stores
starch and aids in the movement of water and nutrients towards
the vascular tissues.
Endodermis: This single layer of cells surrounds the vascular
tissues and regulates the movement of substances into the
vascular system.
Root Epidermis: The outermost layer of cells that provides
protection and helps with the absorption of water and nutrients.

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Root Development:
Root development involves various stages as the root grows and
matures. The primary stages include:
Radicle Emergence: In seed plants, the first root to emerge
from the seed is called the radicle. It elongates and develops into
the primary root.
Primary Root Growth: The primary root grows downward into
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the soil, branching out into smaller lateral roots. The root apical
meristem at the tip of the primary root produces new cells that
contribute to root elongation.
Lateral Root Formation: Lateral roots originate from the
pericycle, a tissue within the primary root. They grow
horizontally from the primary root and help in nutrient
absorption and anchoring the plant.
Root Hair Development: Root hairs develop from the
epidermal cells of the root. They extend into the soil and
increase the surface area for water and nutrient absorption.
Secondary Growth: Some plants, like trees, undergo
secondary growth, resulting in the thickening of roots. This
occurs due to the activity of a lateral meristem called the
vascular cambium , which produces secondary xylem and
phloem.

Stem Structure & Developme

Structure of Stems:
Stems are the main above-ground organs of plants that give rise
to leaves, flowers, and branches. They typically consist of several
distinct layers or tissues, each with its own specialized functions.
The primary tissues found in stems include:
Epidermis: The outermost layer of cells that covers the stem's
surface and provides protection against water loss, pests, and

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diseases.
Cortex: Located beneath the epidermis, the cortex consists of
parenchyma cells and often contains air spaces. It helps store
nutrients and provides structural support.
Vascular Tissues: These tissues are responsible for the
transport of water, minerals, and sugars throughout the plant.
There are two main types of vascular tissues in stems:
a. Xylem: Conducts water and minerals from the roots to the
leaves. It is made up of specialized cells called tracheids and
vessel elements that are dead at maturity.
b. Phloem: Transports sugars, hormones, and other organic
compounds produced in the leaves to other parts of the plant. It
is composed of living cells called sieve tube elements and
companion cells.
Pith: The central region of the stem composed of parenchyma
cells. It often functions in storage and can provide additional
support.

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Development of Stems:
The development of stems involves several processes that occur
throughout the plant's life cycle. Here is a simplified overview of
stem development:
Apical Meristem: Stem growth begins at the apical meristem,
which is a group of undifferentiated cells located at the tip of the
stem. The apical meristem continuously produces new cells
through cell division.
Primary Growth: The cells produced by the apical meristem
undergo elongation and differentiation, leading to primary
growth. This growth occurs in length and allows the stem to
extend upward and the roots to grow downward.
Secondary Growth: In some plants, secondary growth may
occur, resulting in an increase in stem thickness. Secondary
growth is mainly observed in woody plants and involves the
activity of lateral meristems: the vascular cambium and the cork
cambium.
a. Vascular Cambium: The vascular cambium is a cylinder of
meristematic cells that divides to produce new xylem cells
towards the center of the stem and new phloem cells towards
the outside. This leads to the thickening of the stem over time.
b. Cork Cambium: The cork cambium, also known as the
phellogen, is a layer of meristematic cells that produces cork
cells towards the outside and parenchyma cells towards the
inside. The cork cells form the protective outer bark of the stem.

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Lateral Branching: As the stem grows, lateral buds can develop
into branches. These buds contain meristematic tissue that can
differentiate into new stems, leaves, or flowers, contributing to
the overall architecture of the plant.

Leaf structure and development

Leaves are the primary organs of photosynthesis in most plants.

They are responsible for capturing sunlight and converting it into
chemical energy, which is essential for the plant's growth and
survival. The structure and development of leaves can vary
among different plant species, but they generally share several
common features.

Leaf Structure:
Blade or Lamina: This is the flat, expanded part of the leaf
where most of the photosynthesis takes place. It has a large
surface area to maximize sunlight absorption.
Petiole: The petiole is a stalk-like structure that attaches the
blade to the stem. It provides support and helps transport
nutrients and water between the leaf and the rest of the plant.
Veins: Veins are vascular bundles that run through the leaf,
providing a network of transport vessels for water, nutrients,
and sugars. They consist of xylem, which transports water and
minerals from the roots, and phloem, which carries sugars
produced during photosynthesis to other parts of the plant.
Cuticle: The cuticle is a waxy, waterproof layer that covers the
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leaf surface. It helps reduce water loss through evaporation and
protects the leaf from pathogens and environmental stresses.
Stomata: Stomata are small openings, typically found on the
underside of leaves, surrounded by two guard cells. They
regulate gas exchange, allowing carbon dioxide to enter for
photosynthesis while releasing oxygen and water vapor.
Stomata can open or close to control the balance between water
loss and carbon dioxide uptake.
Epidermis: The epidermis is a thin layer of cells that covers
the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It provides protection
and may contain specialized cells like trichomes (hair-like
structures) or glandular cells that secrete substances.

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Leaf Development:
Leaf development begins in the shoot apical meristem, a region
of actively dividing cells at the tip of the stem. From the shoot
apical meristem, leaf primordia form as small bumps or
outgrowths. These primordia develop into mature leaves
through several stages:

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Initiation: Leaf primordia emerge from the apical meristem and
start to elongate. The number and arrangement of primordia
vary depending on the plant species.
Expansion: The leaf primordia continue to elongate and
differentiate into different leaf tissues, such as epidermis,
mesophyll (photosynthetic tissue), and vascular tissues.
Venation: Veins develop within the expanding leaf primordia,
forming a network that facilitates nutrient and water transport.
.Maturation: The leaf reaches its final size and shape, and
specialized cells, such as stomata, trichomes, and glandular cells,
develop in the epidermis. The cuticle also forms on the leaf
surface.

periderm
Periderm is the outer layer of the bark of a tree. Let us
know about the composition and formation of periderm.
Structure of periderm
Periderm: Protective outer tissue of plants, composed of
three layers:
Cork Cells: Dead, waxy cells that form the outermost
layer of periderm.
Cork Cambium: Meristematic tissue responsible for
producing cork cells.
Phelloderm: Living parenchyma cells located beneath
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the cork cambium.

Formation of Periderm
In woody plants, cork cambium is the outermost lateral
meristem. Cork cambium, also called phellogen, is
another meristematic tissue developed in the cortex
region. Due to the cambial ring activity, the outer layers
such as cortex cells and epidermis get crushed. This is the
time when the cork cambium develops as a new
protective layer. Cork cambium starts to differentiate
cells and form outer cork (phellem) and inner secondary
cortex (phelloderm).

Development of Periderm:

Initiation: Occurs in response to injury, environmental

factors, or as part of normal growth.

Formation of Cork Cambium: Meristematic cells

divide periclinally (parallel to the surface), forming a new
layer.

Cork Cell Production: Cork cambium produces layers of

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cork cells towards the outer surface.

Cell Differentiation: Newly formed cork cells undergo a

series of changes, including the deposition of suberin, a
waxy substance that provides protection.

Phelloderm Formation: Some cells of the cork

cambium differentiate into phelloderm, which functions
in storage and wound healing.
Lenticels: Cork cells in certain regions undergo
specialized modifications to form lenticels, which allow
gas exchange between the plant and the external
environment.

Note: Periderm replaces the epidermis in older stems

and roots, providing enhanced protection against
mechanical damage, pathogens, and water loss.

Wood
Wood is a natural material derived from the stems and
branches of trees. It has been used for various purposes

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throughout history due to its unique characteristics. Here
are some key characteristics of wood.

Wood Characteristics
Strength and Durability: Wood is known for its
strength and durability, making it a popular choice for
construction and furniture making. Different wood
species vary in their strength properties, with hardwoods
generally being stronger than softwoods.
Grain Patterns: Wood exhibits a distinct grain pattern,
which refers to the arrangement of fibers within the
material. Grain patterns can vary greatly between
different wood species and can add aesthetic appeal to
finished wood products.
Density: The density of wood affects its weight,
strength, and workability. Woods can be categorized as
either hardwoods or softwoods based on their density.
Hardwoods, such as oak and mahogany, tend to be
denser than softwoods like pine and cedar.
Moisture Content: Wood is sensitive to changes in
moisture content. It can absorb or release moisture,
leading to dimensional changes like shrinking or
expanding. Proper drying and moisture control are
essential to maintain the stability of wood products.
Workability: Wood is relatively easy to work with using
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traditional hand or power tools. It can be sawn, carved,
drilled, and sanded to create intricate shapes and
designs. However, different wood species have varying
levels of workability due to differences in hardness and
grain structure.

Types of wood

diffuse porous wood

.In diffuse-porous trees, vessels are of the same diameter

throughout the season.
.In these types of trees, the pores are scattered freely in
the growth ring.
.They are not contained within or bound within the
radius of a band.
.They are non-porous.
.A larger vessel size permits more rapid water
conduction.
.Most diffuse-porous trees are found in tropical regions.
.Examples of diffuse-porous trees include poplar, maple,
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willow, and birch.

Ring porous wood

vessels laid down at the beginning of the growing season
are much larger then subsequent vessels laid down at the
end of the season or ( Ring) .larger vessels size permits
more- rapid water conduction,
because the rate of conduction various with the fourth
power of the radius of the vessels lumen.
Are found in the north temprete areas of the world .
E.g Red oak ( quercus rubra ).

heart wood
1 Heartwood occurs in the central portion of an old stem.
2 . Cells are comparatively older.
3 .Also called as ‘Duramen’
4 .Heartwood is dark colured
5 It is the dead and nonfunctional part of the secondary
xylem.
6 .The lumens of vessels and tracheids are plugged due to
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tyloses formation.
7 .Cells store many ergastic substances such as resins and
tannins.
8 . Heartwood is heavier.
9 .Heartwood is the durable wood.
10 .Heartwood is suitable for making furniture

Sapwood

Sapwood occurs in the peripheral (outer) portion of an

old stem.
Cells are comparatively younger.
Also called as ‘Alburnum’
Sapwood is light coloured.
It is the living and functional part of the secondary xylem.
Vessel and tracheid are not plugged. No tyloses
formation.
Cells do not store any ergastic substances.
Sapwood is light in weight.
Sapwood is not a durable wood.

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Sapwood is not suitable for making.

Softwood
Softwood is a type of wood that is derived from trees
with needle-like or scale-like leaves, such as conifers.
Softwoods are typically lighter in weight and have a
lower density than hardwoods. They are commonly used
in construction, furniture making, and as raw materials
for paper production. Softwoods are known for their
straight grain and uniform texture, making them easy to
work with and finish. They are also more resistant to
shrinkage, warping, and splitting than hardwoods.
Examples of softwoods include pine, spruce, cedar, and
fir.

Hardwood.
Hardwood is a term used to describe wood derived from
angiosperm trees, which are also known as broad-leaved
or deciduous trees. Hardwood trees are characterized by
having seeds that are enclosed in some form of covering,
such as a fruit or a shell. Hardwood is generally denser
and harder than softwood, which comes from
gymnosperm trees like conifer.
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Types of hard wood
Oak: Oak is a popular hardwood known for its strength,
durability, and attractive grain patterns. It is commonly
used in furniture, flooring, and cabinetry.
Maple: Maple wood is prized for its light color, even
grain, and smooth texture. It is often used in flooring,
furniture, and kitchen cabinets.
Mahogany: Mahogany is a luxurious hardwood with a
rich reddish-brown color and a straight grain. It is
frequently used in high-quality furniture, paneling, and
musical instruments.
Cherry: Cherry wood has a warm reddish hue that
darkens over time. It has a fine, straight grain and is
commonly used in furniture, cabinets, and decorative
woodworking.
Walnut: Walnut wood is known for its rich, dark brown
color and beautiful grain patterns. It is used in high-end
furniture, flooring, and gunstocks.
Ash: Ash wood has a light-colored, creamy appearance
and a prominent grain pattern. It is used in furniture,
cabinets, flooring, and sports equipment like baseball
bats.
Birch: Birch wood is light-colored with a smooth texture
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and attractive grain. It is commonly used in furniture,
cabinetry, and plywood.

Development / Embrylogy

Early development of plant body :

Capsella bursa-pastoris

Capsella bursa-pastoris, commonly known as shepherd's

purse, is a small annual flowering plant that belongs to
the Brassicaceae family. Let's discuss the early
development of its plant body.
Germination: The life cycle of Capsella bursa-pastoris
begins with the germination of its seeds. Under favorable
conditions, such as adequate moisture, suitable
temperature, and proper light, the seeds germinate. The
germination process involves the absorption of water by
the seed, which triggers metabolic changes leading to the
emergence of the plant embryo.
Root development: Once germination occurs, the
primary root, known as the radicle, emerges from the
seed and grows downward into the soil. The radicle
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develops into the primary root system, which provides
anchorage to the plant and absorbs water and nutrients
from the soil.
Cotyledons: As the seedling continues to grow, two
cotyledons (seed leaves) appear above the soil surface.
These cotyledons are initially enclosed within the seed
and serve as nutrient storage structures to support early
growth until the plant can photosynthesize.
Leaf development: Following the emergence of
cotyledons, true leaves start to develop. Capsella bursa-
pastoris has a rosette growth habit, meaning that leaves
arise from a central point near the soil surface. The
leaves are simple, alternate, and have a distinctive
triangular or heart-shaped appearance with toothed
margins.
Stem elongation: Concurrently with leaf
development, the stem of Capsella bursa-pastoris begins
to elongate, pushing the growing tip upward. The stem
elongation allows the plant to reach sunlight for
photosynthesis and enables the development of flowers
and fruits later in its life cycle.
Inflorescence and flower development: As the
plant continues to grow, it forms an inflorescence, a
cluster of flowers at the apex of the stem. Capsella bursa-
pastoris produces small, white flowers with four petals
arranged in a cross shape, characteristic of plants in the
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Brassicaceae family.

Fruit development: Following successful pollination,

the flowers of Capsella bursa-pastoris develop into fruits
known as siliques. Siliques are elongated seedpods that
contain numerous small seeds. The shape of the siliques
resembles a shepherd's purse, hence the common name
of the plant.
As the plant matures, it completes its life cycle by
dispersing its seeds from the mature siliques. The seeds
can then undergo dormancy and remain viable until
conditions are favorable for germination, starting the
cycle anew.

ANTHER
The anther is an essential part of the reproductive
system in flowering plants (angiosperms). It is
responsible for producing and releasing pollen, which
contains the male gametes (sperm cells) necessary for
fertilization. The structure and development of anthers
undergo several stages.

Structure of an Anther:
Anthers are typically bilobed structures found at the tip
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of a stamen, the male reproductive organ of a flower.
Each lobe of the anther consists of two pollen sacs called
microsporangia, which are connected by a tissue called
the connective. The anther is surrounded and protected
by the petals and sepals of the flower.

Development of an Anther:

The development of an anther involves several stages,

known as anther development or microsporogenesis. It
can be divided into the following main phases:
Anther Primordium: The anther primordium is a
small group of cells that differentiate into anthers during
floral development. It is initiated in the floral bud before
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it opens.
Anther Lobe Formation: Within the anther
primordium, the cells undergo division and
differentiation, leading to the formation of four distinct
lobes or sporogenous tissues. These lobes will later
develop into the microsporangia.
Microsporocyte Formation: Each lobe of the anther
develops into a microsporangium, which contains
sporogenous cells called microsporocytes. The
microsporocytes undergo meiosis, resulting in the
formation of haploid microspores.
Microspore Development: Each microspore
undergoes further development within the
microsporangium. It undergoes mitotic divisions to
produce a pollen grain, which consists of two cells: the
generative cell and the tube cell.
Pollen Maturation: The pollen grain matures within
the anther, and the generative cell undergoes further
mitotic division to form two sperm cells. During this
process, the anther walls become desiccated and
specialized structures, such as the tapetum, play a role in
nourishing the developing pollen grains.
Dehiscence: Once the pollen grains are fully mature,
the anther walls undergo dehiscence, which is the
opening of the anther to release the pollen. Dehiscence

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can occur in various ways, such as through longitudinal
slits, pores, or valves, depending on the plant species.

Microsporogenesis

Microsporogenesis is the formation of microspores inside

a microsporangium (or pollen sac) by meiotic or
reduction division. The formation of pollen grains from
the microspores is termed microgametogenesis.

Formation of Microspores

The developing anther consists of two types of cells:

reproductive and non-reproductive cells.
The diploid cells, or the reproductive cells in
the sporogenous tissue of microsporangium called
meiocytes or pollen mother cells, divide by meiosis to
produce four haploid microspores.
The first reduction division gives two nuclei, and the
second division finally gives a tetrad of microspores.
The non-reproductive cells form the anther tissue layers
including epidermal, tapetal and cortical layers.
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The tapetal layer functions as a nutritive tissue for the
developing anther.

Formation of Pollen Grains

The formation of pollen grains from the microspores is
termed microgametogenesis.
It begins with the expansion of the microspore and the
formation of a large vacuole.
It is followed by displacement of the microspore nucleus
from the centre to one side of the cell against the
microspore wall.
Here, the first pollen mitosis takes place that produces a
large vegetative cell and a small generative cell
containing the haploid nucleus.
The generative cell that was attached to the microspore
wall starts detaching and is engulfed by the vegetative
cell forming a unique ‘cell within a cell’ structure.
The engulfed vegetative cells then undergo
pollen mitosis II to form two pollen sperm cells packed in
the cytoplasm.

MICROGAMETOPHYTE
Microgametophyte refers to the male gametophyte in

110
plants, which produces the male gametes involved in
sexual reproduction. In flowering plants (angiosperms),
the microgametophyte is commonly known as pollen.
Let's explore the structure and development of the
microgametophyte (pollen) in flowering plants:

Structure of Microgametophyte (Pollen):

Pollen Grain: The microgametophyte begins its

development as a multicellular structure called the
pollen grain. It is enclosed within a tough, protective
outer layer known as the exine, which is composed of
sporopollenin, a chemically resistant material.
Apertures: The exine of a pollen grain often has
specific areas called apertures. These apertures can vary
in number and location depending on the plant species.
Apertures facilitate the germination of pollen grains and
the release of the male gametes.
Cytoplasm: Inside the pollen grain, there is a thin layer
of cytoplasm that surrounds two nuclei: a generative
nucleus and a tube nucleus.
Generative Nucleus: The generative nucleus plays a
vital role in fertilization. It undergoes mitotic division to
produce two sperm cells or male gametes.

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Tube Nucleus: The tube nucleus is responsible for the
growth and development of a pollen tube, which serves
as a conduit for delivering the sperm cells to the female
reproductive structure.

Development of Microgametophyte (Pollen):

The development of the microgametophyte involves
several stages:
Microsporogenesis:
It is the process of microspore formation within the
anther, a part of the flower's reproductive structure
called the stamen. Microsporocytes, which are diploid
cells located in the anther, undergo meiosis to produce
haploid microspores.

Microgametogenesis:
After microsporogenesis, the microspores develop into
pollen grains. The microspore undergoes mitotic division
to form a mature pollen grain with two cells: the
generative cell and the tube cell (or vegetative cell).
Pollen Dispersal:
Once the pollen grains are mature, they are released
from the anther and are dispersed by various means such
as wind, water, insects, or other pollinators. This
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dispersal ensures the transport of pollen to the female
reproductive structure of another flower.
Pollen Germination:
When a pollen grain reaches a receptive stigma (part of
the female reproductive structure), it germinates. The
pollen grain absorbs moisture, and the pollen tube
begins to grow out of one of the apertures. The tube
nucleus within the pollen tube guides its growth towards
the ovule.
Double Fertilization:
The pollen tube grows through the style and reaches the
ovary. It enters the ovule through the micropyle and
releases the two sperm cells (generative nucleus). One
sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell to form the zygote (which
develops into an embryo), while the other sperm cell
fuses with the polar nuclei to form the endosperm (a
nutrient-rich tissue).

ovule
The ovule is a female reproductive structure found in the
ovaries of flowering plants. It is the precursor to the seed
and plays a crucial role in sexual reproduction.
The structure Of ovule .

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Integuments: The integuments are the outer
protective coverings of the ovule. They are usually
composed of one or two layers of cells. The outer
integument is called the outer coat, while the inner
integument is called the inner coat. The integuments
enclose and protect the internal structures of the ovule.
Micropyle: The micropyle is a small pore or opening in
the integuments. It is located at one end of the ovule and
serves as the entrance for the pollen tube during
fertilization. The pollen tube delivers the male gametes
(sperm cells) to the embryo sac within the ovule.
Nucellus: The nucellus is the central part of the ovule.
It is surrounded by the integuments and contains various
cells and tissues. The nucellus serves as a source of
nutrients for the developing embryo within the ovule.
Megaspore: Within the nucellus, a single large cell
called the megaspore is formed. The megaspore
undergoes a process called megasporogenesis to give rise
to the female gametophyte or embryo sac. In most
flowering plants, the megaspore mother cell undergoes
meiosis to produce four megaspores, but only one
survives and develops further.
Embryo Sac: The embryo sac is the female
gametophyte within the ovule. It develops from the
megaspore and consists of several cells. The typical
angiosperm embryo sac contains seven cells and eight
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nuclei, arranged in specific patterns. These cells include
the egg cell (synergids) and two polar nuclei (central cell),
among others. The embryo sac is the site where
fertilization occurs, with the fusion of the sperm cell and
the egg cell.
Funicle: The funicle, also known as the stalk or the
stalk-like structure, attaches the ovule to the placenta
(the part of the ovary that supports the ovules). It
provides a connection for nutrient and water transfer
between the placenta and the developing ovule.

Megasporogenesis
The process of development of megaspores from
megaspore mother cells is known as megasporogenesis.
The megaspores are developed in the female
reproductive organs.
Development

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A layer of sporogenous tissue is present in the ovules of
the female flowering plant.
The megaspore mother cells (MMC) are developed from
the sporogenous tissue. It is a large diploid cell with a
prominent nucleus and dense cytoplasm.
The MMC undergoes meiotic nuclear divisions to produce
four haploid megaspores.
The megaspores are arranged axially, called the linear
tetrad.
Out of the four, only one megaspore is functional and the
rest three degenerate.
The megaspore at the chalazal end is functional, and the
three towards micropyle degenerate.
The one functional megaspore divides mitotically to form
the embryo sac, a process called megagametogenesis.
It divides multiple times to produce eight haploid nuclei
for the embryo sac, which is also called a
megagametophyte.

Types of Embryo Sac Development

1. Monosporic
In the majority of angiosperms, the embryo sac develops

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from one functional megaspore while the other three
degenerate. For example, Oenothera, Polygonum.
2. Bisporic
In this type, two of the megaspores take part in embryo
sac development. Examples are Allium, Scilla,
and Trillium.
3. Tetrasporic
In this type, all four megaspores take part in embryo sac
development. For example, Peperomia.

Megagametophyte:
In the ovule, the surviving megaspore undergoes three
mitotic divisions to produce a seven-celled eight nuclei as
a female gametophyte called an embryo sac.
One of these cells is an egg cell.
The largest cell contains two polar nuclei.
The embryo sac is the mature female gametophyte.
In the majority of flowering plants, one of the
megaspores is functional while the other three
degenerate.
The functional megaspore only develops into a female
gametophyte (embryo sac).
The embryo sac represents a female gametophyte or
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megagametophyte.

Endosperm
Endosperm is present in the seeds of most of the
angiosperms. It provides nourishment to the growing
embryo. Endosperm is replaced by fleshy cotyledons in
dicotyledons. In monocotyledons, endosperm persists in
the mature seeds too and stores the food. Endosperm
tissue is rich in carbohydrates and also contains proteins
and lipids.

Salient features of Endosperm

Endosperm development takes place from the triploid
cell (3n) in the embryo sac.
The second male gamete fuses with the diploid
secondary nucleus (formed by 2 polar nuclei) to form
primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) and a triploid cell. The
process is known as triple fusion
Endospermic cells are mostly triploid but in some plants,
they may be diploid (water lily) or polyploid (up to 15n)
In some of the dicots, mature seeds contain food stored
in the endosperm, they are called endospermic or
albuminous seeds, e.g. castor

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In beans, peas, gram seeds, the endosperm is completely
absorbed during development and food is stored in two
cotyledons. They are called exalbuminous seeds
Endosperm mostly contains starch as a food reserve, but
it may contain fats, e.g. castor.
Endosperm provide nutrients to seeds during dormancy
Endosperm also contains certain hormones like
cytokinins and helps in cell differentiation.
In grains, like wheat, maize, barley, corn, the endosperm
is the main source of food.
Coconut water is the example of a liquid endosperm.
The white flour, used to prepare bread, only contains
endosperm of wheat seeds.
The outer layer of endosperm is the aleurone layer. It
secretes the amylase enzyme, which breaks down the
starch contained in the endosperm to sugars for
utilisation by seedlings

Types of Endosperm
How the primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) develops into
endosperm differs in various plants. Endosperms are
divided into three main types based on their
development pattern.
1. Nuclear Endosperm: It is the most common type of
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endosperm found. Here PEN divides repeatedly (mitotic
division) without cytokinesis. It results in the formation
of a large number of free nuclei in the cell. A large central
vacuole is formed and nuclei get arranged at the
periphery. There are more nuclei at the chalazal and
micropylar end, compared to the sides.
At this stage, cell wall formation takes place from the
periphery towards the centre and multicellular
endosperm is formed. Examples: maize, rice, wheat,
cotton, sunflower.
In coconut, the cell wall formation is incomplete resulting
in the outer multicellular solid endosperm and inner
multinucleated (having free nuclei) liquid endosperm
(coconut milk)
2. Cellular Endosperm: It is not very common. In this
type of development, division of PEN (karyokinesis) is
followed by cytokinesis and two cells are formed due to
transverse division, giving rise to the chalazal and
micropylar chamber. Further division is similar, which
leads to the formation of the cellular endosperm.
Examples: Petunia, Balsam, Datura
3. Helobial Endosperm: This type of endosperm
development is common in monocotyledons. The first
division is similar to cellular endosperm and results in a
large micropylar cell and small chalazal cell. The chalazal
cell mostly does not divide further and functions as a

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base cell. The micropylar cell divides further, similar to
nuclear endosperm. So helobial is an intermediate type,
a combination of both nuclear and cellular endosperm.
Examples: Eremurus

Function of Endosperm
Endosperm is important for the growth of an embryo and
stores the food reserve
They supply nutrients and provide protection to the
developing embryo
Endospermic tissues have shown to regulate gene
expression and seed germination
Endosperm induces signals according to environmental
conditions and regulates embryonic growth
The endosperm contains cytokinin, which regulates
cellular differentiation
It may induce abortion of seeds from the genetically
mismatched cross.

Parthenocarpy
Parthenocarpy is the production of fruits without the
fertilisation of ovules. Fruits like banana and figs are
developed without fertilisation and do not produce any

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viable seeds.”

Parthenocarpic Fruits
Pineapple, banana, cucumber, grape, watermelon,
orange, grapefruit, pear, fig are some examples of
Parthenocarpy. These develop without fertilization and
are often seedless.
Types of Parthenocarpy
Parthenocarpy can be categorized into two parts, which
are: Vegetative and Stimulative parthenocarpy
Vegetative Parthenocarpy
This generally takes place without pollination and due to
the absence of pollination, no seeds are produced within
the fruits.
Stimulative Parthenocarpy
Stimulative parthenocarpy generally takes place without
the process of fertilization. This condition occurs when
the ovipositor of a wasp is inserted into the ovary of a
flower and can also be achieved by flowing air or plant
growth regulators into the unisexual flowers that are
present inside the syconium.

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Benefits of Parthenocarpy
This is more healthy and the results are achieved easily.
Provides seedless fruits and improves quality.
It reduces the complete cost of the cultivation.
This improves crop yield without using organic pesticides.
Plant growth regulators are natural and the fruits
produced are larger.
Parthenocarpy keeps the insects and pests away without
using chemicals because there is no requirement of
pollinating insects for the formation of fruits. This
protects the plants from being attacked by pesticides.

Polyembryony
This is a natural phenomenon, quite common in both
dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
As per the name Polyembryony – it refers to the
development of many embryos.
When two or more than two embryos develop from a
single fertilized egg, then this phenomenon is known as
Polyembryony. In the case of humans, it results in
forming two identical twins. This phenomenon is found
both in plants and animals.

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Polyembryony in Plants
The production of two or more than two embryos from a
single seed or fertilized egg is termed as Polyembryony.
In plants, this phenomenon is caused either due to the
fertilization of one or more than one embryonic sac or
due to the origination of embryos outside of the
embryonic sac.
This natural phenomenon was first discovered in the year
1719 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in Citrus plant seeds.
Types of Polyembryony
According to Webber, polyembryony is classified into
three different types :
:Cleavage Polyembryony
In the case of this type, a single fertilized egg gives rise to
a number of embryos.
Simple polyembryony: In this type, a number of
embryos develop as a result of the fertilization of several
archegonia.
Rosette polyembryony: Additional embryos develop
from the rosette cells in certain gymnosperms, this type
of polyembryony is termed rosette polyembryony.

Polyembryony in Different Groups of Gymnosperms

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Polyembryony in Cycadales
In Cycadales, polyembryony is not a usual phenomenon.
But in 1964, Rao reported the occurrence of simple
polyembryony in Cycas Circinalis. In this species, two
adjacent archegonia of the same ovule sometimes grow
independently into two embryos and also rarely into two
seedlings.
Polyembryony in Coniferales
In Case of Coniferales, simple polyembryony occurs in the
majority of its members and here the number of embryos
varies from 2 to many. It has been reported that cleavage
polyembryony occurs in several groups of Pinaceae,
Taxodiaceae, Cupressaceae, and Podocarpaceae. In
Cupressus, both simple and cleavage polyembryony are
common.
Polyembryony in Taxales
Various archegonia are present in the
female gametophyte of Taxus. Simple polyembryony
occurs due to the fertilization of many of the archegonia
eggs. But, out of many, only a single embryo attains
maturity. Cleavage of suspensor cells occurs. The
suspensors separate from each other, and each of them
may carry one or more embryonal units. Sometimes,
groups of meristematic cells are observed at the base of
the suspensor cells These groups of cells are called the
rosette embryos. Further development, however, does
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not take place in these embryos.
Polyembryony in Gnetales
All Gnetales exhibit polyembryony. Polyembryony is
found to be of very high order in Gnetum. In this group,
there are not only several prothalli and zygotes in each
seed, but there is a multiplication of embryos from each
zygote by the branching of the primary suspensors.

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