Folheto Caio

Preparação pra IPhO

Simulado
5 hours 30 marks

Constantes Importantes
• Pi: π ≈ 3.1416

• Numero de Euler: e ≈ 2.73

• Velocidade da Luz : c ≈ 3 · 108 m/s

• Constante de Planck: h ≈ 6.63 · 10−34 Js

• Constante Gravitacional: G ≈ 6.67 · 10−11 N m2 /kg 2

• Constante de Boltzmann: kb ≈ 1.33 · 10−23 JK −1

• Numero de Avogrado: NA ≈ 6.022 · 1023 mol−1

• Constante dos gases ideais: R ≈ 8.31JK −1 mol

• Constante de Stefan-Boltzmann: σ ≈ 5.67 · 10−8 W m−2 K −4

• Permeabilidade eléctrica do vácuo: ϵ0 ≈ 8.854 · 10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2

• Permeabilidade magnética do vácuo: µ0 = 4π · 10−7 T mA−1

• Unidade de massa atômica: u ≈ 1.66 · 10−27 kg

• Massa do elétron: me ≈ 9.11 · 10−31 kg

• Massa do neutron: mn ≈ 1.67 · 10−27 kg

• Massa do proton: mp ≈ 1.67 · 10−27 kg

• Carga elétrica elementar: e ≈ 1.60 · 10−19 C

• Elétron-Volt: eV ≈ 1.60 · 10−19 J

• Raio de Bohr: a0 = 0.529 · 10−10 m

• Parsec: pc ≈ 3.086 · 1016 m

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 PROBLEMA - 1

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Synchronization:

Synchronization is a very common physical phenomenon. As early as in the 17th century, the famous
Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens observed that when two pendulum clocks are suspended from
a common beam, they tend to oscillate in synchrony. In part A of this problem, we will consider
a model of this phenomenon. In part B of this problem, we will consider a modern example of
synchronization. Students can work on either part first before working on the other part.

Part A: The pendulums

A single pendulum consists of a bob with mass m suspended vertically from a fixed point with a
massless string of length L, subject to gravitational acceleration g. Let q(t) be the angular displace-
ment of the pendulum from the vertical at time t. When the bob moves, it encounters a constant
frictional force of magnitude mLb in the opposite direction of motion.

1. Write the dynamical equation of q(t) for small oscilations

Remark: To keep your equation simple, you may introduce the angular frequency
r
g
ω=
L
and use the sign fucntion defined by:

To compensate the loss of kinetic energy due to the friction in each cycle, the pendulum re-
ceives a kick every cycle. To simplify the calculations, we assume that the kick takes place
when q = −b/ω 2 and its angular velocity is positive.

2. Suppose that the angular velocity of the pendulum is un immediately after the nth kick. Cal-
culate q(t) and q̇(t) in the cycle after the nth kick. For convenience, we choose t = 0 at the nth
kick in this part and below.
For clarity, give your answer in three parts:
(a) The first quarter of the cycle,
(b) the second and third quarters of the cycle,
(c) the fourth quarter of the cycle.

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 3. Suppose at each kick, a fixed amount of kinetic energy of the magnitude mL2 h2 /2 is injected
to the pendulum, where h has the dimension of an angular velocity. Calculate the relation
between un+1 and un .

4. What is the value of un after many kicks?

5. Suppose that at time t0 during the first quarter of the cycle after the nth kick, the pendulum
receives an angular impulse equal to mL2 α. Calculate the time at which:
a) the friction changes sign the first time,
b) the friction changes sign the second time,
c) the pendulum receives the (n + 1)th kick.
Give your answer to the first order in α.

6. Suppose that the time t0 at which the pendulum receives an angular impulse equal to mL2 α is
in the fourth quarter of the cycle after the nth kick instead of the first quarter. Calculate the
time at which the pendulum receives the (n + 1)th . Give your answer to the first order in α.

Now consider two pendulum clocks. Let q1 (t) and q2 (t) be the angular displacements of the two
clocks. The bob mass m, length L, friction parameter b and kick size h of the two pendulums
are identical. Suppose that when q2 = −b/ω 2 , pendulum 2 sends a small angular impulse equal
to mL2 α on pendulum 1, and when q1 + = −b/ω 2 , pendulum 1 sends a small angular impulse
equal to mL2 α on pendulum 2. (Here, α > 0.)

7. Suppose the phase lag of pendulum 2 relative to pendulum 1 is Φn at the beginning of nth cycle
of pendulum 1, and 0 ≤ Φn < π/2. Calculate the relation between Φn and Φn+1 .

8. When Φn is very small, calculate the number of cycles for Φn to reduce by a factor of 10.

Part B: The Power Grid

Synchronization is an important concept in the transmission of electricity in the power grid. The
power grid is a network of nodes and links. Each node is an electric generator or other power
consumption devices. The links are the transmission cables. Electric power is transmitted in the
alternating current (AC) mode at 50 Hz or 60 Hz at a fixed voltage. However, the AC voltage of
each node in the network has a slightly different phase
1. Consider a transmission cable connecting nodes 1 and 2. The inductance of the cable is L .
The electric potentials of nodes 1 and 2 are Vj (t) = V cos(ωt + θj ) for j = 1, 2. Calculate the
time-averaged power transmitted from node 1 to 2. You may neglect the time dependence of θj .

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 A network of electric generators and motors, labeled j = 1, 2, . . . , N , are connected with each
other. Their electric potentials are Vj (t) = V cos(ωt + θj ) for j = 1, 2, . . . , N , and the induc-
tances of the connecting cables are L. The generator or motor at node j rotates with the phase
angle ωt + θj and its moment of inertia is I. The external power source or drain is Pj (Pj > 0
if j is a generator, and Pj < 0 if j is a motor). At the same time, the power dissipation due to
friction is given by κ(ω + θ̇J )2 /2 at node j.

2. Derive the dynamical equation for θj as a function of time. Assume that the rates of change of
θj are much less than ω, such that the dynamical equation can be approximated by retaining
only terms up to the first order of θj .

The dynamical equation of θj is similar to that of the coupled oscillator network shown in
the figure. It consists of N particles free to slide on a smooth circular rail of radius R without
collision. Each particle has mass m and is subject to a force Fj for particle j in the tangential
direction of the circle. When a particle moves, it experiences a damping force that is equal
to minus the velocity times the damping constant b. Each pair of particles is connected by a
spring of very short equilibrium length and force constant k.

3. Derive the dynamical equation of the angular positions θj , and fill in the table on the answer
sheet with the physical terms for the coupled oscillator network and the corresponding terms
in the power grid.

4. Consider a fully connected power grid with Nc consumer nodes and Ng generator nodes, and
friction is negligible. Each consumer node consumes power P and the total consumed power is
evenly provided by the generator nodes. Calculate the phase difference between the generators
and the consumers at the steady state.

5. Calculate the minimum number of generators to maintain effective electricity transmission in

the power grid of part (B4).

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 PROBLEMA - 2

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Plasmon Resonance and SERS:

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is one of the most prominent optical phenom-
ena in the last 40 years. SERS is based on plasmon resonance, referring to the significant increase in
electric field intensity near the small metal granules under certain conditions. In order to determine
these conditions, it is necessary to learn how to describe the properties of metals placed in oscillating
electromagnetic fields

Properties of a medium in an electric field are described as follows:

⃗ = ϵϵ0 E
D ⃗ = ϵ0 E
⃗ + P⃗

where E ⃗ and D ⃗ are the electric field intensity and the electric displacement respectively, ϵ is the
permittivity of the medium, P⃗ is the electric polarization (electric dipole moments per unit volume),
ϵ0 is the vacuum permittivity. The boundary conditions in the absence of free charges are the con-
tinuity of electric field tangential to the boundary and the continuity of the electric displacement
normal to the boundary.
In an oscillating electromagnetic field, the permittivity of a media (including metals) is dependent
on the electromagnetic field frequency, ϵ = ϵ(ω).

Part A: Free Electron Gas

Consider a metal occupying an infinite space. Positive ions form a crystal lattice. Free electrons
move inside the lattice. The number density of positive ions and electrons are the same and equal
to n.

⃗ 0 sin(ωt) is applied in the metal. Assume that the ions are

A uniform oscillating electric field E
infinitely heavy and fixed. The effective mass and charge of an electron are denoted as m and −e
respectively. Within the simple framework of the free electron approximation one can assume that
the field acting on an electron is equivalent to E ⃗ 0 sin(ωt). All other forces (including dissipative
forces) are small and negligible.

1. The electric field drives the collective motion of the electrons ⃗r(t) along the electric field direc-
tion. Derive the expressions of ⃗r(t) and the polarization P⃗ (t) at the steady state.

2. Determine the metal permittivity ϵ(ω).

Part B: Plasmon Resonance

⃗ 0.
In this part we consider a dielectric sphere of radius R and permittivity ϵ in a uniform electric field E
Due to the polarization of the dielectric material, the electric field in the sphere and its neighborhood
is modified. The polarization of the dielectric sphere is due to mobile charges being shifted in the
uniform electric field. Here we model the dielectric effects by two oppositely charged spheres with

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 ⃗ 0 by displacements ±δ/2 respectively (see
radius r and charge density ±ρ being displaced along E
Fig. 1).

1. The total electric field E⃗ in inside the dielectric sphere is the superposition of the external field
⃗ 0 and the electric fields due to the two charged spheres. Derive an expression for E
E ⃗ in in terms
of E⃗ 0 and the polarization P⃗ due to the two charged spheres.

2. Due to the dielectric effects, surface charge is induced on the surface of the dielectric sphere.
Consider a point on the surface of the dielectric sphere where the outward unit vector normal to
the spherical surface is denoted as n̂. In the limit δ ≪ R, derive an expression for the induced
surface charge density σ at this point in terms of the polarization P⃗ and n̂.

⃗ out · n̂
3. Following B2, derive the relation between the normal components of the electric fields E
and E⃗ in · n̂ at the surface of the dielectric sphere.

4. Express the induced electric dipole moment d⃗0 of the dielectric sphere as a function of E
⃗0

Let us analyze the behavior of a metal sphere in an oscillating electric field of angular fre-
quency ω and amplitude E ⃗ 0 . The radius of the sphere is R. When the wavelength and field
penetration depth are both much greater than the size of the sphere, one can consider the metal
sphere as a dielectric in a uniform electric field, except that one has to use ϵ(ω) (analogous to
the one expressed in the previous part) in place of the permittivity. Hence the external electric
⃗ =E
field is E ⃗ 0 cos ωt and the dipole moment is d⃗ = d⃗0 cos ωt.

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 5. Sketch qualitatively the electric field lines (inside, near and far from the ball) in the system
assuming ϵ(ω) = −3.

⃗ in | increases to
6. When ω = ωres , resonance takes place and the internal electric intensity |E
infinity. Determine ϵres , the value of ϵ(ω) when ω = ωres .

Significant increase in the electric field amplitude with frequency equaling ωres is called the
plasmon resonance. Assuming that there is no power dissipation, |E ⃗ in | approaches infinity.
Taking into account dissipation, the major loss of power comes from dipole radiation.

7. An oscillating dipole emits energy. Estimate the power I of this energy loss using dimensional
analysis. A dipole radiation intensity depends on the dipole moment amplitude d⃗0 , its oscilla-
tion frequency ωres , speed of light c and vacuum permittivity ϵ) .

8. In practice, |E⃗ in | is finite due to power dissipation at the plasmon resonance frequency ωres .
Suggest an approximate expression of the internal electric field intensity |E ⃗ in | using the con-
dition that the power output is balanced by the mean power pumped into the system by the
external field during plasmon resonance.

Part C: Raman Spectroscopy

SERS is based on the phenomenon of Raman scattering, referring to the interaction of electromagnetic
waves with mechanical vibrations of molecules. First we consider a molecule configuration. We
assume that a molecule is made up of a number of atoms connected by chemical bonds that behave
like springs. Hereafter we consider a diatomic molecule.

1. Consider two masses m1 and m2 connected by a spring of spring constant k. Determine the
frequency ω0 of small-amplitude system oscillations.

A polyatomic molecule is characterized by its spectrum of resonant frequencies. One can

identify the molecule with the knowledge of its spectrum. This is the basic idea of SERS.
Let us analyze the behavior of a molecule in an external electric field E⃗ ) cos(ωt). We assume
that atoms have no charge, i.e. the molecule has no dipole moment in the absence of the
external electric field. However, a molecule is polarized by the external electric field

d⃗ = ϵ0 αE
⃗ 0 cos(ωt)

Where α is the polarizability of the molecule. We assume that an induced dipole moment
d⃗ is parallel to the electric field E.
⃗ Due to thermal agitation, mechanical oscillations of the
molecules always exist at finite temperatures, and we assume that the thermally agitated an-
gular frequency is ω0 .

During molecular oscillations, the distance between atoms in a molecule deviates from its equi-
librium value. Suppose the deviation x of the interatomic distance is given by x = x0 cos(ω0 t).
Furthermore, when the interatomic distance changes, the polarizability of the atoms changes
accordingly, i.e., α = α(x) (see Fig. 2).

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 2. Assuming that the amplitude of mechanical oscillations is small, express α(x) using linear ap-
proximation, given that, when x = 0, α = α0 and dα
dx
= β0

⃗ 0 cos(ωt). Provide the

3. Determine the diatomic molecule dipole moment in the external field E
answer in the form: X
d⃗ = d⃗i cos(ωt)
i

4. A detector logs the dipole radiation of the molecule and detects several peaks with frequencies
ωi , corresponding to expression (1). The height of each peak is equal to the radiation intensity
of the dipole d⃗i . Determine frequency and height of each peak. Express the answer in terms of
⃗ 0.
ϵ0 , α0 , β0 , x0 , ω, ω0 , E

The presence of peaks with frequencies differing from ω in the spectrum is called Raman
scattering. The stronger the external electric field the higher the signal detected from one
molecule. A strong electric field can be obtained using the phenomenon of plasmon reso-
nance. This is a difference between SERS and ordinary Raman spectroscopy.

Part D: Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

⃗ 0 | in
Consider a sphere of permittivity ϵ(ω) in the uniform oscillating electric field of amplitude |E
the case of plasmon resonance.

1. The molecule of the investigated material has to be placed into the points of maximal electric
intensity. Locate these points in the figure on the answer sheet.

2. Determine the enhancement factor g(ω) of the electric field at these points, where g(ω) =
⃗ r)|
max |E(⃗
⃗ | . Express the answer in terms of the metal permittivity ϵ(ω)
|E
⃗
r 0

Metal beads enhance the external electric field radiation of amplitude E⃗ ) and dipole radia-
tion of the molecule as well. The second process is characterized by the enhancement factor

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 g ′ (ω, ω0 ). When ω ≫ ω0 one can assume g ′ ≈ g. Then the signal intensity in SERS is g 4 times
greater than that in ordinary Raman spectroscopy.

Usually the signal comes from many molecules. Dipole radiations of the molecules are not
coherent to each other. Thus a total radiation intensity formed by N molecules is equal to
N I0 , where I0 is the intensity of dipole radiation from a single molecule. An example of the
experimental data is presented in Fig. 3.

3. By analyzing the experimental data presented in Fig. 3, estimate enhancement factor g due to
the plasmon resonance at the peak of Raman shift ω0 /c = 1000cm−1 . Assume that ω0 ≪ ω.

4. Based on the results of Part B, estimate the radius R of the metal beads used in the experiment.
Assume that the wavelength of the external radiation λ = 785nm.

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 PROBLEMA - 3

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Lagrange Points Stability:

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