MIT First Grade College

Manandavadi Road, Mysore-08

Affiliated to University of Mysore

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

Empower the individuals and society at large through educational excellence; sensitize them for a life
dedicated to the service of fellow human beings and mother land.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

To impact holistic education that enables the students to become socially responsive and useful, with
roots firm on traditional and cultural values; and to hone their skills to accept challenges and respond to
opportunities in a global scenario.

Lecture Notes on: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Prepared by: KAVANA N & MANOHAR N

Department: COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT

Subject code: BM6SBRM

Course outcome:

1. Explain the concept of research and research process in business.

2. Familiarise the use of tools and techniques for exploratory, descriptive and casual research.
3. Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling.
4. Analyse and interpret the research questions based on methods of collection.

SYLLABUS

UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH - Meaning, types, criteria of good research,

scientific approach to physical and management science, limitations of applying scientific methods in
business research problems, ethical issues in business research, research process, problem formulation,
preparation of business research plan / Proposal

UNIT - 2 - BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN - Types of Business Research, Exploratory, Descriptive, and
Causal Research, Exploratory Research: Meaning, suitability, collection, hypothesis, formulation,
descriptive research: Meaning, types of descriptive studies, data collection methods , Causal Research:
Meaning, various types of Experimental Designs, Types of Errors affecting research design

UNIT - 3 - DATA COLLECTION -Primary and Secondary Data Sources Advantages / Disadvantages, Data
Collection Methods - Observations, Survey, Interview and Questionnaire Design, Qualitative Techniques of
Data Collection Measurement and Scaling Techniques: Nominal Scale, Ordinal Scale, Interval Scale, Rating
Scale, Criteria for Good measurement ,attitude measurement

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UNIT - 4- SAMPLING AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING - Sampling Meaning, Steps in Sampling process,
Types of Sampling - Probability and Non-Probability Sampling Techniques, Errors in Sampling.
Hypothesis- Meaning, Types, Properties, Sources, Formulation of Hypothesis, Errors in Hypothesis
Testing.

UNIT - 5 - DATA ANALYSIS – Editing, Coding, Classification, Tabulation, Univariate, Bivariate and
Multivariate Analysis, Interpretation

UNIT- 6- RESEARCH REPORT - Types, advantages, disadvantages, components of research reports,

format, chapterisation, language, and referencing.

REFERENCES

1. Marketing Research - Naresh K Malhotra - Pearson Education.

2. Business Research Methods- S.N.Murthy/U.Bhojanna- Excel Books
3. Business Research Methods - Donald R. Cooper & Pamela S Schindler
4. Marketing research: Text and cases - Rajendra Nargundkar
5. Business Research Methods - Alan Bryman & Emma Bell, Oxford
6. Research Methodology - CR Kothari - Vishwa Prakashan
7. Business Research Methods - William G Zikmund - Thomson,
8. Methodology of Research in Social Sciences - O R Krishnaswami, M Ranganatham.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SL. TOPIC PAGE NO.

NO.
1 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH 3-15
2 BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN 16-19
3 DATA COLLECTION 20-27
4 SAMPLING AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING 28-39
5 DATA ANALYSIS 40-45
6 RESEARCH REPORT 46-62

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 UNIT -1

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

MEANING:

The world of business is certainly changing at a very fast rate. Business cannot continue to assume to
produce the same old products, by the same old process, with the same old technology, managed in the same
old way will continue to produce the same old results. Therefore the need for conducting the business
research is supported by a connection to the real world is more important than ever.

The term ‘Research’ consists of two words: Re and search. ‘Re’ means, again and again and ‘Search’ means
to find out something. In general research means a search of facts, answers to questions and solutions to
problems. It is a purposive, systematic and organised inquiry. It seeks to find solutions to unexplained
problems and clarify doubtful debts.

DEFINITION:

The department of education and training defines research as “Research is defined as the creation of new
knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts,
methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the
extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

• Research originates with a question or problem

• Research requires clear articulation of a goal
• Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.
• Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis
• Research requires a specific plan for proceeding
• Research rests on certain critical assumptions
• Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the research
problem
• Research in by its nature, cyclical or more exactly helical

TYPES OF RESEARCH:

Research may be broadly classified as:

(1) Fundamental Research

(2) Applied Research
(3) Descriptive Research
(4) Analytical Research
(5) Quantitative Research
(6) Qualitative Research
(7) Conceptual Research
(8) Empirical Research

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 Fundamental
Research

Empirical Applied
Research Research

Conceptual Types of Descriptive

Research Research Research

Qualitative Analytical
Research Research

Quantitative
Research

1. Fundamental (Basic) Research:

It is also known as pure or fundamental research. This research is mainly conducted to increase
knowledge base. It is driven purely by interest and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of
research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our
understanding of the world around us. Pure research can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.
Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories in different fields. Basic research
concentrates on fundamental principles and testing theories. It is sometimes implicitly said that basic
research doesn’t have practical applications. For example, someone conducting basic research on
cheating behaviour may design a study examining whether students from illiterate families cheat
more often than students from literate families. Notice that there search is not done to reduce
cheating or help people who cheat or any other “applied” aspect, but to increase the understanding of
cheating behaviour

2. Applied Research:
Applied research is mainly related with solving practical problems rather than focussing on
knowledge expansion. It is mainly used to find solutions to problems which occur on a daily basis
and develop new innovative technologies. The main aim of applied research is to provide better
technologies for humans to enhance their standard of living.
Example: Investigating which treatment approach is the most effective for treating cancer patients
whereas researching which strategies work best to motivate workers.

3. Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research is generally related with the positivist concept. It usually involves collecting
and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions
drawn. Objectivity is very vital in quantitative research. Therefore, researchers try to avoid their own
presence, behaviour or attitude affecting the results (e.g.: by changing the circumstances being
studied or causing participants to behave differently). They also examine their methods and results
for any possible bias. The aim of quantitative research is to develop mathematical models, theories
related to phenomenon. Quantitative research is mainly used in social sciences.
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4. Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research is the approach usually related with the social constructivist concept which
emphasises the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analysing and attempting
to reveal the indebt meaning and significance of human behaviour and experience, including
conflicting beliefs, behaviours and emotions. The qualitative method tries to answer why and how of
decision-making rather than what and when. The approach to data collection and analysis is logical
but allows for greater flexibility than in quantitative research. Data is collected in textual for month
basis of observation and communication with the participants, e.g.: through participant observation,
in-depth interviews and focus groups. It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically
analysed.

5. Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of an observable fact being studied.
Descriptive studies are structured in such a way that it cannot be changed frequently, so it can be said
that they are rigid in nature. They cannot identify cause and effect relationship between variables.
Descriptive research answers questions such as who, when, where, what and how. This type of
research describes what exists and may help to reveal new facts and meaning. The purpose of
descriptive research is to observe, describe and document.

6. Exploratory Research:
Exploratory research is carried out for a problem that has not been clearly defined. The main aim of
this research is to gather initial information which helps to define problems and recommend
hypothesis. Exploratory research helps to settle on the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects. Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing
available literature, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers,
employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews,
focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. Exploratory research can mainly be
conducted when researchers lack clear idea of the problem. The results of exploratory research are
not generally useful or decision-making, but they can provide major insight into a given situation.

7. Historical Research:
It is defined as the type of research that examines past events or combinations of events to arrive at
an account of what has happened in the past. Historical research is carried out to discover the
unknown; answer questions, recognise the relationship that he past has to the present; record and
assess activities of individuals, agencies, or institutions, and assist in understanding the culture in
which we live. Historical research can exhibit patterns that occurred in the past and overtime which
can facilitate us to see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past.
Historical research involves the process of collecting and reading there search material collected, and
writing the document from the data collected.

8. Experimental Research
It is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry biology,
medicine, etc. It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to
understand fundamental processes. Usually, one or more variables are manipulated to establish their
effect on a dependent variable. Experimental research is mainly used when there is time priority in a

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 causal relationship (cause and effect) or there is uniformity in a causal relationship (a cause will
always lead to the same effect) or the magnitude of the correlation is great. Experimental research is
important to society as it helps us to improve our daily lives.

ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH

1. Facilitates Discoveries: Research leads to the development of new concepts, theories, principles, tools,
methods, etc

2. Answers Queries: Research answers questions like what, where when and how. The answer provides a
right direction and tries to give a proper solution.

3. Facilitates Interaction with People: Research leads to interaction with people during the process of data
collection. Sometimes, there searcher not only gathers information from respondents but they also educate
the respondents which lead to social upliftment.

4. Predicts Future: Research gathers data, analyses it and helps an organisation in predicting the future
requirements for it.

5. Creates Progressive Outlook: Research creates progressive outlook in an organisation. It develops

employees through logical thinking which ultimately results in overall success of an organisation.

6. Uses Questionnaires: Questionnaires serve as an important tool to collect data and information can be
checked as they are recorded on questionnaire, thus elimination bias and increasing objectivity of research.

7. Maintains Objectivity: Objectivity is the ability to examine records as they are exists without any bias.
Research maintains objectivity and gives proper solutions to problems

LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH

1. Bias by Researcher: Bias is a major issue in the success of any research work. Bias takes place at many
levels like personal bias by researcher, biased questionnaire, biased respondent or improper sampling.

2. Defective Data Collection: When a researcher is not loyal towards his work, he may use faulty methods
of data collection leading to faulty conclusions.

3. Existence of Subjectivity: Subjectivity occurs when researcher is inclined by likes and dislikes, beliefs,
faith, etc. These factors may have a negative impact on the worth of research and cause damage thereby
increasing subjectivity of their search work.

4. Lengthy and Time-consuming: Research is a lengthy process and a time-consuming activity. Even
though carried out in systematic manner, exploratory research may require more time.

5. Costly Process: Research is costly process as it requires services of experts. Cost is also involved in data
collection.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
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3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.

4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their
effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate.

6. Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.

7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced has a good reputation
in research and is a person of integrity.

LIMITATIONS :

• The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research

• Insufficient interaction between the university research departments on the side and business
establishments, governments department, and research institution on the other side.
• The business unit do not have confidence that the information supplied by them to researchers will
be misused and so such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.
• Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information.
• There does not exist a code of conduct for researcher.
• The difficult of adequate and timely secretarial assistance.
• Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many place.
• There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/
rules, reports and other government publications in time.

QUALITIES OF GOOD RESEARCHER:

1. Good research is systematic:

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance
with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristics of the research do not rule out creative thinking
but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical:

This implies that research is guide by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction are of great value in carrying out research.

3. Good Research is empirical:

It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete
data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

4. Good Research is Replicable:

This allows research to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN BUSINESS RESEARCH:

 Ethics are the set of rules that govern our expectations of our own and others’ behavior.
 Research ethics are the set of ethical guidelines that guides us on how scientific research should be
conducted and disseminated.
 Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers It is the guideline for
responsibly conducting the research.
 Research that implicates human subjects or contributors rears distinctive and multifaceted ethical,
legitimate, communal and administrative concerns.
 Research ethics is unambiguously concerned in the examination of ethical issues that are upraised
when individuals are involved as participants in the study.
 Research ethics committee/Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews whether the research is ethical
enough or not to protect the rights, dignity and welfare of the respondents.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ETHICS:

 The first and comprehensive objective – to guard/protect human participants, their dignity, rights
and welfare .
 The second objective – to make sure that research is directed in a manner that assists welfares of
persons, groups and/or civilization as a whole.
 The third objective – to inspect particular research events and schemes for their ethical
reliability, considering issues such as the controlling risk, protection of privacy and the progression of
informed consent.

Principles of Research Ethics:

Being honest with the beneficiaries and respondents. Being honest about the
findings and methodology of the research. Being honest with other direct and
Honesty indirect stakeholders.

Ensuring honesty and sincerity. Fulfilling agreements and promises. Do not

Integrity create false expectations or make false promises.

Avoiding bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer

Objectivity review, and other aspects of research.

 Informed consent means that a person knowingly, voluntarily and

intelligently gives consent to participate in a research.

 Informed consent is related to the autonomous right of the individual to

participate in the research.

 Informing the participant about the research objective, their role,

Informed consent benefits/harms (if any) etc.

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 It includes:

 autonomy, which requires that those who are capable of deliberation

about their personal goals should be treated with respect for their
capacity for self-determination; and
 protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy, which
Respect for
requires that those who are dependent or vulnerable be afforded security
person/respondent
against harm or abuse.

Maximize the benefits of the participants. Ethical obligation to maximize

Beneficence possible benefits and to minimize possible harms to the respondents.

Non-maleficence/
Protecting the Do no harm. Minimize harm/s or risks to the human. Ensure privacy,
subjects (human) autonomy and dignity.

Responsible Responsibly publishing to promote and uptake research or knowledge. No

publication duplicate publication.

It means keeping the participant anonymous. It involves not revealing the

name, caste or any other information about the participants that may reveal
Protecting his/her identity.
anonymity

Protecting confidential information, personnel records. It includes information

such as:

 Introduction and objective of the research

 Purpose of the discussion
 Procedure of the research
 Anticipated advantages, benefits/harm from the research (if any)
 Use of research
 Their role in research
 Right to refuse or withdraw
 Methods which will be used to protect anonymity and confidentiality of
the participant
 Freedom to not answer any question/withdraw from the research
 Who to contact if the participant needs additional information about the
Confidentiality
research.

Avoid discrimination on the basis of age, sex, race, ethnicity or other factors
Non-discrimination that are violation of human rights and are not related to the study.

Openness
Be open to sharing results, data and other resources. Also accept encouraging
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 comments and constructive feedback.

Carefulness and Be careful about the possible error and biases.

respect for
intellectual property Give credit to the intellectual property of others. Always paraphrase while
referring to others article, writing. Never plagiarize.
The obligation to distribute benefits and burdens fairly, to treat equals equally,
and to give reasons for differential treatment based on widely accepted criteria
Justice for just ways to distribute benefits and burdens.

Research process:

1. Formulating the research problem

2. Extensive literature survey

3. Development of working hypothesis

4. Preparing the research design

5. Determining sample design

6. Collecting the data

7. Execution of the project

8. Analysis of data

9. Hypothesis testing

10. Generalisations and interpretation

11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,

1. Formulating the Research Problem

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate
to relationships between variables. At the very outset, the researcher must single out the problem he wants to
study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to
inquire into. Initially, the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any,
relating to the problem be resolved.

Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes
the first step in a scientific enquiry.

Essentially, two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. The best way
of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some expertise

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in the matter. In an academic institution, the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an
experienced man and has several research problems in mind.

2. Extensive Literature Survey

Once the problem is formulated, a summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary
Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture, the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books, etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this
process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are
similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher
at this stage.

3. Development of Working Hypotheses

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. As such, the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly
important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the way tests must be conducted
in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of
research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role.

Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it must be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facts of the problem. It
also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

The following approaches can be followed while developing working hypotheses.

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin, and the objectives in seeking a
solution

(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities,
and other clues

(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems

(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.

4. Preparing the Research Design

The research problem having been formulated in clear-cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a
research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be

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conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved
depends mainly on the research purpose.

Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,

(i) Exploration
(ii) Description
(iii) Diagnosis
(iv) Experimentation.

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem
is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose
happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable
design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

5. Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete
enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such
an inquiry when all the items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But
in practice, this may not be true.

Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey
or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not
only this, but census inquiry is also not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood
testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often, we select only a few items from the universe for
our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must
decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design.

6. Collecting the Data

In dealing with any real-life problem, it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate
data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.

7. Execution of the Project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should
see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means
of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as
the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should
be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

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The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which clearly explains the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing
their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order
to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to
ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the
pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods
should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make
a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts,
vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of Data

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data
requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these
categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.

Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into
symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for
coding. With coding, the stage is ready for tabulation.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The
mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is
tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of
variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients,
etc. by applying various well-defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.

9. Hypothesis Testing

After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher can test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier. This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-test, etc. have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the
nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or
in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established based on data
may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent research in times to come.

10.Generalisations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further research.

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11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis

Finally, the researcher must prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be
done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows:

(i) The preliminary pages

(ii) The main text

(iii) The end matters

In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword.
Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any,
given in the report. The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of
the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.

(b) Summary of Findings: After introduction, there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.

(c) Main Report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken down
into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list
of books, journals, reports, etc. consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given
specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions
such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly
and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned, and the various constraints experienced in conducting
research operations may as well be stated.

SELECTION AND FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Problem means a question or an issue to be examined. A research problem refers to problem which a
researcher experiences or observes in the context of either a theoretical or Practical situation. The researcher
must find out suitable course of action by which the objective can be attained optimally in the context of
given environment. Thus, selection of research problem has high value to the society and the researcher
must be able to identify those problems that need an urgent solution.

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STEPS FOR DEFINING AND FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

(1) Stating the problem in a general way: - The researcher should state the problem in general terms,
keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. Often the guides put
forth the problem in general terms and researcher narrows down the problem and phrase the problem in
operational terms. The problem stated generally may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by
proper thinking and rethinking over the problem. There are two ways of stating a problem by way of posing
questions and by way of making statements.

(2) Understanding the nature of the problem: - For understanding the nature of the problem in a better
way, the researcher has to hold discussions with those who have Knowledge of the problem.

(3) Surveying the available literature:- This is necessary because only through such a survey, a Researcher
can understand the relevant theories, reports etc. studies on related problems are useful for knowing the type
of difficulties that may encounter in the present study.

(4) Developing the ideas through discussions: - A researcher must discuss his problem with
his colleagues and those who have enough experience in the same area or in working on
Similar problems. People with experience can enlighten the researcher on various aspects of his study.

(5) Rephrasing the research problem: - A researcher must rephrase the research problems into a working
proposition. The researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as
Possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypothesis.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHER IN INDIA:

 The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research
 Insufficient interaction between the university research departments on the side and business
establishments, governments department, and research institution onthe other side.
 The business unit do not have confidence that the information supplied by them to researchers will
be misused and so such they are often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.
 Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information.
 There does not exist a code of conduct for researcher
 The difficult of adequate and timely secretarial assistance.
 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many place.
 There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/
rules, reports and other government publications in time.

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 UNIT-2
BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
With the completion of the initial phase of the research process, the researcher turns to designing a
research design to formally identify the appropriate sources of data. This is done in order that any
researcher who embarks on a research project should have a blueprint of how he is going to undertake
scientifically the data collection process. The framework developed to control the collection of data is
called research design.

Research design is an absolute essentiality in research irrespective of the type of research (e.g.,
exploratory or descriptive), as it ensures that the data collected is appropriate, economical and accurate.
This also ensures that the research project conducted is effectively and efficiently done. A sufficiently
formulated research design would ensure that the information gathered is consistent with the study
objectives and that the data are collected by accurate procedures. Since, research designs germinate from
the objectives, the accuracy and adequacy of a research design depends on the unambiguous framing of
the objectives.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

 It may lead in the desired type of study with useful conclusions
 It may lead to more accurate results or help to reduce inaccuracy.
 It may lead to optimum efficiency and reliability.
 It may minimize the wastage of time and beating about the bush.
 It may minimize the uncertainty, confusing and practical hazards associated with research
problem.
 It may be helpful for the collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
 A research design is a guidepost for research direction.

FACTORS AFFECTING RESEARCH DESIGN:

• Non – Availability Of sufficient data: This is one of the basic factors affecting research design. A
design developed at one stage may undergo change in the process of research as data may not be
available. Then the design would be suitably method. To overcome this usually researcher conduct a
pilot study to ascertain whether the required data would be available or not.
• Availability Of time: In the research process various stages are time consuming. For example
problem identification data collection, analysis and interpretation etc. require a lot of time. The
research design would be depending upon the availability of sufficient time to carry out all these
process rigorously.
• Availability Of resources: Certainly the availability of human and financial resources will
influences research design. A study which requires highly specialized skill or experience, identifying
such personalities would itself consume a lot of time. Similarly the level of accuracy aimed at would
also call for liberal funding of the research process. Therefore researches with ambitious objectives
are usually undertaken only by organizations or with sponsors or by government, considering the
volume of funds required.
• Ability Of researcher: Not every researcher is gifted with all the qualities required for conducting
good research. A study which is highly analytical would call for knowledge about the analytical tools
and the interpretation ability. Similarly an experimental research would require a special
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 temperament. Hence depending upon the potential and ability of the researcher the research design
would be prepared.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Two types of research design are established according to the nature of the research objectives or types of
research. They are:
• Exploratory design
• Descriptive research
• Casual research

Exploratory Research Design:

Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is undertaken to gain
background information about the general nature of the research problem. Exploratory research is usually
conducted when the researcher does not know much about the problem and needs additional information or
desires new or more recent information. Exploratory research is used in a number of situations:
 To gain background information
 To define terms
 To clarify problems and hypotheses
 To establish research priorities

Methods-
A variety of methods/categories are available to conduct exploratory research:

 Experience Surveys- Issues and ideas may be discussed with persons who have had personal
experience in the field

 Secondary Data Analysis-background information is existing literature containing data that has
been compiled

 Case Analysis-obtains information from one or a few situations those are similar to the problem
situation. Primary advantage is to investigate in depth and with meticulous attention to detail

 Projective techniques; - An indirect means of questioning the respondents. Uses word association
tests, sentence completion test, third person test, role playing technique etc

It is appropriate when the research objective is to provide insights into

(i) Identifying the problems or opportunities
(ii) Defining the problem more precisely,
(iii) Gaining deeper insights into the variables operating in a situation
(iv) Identifying relevant courses of action
(v) Establishing priorities regarding the potential significance of a problems or opportunities
(vi) Gaining additional insights before an approach can be developed and
(vii) Gathering information on the problems associated with doing conclusive research.

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DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES:

Descriptive research design is concerned with the research studies with a focus on the portrayal of the
characteristics of a group or individual or a situation. The main objective of such studies is to acquire
knowledge. For example to identify the use of a product to various groups a research study may be
undertaken to question whether the use varies with income, age, gender , or any other characteristics of
population. Similarly such studies are used to examine the characteristics of the corporate sector or
consumer behavior etc.

Descriptive research is a marked by the prior formulation of specific research question. The investigator
already knows a substantial amount about the research problem, perhaps as a result of an exploratory study
before the project is initiated. Thus the investigator should be able to define clearly what it is that he or she
wants to measure and to set up appropriate and specific means for measuring it.

A researcher does a descriptive study in the following situations;

 During the analysis of characteristics of certain groups, e.g users of a product of different ages,
gender, education etc.
 To identify the proportion of people in a specified population who behave in a certain way
e.g shoppers who buy from a particular shop.
 To forecast future trends e.g sales of a company‘s product in each of the next five years.
 To study whether certain variables are associated e.g income & use of a product.

Descriptive studies are again classified into two types:

(a) Longitudinal
(b) Cross sectional

a) Longitudinal research relies on panel data and panel methods. It involves fixing a panel consisting
of fixed sample of subjects that are measured repeatedly. The panel members are those who have
agreed to provide information at specific intervals over an extended period. For example, data
obtained from panels formed to provide information on market shares are based on an extended
period of time, but also allow the researcher to examine changes in market share over time. New
members may be included in the panel as an when there is a dropout of the existing members or to
maintain representativeness. Panel data is analytical and possess advantages with respect to the
information collected in the study. They are also considered to be more accurate than cross
sectional data because panel data better handle the problem associated with the errors that arise in
reporting past behaviour and the errors that arise because of the necessary interaction between
interviewer and respondent.

b) Cross-sectional research is the most predominantly and frequently used descriptive research design
in marketing. It involves a sample of elements from the population of interest. The sample
elements are measured on a number of characteristics.

There are two types of cross-sectional studies: Field studies and Surveys It may appear that field
studies and surveys are no different but the same. However, for practical reasons, they are
classified into two categories cross sectional research.

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 The fundamental difference lies in the depth of what these research cover. While survey has a
larger scope, field study has greater depth. Survey attempts to be representative of some known
universe and filed study is less concerned with the generation of large representative samples and
is more concerned with the in-depth study of a few typical situations. Cross sectional design may
be either single or multiple cross sectional design depending on the number of samples drawn
from a population.

CASUAL RELATIONSHIP/ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN:

This research studies are mainly focused on focused on finding out the cause & effect relationship of the
phenomenon under study. Actually when observation is arranged and controlled, it becomes experimental
research. An experiment is a test or trail or an act or operation for the purpose of discovering something
unknown or of testing a principle , supposition etc. It is a unconfused fashion. There are different types
of experiments such as methodology, pilot study, heuristic, fact finding, boundary, simulation, theoretical ,
illustrative etc.

Experiment is a study in which the investigator manipulates or varies one or more variables and measures
other variables. In other words It is a process of manipulating one variable in a controlled environment while
holding all other variables constant in order to establish a casual relationship.

All experiment involves three basic components:

1. Variable manipulated in a experiment are referred to as the independent variable or test units.
2. The actual alteration is called the treatment.
3. The actual variable chosen to measure the subject response are known as dependent variables.

The result of the treatment is measured on dependent variable and these results of the treatment are given a
variety of names i.e, outcome, observation change, effect etc.

Advantage:
1. The researcher can manipulates the independent variable
2. Control group serves as a comparison to assess the existence and potency of the Manipulation.
3. The contamination from extraneous variable can be controlled more effectively.
4. The convenience and cost of experimentation are superior to other methods.
5. The experimenter can assemble combination of variables for testing.
6. Repeating an experiment with different subject group and condition is possible.
7. Researcher can use naturally occurring events.

Disadvantages:
1. The laboratory experiment is artificial
2. Generalization from non-probability samples can poses problems.
3. The experimentation can outrun the budget.
4. It is mostly effectively targeted at present or immediate future problems.
5. It is concerned with the study of people.
6. There is limits to the types of manipulation and control that are ethical.

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 UNIT-3
DATA COLLECTION

Meaning of Data:
Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as basis for study and analysis

Methods of data: There are two types of data

A) Primary data- Primary data are those data which are collected for the first time and
these are in original in character. This data are also called first-hand information
B) Secondary data- Secondary data are those which have already been collected and used
by some other persons. They are usually in the shape of finished products. They are called
secondary information

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

1. Observation
2. Survey method
3. Interview
4. Experimentation
5. Simulation
6. Questionnaire- (i) Mail survey (ii) Schedule
7. Use of telephone
8. Panel method
9. Projective technique
10. Content analysis

1. OBSERVATION

MEANING:

Observation is the systematic viewing/watching of specific phenomenon or investigator’s own direct

observation of relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent for gathering
primary data for a particular study.

Ex: Watching the life of street-children provides a detailed description of their social life

FEATURES:
1. Physical & mental activity-direct contact with the environment.
2. Selective-Specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study Purposive & not informal
3. Grasps the significant events & occurrences
4. Should be exact & based on standardized tools of research

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TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1. Participant and non-participant-

Participant observation: participation by the observers with the various types of operations of
the group under study e.g. study of tribal customs by taking part in tribal activities like folk dance
etc.
But in the non-participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities
of the group takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the
group. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner.

2. Direct and indirect method-

Direct method sees/watch and record of an event personally by the observer when it takes place.
Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by
some of the other means like photographic or electronic.

3. Subjective and objective-

Subjective observation the observation of the one’s own immediate experience.
Objective observation the type of activity or operation or things being observed. It is also called
as the retrospection

4. Casual and scientific-

Casual observation, observing the right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a
matter of chance or by luck.
Scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement

5. Structured and unstructured-

Structured observation works according to a plan. The operations that are to be observed and the
various features that are to be recorded are decided well in advance.
But in unstructured observation, observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is
correct and relevant to the point of study

6. Controlled and Non-Controlled observation:

Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of some of the external
forces. It is carried in laboratory or in the field.
Non-controlled observations are made in the natural environment and no influence or guidance
of any type of external force

Advantages of observation method

1. Observing the behaviour in a normal setting
2. Actual or habits of person are observed
3. Obtain information from those who are unable to effectively communicate in written or oral form
4. No better way to gather information than through observation
5. Most reliable method of data collection
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 Limitations
1. Feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour and infrequent behaviour cannot be
observed.
2. Expensive method
3. Options and attitudes cannot be obtained by observation

2. SURVEY METHOD (SCHEDULING)

Meaning-Survey research also called field research, the investigator/interviewer gathering first-hand
information by using formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way. This method is
suited for gathering descriptive information.

Advantages
1. Collect many different kinds of information
2. Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method
Limitations
1. Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about things
they consider private
2. Busy people may not want to take the time
3. Unable to answer because they cannot remember

3. INTERVIEW
Meaning- Interview is a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an
informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. Interviewing requires face
to face contact or over telephone.
• Interview schedule-is a tool in interviewing method. It contains a complete list of question on
which, information is elicited from the respondents and it is filed out by the interviewer

• Interview Guide- this is used for non-directive and depth interviews. It does not contain complete
list of items on which information has to be elicited from a respondent. It contains only the broad
topics or areas to be covered in the interview.
Types of interviews
1. Structured Interviews-involve the use of a set of pre-determined questions and of highly standardized
techniques of recording, interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down asking questions in a form and
order prescribed. (Used in descriptive studies)
2. Unstructured interviews- flexibility of approach to questioning-do not follows a system of pre-
determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information the interviewer is allowed
much greater freedom to ask, he may even change the sequence of questions. (Used in exploratory
studies)
3. Focused group Interview- is a tool to understand people’s thoughts, experience and feelings, about a
product, service or organization. Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped
4. Clinical/Depth Interview - it is concerned with broad underlying feelings, opinion, emotions or
motivations or with the course of individual’s life experience about a product, service or organization on
the basis on interview guide.
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5. Direct interviews/Interview Schedule –it is a set questionnaire, when the researchers asks the
questions and records the respondent’s reply on the interview schedule.
6. Non-direct Interview- Interviewer encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a base
minimum of direct questioning for the purpose eliciting the respondents feeling and beliefs on the given
topic.
7. Telephone- quick method of collecting information contacting respondents on telephone. In this
process interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent.
8. Personal Interviewing- Personal interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be
conducted fairly quickly. Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements, packages and
observe and record their reactions and behaviour

Merits of interview method-

1. More information can be obtained
2. Greater flexibility
3. Observation method can be applied
4. Group discussions may also be used
5. Supplementary information can collect

Demerits of interview method

1. Very expensive
2. More time consuming
3. Basis of interviewer and interviewee

4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method; it is a data-based research, coming up
with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment. Such research
is characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and the deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Researcher must provide working hypothesis. Then
work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

Types-
1.Laboratory experiments- is an investigation conducted in situation created specifically for
that purpose

2.Field Experiments-This is an experiment conducted in real life situation in which the

experiments manipulate an independent variable in order to test a hypothesis

5. SIMULATION

Meaning- It is a realistic enactment of roles in an imagined situation. There are three uses;
1. Assessment of a situation
2. Understanding a situation
3. Decision making in a situation

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 6. QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is a document containing a list of questions presented to a respondent for answers.

Mail- questionnaire sent by post to respondents with covering letter or note introduce you; explain the
purpose of doing research and requesting to send filled questionnaire within in reasonable time to the
researchers. The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the
answers themselves.

Advantage
1. It can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost
2. Respondents may give more honest answers to questions
3. Convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time

Characteristics of a good questionnaire/guidelines

There are no hard and fast rules, only guidelines can be provided in developing a questionnaire
• Questions should be a simple and there should be no abbreviation
• Maximum clarity should be maintained
• Sequences of questions should be maintained
• Questions should be an elegant appearance
• It should attract the attention and generate interest of the informant.
• The reliability and validity of the questions asked to be maintained
• Question should contain polite, scope and coverage
• Questions should be pre-testing

Type of Questionnaire

1. Closed –ended Questionnaire: Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten
response categories, and respondents are asked to choose among them. E.g. multiple-choice questions,
scale questions e. g. how many people use a service?

2. Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.
Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but leaves a blank section for the response to write in an
answer e.g. what people think about a service

3. Combination of both: Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to
rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response.

4. Dichotomous Questions- It has only two response alternatives:

E.g. Yes or no, agree or disagree, and so on

5. Contingency Question: A survey question is intended for only some respondents determined by their
responses to some other questions
E.g. do you smoke cigarette? – Yes/ No If yes, how many cigarettes you smoke per day?
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 6. Multiple-Choice Questions: The researcher provides a choice of answers and respondents are asked to
select one or more of the alternatives given.
E.g: Do you intend to go on an outstation holiday within the next six months?
(a)Definitely will not go (b) Probably will not go (c)Undecided (d)Probably will go (e)Definitely will go

Pilot Study & pre-test

•A PILOT STUDY: is the process of carrying out a preliminary study, going through the entire
research procedure with a small sample before a large scale filed study is termed as pilot survey

•A PRE-TEST: usually refers to a small-scale trial of particular research components. i.e. where a
questionnaire is tested on a (statistically) small sample of respondents, in order to identify any
problems such as unclear wording or the questionnaire taking too long to administer

Uses of Pilot Study

1. To pre-test the suitability of questions
2. To generate fixed choice answers
3. To avoid unforeseen problems during the large survey – To provide experience and confidence to the
interviewer

Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules

Schedule Questionnaire
A schedule is generally filled out by the research worker Questionnaires are sent by post to
or the field worker. respondent, to answer as specified in the
covering letter
Schedule is relatively more costly Questionnaire is relatively cheap
schedule the response is better since the enumerators
clear the doubts of the respondents and get the replies Response to the questionnaire is poor.
from the
respondents at the spot itself
Time consumption is less Time consumption is more
personal contact is established with the respondents there is no direct personal contact
Schedules can be applied even if the respondents are not Questionnaire can be used only if the
literate respondents are literates

Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary data are those which have already been collected and used by some other persons. They are
usually in the shape of finished products. They are called secondary information

Advantages of Secondary data

1. Less cost: The information can be collected by incurring least cost.

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2. Less time consuming: The time requires for obtaining the information is very less
3. Large quantity of information: Most of the secondary data are those published by big institutions. So
they contain large quantity of information

Disadvantages of Secondary data-

1. Since the secondary data is a result of some other person’s attempt, it need not be suitable for a
researcher, who makes use of it – It may be inaccurate and unreliable.
2. It may contain certain errors.

Precautions to be taken before Using Secondary Data

A. Suitability: - The investigator should satisfy him that the data available are suitable for the enquiry
on hand.
B. Adequacy: - the adequacy of the data should be tested by studying the items covered by the original
enquiry and the items to be covered by the enquiry.
C. Reliability: -The reliability of secondary data should be tested

Sources of Secondary Data-

There are varieties of published sources from which one can get information for his research work. The
important such sources are;
• Official report of the central, state and local government.
• Official publications of the foreign governments and international bodies like UNO and its
subordinate bodies.
• Reports and publications of Trade Associations, Banks, Cooperative Societies and Similar Semi
Government and Autonomous Organizations. – Technical journals, Newspapers, Books, Periodicals,
etc
• Publications of research Organizations, Centres, Institutes, and reports submitted by Economists,
Research scholars etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY DATA

Primary data Secondary Data
Primary data is Original in character Secondary data is not original
Collection of data is expensive Collection of secondary data is less expensive
Primary data is in the shape of raw materials Secondary data is the shape of finished products
Primary data is adequate and suitable Secondary data need not be ample and apposite
It is original collected by the investigator It is available in available sources

CASE STUDY
Case study is a method of exploring and analysing the life of a social unit. The social unit may be a
person or a family or an institution or an organization or even a community. It is a method of collecting
information and its analysis. It is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of
the social object, being studied.

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Sources of Case Study
The sources from which information are collected in a case study are;

1. Personal Documents-They contain the description of the remarkable events of the life of the
narrator as well as his reactions towards them. Therefore, from these personal documents, one can
study the writer’s personality, social relationship and philosophy of life.

2. Life history-Through interviews with a respondent, his life history can be known. This is an
objective study in which various events of respondent’s life are studied with an attempt to find
their significance for the society

Attitude Measurement Techniques

Attitude measurement techniques- the qualitative variable/information like knowledge, performance,

character (feelings, attitude, opinions) etc. must be converted into numerical form for further analysis.
This is possible through measurement and scale techniques.
Measurement: - the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of
research. The recording of observations may be in the form of numbers or symbols are called
measurement.
Scaling: - is the assignment of objects to numbers according to rule. In scaling the objects are text
statements, usually statement of attitude, opinion or feeling

Scale Classification- Level Of Measurement

• Nominal scales- Numbers or letters assigned to objects which serve as labels for identification or
classification. They are Scales “in name only” for e.g. labelling men as 1 and women as 2.

• Ordinal scales-Arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitude in an ordered

relationship i.e. Ranking. E.g. rating career opportunities as excellent, good, average poor or very
poor.
• Interval scales-An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses
a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points. For example, Celsius
scale: 0*C to 100*C Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30 ,31-40 etc.
• Ratio scale-A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own
property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the
difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point. The measurement of variables
like income, age, time, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40-year-old
is twice as old as one who is 20-year-old
• Likert Scale- Respondents indicate their attitude by checking how strongly they agree or disagree
with carefully constructed statements that range from the very positive to the very negative
towards the attitudinal object. Individuals generally choose from five alternatives: strongly agree
(SA), agree (A), Neutral (N), disagree (DA) and strongly disagree (SDA)
E.g. Without Govt. regulation the firms would exploit the customers

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

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 UNIT - 4

SAMPLING AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Meaning

A Sampling is a part of the total population. It can be an individual element or a group of elements selected
from the population. Although it is a subset, it is representative of the population and suitable for research in
terms of cost, convenience, and time. The sample group can be selected based on a probability or a non
probability approach. A sample usually consists of various units of the
population. The size of the sample is represented by “n”.

A good sample is one which satisfies all or few of the following conditions:

1. Representativeness: When sampling method is adopted by the researcher, the

basic assumption is that the samples so selected out of the population are the
best representative of the population under study. Thus good samples are those
who accurately represent the population. Probability sampling technique yield
representative samples. On measurement terms, the sample must be valid. The validity of a sample depends
upon its accuracy.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An accurate
(unbiased) sample is one which exactly represents the population. It is free from any influence that causes
any differences between sample value and population value.
3. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliable. The sample size should be such that the
inferences drawn from the sample are accurate to a given level of confidence to represent the entire
population under study.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

1. Goal orientation:
The sample design should be oriented to the research objectives, tailored to the survey design, and
filtered to the survey conditions.

2. Measurability:
A sample design should enable the computation of valid estimates of its sampling variability
normally this variability is expressed in the form of standard errors in surveys.

3. Practicality:
This implies that the sample design can be followed properly in the survey as it also refers to
simplicity of the design.

4. Economy:
It implies that the objectives of the survey should be achieved with minimum cost and effort.

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 ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING:

1. Sampling is cheaper than a census survey. It is obviously more economical for instance to cover a
sample of household than the entire household in a territory although the cost per unit of study may
be higher in a sample survey than in a census survey.
2. Since magnitude of operation involved in a sample survey is small, both the execution of the
fieldwork and the analysis of the results can be carried out speedily.
3. Sampling results in greater economy of effort, as a relatively small staff is required to carry out the
survey and to tabulate and process the survey data.
4. A sample survey enables the researcher to collect more detailed information than would otherwise be
possible in a census survey. Also information of a more specialized type can be collected which
would not be possible in census survey on account of the availability of a small number of specialist.
5. Since the scale of operation involved in a sample survey is small. The quantity of the interviewing
supervision and other related activities could be better than the quality in a census survey.

LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING:

1. When the information is needed on every unit in the population such as individual, dwelling units a
business establishment a sample survey cannot be of much help for it fails to provide information on
individual count.
2. Sampling gives rise to certain errors of these errors are too large, the results of the sample survey
will be of extremely limited use.
3. While in a census survey it may be easy to check the omissions of certain units in view of complete
coverage this is not so in the case of a sample survey.

STEPS IN SAMPLING PROCESS

An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population.

2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling process. In general,
target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should
be in line with the objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a
survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women above the age
of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook)’. However this definition is too broad and will include
every household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the
definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20,

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who cook and whose monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size
and makes the research more focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the
area from where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit the research
objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age of 20, the
researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro
oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling frame. A sampling
frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an
ideal sampling frame would be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above
Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the
requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like
telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide
databases developed along various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial
pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that
entire population and lists the names of its elements only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the total population
or when some elements of the population are missing another drawback in the sampling frame is over —
representation. A telephone directory can be over represented by names/household that have two or more
connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the population to be
sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women above the age of 20 years living
in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target audience
of the business research, every individual element would be a sampling unit. This would present a case of
primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and better means of sampling would be to select households
as the sampling unit and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of
secondary sampling unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The choice of the
sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of financial resources,
time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped
under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of classifying the
techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary importance and are worth
mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based
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on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb
rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of
analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of
probability sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable
error and level of confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques used to determine the
sample size will be explained at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research process are
outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are the sampling elements.
This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified
characteristics. It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses.
What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the recontact procedure for respondents
who were unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning
of the research process. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the process. As
the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the time, a proper specification of the
sampling plans would make their work easy and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced
with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample elements is carried
out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the smooth
implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the
sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey.

Types of Sampling

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Probability samples are characterized by the fact that, the sampling units are selected by chance. In such
case, each member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being selected. However, it may
not be true that all samples would have the same probability of selection, but it is possible to say the
probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size. It is possible that one can calculate the
probability that any given population element would be included in the sample. This requires a precise
definition of the target population as well as the sampling frame. Probability sampling techniques differ in
terms of sampling efficiency which is a concept that refers to trade off between sampling cost and precision.
Precision refers to the level of uncertainty about the characteristics being measured. Precision is inversely
related to sampling errors but directly related to cost. The greater the precision, the greater the cost and there
should be a tradeoff between sampling cost and precision. The researcher is required to design the most
efficient sampling design in order to increase the efficiency of the sampling. Probability sampling
techniques are broadly classified as simple random sampling, systematic sampling , stratified sampling and
cluster sampling

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal
chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual
in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to
include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of
three digits from the random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the
random number table were 094, select the individual labelled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the sampling error to be
calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage is that it is the most straightforward method of
probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you may not select enough
individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is uncommon. It may also be
difficult to define a complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms
of contact are required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide geographical
area.

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen to ensure an
adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should select
every x/nth individual for the sample. For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of
1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.
Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is easy to administer.
However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in the order of the individuals
in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying
pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were being sampled to gain their opinions on
college facilities, but the Student Record Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the
sex of students alternated between male and female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20th student)
would result in a sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be
easily corrected, this may not always be the case.

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3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar characteristic.
It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between the different
subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke
outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure equal representation of men and women. The
study sample is then obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may
also be appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the
health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three hospitals each with different numbers of
nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be
appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20
from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and accurate estimation of the health
outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-represent nurses from
hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.
Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by reducing sampling bias.
However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of
which are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather than individuals. The
population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the
study. Clusters are usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or towns could be identified
as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters are then included in the
study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected
for inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis. The General Household survey, which
is undertaken annually in England, is a good example of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the
selected households (clusters) are included in the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially where a study takes place
over a wide geographical region. For instance, it is easier to contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices
than a few individuals in many different GP practices. Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the
chosen clusters are not representative of the population, resulting in an increased sampling error.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. It involves personal judgments of the
researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. Sometimes this judgments is imposed by the
researcher, while in other cases the selection of population elements to be includes is left to the individual
field workers. The decision maker may also contribute to including a particular individual in the sampling
frame. Evidently, non probability sampling does not include elements selected probabilistically and hence,
leaves an degree of „sampling error‟ associated with the sample. Sampling error is the degree to which a
sample might differ from the population. Therefore, while inferring to the population, results could not be
reported plus or minus the sampling error. In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample
differs from the population remains unknown However, we cannot come to a conclusion that sampling error
is an inherent of non probability sample. Non-probability samples also yield good estimates of the
population characteristics. Since, inclusion of the elements in the sample are not determined in a
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probabilistic way, the estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the population. The most
commonly used non-probability sampling methods are convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota
sampling, and snowball sampling.

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants are selected based on
availability and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to
significant bias, because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to
(volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note:
volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of subjects of a
specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult
men, 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their
television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally represent the characteristics of the
underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially representative, the chosen
sample may not be representative of other characteristics that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-
random nature of sampling). 2

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the judgement of the researcher
when choosing who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample
to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is often
used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions and in qualitative research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to perform whilst resulting in a
range of responses (particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is
also prone to errors of judgement by the researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not
necessarily be representative.

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects
are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball.
For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, participants
may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to identify. However, by selecting
friends and acquaintances of subjects already investigated, there is a significant risk of selection bias
(choosing a large number of people with similar characteristics or views to the initial individual identified).

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 SAMPLING ERROR
A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the whole population.
Sampling errors often occur, and thus, researchers always calculate a margin of error during final results as a
statistical practice. The margin of error is the amount of error allowed for a miscalculation to represent the
difference between the sample and the actual population.

Type of sampling errors

Biased errors: These errors are occurring due to the faulty selection of sampling method due to the
prejudice of the researchers.
Unbiased errors: This type of bias is occurring due to chance difference between the items included in the
sample

Non-Sampling Error
Non-sampling errors are other errors which can impact the final survey estimates, caused by problems in
data collection, processing, or sample design. They include:
1. Over coverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the population.
2. Under coverage: Sampling frame does not include elements in the population.
3. Measurement error: e.g. when respondents misunderstand a question, or find it difficult to answer.
4. Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.
5. Non-response: Failure to obtain complete data from all selected individuals.

Here are the top four market research errors while sampling:

• Population specification error: A population specification error occurs when researchers don’t know
precisely who to survey. For example, imagine a research study about kid’s apparel. Who is the right
person to survey? It can be parents, only the mother, or the child. The parents make purchase decisions,
but the kids may influence their choice.
• Sample frame error: Sampling frame errors arise when researchers target the sub-population wrongly
while selecting the sample. For example, picking a sampling frame from the telephone white pages book
may have erroneous inclusions because people shift their cities. Erroneous exclusions occur when people
prefer to un-list their numbers. Wealthy households may have more than one connection, thus leading to
multiple inclusions.
• Selection error: A selection error occurs when respondents self-select themselves to participate in the
study. Only the interested ones respond. You can control selection errors by going the extra step to
request responses from the entire sample. Pre-survey planning, follow-ups, and a neat and clean survey
design will boost respondents’ participation rate. Also, try methods like CATI surveys and in-person
interviews to maximize responses.
• Sampling errors: Sampling errors occur due to a disparity in the representativeness of the respondents. It
majorly happens when the researcher does not plan his sample carefully. These sampling errors can be
controlled and eliminated by creating a careful sample design, having a large enough sample to reflect the
entire population, or using an online sample or survey audiences to collect responses.

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 STEPS TO REDUCE SAMPLING ERRORS
Sampling errors are easy to identify. Here are a few simple steps to reduce sampling error:

1. Increase sample size: A larger sample size results in a more accurate result because the study gets closer
to the actual population size.
2. Divide the population into groups: Test groups according to their size in the population instead of a
random sample. For example, if people of a specific demographic make up 20% of the population, make
sure that your study is made up of this variable.
3. Know your population: Study your population and understand its demographic mix. Know what
demographics use your product and service and ensure you only target the sample that matters.

HYPOTHESIS

• It is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. At the elementary level it may be
mere hunch, guess, and imaginative data, which becomes the basis for action or investigation. – Lundberg

• Hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine validity. – Goode &Hatt.

• A tentative solution posed on a cursory observation of known and available data and adopted provisionally
to explain certain events and to guide in the investigation of others. It is in fact, a possible solution to a
problem.

CHARACTERISTIC OF HYPOTHESIS

• Clarity: The hypothesis must be conceptually clear. When the researcher attempts to establish relationship
among various facts and translates these relationships into concepts he succeeds in formulating the
hypothesis. Hence when a hypothesis is conceptually clear it provides a clear direction to the researcher.

• Scope For Verification: Hypothesis should be amenable for verification and empirical analysis. Though
hypothesis can be verified in terms of moral judgements, yet such verifications process will be questionable.

• Specific: The hypothesis should be very specific and not a general statement. It should not be ambiguous
and it should be clearly stated. It is wiser to construct a hypothesis in simple language than resorting to
flowery and confusing terminology.

• Testable: It should be testable with the available technique of analysis. Even while formulating a
researcher should ascertain the relevant techniques with which it could be tested.

• Linked To Theory: Hypothesis should facilitate establishing relationship with a body of theory.
Therefore, when the hypothesis is formulated, the researcher should confirm whether it is related to any
existing theory or not.

• Consistent: It should be consistent with a most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a substantial
body of established facts. It should be one which judges accept as being the most likely.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:

 Crude Hypothesis:
A crude hypothesis is formed to initiate the process of research. When the researcher is commencing his
research work he needs some guidelines or focus. For this purpose he might develop a hypothesis based on
the available evidence or data.
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  Refined hypothesis:
Hypothesis that state the existence of empirical uniformities, hypothesis that are concerned with complex
ideal types and hypothesis that are concerned with complex ideal types and hypothesis that are concerned
with the relation of analytical variables.

 Working hypothesis
It is formed in the process of verifying the relationship among various variables included in research. It
provides useful guideline to the researcher in determining the nature of data to be collected, volume of data
required, the sample technique to be used analytical tools to be selected etc.

 Statistical hypothesis
Statistical hypothesis are those, which are formulated based on the sample data or facts. They serve
the usual purpose of testing any expected relationship among variables. Once these hypotheses are
tested or verified the conclusion about the population is drawn.

 Null hypothesis
It is formulated only to test whether there is any relationship between variables related to the
problem being studied. Usually the null hypothesis is formed as a negative statement.

 Alternative hypothesis
It is a statement, which is accepted after the null hypothesis is rejected based on the test results.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

 Theory: This is one of the main sources. It gives direction to research by stating what is known.
Logical deduction from theory leads to new hypothesis.
Eg . the rate of return on capital employed is an index of business success.

 Observation: Hypothesis can be derived from observation from observing price behavior in a
market a hypothesis can be formulated on the relationship between price & demand for an article.

 Analogies: Julian Huxley pointed out that casual observation in nature or in the framework of
another science may be fertile source of hypothesis. The hypothesis that similar human types or
activities may be found in similar geophysical regions came from studying plant ecology.

 Intuition & personal experience: Personal life and experience of persons determine their
perception. These may in turn direct a person to certain hypothesis more quickly.
Eg: Newton & falling of apple.

 Findings Of studies: Hypothesis may be developed from the findings of other studies in order to
replicate and test.

 State Of Knowledge: An important source of hypothesis is the state of knowledge in any particular
science. Where formal theories exist , hypothesis can be deduced from them. If the hypothesis were

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 rejected theories would be modified. Where formal theories are scarce, hypothesis are generated
from conceptual frameworks.

 Culture: another source of hypothesis is the culture in which the researcher has been nurtured. In
India in socio – economic and leadership studies, hypothesis based on caste- ridden, hierarchical and
segmental and the Indian economic system riddled with inequalities and privileges.

 Continuity Of research: The continuity of research in a field itself constitute an important source of
hypothesis leads to the formulation of new ones capable of explaining dependent variables in a
subsequent researchers on the same subject.

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS It refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choice
between the two actions i.e., Rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in
hypothesis testing are stated below;

1. Making a formal statement :

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis and also of the alternative hypothesis.

2. Selecting a significance level :

The hypothesis is tested on a pre- determined level of significance and as such the same should be specified.
Generally 5% or 1% is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are;

a) the magnitude of the difference between sample means.

b) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non directional.
c) The variability of measurements within samples
d) whether the hypothesis is directional or non directional.

3. Deciding the distribution to use:

After deciding the level of significance the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate
sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between normal distribution and the t-distribution.

4. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value: The next step is to select a random
sample and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the
relevant distribution.

5. Calculation of the probability:

Then calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if
the null hypothesis were in fact true.

6. Comparing the probability:

In this step compare the probability thus calculated with the specified value for the significance level. If the
calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the value in case of one tailed test , then reject the null
hypothesis but if the calculated probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis.

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ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Type I error
When the null hypothesis is true and you reject it, you make a type I error. The probability of making
a type I error is α, which is the level of significance you set for your hypothesis test. An α of 0.05
indicates that you are willing to accept a 5% chance that you are wrong when you reject the null
hypothesis. To lower this risk, you must use a lower value for α. However, using a lower value for
alpha means that you will be less likely to detect a true difference if one really exists.

Type II error When the null hypothesis is false and you fail to reject it, you make a type II error. The
probability of making a type II error is β, which depends on the power of the test. You can decrease your
risk of committing a type II error by ensuring your test has enough power. You can do this by ensuring
your sample size is large enough to detect a practical difference when one truly exists. The probability of
rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false is equal to 1–β. This value is the power of the test.

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 UNIT - 5
DATA ANALYSIS

Data continues to be in raw form, unless and until they are processed and analyzed. Processing is a statistical
method by which the collected data is so organized the further analysis and interpretation of data become
easy. It is an intermediary stage between the collection of data and their analysis and interpretation.

Processing stages
There are four important stages in the processing of data. They are;
1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation

EDITING

As soon as the researcher receives the data, he should screen it for accuracy. Editing is the process of
examining the data collected through various methods to detect errors and omissions and correct them for
further analysis. Though editing, it is ensured that the collected data are accurate, consistent with other facts
gathered, uniformly entered and well arranged so that further analysis is made easier

Practical guidelines for editing

While editing care has to be taken to see that the data are as accurate and complete as possible.

The following points are to be noted;

1. The editor should familiarize with the copy of instructions given to the interviewers.
2. The original entry, if found incorrect, should not be destroyed or erased. On the other hand, it should
be crossed out in such a manner that it is still eligible.
3. Any, modification to the original entry by the editor must be specifically indicated.
4. All completed schedules must bear signature of the editor and the date.
5. Incorrect answer to the questions can be corrected only if the editor is absolutely sure of the answer,
otherwise leave it as such.
6. Inconsistent, incomplete or missing answers should not be used.
7. That all numerical answers are converted to same units.

CODING

Coding is the process by which r response categories are summarized by numerals or other symbols to carry
out subsequent operations of data analysis. This process of assigning numerals or symbols to the responses
is called coding. It facilitates efficient analysis of the collected data and helps in reducing several replies to a
small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. In general it reduces the
huge amount of information collected in to a form that is amenable to analysis.

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Steps in coding

1. Study the answers carefully.

2. Develop a coding frame by listing the answers and by aligning codes to each of them.
3. Prepare a coding manual with the detail of variable names, codes and instructions.
4. If the coding manual has already been prepared before the collection of the data, make
the required additions for the open ended and partially coded questions.

Coding rules
1. Give each respondent a code number for identification.
2. Provide code number for each question.
3. All responses including ‘ don’ t know’ , ‘ no opinion’ . Etc is to be coded.
4. Assign additional codes to partially coded questions.

CLASSIFICATION

Classification is the process of reducing large mass of data in to homogeneous groups for meaningful
analysis. It converts data from complex to understandable and unintelligible to intelligible forms. It divides
data in to different groups or classes according to their similarities and dissimilarities. When the data are
classified, they give summary of whole information.

Objectives of classification

1. To organize data in to concise, logical and intelligible form.

2. To take the similarities and dissimilarities s between various classes clear.
3. To facilitate comparison between various classes of data.
4. To help the researcher in understanding the significance of various classes of data.
5. To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations.

TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

A. Classification according to external characteristics

In this classification, data may be classified either on geographical basis or periodical basis.

Classification on geographical basis

In this type of classification, the data that are collected from different places are placed in different classes.

Classification on periodical basis (chronological classification)

In this type of classification, the data belonging to a particular time or period are put under one class. This
type of classification is based on period.

B. Classification according to internal characteristics

Data may be classified either according to attributes or according to the magnitude of variables

Classification according to Attributes

In this type data are classified on the basis of some attributes an characteristics.

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Simple Classification
If the classification is based on one particular attribute only it is called simple classification.
Eg; classification on the basis of gender.

Manifold Classification
If the classification is based on more than one or several attributes it is called manifold or multiple
Classifications in this data are classified in several groups.

C. Classification according variables

Here the data are classified to some characteristics that can be measured. Data are classified on the basis of
quantitative characteristics such as age, height; weight etc. quantitative variables are grouped into two

a) Discrete variable
If the variables can take only exact value, it is called discrete variable.
b) Continuous variable
The variables that can take any numerical value within a specified range are called continuous variable.

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Unambiguity- Classification should be unambiguous. The various classes should be defined properly.
2. Stable- it should not change from enquiry to enquiry
3. Flexibility- classification should have the capacity of adjustment to new situations and circumstances.
4. Homogeneity- each class should contain homogenous items.
5. Suitability- it should be suitable to objects of any statistical enquiry.
6. Exhaustiveness- there should be no item which does not find a class.

TABULATION

Tabulation is the next step to classification. It is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns. It is
defined as the “measurement of data in columns and rows”. Data presented in tabular form is much easier to
read and understand than the data presented in the text the main purpose of tabulation is to prepare the data
for final analysis. It is a stage between classification of data and final analysis.

Objectives of Tabulation

1. To clarify the purpose of enquiry

2. To make the significance of data clear.
3. To express the data in least possible space.
4. To enable comparative study.
5. To eliminate unnecessary data
6. To help in further analysis of the data.

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Types of Tables

 Simple Table
Here the data are presented only for one variable or characteristic. Any frequency distribution of a single
variable is simple table

 Complex table
In complex table, two or more characteristics are shown. If the study is related to more than two variables, it
is called multivariate analysis. They may be of the following tables.

 Two- way table

When mutually related attributes of a phenomenon are to be displayed, two way tables are used. In other
words, this table shows two types of characteristics.

 Three-way table
It displays three types of attributes. It is used when three inter- related or mutually related attributes or
characteristics of a phenomenon are to be displayed,.

 Manifold tables
When information about different mutually attributes or characteristics of a phenomenon are to be displayed,
manifold table is used. Such tables display information about various characteristics or attributes.

Parts of a statistical table

Following are the important parts of a statistical table.

1. Title of the table

The title of the table is placed above the table. If there are more than one table in a research, each should
bear a number for easy reference.

2. Caption or title of the column

It is also termed as “box head”. There may be sub- captions under the main caption.

3. Stub (row heading)

Stub refers to the title given to rows

4. Body (main data)

This is the main body of information needed for the research work.

5. End note (footnote)

This is placed below the table to convey the expansions of abbreviations to caption, stub or main body.

6. Source note If the table is based on outside information, it should be mentioned in the source note below.

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TYPES OF ANALYSIS

Statistical analysis may broadly classified as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
a)Descriptive Analysis- quantitatively describing the main features of a collection of data. They provide
simple summaries about the sample and the measures. In descriptive analysis there are-
1) Univariate analysis: Describing the distribution of a single variable by using statistical method /tools e.g.
Central tendency (mean, median, and mode) dispersion (range and quartiles, standard deviation and
skewness and kurtosis). Characteristics of a variable's distribution may also be depicted in graphical or
tabular format, histograms
2)Bivariate analysis-the analysis of two variables (often denoted as X, Y), for the purpose of determining
the empirical relationship between them. E.g. ratios, percentage table or a scatter plot graph and simple
correlation coefficient.
3) Multivariate analysis- involves observation and analysis of more than one statistical outcome variable at
a time. I.e. Multiple relations between multiple variables are examined simultaneously

Variable in multivariate analysis

1. Exploratory Variable
Explanatory variables are called external or exogenous variables. If x a considered t be the cause of y, then x
is the explanatory variable (or) causal or independent variables.

2. Criterion Variable
These are called endogenous variables. In the above stated case y is called as criterion (or) dependent
resultant variable.

3. Observable & Latent variable

When explanatory variable are directly observable variable, they are termed observable variable. However
some unobservable variable may influence criterion variable in which case they are called latent variables.

4. Discrete variable & Continuous Variable

Discrete variables are those that lake only the integer value when measured. Continuous variables are those
that when measured, can assume any real volume.

5. Dummy Variable
This term is used in a technical sense and is useful in algebraic manipulations in the context of multivariate
analysis

b) Inferential analysis-is concerned with making predictions or inferences or judgement about a population
from observations and analyses of a sample. That is, we can take the results of an analysis using a sample
and can generalize it to the larger population that the sample represents. There are two areas of statistical
inferences
i. Statistical estimation
ii. Testing of hypothesis

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 INTERPRETATION

MEANING :

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or
experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation
has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a
given study with those of another, and (ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. “In one sense,
interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research, theory and
hypotheses.”1 Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has
been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a
theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.

Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research findings lie in
proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research process because of the
following reasons:
• It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle
that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of
other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the
concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the
continuity in research can be maintained.

• Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates
the quest for more knowledge.
• Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they
are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
• The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition
from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not have a
hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a post-
factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’
interpretation.

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 UNIT: VI
REPORT –WRITING

Meaning:

A research report is the formal statement of the research process and its results. It is the end product of a
research activity, it narrates the problems studied, methods used for studying and the findings and
conclusions of the study. The purpose of research report is to informs the world what you have done, what
you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written
in an academic style. Language should be formal and not journalistic

Characteristics of a Good Report

This article throws light upon the top eleven characteristics of a good report. The characteristics are:
1. Simplicity
2. Clarity
3. Brevity
4. Positivity
5. Punctuation
6. Approach
7. Readability
8. Accuracy
9. Logical Sequence
10. Proper Form
11. Presentation

1. Simplicity:

The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily understandable. Jargons and technical
words should be avoided. Even in a technical report there shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to
be presented to laymen.

2. Clarity:

The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be expressed. For that the
report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.

3. Brevity:

A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is not lost and there is no confusion
of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete. A report is not an essay.

4. Positivity:

As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of negative ones. For example, it is better to
say what should be done and not what should not be done.

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 5. Punctuation:

Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of sentences may be
misunderstood or misrepresented.

6. Approach:

There are two types of approaches: (a) Person—When a report is written based on personal enquiry or
observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in the first person and in direct
speech, (b) Impersonal—When a report is prepared as a source of information and when it is merely factual
(e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be impersonal and the sentences shall be in the third person
and in indirect speech.

7. Readability:

The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the diction (use of words) shall be such
that the readers find it attractive and he is compelled to read the report from the beginning to the end.’ Then
only a report serves its purpose. A report on the same subject matter can be written differently for different
classes of readers.

8. Accuracy:

A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with personal feelings of the
writer.

9. Logical Sequence:

The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner.
A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.

10. Proper Form:

A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are statutory forms to follow.

11. Presentation:

A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing or printing as well as quality of
paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colourful Annual Reports.

Principles of a Good Research Report

Report writing differs from person to person depending on personality, imaginative and creative abilities,
experience, and training. However, most researchers agree that following general principles must be kept in
mind to produce a better research report. These principles are often called as qualities or requirements of a
good report.

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 1. Selectiveness:

It is important to exclude the matter, which is known to all. Only necessary contents should be included to
save time, costs, and energy. However, care should be taken that the vital points should not be missed.

2. Comprehensiveness:

Report must be complete. It must include all the necessary contents. In short, it must contain enough detail
to covey meaning.

3. Cost Consideration:

It must be prepared within the budgeted amount. It should not result into excessive costs.

4. Accuracy:

As far as possible, research report must be prepared carefully. It must be free from spelling mistakes and
grammatical errors.

5. Objectivity:

Report must be free from personal bias, i.e., it must be free from one’s personal liking and disliking. The
report must be prepared for impersonal needs. The facts must be stated boldly. It must reveal the bitter truth.
It must suit the objectives and must meet expectations of the relevant audience/readers.

6. Clarity:

Report must reveal the facts clearly. Contents and conclusions drawn must be free from ambiguities. In
short, outcomes must convey clear-cut implications.

7. Preciseness:

Research report must not be unnecessarily lengthy. It must contain only necessary parts with adequate
description.

8. Simplicity:

Report must be simple to understand. Unnecessary technical words or terminologies (jargons) should be
avoided.

9. Proper Language:

Researcher must use a suitable language. Language should be selected as per its target users.

10. Reliability:

Research report must be reliable. Manager can trust on it. He can be convinced to decide on the basis of
research reports.
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 11. Proper Format:

An ideal repost is one, which must be prepared as per commonly used format. One must comply with the
contemporary practices; completely a new format should not be used.

12. Attractive:

Report must be attractive in all the important regards like size, colour, paper quality, etc. Similarly, it should
use liberally the charts, diagrams, figures, illustrations, pictures, and multiple colours.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH REPORT

• Decision Making Tool: Today’s complex business organizations require thousands of information.
 reports provide the required information a large number of important decisions in business or any
other area are taken on the basis of information presented in the reports. This is one of the great
importance of report.

• Investigation: Whenever there is any problem, a committee or commission or study group

investigates the problem to find out the reason behind the problem and present the findings with or
without the recommendation in the form of a report. It is another importance of report.

• Evaluation: Large scale organizations are engaged in multidimensional activities. It is not possible
for a single top executive to keep personal watch on what others are doing. So, the executive depends
on reports to evaluate the performance of various departments or units.
• Quick Location: There is no denying the fact that business executives need information for quick
decision-making. As top executives are found to be busy for various purposes), they need vital
sources of information. Such sources can be business reports.
• Development of skill: Report writing skill develops the power of designing, organization
coordination, judgment and communication.
• Neutral presentation of facts: Facts are required to be presented in a neutral way; such presentation
is ensured through a report as it investigates, explains and evaluates any fact independently.
• Professional Advancement: Report also plays a major role in professional achievement. For
promotion to the rank and file position, satisfactory job performance is enough to help a person. But
for promotion to high level position, intellectual ability is highly required. Such ability can be
expressed through the report submitted to higher authority.
• Proper Control: Whether activities are happening according to plan or not is expressed through a
report. So, controlling activities are implemented based on the information of a report.
• A managerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the managers. For planning,
organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling, manager needs help from a report which acts as
a source of information.
• Encountering Advance and Complex Situation: In a large business organization, there is always
some sort of labour problems which may bring complex situations. To tackle that situation,
managers take the help of a report

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 NEED FOR RESEARCH REPORT

• The aim of research is the search for knowledge.

• A research report is needed to evolve a theory or a principle.
• Reporting is a process through which a basic ground is prepared for exchange of ideas or
thoughts.
• Reporting helps the researcher to make specific recommendation for course of action.
• The research ability of a candidate is revealed through the final report he presents.

A research report is highly useful for policy formulators, practitioners, general public and others.

LIMITATIONS IN RESEARCH REPORT

1. Sample size/sample bias. For example, let’s say 100 hundred people should participate in
your survey. Each person may give you individual results, but it does not mean that the same
results belong to the whole population.
2. Access to data. You will not always be able to go through all the resources. You can’t gather
all the data you want for your research since it will take a lot of time. Because of it, your
work might not cover each aspect.
3. Lack of time. Often deadlines are the reason why your study and research might not be
complete. When we get a task, we have a limited amount of time to do it. To get a good
grade, we need to submit the assignment prior to the deadline.
4. Financial resources. Sometimes we need some equipment or additional software to conduct
the research. This might be a problem since we don’t always have the sum we need.
5. Data collection. There are different ways to collect data: interviews, surveys, questionnaire,
etc. The way you collect data might be a real limitation since the answers and the results
vary.
6. Method. When you are finding new information, you use a specific research method.
Different methods give you various opportunities. Quality of the datum you get often
depends on the method you choose
FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH REPORT

1. Research report serves as a means for presenting the problem studied, methods and techniques
used, findings, conclusions and recommendation in an organised manner.
2. It serves as a reference material for future use in the same or related area.
3. It serves as a means for judging the quality of the research project.
4. It is a means for evaluating research ability.
5. It provides systematic knowledge on problems and issues analysed.

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TYPES OF REPORTS:

1. Technical Report- is used in industry to communicate technical information. These reports help
businesses make decisions, for example, in selecting and purchasing equipment, or finding
solutions to technical problems. Engineering and applied sciences subjects often set assignment
tasks that require technical report writing. E.g. solve a design problem; investigate and evaluate
the solutions to an environmental problem; develop a program or an information management
plan for a specific issue or company

2. Business reports- are practical learning tasks where you apply the theories you have been
studying to real world (or realistic) situations. Reporting financial information, marketing and
management strategies and issues to others is an important component of business studies.

3. Abstract or Executive Summary - An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis

review, conference proceeding. The whole traditional report divisions: objective, method,
discussion, conclusions in a concise paragraph of about 200-300 words. It emphasizes the
objective and the analysis of the results in a precise and specific summary. It is submitted before
submitting full article or thesis.

4. Interim report- In research, the research timing is long; an interim report is often compiled to
analyse how the research work is proceeding, before its final completion.

5. Research article- this is designed for publication in a professional journal. A research article
must be clearly written in concise and lucid language. It must be logically organized progressing
from statement of problem and the purpose of the study, through analysis and evidence, to the
conclusions and implications.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD REPORT

• Clarity
• Continuity
• Consistency
• Readability
• Interest and Appeal
• Judicious Selection of Materials
• Avoiding personal opinion
• Concentrate on Central Ideas
• Proper Reference

Planning/Steps In Report Writing

• Plan the project in advance; fix the target and final date of completing the report
• The time of report writing should be planned in advance.
• Arrange the data, documents, bibliography etc. in conformity with the structure of the report.
• The outline should be based on all main points and sub points.
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 • Prepare a rough report of what one has done in his studies. He has to write down the procedure
adopted by him in collecting the material, the technique or analysis adopted by him, the broad
findings and generalizations and his suggestions.
• Revising the rough report-Keep the rough report for few days for careful reading and then revising
it on the basis of thinking and discussing with others. It is an appropriate to get help of some
experienced and knowledgeable person at this stage.
• Rewrite the report on the basis of the revision made and corrections effected on the report.
• Prepare final bibliography. Bibliography may contain two parts, first containing name of the books
and pamphlets, second containing the names of magazines/ journals and newspaper articles and web
link
• Last step is writing of a final draft of the report. The final draft should be written in a concise and
objective style and in simple language

Style/Parts/Components of A Research Report.

1. Prefatory Items
2. Chapter Part /Introductory part
3. Body/Text/context/Result of the work
4. Concluding part/ End items/Terminal items

I. Prefatory Items

Title Page

The contents of Title Page

• The title of the research study

• The name of the faculty/subject

• Institution to which the report is to be submitted

• The degree for which report is to be submitted

• The name of the researcher

• The name of the supervising teacher & his address

• The month & Year of submission of the Report

These items are centered between the margin of the page and no terminal punctuation is used.

Researcher’s Declaration
The researcher has to declare that it is a bonafide Research work done by him/her and that no part
of the Thesis/Dissertation is presented for the award of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or
other similar title before.

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Certificate of the Research Guide

The Guide has to state that the thesis is a record of bonafide research work carried out by the
researcher under his supervision and no part of the thesis is submitted for any degree, diploma, associate
ship, fellowship or other similar title before. He/she is permitted to submit the thesis.

Acknowledgements

• This page is largely a matter of courtesy

• The researcher acknowledges the following persons/Institutions for the assistance
Guide
• Other academicians and Professionals who rendered assistance
• Authorities of Libraries
• Respondents of questionnaire/Schedule
• Persons from administrative assistance is received
• Any other individuals who assisted in the research work.

Contents

This page gives the readers a bird’s eye-view of the Report

It enables the reader to locate quickly each section of it.
It includes the chapter headings, major sub divisions of the chapters
All the titles of Chapters appear in the exact words.
Correct page number is shown against the title.

List of Abbreviations

In this page the list of Abbreviations used in the Thesis is presented in the alphabetical order.

ICSSR - Indian Council of Social Science Research

MLA - Modern Language Association of America
KAU - Kerala Agricultural University KSFE
KSFE - Kerala State Financial Enterprises Ltd
KSIDC - Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation
KSRTC - Kerala State Road Transport Corporation

List of Tables and Figures

In this Page a list of Tables and Figures, if any, is shown. The full titles of Tables & Figures as shown in
the text are shown with corresponding Page numbers.

1.1 List of RPTCs and their areas of Operation 13

1.2 District-wise Classification of Rubber Holdings in Kerala 16
1.3 Selection of Sample Member Rubber Producers’ Societies 18
1.4 Selection of Sample Societies and Small Rubber Growers 19
2.1 World Production of Natural Rubber (in ‘000 tones) 47
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 2.2 Area Under Rubber Cultivation in the World (in ‘000 hectares) 49

List of Appendixes/Appendices

In this page a list of appendixes given at the end of the Thesis/Dissertation is shown.

Appendix 1 Interview Schedule for the Retail Entrepreneurs 312

Appendix 2 Interview Schedule for the Customers 316
Appendix 3 Interview Schedule for the Employees 320
Appendix 4 List of FMCG Companies in India 324
Appendix 5 Profile of Kerala State 330

II. Chapter Part

Chapter- 1 Introduction- explanation about the topic selected

Chapter-2 Research design

• Significance of the Study
• Review of Previous Studies/Literature
• Scope and Area of the Study/Research gap
• Objectives of the Study
• Hypotheses to be tested
• Operational Definitions of Concepts
• Methodology and Data
• Technique used for data collection
• Method adopted for the analysis of the Data
• Time Frame and Resource Requirements
• Period of Reference/study
• Limitations of the Study
• Chapter Scheme of Presentation of the Study

Chapter -3 Company /Respondent /product profile

• Details of the company which you are studying including product
• In case of free launcher project- data collected from respondent-then
details about respondent profile

Chapter -4 Analysis and interpretation/Results of The Work/Discussion

• Chapters based on the objectives of the Study
• Use of Tables/Graphs/Diagrams for effective representation - Title,
Source etc
• Presentation style – Simple & Lucid Style with the help of
application Mathematical & Statistical Tools.
• Testing of Hypotheses

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 Chapter-5 Findings and Conclusion-End Items/Terminal Items
• Summary of Findings- numbering each of the finding
• Conclusions- should be given so as to justify the objectives of the
study.

Chapter-6 Recommendations/Suggestions
Recommendation/Model developed for improvement of operation-specific
recommendations/suggestions to each of the objectives of the study. These
recommendations should be specific, acceptable/practical and clear , Scope
for further studies

III. Body/Text/Results of The Work

Designing of chapters based on the objectives of the Study

Use of Tables/Graphs/Diagrams for effective representation - Title, Source etc
Presentation style – Simple & Lucid Style with the help of apt Mathematical & Statistical
Tools
Testing of Hypotheses

IV. Concluding Part / End Items/Terminal Items

 Re-caption of the Work Done

 Summary of Chapters
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations/Suggestions
 Scope for further studies
 Appendices/Appendixes
 Bibliography

Footnote

Footnote is notes placed at the bottom of a page. They cite references or comment on a designated part of
the text above it. For example, say you want to add an interesting comment to a sentence you have written,
but the comment is not directly related to the argument of your paragraph. In this case, you could add the
symbol for a footnote. Then, at the bottom of the page you could reprint the symbol and insert your
comment.

A footnote is a reference, explanation, or comment placed below the main texton a printed page. Footnotes
are identified in the text by a numeral or a symbol.

In research papers and reports, footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that
appear in the text.

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A few footnote usage rules:

 Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout the research paper, not restarting numbering on
each page.
 Each quotation requires a footnote.
 Footnotes are always double-spaced.
 Footnotes are referenced using a superscript number.

Footnotes in Research

 Footnotes can be found on the bottom of the same page as the original quote to which it is
referring, or at the end of the paper or book entirely, after the page of References.
 Entire citations are not necessary in footnotes; instead, the footnote should merely refer to the name
of the publication and date as listed on the reference page.
 If a copyright permission footnote is added, the original letter regarding copyright permission must
be attached to the paper.

Types of Footnote

There are six different types of footnotes:

• Normal – contain the text of any footnote in the document.

• Separator – define the separator used to separate the footnote from the document text.
• Continuation separator – define the separator used to separate the footnote from the
document text when the footnote or endnote is a continuation from the previous page.
• Continuation notice – define the notice text to let readers know that the footnote has
continued on the next page.
• A content footnote is used to provide additional information or reference that simplifies or
supplements information in the text.
• A copyright permission footnote is used to give credit to the source for long quotations,
tables or graphs, and other lengthy information within a text. Both types of footnotes will
appear at the bottom of the printed page and the text that has a footnote will have a small
letter or number following it. This same number or letter will appear at the bottom of the
page beside the footnote.
Footnote Style Formatting

There are three main styles for footnotes used in writing today, and each has a slightly different way of
making a footnote: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and
Chicago Manual.

APA: Content notes should use a superscript number that is also used at the bottom of the page with the
note. APA does not recommend the use of footnotes unless it is necessary for explanation because it is
expensive to reproduce.

MLA: MLA format for footnotes is very similar to APA style. MLA recommends limited use of footnotes
and if they are needed, to use endnotes in place of footnotes. The reason for this is because footnotes can

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often take up too much space at the bottom of the page whereas the endnotes don't take up any room because
they are on a separate page at the end of the piece of writing.

Footnote Format Examples

Sample Footnote #1

Text within the research paper:

It is well known that patients who suffer from Crohn's and Colitis can have many debilitating symptoms.¹
Footnote:
¹See the CCFA.org website for more information about the symptoms that Crohn's and Colitis patients may
experience.

Bibliography

A bibliography is a list of all of the source’s researcher have used (whether referenced or not) in the process
of researching research work. In general, a bibliography should include:

• the authors' names

• the titles of the works
• the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources
• the dates your copies were published
• the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

Bibliography can be defined as,

• A list of reference materials(involving any kind of content ; text, music, paintings, video etc.)
elucidating the type, nature and other detailed information on the basis of name, date, place and
genre of the materials.
• A complete categorical compilation of any type of content based on its creator(s), editors and time
(of production, distribution).
• Bibliography, also known as works cited, reference list is basically an orderly study and referencing
of books and source materials used in academic research. It might or might not include any
information on the literary analysis or criticism of the materials cited.

Types of Bibliographies

There are many types of bibliographies and the leading bibliographies defer slightly in the names they assign
to its various branches. There are primarily-

Annotated Bibliography

This provides a brief description or annotation of the cited sources. The annotation comprises of a brief
summary of content along with a short analysis or evaluation.

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Current Bibliography

It provides a list of published material and sources which are recently published or currently recorded
material. The purpose of a current bibliography is to report recent literature as soon as it is published.

Retrospective Bibliography

It provides a list of documents or parts of documents (articles) published in previous years, as distinct from a
current bibliography.

Serial Bibliography

It is published over a period of known and pre-defined time slots. Time intervals for serial bibliographies
normally range from weekly to annual basis and informs on the updates of book and research article titles.

National Bibliography

This provides a list of documents and sources published in a particular country and are produced in the
national or local language of a country.

International Bibliography

This provides a list of works, sources, publications, manuals, books, notes, articles and websites collected
from worldwide sources.

Subject Bibliography

This provides a list of works and sources relates to a specific subject.

Period Bibliography

It provides a list of works and publications produced within a specific period range.

Analytical Bibliography

It refers to the collection of sources and material for the purpose of critical study and evaluation and refers to
the following categories:

Descriptive (Physical) Bibliography

This provides a list of detailed facts for a book analysis by listing its size, format, binding, and publication
details.

Historical Bibliography

It provides a list of contextual factors related to the production of a book i.e. printing details, publishing,
bookselling and binding etc.

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Textual Bibliography

It provides a list of literary materials, concerned with identification and editing of transcription errors from
manuals, manuscripts, transcripts, scribes and inscriptions.

Enumerative (Systematic) Bibliography

It provides a list of the list of books according to some system, common theme or reference plan and
includes information on by author, by subject, or by date. Contrary to a descriptive style, an enumerative one
only provides minute details on books and sources.

Importance and Use of Bibliographies

A mandatory requirement of copyright laws and academic conventions is that whenever a research paper is
written, there should be a section at the end of it where you acknowledge the sources used.

So, bibliography means listing all the sources which you have consulted while writing your essay or research
article.

The sources may be in the form of printed and online books, websites, web documents, web blogs,
newspaper articles, journals, pod casts, wikis, unpublished material, maps etc.

Citation ensures that the information contained in the research paper is based on logic, truth and facts.
Absence of references or bibliography indicates that the paper may be a piece of plagiarism.

Standard Citation Styles Used in Bibliographies

There are various formats used in the creation of bibliographies such as the American Psychological
Association (APA),Modern Language Association of America (MLA)and Chicago Manual of Style and
Council of Biology Editors (CBE).

The APA style of referencing is common in the papers written on topics of social sciences; MLA style is
used in field of humanities; and CBE is a popular citation style in the natural sciences.

APA Bibliography Format Definition and Examples

APA style referred by American Psychological Association uses both in-text citations and a list of references
to document the sources. This style is used in social sciences. For Example,

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association (6th Ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Follow this format while citing book with one author using APA style:

1. Author: Include author’s last name and only the initials of the first name.
2. Year: Year of publication will be included in parenthesis.
3. Title: Title should be in italics and only the first word of title should be capitalized or any
proper noun.
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 4. Place of Publication: Mention city name followed by country name separated by a comma.
5. Publisher: include the name of publisher.

Author’s Last name, Initials, (Year) .Title (italicized) . Place of publication : Publisher.

Spielberg, S. (2010). Creative Writing. Boston, MA: Bedford/St.Martin’s.

MLA Bibliography Format Definition and Examples

MLA style is used in English and humanities. MLA bibliography uses in-text citation to list sources within
the text of your research document and a list of works cited at the end of research document.

You can easily find the MLA citation from book’s title page and copyright page. Follow this format while
citing book with one author:

1. Author: Last name should come before the first name.

2. Title: Title should be in full and it should be capitalized and italicized.

3. Publisher: Use the full name of publisher.

4. Date: Use most recent publication date mentioned in book’s copyright page.

Author’s last, First Name .Title (italicized) .Publisher , Date.

Hall, Thomas A. Court Cases. FT Press, 2010.

Standard Bibliography Format

Bibliography Format for a Book

A standard bibliography for a book typically consists of the following information:

• Author(s)
• Title
• Publisher
• Date of Publication

Bibliography Format for a Periodical & Journal Article

An entry for a journal or periodical article contains the following information:

• Author(s)
• Article Title
• Journal Title
• Volume Number
• Pages
• Date of Publication

Bibliography Format for Internet Sources

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Format for internet sources usually includes the following information:

• Author (Website)
• Article Title
• Publication Information
• Version
• Date of Publication
• Location (Digital Object Identifier – DOI or URL)

Reference
A references page is the last page of an essay or research paper that's been written in APA style. It lists all
the sources you've used in your project so readers can easily find what you've cited.

References can be described as giving credit, with citation, to the source of information used in one’s work.
Research is a build up on what other people have previously done thus referencing helps to relate your own
work to previous work.

References are a way to provide evidence to support the assertions and claims in your own assignments.

References are also a way to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words and ideas.

References should always be accurate, allowing your readers to trace the sources of information you have
used. The best way to make sure you reference accurately is to keep a record of all the sources you used
when reading and researching for an assignment.

Importance of References

Referencing is important for a number of reasons, some of which include:

• It allows for acknowledgement of the use of other people’s opinions, ideas, theories and
inventions.
• Helps readers understand what influenced the writer’s thinking and how their ideas were
formulated.
• Helps the readers evaluate the extent of the writer’s reading.
• Enables readers to visit source materials for themselves and verify the information.

What kind of information do I need to reference

Printed books are not the only sources that require acknowledgement. ANY words, ideas or information
taken from ANY source requires a reference.

Reference when you are using words or ideas from:

• Books and Journal Articles

• Newspapers and Magazines
• Pamphlets or Brochures
• Films, Documentaries, Television Programs Or Advertisements
• Websites or Electronic Resources
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 • Letters, Emails, Online Discussion Forums
• Personal Interviews
• Lecturers or Tutors.

Reference Styles

Reference styles are standardized rules for presenting information about the sources used in a text.
Typically, a style will describe how to organize information about author(s), publication year, and title and
page numbers.

There are many different ways to organize the references of a text. Some reference styles follow the author-
year format, while others are based on footnotes and/or numerical references. Some of the most commonly
used reference styles in academic writing are:

• American Psychological Association (APA6th) – author-year, commonly used in psychology,

economics, educational sciences and health sciences (see the free guide at Purdue University)
• The Chicago styles (see the free guide at Purdue University or the licensed Quick guide):
a) Chicago 16 A – footnote system
b) Chicago 16 B – author-year, commonly used in the humanities
• Harvard – author-year, a general reference system used in many disciplines (and used here at Søk &
Skriv). See for example Quote, Unquote.
• Modern Language Association (MLA) – author -page number, widely used in linguistics and
literature (see, e.g., the description at Cornell University).
• Vancouver– numbered system, commonly used in medicine, health sciences and natural sciences.
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) – used in, e.g., engineering and computer
science (cf. the Citation Compass).

Different academic journals use different reference styles.

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