Skin

The skin
Skin is the outer covering of the body and is the largest organ of the integumentary system. The
skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue guarding muscles, bones, ligaments and internal
organs. Human skin is similar to most of the other mammals' skin, and it is very similar
to pig skin. Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays an important immunity role in
protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions
are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection
of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue. This is often
discoloured and depigmented.
In humans, skin pigmentation (affected by melanin) varies among populations, and skin type can
range from dry to non-dry and from oily to non-oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and
diverse habitat for bacteria that number roughly 1000 species from 19 phyla, present on the
human skin.
Skin Thickness
The thickness of each layer of the skin varies depending on body region and categorized based
on the thickness of the epidermal and dermal layers. Hairless skin found in the palms of the
hands and soles of the feet is thickest because the epidermis contains an extra layer, the stratum
lucidum. The upper back is considered thickest based on the thickness of the dermis, but it is
considered “thin skin” histologically because the epidermal thickness lacks the stratum lucidum
layer and is thinner than hairless skin.
Layers of Epidermis
The layers of the epidermis include the stratum basale (the deepest portion of the epidermis),
stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum (the most
superficial portion of the epidermis).
Stratum basale, also known as stratum germinativum, is the deepest layer, separated from the
dermis by the basement membrane (basal lamina) and attached to the basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes. The cells found in this layer are cuboidal to columnar mitotically active stem
cells that are constantly producing keratinocytes. This layer also contains melanocytes.
Stratum spinosum, 8-10 cell layers, also known as the prickle cell layer contains irregular,
polyhedral cells with cytoplasmic processes, sometimes called “spines”, that extend outward and
contact neighboring cells by desmosomes. Dendritic cells can be found in this layer.
Stratum granulosum, 3-5 cell layers, contains diamond shaped cells with keratohyalin granules
and lamellar granules. Keratohyalin granules contain keratin precursors that eventually
aggregate, crosslink, and form bundles. The lamellar granules contain the glycolipids that get
secreted to the surface of the cells and function as a glue, keeping the cells stuck together.
Stratum lucidum, 2-3 cell layers, present in thicker skin found in the palms and soles, is a thin
clear layer consisting of eleidin which is a transformation product of keratohyalin.
Stratum corneum, 20-30 cell layers, is the uppermost layer, made up of keratin and horny
scales made up of dead keratinocytes, known as anucleate squamous cells. This is the layer
which varies most in thickness, especially in callused skin. Within this layer, the dead
keratinocytes secrete defensins which are part of our first immune defense.
Cells of the Epidermis
 Keratinocytes
 Melanocytes
 Langerhans’ cells
 Merkel’s cell
Keratinocytes
Keratinocytes are the predominant cell type of epidermis and originate in the basal layer,
produce keratin, and are responsible for the formation of the epidermal water barrier by making
and secreting lipids. Keratinocytes also regulate calcium absorption by the activation of
cholesterol precursors by UVB light to form vitamin D.
Melanocytes
Melanocytes are derived from neural crest cells and primarily produce melanin, which is
responsible for the pigment of the skin. They are found between cells of stratum basale and
produce melanin.
Langerhans’ Cells
Langerhans cells, dendritic cells, are the skins first line defenders and play a significant role in
antigen presentation. These cells need special stains to visualize, primarily found in the stratum
spinosum.
Merkel Cells
Merkel cells are oval-shaped modified epidermal cells found in stratum basale, directly above the
basement membrane. These cells serve a sensory function as mechanoreceptors for light touch,
and are most populous in fingertips, though also found in the palms, soles, oral, and genital
mucosa.
Dermis
The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and
cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by
a basement membrane. It also harbours many nerve endings that provide the sense of touch and
heat. It contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic
vessels and blood vessels.
The dermis is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis,
called the papillary region, and a deep thicker area known as the reticular region.
Papillary region
The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. It is named for its finger-like
projections called papillae, which extend toward the epidermis. The papillae provide the dermis
with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection
between the two layers of skin.
Reticular region
The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed
of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration
of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibres that weave throughout it. These protein fibres give the
dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity. Stretch marks, often from
pregnancy and obesity, are also located in the dermis.
Subcutaneous tissue
The subcutaneous tissue (also hypodermis and subcutis) is not part of the skin, but lies below the
dermis of the cutis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as
supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue
and elastin.

Skin

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The skin

Cells of the Epidermis

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