Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-022-00642-5

RESEARCH ARTICLE

A Feasibility Study to Minimize the Carbon Footprint of Cast Iron

Production While Maintaining the Technical Requirements
Ali Abdelshafy1   · Daniel Franzen2 · Amelie Mohaupt2 · Johannes Schüssler2 · Andreas Bührig‑Polaczek2 ·
Grit Walther1

Received: 9 March 2022 / Accepted: 12 December 2022 / Published online: 28 December 2022
© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
The industrial sector is responsible for significant amounts of ­CO2 emissions. Although research activities have already given
their attention to major industries such as steel, small sectors such as metal casting have been overlooked. Therefore, there
are evident knowledge gaps regarding the environmental impact of the foundry industry and the possibilities of decarbon-
izing the sector. Herein, this study focuses on the C ­ O2 emissions associated with cast iron production and introduces an
interdisciplinary framework in order to study the environmental impact, technical performance and production costs. The
theoretical and experimental analyses illustrate the interconnections between the environmental, technical and economic
aspects of cast iron production. The results emphasize the role of the smelting process and renewable energies in decreasing
the carbon footprint. In terms of the input materials, the outcomes demonstrate that increasing the steel scrap content achieves
considerable reductions in the C­ O2 emissions. An alloy composition with a steel scrap content of 25% leads to a minimum
carbon footprint of 650 kg C­ O2 eq./ton. However, increasing the steel scrap content further results in higher carbon footprints
due to the additional materials required to maintain the alloy composition. Moreover, a higher strength and lower ductility
of the alloy were recorded due to higher amounts of carbide stabilizing elements. The study highlights the importance of
adopting a holistic approach in order to define the optimal material combinations. Hence, the presented interdisciplinary
approach can be applied by the foundries in order to achieving the technical, economic and ecological goals of the sector.

The contributing editor for this article was Christina Meskers.

* Ali Abdelshafy
[email protected]
1
Chair of Operations Management of RWTH Aachen
University, Kackertstraße 7, 52072 Aachen, Germany
2
Foundry Institute of RWTH Aachen University, Intzestraße
5, 52072 Aachen, Germany

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250 Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265

Graphical Abstract

Keywords  Energy transition · Carbon footprint · Cast iron · Interdisciplinary assessment · Circular economy · Steel scrap

Introduction alloys can be used such as cast iron, steel, aluminum,

etc. The sector yields several sophisticated products and
Climate change has enforced the major industrial econo- intricate designs, some of which are key inputs for other
mies to set environmental goals to mitigate their greenhouse high-value products such as wind energy parts, automo-
gas (GHG) emissions. For example, the EU has committed tive, and machines. There are approximately 600 found-
to become carbon–neutral by 2050 and Germany wants to ries in Germany, which secure 70.000 jobs and achieve a
achieve this goal even earlier (i.e. 2045) [1]. Herein, the turnover of 12.5 billion EUR [6, 7]. In total, the German
industrial sector has major responsibilities due to the sig- foundry industry produces more than 5 Mt cast metals,
nificant amounts of C ­ O2 emitted by the different industries. 75% of which are cast iron products [8]. Cast iron alloys
The German industries are responsible for 23% of the total are commonly classified into lamellar graphite cast iron
annual GHG emissions in Germany due to its process and (LGI), compacted graphite cast iron (CGI) and spheroidal
energy-related emissions, in addition to the indirect emis- graphite cast iron (SGI) [9]. For the melting process, vari-
sions related to power consumption [2]. The casting industry ous furnaces are currently adopted by the producers such
is classified as an energy-intensive sector, which means that as cupola and induction furnaces.
it also has to deal more intensively with the topic of C ­ O2 So far, the production technique has been based on the
savings. In Germany, metal casting consumes significant product’s specifications and associated costs. However,
amounts of energy such as natural gas, coke and electricity, reducing the carbon footprint necessitates a new factor,
in addition to the emissions embedded in the inputs such which is the direct and embedded emissions. Although the
as pig iron. Energy transition incurs both opportunities and foundry industry is typically known as environmentally-
challenges for the foundry industry. On the one hand, the friendly sector as scrap metals are the main input material
industry is the main provider of crucial components for the [10], this notion is intrinsically not fully correct as the
sector of renewable energies such as cast gears, shafts and current production processes consume significant amounts
hubs for the wind turbines [3, 4]. On the other hand, decar- of fossil fuels or electricity produced via fossil energy.
bonizing the sector is associated with various challenges Moreover, the industry consumes various input materials
due to its characteristics like small-scale plants and many such as pig iron and inoculants, which have significant
products and processes. amounts of embedded emissions. While there is an exten-
In a few words, metal casting refers to shaping the sive number of studies investigating the different technical
respective metal via melting and molding [5]. Depend- aspects of the cast iron production, there is an obvious lack
ing on the application and required properties, several of research addressing the environmental impacts.

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Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265 251

The analysis of [11] is one of the few studies addressed and are wear resistant. The combination of ductility, strength
the topic. The authors compared between the carbon foot- and good castability allows ductile iron to be widely used
print of three materials used in the automotive industry (i.e. material in mechanical engineering, power engineering and
thin-wall ductile cast iron, conventional cast iron and cast the automotive industry [4, 21, 22]. In terms of melting tech-
aluminum), while considering the whole life cycle. Herein, nology, cupola or medium frequency induction furnaces are
the authors used a parametric model to calculate the associ- usually used. While cupola furnace depends on fossil fuels,
ated emissions based on the masses and consumed energy, the induction furnace is supplied with electric energy [23].
including the use phase. The study of [12] also aimed at In order to evaluate the process route of cast iron holisti-
comparing between two materials (i.e. cast iron and alu- cally, it is necessary to evaluate both the metallurgical and
minum) by considering all the material and energy flows technological criteria. In particular, microstructural aspects
along the life cycle (a cradle-to-grave approach). Similarly, as well as mechanical properties have to be still achieved to
the analyses of [13–15] compared between the environ- ensure a continued competitiveness of cast iron alloys and
mental impacts of cast iron and other materials such as further enable technical applications. Hence, the ecological
aluminum, steel, plastics and concrete. However, as can be analysis is accompanied with experimental casting trials to
deduced, these studies do not address the production pro- produce the respective samples and perform the required
cess of cast iron itself and how the carbon footprint can be tests to examine their microstructural and mechanical prop-
minimized. Other studies such as [16, 17] presented more erties. Moreover, a cost analysis has been conducted in order
detailed environmental analyses regarding the impacts of to explore the impact on the production expenses. In the
casting and molding processes. Nonetheless, they do not following section, the methodological framework of the
indicate practical measures or alternative possibilities to techno-economic and environmental (TEE) assessment is
mitigate the ­CO2 emissions. first explained and the investigated material and samples
In the few studies that addressed the topic, there is an are presented. Thereafter, the results and outcomes are dis-
agreement regarding the crucial role of energy consumption cussed in “Results and Discussion”. Finally,  “Conclusions
in minimizing the carbon footprint. However, in addition to and Outlook” presents the main conclusions and outlook for
energy-efficient melting and the switch to renewable ener- future research.
gies, there is a great potential to mitigate the ­CO2 emissions
via the input materials. According to our best knowledge, no
study has addressed this topic despite its importance in mini- Methdology and Materials
mizing the carbon footprint of cast iron products. A recent
study of [18] highlighted the significance of the theme, how- In order to develop a suitable methodological approach, the
ever, the analysis focused on zinc and also did not integrate relevant studies on similar problems have been reviewed.
a technical assessment. A standard cast iron alloy usually Promoting sustainability in the industrial sector necessi-
contains up to 20% pig iron which is associated with high tates developing integrative methods in order to realize the
GHG emissions during the production process (1.45 t C ­ O2 required interdisciplinarity. This is particularly indispensable
eq./t pig iron in a modern blast furnace [19]). One way to if the technical, economic and environmental performances
reduce these emissions is to use a higher amount of steel can be influenced by the introduced measures simultane-
scrap during the production process. Hence, the aim of this ously. While Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) or carbon foot-
research is to present comprehensive analyses regarding the print can assess the direct and indirect environmental impact
possibility of minimizing the environmental impact of the of the available alternatives, an interdisciplinary evaluation
cast iron products via using more secondary inputs (i.e. steel approach is required to investigate if the economic and tech-
scrap). nical performances are competing with the environmental
Herein, the study focuses on the production of ductile cast measures (i.e. in the sense of a trade-off).
iron, which is also referred to as spheroidal graphite cast iron Therefore, TEE assessments have been used in various
(SGI). According to the European standard for ductile iron studies addressing similar questions. For example, the sen-
alloys, DIN EN 1563, it can be classified into the conven- sitivity analyses of [11] investigated the impact of differ-
tional ferritic-pearlitic grades [20]. Due to the comparatively ent steel scrap and pig iron ratios on the carbon footprint.
low notch effect of the nodular graphite precipitates, it can Herein, the study assumed that that these changes will only
show elongations of 22% at fracture with an ultimate tensile influence the environmental impact of the different cases.
strength (UTS) of 350 Mpa. Depending on the pearlite con- However, such assumption overly simplifies the situation
tent set, strengths of up to 900 Mpa can likewise be achieved as the such variations are also associated with changes in
with still 2% elongation at fracture. While the fully ferritic the metallurgical properties, which necessitate technical
grades are very ductile materials due to a high elongation at analyses. According to our best knowledge, no studies in the
fracture, pearlitic grades have increasingly higher strength literature have yet adopted an evident integrative approach

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252 Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265

Fig. 1  Study’s framework

to address sustainability in the field of casting production. production. In order to study the possibility of minimizing
Nonetheless, relevant approaches have been developed by the carbon footprint via the material inputs (i.e. steel scrap
studies addressing material recycling in other industries. and pig iron), six different alloys, referred to as alloy I–VI,
For example, the recent studies of [24, 25] assess the recov- were defined in order to be investigated. Alloy I contains
ery processes of alumina from aluminum dross from the 15.2 wt% pig iron and no scrap steel, which serves as the
economic and environmental perspectives, while [26–29] reference alloy. Alloys II–V contain 25, 40, 60 and 75 wt%
conducted various TEE assessments on plastic recycling. of steel scrap, respectively, with no pig iron addition. To
Methodologically, these studies implement scenario anal- study the effect of the amount of steel scrap, these alloys
ysis by means of assessing the techno-economic and envi- were studied experimentally in casting trials and subsequent
ronmental performance of different systems or applications. analyses. 75 wt% of steel scrap was chosen as the maxi-
Herein, LCA or carbon footprint are used to evaluate the mum amount, as steel scrap fraction of up to 80% are used
environmental impact and the associated costs are quantified in industrial environment. Alloy VI can be regarded as a
to assess the techno-economic performance. Accordingly, “mixed” alloy composed of equal shares of pig iron and steel
the optimum system or option can be selected via com- scrap (8 wt% each).
paring the investigated scenarios. However, the technical Herein, the required additives (e.g. carburizing agent,
assessment is usually omitted from these analyses, and the ferrosilicon FeSi75, etc.) have been added to the samples
techno-economic assessment focuses mainly on the costs. to be eventually comparable to the composition of the ref-
Thus, these approaches usually assume that the technical erence alloy EN-GJS-400-15 according to DIN EN 1563
performance or the final outputs are similar with regards to (C = 3.5 wt%, Si = 2.5 wt%, Mn < 0.2 wt%, P < 0.03 wt%,
material properties and quality. For example, it is assumed S < 0.02 wt%, Mg = 0.04 wt%). The detailed charging com-
that the recycled plastic will have the same functions and position of all investigated alloys is depicted in Fig. 2. After
properties regardless of the recycling process. Although defining the system boundaries and collecting the required
such assumptions can be accepted for some materials, they economic and environmental inventories, the carbon foot-
cannot be applied to cast products. Therefore, this study fol- prints and the relevant costs of the different compositions
lows the same approach via implementing TEE assessments, are then calculated. Simultaneously, a series of four experi-
but also considers the technical aspects via examining the mental tests was carried out in order to analyze the effect
mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of of increasing steel scrap content of the respective samples.
the relevant samples.
As shown in the study’s framework (Fig. 1), the research Environmetal and Economic Assessments
procedure can be divided into three parts. Firstly, a literature
research was conducted in order to define the ­CO2-intensive The environmental assessment (i.e. carbon footprint)
processes, materials and mitigation potentials in the cast iron has been conducted in accordance with ISO 14067 [30].

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Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265 253

Fig. 2  Calculated charging
compositions of the investigated
alloys

Fig. 3  Overview of the cast iron production and system boundaries

Herein, the analysis is classified into four phases (i.e. goal gases was discarded as its environmental impact doesn’t
and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assess- influence the analyses. As the main study’s objective is
ment and interpretation). In terms of goal and scope (i.e. to investigate the different charging compositions and the
first phase), the study investigates the possibility of mini- effect of increasing steel scrap content on the microstruc-
mizing the environmental impact of the cast iron products ture and mechanical performance, one ton of liquid cast
via using more secondary inputs (i.e. steel scrap). Hence, iron that fulfills the specifications of EN-GJS-400-15 was
the scope and boundaries of the analyses are the input selected as a functional unit. This unit ensures an intuitive
materials and the processes of charging and smelting. As understanding of the result variables and good compara-
shown in system boundaries (Fig. 3), the study does not bility with the results of other studies either on cast iron
take into account all upstream and downstream processes or other metallic alloys such as [11, 15]. The same system
that are not impacted by the charging composition, such as boundaries, inputs and functional unit have been also used
mold fabrication. Also, the treatment of the kiln exhaust to derive the production cost of each alloy.

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Table 1  Life cycle inventories of the investigated alloys

Alloy Electricity Waste duc- Pig iron Steel scrap FeSi75 Carburizing agent Mg-alloy Inoculant Cover scrap
tile iron
kWh kg

I 650 810.6 145.9 0 0.811 0.486 14.368 3.352 26.34

II 650 693.9 0 250.4 3.017 10.559 14.368 3.352 26.34
III 650 535.1 0 401.34 4.459 16.95 14.368 3.352 26.34
IV 650 318.4 0 605 10.19 24.2 14.368 3.352 26.34
V 650 162.9 0 749.6 16.29 29 14.368 3.352 26.34
VI 650 794.2 79.42 79.42 1.59 3.12 14.368 3.352 26.34

Table 2  Carbon footprints and prices of the input materials [31–34, 46]

Input Emission factor Unit Reference Price Unit Reference

Electricity 733 Kg ­CO2 eq./MW [31] 96.85 EUR/MWh [46]

Pig iron 1.7 t ­CO2 eq./t 640 EUR/t Values from
Ferrosilicon 75% Si 4.0 t ­CO2 eq./t [33] 1,850 EUR/t a regional
foundry [47]
Inoculant 14.5 t ­CO2 eq./t [32] 2,750 EUR/t
Mg-alloy 5.0 t ­CO2 eq./t [33, 34] 2,762 EUR/t
Carburizing agent 3.5 t ­CO2 eq./t [32] 590 EUR/t
Steel scrap 0 t ­CO2 eq./t [36, 37] 300 EUR/t
Cover scrap 0 t ­CO2 eq./t 300 EUR/t
Waste ductile iron 0 t ­CO2 eq./t 152 EUR/t
Transport (land) 0.16 kg ­CO2 eq./ton.km [31] Included in the final prices
Transport (sea) 0.02 kg ­CO2 eq./ton.nautical mile

Table 3  Distance between the manufacturers and the location of anal- Table 4  Transportation data of pig iron
yses
Transportation Distance
Element Distance (km)
Transportation to the port of Rio de Janeiro 430 km
Steel scrap 6 Shipping to the port of Rotterdam 5138 nautical miles
Ferrosilicon 75% 680 Transportation to NRW 260 km
Mg-alloy 650
Inoculant 50
Carburizing agent 100
the required amount to melt one ton of cast iron is normally
in the range of 500–1000 kWh, depending on the carbon
content [35]. Herein, a survey was conducted to ask some
The life cycle inventories, relevant emissions factors and regional producers about their specific energy consump-
prices (Tables 1 and 2) are collected for the second phase tion, which results in a lower range (i.e. 450–750 kWh/ton).
(i.e. inventory analysis). As the emission factors of some Hence, an average value of 650 kWh/ton was considered for
materials were not found in the Ecoinvent database (version the analyses.
3.5) [31], their values have been adopted based on [32–34]. The steel scrap and waste ductile iron are considered
The carbon emissions associated with transportation are end-of-life flows and thus their carbon footprint is assumed
based on the distance between the materials’ manufactur- as zero. It should be noted that the allocation of the envi-
ers and the location of analyses (i.e. NRW). As all alloying ronmental impact is a controversial topic in the environ-
elements (except pig iron) are produced in Germany, it is mental assessments while addressing waste streams and by-
assumed that they have been transported via trucks. For pig products. For example, if the environmental impact should
iron, different transportation modes were used as it is pro- be allocated based on the mass or the monetary value. The
duced outside Germany (i.e. Brazil). The value of estimated studies of [36, 37] explain numerous allocation methods
distances are indicated in Tables 3 and 4. In terms of energy, and show their significant impact on the outcomes. Also,

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Table 5  Chemical composition Steel C Si Mn P S Mg Cu Al Fe Cover

of the low-alloyed steel scrap scrap for
(in wt%) alloy

No. 1 0.070 0.19 0.48 0.013 0.007 0.0002 0.175 0.004 Bal. II, V
No. 2 0.018 0.01 0.18 0.016 0.006 0.0002 0.021 0.041 Bal. III, IV

the studies of [38–41] address the theme of metal recycling of cerium-containing inoculant SMW 605 is stirred into the
and suitable methods to determine the environmental impact melt just before pouring in order to ensure stable solidifica-
associated with the produced metals and scrap. According tion of carbon. Cerium acts as a graphite nucleating agent in
to [42, 43], there is no one right allocation method and the the inoculant and favors graphite precipitation during solidi-
analysts normally have flexibility while modelling. As there fication of the alloy. Due to the availability, the cover scrap
is no clear agreement on one superior approach, this study used for alloys II and V was steel No.1, and No.2 for alloys
adopts a cutoff approach, via which the carbon footprint is III and IV, according to Table 5.
calculated within the defined system boundaries. Therefore, After the Mg treatment and inoculation, the melt was
the environmental impact is allocated to the primary produc- poured at approximately 1380 °C. For each alloy, two of the
tion and no environmental burdens are allocated to the waste casting geometries indicated in Fig. 4 was produced, which
streams. This approach has already been used by other stud- consisted of two ­YII standard test blocks, one ­YIV standard
ies such as [44], which considered a zero carbon footprint for test block according to DIN EN 1563 and one additional
the steel scrap used in the steel production process. insulated cylinder [48, 49]. Therefore, the casting blocks
For the third phase (i.e. impact assessment), the calcula- are represented with a thermal modulus of 0.96 cm ­(YII),
tions have been implemented via OpenLCA software (ver- 1.74 cm ­(YIV) and 3.29 cm (cylinder) serving as an indicator
sion 1.10.3) using the collected life cycle inventories [45]. for the solidification time. The corresponding cooling curves
As study focuses on the carbon footprint, the impact cat- and solidification times are given in Fig. 5. For each casting
egory of global worming potential (GWP100) was selected geometry one metallographic specimen of each test block
and (CML-IA baseline) was used as a life cycle impact was machined for metallographic analyses. Additionally, one
assessment (LCIA) method. The last phase (i.e. interpreta- tensile test specimen out of ­YII- and two tensile test speci-
tion) is discussed in the following section (results and dis- mens were machined out of both ­YIV- and cylinder geom-
cussion) along with the economic and technical assessments. etries, respectively. The tensile specimens are taken from
For the economic assessment, the prices of material inputs the test blocks according to the positions marked in red in
have been retrieved based on the purchasing prices of a Ger-
man foundry located in North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW).

Technical Assessment

To conduct the experimental tests, 250 kg of casting batches

of alloys II–V were produced based on waste ductile iron
(EN-GJS-400-15), ferrosilicon (FeSi75), steel scrap and a
carburizing agent. The steel scrap used is a low-alloy stamp-
ing scrap from a profile stamping machine. The chemical
compositions of this consumed steel scrap (steel No. 1) is
illustrated in Table 5. For melting of the alloys, a 250 kg
medium-frequency induction furnace from Otto Junker
was used. The ingot materials were heated and melted to
1520  °C. This temperature was held for approximately
5 min in order to remove the impurities from the melt. Sub-
sequently, 1.3 wt% of Mg pre-alloy (VL 63O) was placed
onto the bottom of a treatment and pouring ladle. At 1520 °C
the melt was poured into the treatment ladle for conducting
the magnesium treatment. By adding magnesium to the melt,
Fig. 4  Casting geometry for the casting trials (red: tensile test speci-
a nodular graphite morphology is obtained in the as-cast men with a length of 110  mm; green: metallographic specimen)
microstructure. After deslagging the melt surface, 0.35 wt% (Color figure online)

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256 Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265

Fig. 5  Representative cooling
curves for specimen locations in
the casting geometries that were
produced according to [52] (M
values are the thermal modulus
of the specimen)

Fig. 6  The carbon footprint and

costs of the relevant inputs

Fig. 4 by using a water-cooled core drill. The specimens are evaluation of the adjusted microstructure is carried out by
then machined according to DIN EN 1563 by turning them taking pictures of the cast specimens in the Nital-etched
to the dimensions shown in Fig. 4 and a length of 110 mm. state using a Nital-solution consisting of 3% ­HNO3 and 97%
The quasi-static tensile tests are then carried out according alcohol ­(C2H5OH). Immediately after etching, five images
to EN ISO 6892-1 [50]. are taken of each sample under the light microscope at ×100
The specimens marked in green in Fig. 4 are used as met- magnification. Following the image acquisition, the pearlite
allographic specimens. The specimens are ground stepwise content is also quantified using the ImageJ software.
with silicon carbide grinding paper and then polished with a
diamond suspension. Following the preparation steps, a digi-
tal image analysis is performed. Graphite analysis is used Results and Discussion
for this purpose and is carried out in accordance with DIN
EN ISO 945-4 standard [51]. For this purpose, five images Carbon Footprint and Costs
are taken of each specimen at ×100 magnification with a
resolution of 2600 × 2600 pixels. Subsequently, the images The carbon footprint and the relevant costs of the investi-
are characterized using ImageJ image analysis software. To gated samples are depicted in Fig. 6. The carbon footprint of
be considered as graphite particles, there must be a mini- alloy I is the highest (868.5 kg ­CO2 eq./ton), of which more
mum graphite particle area of 25 μm. A detailed qualitative than 50% is attributed to the energy required for melting

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Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265 257

and approximately 30% is the embedded emissions of the required for the melting process is by far the most energy-
pig iron input (i.e. 145.9 kg ­CO2 eq.). Contrariwise, adding intensive process in the foundry industry. Hence, using this
25 wt% steel scrap (i.e. alloy II) results in the lowest carbon heat efficiently afterwards is one of the best ways to achieve
footprint (lower than 650 kg ­CO2 eq./ton). Such significant ­CO2 savings. However, this heat is currently released into the
reduction can be attributed mainly to abandoning the pig environment as an unused source of energy in many found-
iron. Increasing the steel scrap content to 40% in alloy III ries. There are already various examples of how this waste
has caused a minor retreat in the emissions savings, as the heat can be utilized. For example, the air in the hall and the
carbon footprint has reached 677 kg C ­ O2 eq./ton. By add- water in sanitary facilities can be heated with the exhaust
ing low-alloyed steel scrap, the silicon and carbon content air from air compressors [54]. The waste heat can also be
of a cast iron alloy decreases considerably. To compensate used to dry raw and input materials. This process reduces
for this deficit, corresponding carbon and silicon-containing melting times, which in turn reduces the energy requirement.
materials must be added to the alloy (i.e. carburizing agent However, the operation times is one of main challenges, as
and FeSi75). However, the production of these inputs is the thermal energy is often only available for a few hours per
accompanied with significant ­CO2 emissions (i.e. 3.5 and day when the material is being melted. Hence, storing this
4 t ­CO2 eq./ton, respectively). heat (e.g. via a heat accumulator) is mandatory in order to
Therefore, adding more steel scrap in the next samples be able to use it as an energy source at other times.
(i.e. IV and V) is associated with a continuous increase
in the carbon footprint. However, the carbon footprints of Sensitivity Analysis and Validation
the samples with steel scrap are still lower than sample I.
Finally, the mixed alloy (sample VI) has approximately the As the cutoff approach allocates no emissions to the steel
same carbon footprint as sample V. Despite the low propor- scrap and waste ductile iron, the study conducts a sensitiv-
tion of steel scrap and relinquishing the carburizing agent ity analysis in order to illustrate the impact of secondary
and FeSi75, the embedded emissions of the pig iron increase resources’ footprint on the outcomes. Herein, an emission
the final value. In terms of the costs, sample II also has the factor of 200 kg ­CO2 eq./ton is assumed for the steel scrap
best outcome and recorded the lowest costs (approximately and waste ductile iron.1 Additionally, a sensitivity analysis
300 EUR/t). Counterintuitively, the alloy with the highest is conducted for the scrap price, as the price of steel scrap
steel scrap (i.e. sample V) has the highest production costs, has been increasing in the last years and the figure used
due to the need to add more expensive additives in order to in the basic analysis is relatively high compared with the
meet the required specifications. price in 2016 (below 200 EUR/ton) [56]. Therefore, a lower
Herein, it should be highlighted that there are some dif- steel scrap price (i.e. 200 EUR/ton) has been considered in
ferences between the conditions in the lab and in industrial the sensitivity analysis to illustrate the relevant impact on
facilities that can influence the outcomes slightly. The energy costs. The results of both changes are illustrated in Fig. 7.
requirement for melting depends, among other things, on As expected, the carbon footprint has increased with vari-
the quality of the input materials. For example, clean input ous intensities due to the different steel scrap and pig iron
materials (i.e. water-, oil- and rust-free) can reduce the com- content in the alloys. Although alloy II still has the lowest
bustion as well as the amount of generated slag. A specific carbon footprint (i.e. 837 kg C ­ O2 eq./ton), it recorded the
energy of approximately 500 kWh/t can be assumed for slag- highest increase (i.e. 29.1%). Alloy I also still has the high-
ging the sand associated with input materials and a similar est carbon footprint (i.e. 1031 kg ­CO2 eq./ton), but its rela-
consumption can be expected for the rusted materials [53]. tive increase is the lowest (i.e. 18.7%). As can be seen, the
For example, if the steel scrap used in alloy V contains 5% impact of the steel scrap price also depends on the alloys’
impurities, an additional 19 kWh will be required, resulting compositions. While the costs of alloy I remains the same,
in approximately 14 kg ­CO2 eq. emissions. Herein, it is of the costs of alloy V decreases 18% to 341.7 EUR/ton, which
particular importance that the scrap used is blasted before- is the highest relative and absolute decrease.
hand to remove any unnecessary residues. Another aspect, To validate the environmental and economic analy-
which is normally monitored in the laboratory, is the com- ses, the results have been compared with other studies.
position of the materials. Knowing the precise compositions The study of [11] reported 300 kg ­CO2 eq. for producing
of the consumed materials can enable the operator to specify 248.5 kg cast iron, which can be converted to approxi-
the required charge and electricity input. As a result, the mately 1.2 ton C ­ O2 eq./ton cast iron. Also, the study of
material and energy requirements can be minimized, which
means that melting times can be shortened and the opera-
tions can be optimized. 1
  The value of 200 kg ­CO2 eq./ton is used to demonstrate a ratio of
Moreover, recovering the waste heat can also decrease the the steel’s carbon footprint (primary steel 1.9 t C
­ O2 eq./ton & pri-
associated carbon emissions. As discussed, the process heat mary steel 0.4 t ­CO2 eq./ton) [55].

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Fig. 7  The sensitivity analysis

of the carbon footprint and costs

Table 6  Chemical composition Alloy C Si Cr Mg Al Mn Cu Fe CEa

of the investigated alloys (wt%)
II 3.40 2.78 0.004 0.063 0.015 0.207 0.125 Bal. 4.33
 ± 0.03  ± 0.003  ± 0.019  ± 0.002  ± 0.002  ± 0.005
III 3.50 2.45 0.056 0.039 0.017 0.247 0.128 Bal. 4.32
 ± 0.02  ± 0.000  ± 0.001  ± 0.000  ± 0.003  ± 0.002
IV 3.48 2.43 0.059 0.039 0.014 0.290 0.115 Bal. 4.29
 ± 0.03  ± 0.000  ± 0.002  ± 0.000  ± 0.003  ± 0.002
V 3.38 2.56 0.061 0.056 0.016 0.378 0.162 Bal. 4.23
 ± 0.02  ± 0.000  ± 0.006  ± 0.001  ± 0.003  ± 0.000

Contents from thermal analysis

a
 CE (carbon equivalent): the CE takes into account the influence of the accompanying elements equivalent
to the effect of the carbon and gives a statement about the composition relative to the eutectic composition
[CE = C + 1⁄3∙Si]

[15] concluded 706 kg ­CO2 eq. for manufacturing one ton Technical Performance
cast iron. As this study’s outcomes range between 650 and
1030 kg ­CO2 eq./ton cast iron, the calculated values can be In order to make sure that the alloys fulfill the standard
considered reasonable. The deviations between the values requirements when steel scrap and additives are used,
can be explained by the different system boundaries, alloy alloys II–V were produced and studied with regard to their
compositions and differing carbon footprints of the inputs. chemical composition and microstructural and mechanical
For example, the calculations of [11] used higher emission properties.
factors for pig iron and ferrosilicon alloy. For the associ-
ated costs, the average ductile cast iron price at the factory Chemical Composition
gate in NRW is 1437.5 EUR/t [57]. In addition, according
to [58], the materials and energy inputs contribute to 40% All alloys were produced and casted in accordance with
of the final costs. Therefore, the calculated costs of the ductile iron grade EN-GJS-400-15 (DIN EN 1563). Hence,
investigated flows should be reasonable (277–417 EUR/t) a targeted carbon content of 3.4 wt% and silicon content of
as the calculations did not include some materials such 2.5 wt% was set for each alloy. However, for producing the
molding and energy inputs such as warmth maintenance. alloys, different contents of steel scrap and recycled material

13
Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265 259

T𝛼 = 739 + 18.4Si + 2Si2 − 14Cu − 45Mn + 2Mo − 24Cr−27.5Ni

(1)
Tp = 727 + 21.6Si + 0.023Si − 21Cu
2
(2)
− 25Mn + 8Mo + 13Cr − 33Ni

ΔT = 12−3.2Si + 1.977Si2 + 7Cu − 20Mn − 6Mo − 37Cr + 5.5Ni

(3)

Microstructure

Figure 9 shows representative microstructural images for the

study after Nital-etching of alloys II–V, arranged in order
Fig. 8  Effect of steel scrap content on Tα, Tp and ΔT 
of increasing steel scrap content from top to bottom and
increasing thermal modulus from left to right. With higher
steel scrap content, an increasing pearlite content can be
were used according to Fig. 2. As indicated in Table 6, the
observed. All of the produced alloys show significant pearl-
carbon and silicon contents could be held quite constant by
ite fractions from about 25 to 50%. This confirms the previ-
setting different amounts of steel scrap and recycled mate-
ously assumed difficulties associated with the use of steel
rial. Furthermore, the magnesium, aluminum and copper
scrap or the accompanying elements contained within it.
contents remain constant regardless of the selected composi-
Herein, there is an overlapping of different effects. On
tion of the charging. The variations of the residual magne-
the one hand, less pearlite is generated at larger moduli.
sium content between the individual alloys of approximately
On the other hand, a higher graphite nodule count leads to
0.02 wt% are considered to be process-dependent. However,
shorter carbon diffusion paths. As a result, ferrite forma-
it can be noted that the chromium and manganese content
tion instead of pearlite formation is promoted in these areas.
exhibit a significant increase due to the growth of the steel
Furthermore, there is a clear trend indicating higher pearl-
scrap content from 25 wt% in alloy II to 75 wt% in alloy V.
ite contents with increasing thermal modulus, as confirmed
Above steel scrap contents of 40 wt%, significant Cr contents
by Fig. 10. At low thermal modulus, higher undercooling
of 0.056 wt% occur. The Mn content, on the other hand,
occurs and therefore a higher nodule count is generated
increases continuously with increasing steel scrap content
leading to shorter diffusion paths for carbons during further
up to 0.378 wt% in alloy V.
solidification and cooling. Therefore, carbon atoms must dif-
Based on the chemical compositions that have been
fuse to existing graphite precipitates in a shorter time range.
shown, ferrite and pearlite formation temperatures Tα and
A lower carbon diffusion time leads to a higher roundness
Tp and the eutectoid temperature interval were calculated
of graphite particles and a higher nodularity of the sample.
according to [59], indicated in Eqs. 1–3.2 The results of
Figure 11 summarizes the effect of different steel scrap addi-
these calculations are shown in Fig. 8. It can be observed
tions on both the pearlite fraction in the microstructure and
that the stable eutectoid temperature decreases signifi-
the eutectoid transformation interval.
cantly more than the metastable eutectoid temperature with
Figure 12 shows the results of the graphite analysis using
increasing steel scrap content. This leads to a reduction of
automatic image evaluation. In the four-test series, there is
the eutectoid temperature interval with increasing steel scrap
no noticeable difference with regard to nodularity. Compar-
content in the alloy. The reason for this is the increased con-
ing a casting modulus of 0.8 cm with a higher wall thickness,
tent of pearlite-stabilizing elements, including in particular
it is noticed that the thinner components have a higher nodu-
Cr and Mn. Due to the reduction of ΔT, an increased pearlite
larity in most cases, which is corresponding to the literature
content has to be expected in the corresponding alloys. In
[9, 60]. The nodularity of the 0.8 cm module is on average
order to verify this hypothesis, microstructural analyses were
70%. In contrast, the average nodularity of the larger wall
further carried out with the aim of quantifying the respective
thicknesses is 49%. The count of graphite nodule decreases
phase fractions of the alloy (graphite, matrix phase).
with increasing thermal modulus. For a casting modulus of
3.29 cm, the average nodule count is 73 1/mm2. In contrast,
the casting modulus of 0.8 cm exhibits a nodule count of
179 1/mm2 on average (+ 105 1/mm2).
2
  Element contents in wt%

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260 Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265

Fig. 9  Microstructure of the
investigated alloys (nital-etched
specimens at ×100 magnifica-
tion) [recognizable are graphite
nodules (black), ferrite (white)
and perlite (colored)] (Color
figure online)

Mechanical Properties EN-GJS-400–15. This value was exceeded in all samples,

as indicated in Fig. 15. The same trend as for the tensile
As shown in Fig. 13, the minimum requirement for ten- strength can be observed, with similar or slightly decreasing
sile strength (UTS = 400 MPa for a wall thickness of up to values from 25 to 60 wt% steel scrap content. Alloy V shows
30 mm according to DIN EN 1563) has been achieved in all a strongly increased yield strength. The desired elongation at
adjusted alloys. In some cases, the strengths are well above fracture of 15% could be achieved in specimens with moduli
500 MPa. The UTS increase significantly with increasing of 0.96 and 1.74 cm up to a content of 60 wt% steel scrap
the steel scrap content. For example, it exhibits a UTS of (see Fig. 16). It can be noted that the elongation at fracture
490 MPa at a steel scrap content of 25% and 610 MPa at a of the cylindrical specimens of up to 5.5% is significantly
content of 75% steel scrap. A significant correlation between lower. When 75 wt% steel scrap is used in alloy V, no suf-
the pearlite fraction in the microstructure and the UTS can ficient elongation at fracture was found in any of the cases
be observed from Fig. 14. The influence of the modulus on investigated, so this alloy does not meet the requirements
the strength is reflected in a decrease in strength; this applies of EN-GJS-400-15 and cannot be used. This observation
across the board to all steel scrap contents. The standard is attributed to the higher amount of pearlite- and carbide-
specifies a yield strength of 250  MPa for the material stabilizing elements that are added to the melt due to higher

13
Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265 261

Fig. 10  Amount of pearlite fraction in the steel alloys as a function of

steel scrap addition and thermal modulus (M) of the different casting
geometries

Fig. 12  Nodularity and graphite nodule count of the investigated

alloys

Fig. 11  Effect of steel scrap addition on the pearlite fraction and

eutectoid temperature interval

amounts of steel scrap. Maximum amounts of Mn in alloy V

and a pearlite content of 52% in the microstructure confirm
these results, as they are acting as crack initiation sites dur-
ing the mechanical testing of the alloys.

Conclusions and Outlook

The analyses have clearly depicted the correlation between

the technical, economic and environmental aspects of the Fig. 13  Ultimate tensile strength of the investigated alloys (the red
line is the minimum strength threshold to meet alloy specification)
cast iron production. The environmental analyses show
(Color figure online)
that the addition of steel scrap up to a content of 60 wt%
results in significant C
­ O2 savings compared to an alloy with
15 wt% pig iron and no steel scrap. Therefore, using steel emissions of 25 wt%. A comparable result could be taken
scrap is superior from an environmental perspective. How- from the cost calculations; the costs also increase with the
ever, exceeding a certain threshold (i.e. 25 wt%) can lead steel scrap content due to the required expensive additives
to a relapse due to the ferrosilicon and carbon that have to such as ferrosilicon and carburizing agents. The results of
be added (to yield comparable composition and technical this study show that the use of steel scrap is only profitable
performance), which have high embedded carbon emissions. up to just under 40 wt% from an economic point of view.
For the investigated alloys, the use of steel scrap is recom- Similar conclusions can be also drawn from the results
mended with a content between 25 and 40 wt% with lower of the experimental tests. It can be seen that the mechanical

13

262 Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265

steel scrap due to the increased pearlite content in the micro-

structure. The reason for this is the elevated content of pearl-
ite-stabilizing elements, in particular Mn, that originate from
the steel scrap. Comparing the different results, it becomes
apparent that the use of steel scrap up to a proportion of
60 wt% can be recommended from a technical and metal-
lurgical perspective, as both the UTS, YS and elongation
at fracture are met according to the technical requirements
(UTS = 400 MPa, YS = 250 MPa, A = 15% for wall thick-
nesses lower than 30 mm). However, the limiting factor is
the wall thickness which lowers the mechanical properties
generally. However, the elongation at fracture remains the
critical factor, as it decreases due to the increased pearlite
content as a result of the higher steel scrap contents. For a
Fig. 14  Effect of pearlite fraction on UTS for different amounts of steel scrap content of 75 wt%, an elongation at fracture of
steel scrap only 12.9% is achieved in a wall thickness of 25 mm.
Apart from the input materials, energy consumption is
generally responsible for the largest proportion of the carbon
footprint. Therefore, minimizing the energy requirements
and recovering the waste heat can lead to lower GHG emis-
sions. Herein, the existing practices in the foundries should
be further investigated and available efficiency measures
have to be adopted. Moreover, shifting the electricity mix
towards more renewable energies should result in a car-
bon–neutral melting process. Herein, eliminating the fossil-
based technologies such copula furnace and increasing the
share of electricity-based ones such as induction furnaces
are also crucial. Similarly, adopting more climate-neutral
production processes for the other material inputs can reduce
Fig. 15  Influence of steel scrap addition on the yield strength of alloy the embedded emissions such as employing iron reduced via
II–V (the red line is the minimum strength threshold to meet alloy
specification) (Color figure online)
hydrogen or using biogenic carbon and carbon capture and
storage (CCS) while producing the other inputs.
The framework presents a scientific frame by which the
technical, economic and environmental impacts can be
investigated and optimized. The main advantage of the pre-
sented method is the possibility to be adopted easily by the
foundries. It is a very cost-effective approach as it does not
need innovative technologies with high capital costs such as
furnaces. However, the study is still introductory and further
analyses have to be performed. As increasing the steel scrap
consumption by the cast industry can influence the supply
in the steel industry, intersectoral analyses will be needed
to determine where steel scrap should be used to achieve
the best environmental impact. Also, the analyses focus on
a specific type of cast iron and certain alloys. Therefore,
Fig. 16  Effect of the steel scrap content on the elongation at frac-
ture of the investigated alloys (the red line is the minimum strength further alloys and metals have to be investigated.
threshold to meet alloy specification) (Color figure online) The industry should consider all the ­CO 2-intensive
processes in foundries. Due to the variety of the casting
technologies and the large number of products, a “one-
properties according to DIN EN 1563 could be safely solution-fits-all” approach will be ineffective. Hence, more
achieved or slightly exceeded at low moduli for all inves- investigations and better classification are needed in order
tigated alloys. However, the required elongation at fracture to derive diverse mitigation strategies that can suit a wide-
could not be achieved in alloy V with an addition of 75 wt% range of the producers. Conducting such investigations and

13
Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy (2023) 9:249–265 263

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