CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Hydroelectric power is a form of energy and a renewable resource.

Hydropower provides about 96 percent of the renewable energy in the United States.
Other renewable resources include geothermal, wave power, tidal power, wind power,
and solar power.
Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development country.
Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the early
expansion of the electric power industry.
Hydropower was considered as one of the most desirable sources of electrical
energy due to its environment friendly nature and extensive potential available
throughout the world. The main generation of hydropower generation is turbine.
Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water winter and spring runoff from
mountain streams and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity, can
be used to turn turbines and generators that produce electricity.
Hydroelectric power is important to our nation. Growing populations and
modern technologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and
expanding.
In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of the
electric energy produced. Although the amount of energy produced by this means has
steadily increased, the amount produced by other types of power plants has increased
at a faster rate and hydroelectric power presently supplies about 10 percent of the
electrical generating capacity of the United States.
Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of
its ability to respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which
base load plants with steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes
cannot accommodate.
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2.1. Basic Components of Hydropower Generation

Basic components of hydropower generation are as follows;
1. Dam
2. Head Race
3. Spillway
4. Forebay
5. Penstock
6. Power House and Tailrace
7. Turbine
8. Generator
9. Transformer

Figure 2.1 Basic component of hydropower plant

2.1.1. Dam
The dam is a fundamental element in hydropower system, it is built at a
suitable location across the river .It is used to create a reservoir or dam to store water
and to develop head. By increasing the level of the water surface, the dam can
develop the head necessary to generate the require energy.
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2.1.2. Head Race

Headwork consists of the weir, the water intake and protection works at the
intake to safely divert water to the headrace canal. At some sites you may be able to
install the penstock directly in the intake, with no need for a canal. The headrace canal
carries the design flow from the intake to the forebay.
Generally, the canal runs parallel to the river at an ever-increasing difference
in elevation, which gives the micro-hydropower system its head. The canal cross
sectional alignment should be designed for optimum performance and economy in
order to reduce losses due to leakage.

2.1.3. Spill Way

The gravel trap and screen are constructed close to the intake in order to
prevent debris, gravel and sand from getting into the penstock. Gravel traps often
have a mechanism to divert excess water back to the river and to flush sediments back
to the river downstream of the intake. The spillway is designed to handle floodwater
and protects the intake during heavy floods.

2.1.4. Forebay and Desilting Basin

The desilting basin is designed to settle suspended silt and flush the basin. The
forebay tank connects the channel and the penstock. The tank allows fine silt particles
to settle before the water enters the penstock.
A fine trash rack is used to cover the intake of the penstock to prevent debris
and ice from entering and damaging the turbine and valves.

2.1.5. Penstock
The Penstock is a tunnel that caries the water from the intake to the turbines.
There are a number of factors to consider when deciding which material to use in the
building of the penstock.
They are: surface roughness, design pressure, method of jointing, weight and
ease of installation, accessibility of the site, terrain, soil type, design life and
maintenance, weather conditions, availability, relative cost, and likelihood of
structural damage.
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2.1.6. Powerhouse and Tailrace

The powerhouse is a building that houses the turbine, generator and controller
units. Although the powerhouse can be a simple structure, its foundation must be
solid. The power house components are turbine, generator and drive system.
In order to generate electrical power at a stable voltage and frequency, the
drive system needs to transmit power from the turbine to the generator shaft in the
required direction and at the required speed.
Typical drive systems in micro-hydropower systems are direct drive, V or
wedge belt, pulley and gear drive system. The tailrace is a channel that allows the
water to flow back to the stream after it has passed through the turbine.

2.1.7. Turbine
The heart of the hydro-electric system is turbine for converting the energy of
the water source to mechanical energy to drive the generator. Water wheel was used
instead of turbine in the past but now hydraulic turbines are well-known.

2.1.8. Generator
The generator is connected to the turbine. It transforms mechanical energy into
electrical energy. There are four major components to the generator; they are the
shaft, exciter, rotor, and stator.
The water turns the turbine, which turns the shaft and causes the exciter to
send an electrical current to the rotor. The rotor is comprised of a series of large
electromagnets that spin inside the stator, which is a tightly wound coil of copper
wire. This process creates a magnetic field, which creates an alternating current, AC,
by the moving of electrons.

2.1.9. Transformer
The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and converts it to higher
voltage current. It can be used to step down or step up of voltage. Transformer is well
applied in power plant substation with low voltage device, high voltage device,
transformer and other components integrated, greatly recognized by its functional and
energy saving properties.
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2.2. Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

The hydraulic turbines are classified according to the type of energy available
at the inlet of the turbine, direction of flow through the vanes, head at the inlet of the
turbine and specific speed of the turbines. Thus the following are the important
classification of the turbines;
1. According to the type of energy at inlet;
(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine

2. According to the direction of flow through runner;

(a) Tangential flow turbine,
(b) Radial flow turbine,
(c) Axial flow turbine
(d) Mixed flow turbines

3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine;

(a) High head turbine
(b) Medium head turbine , and
(c) Low head turbine

4. According to the specific speed of the turbine;

(a) Low specific speed turbine
(b) Medium specific speed turbine ,and
(c) High specific speed turbine.

If the inlet of the turbine, the energy available is only kinetic energy, the
turbine is known as Impulse turbine. As the water flows over the vanes, the pressure
is atmospheric from inlet to outlet of the turbine. If at the inlet of the turbine, the
water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy, the turbine is known as
reaction turbine.
As the waters flows through the runner, the water is under pressure and the
pressure energy goes on changing into kinetic energy. The runner is completely
enclosed in an air –tight casing and the runner and casing is completely full of water.
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If the water flows along the tangent of the runner, the turbine is known as
tangential flow turbine. If the water flows in the radial direction through the runner,
the turbine is called radial flow turbine. If the water flows from outwards to inwards
to inwards, radically, the turbine is known is inward radial flow turbine, on the other
hand , if water flows ,radically from inwards to outwards , the turbine is known as
outward radial flow turbine.
If the water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the runner, the turbine is called axial flow turbine. If the water flows
through the runner in the radial direction but leaves in the direction
parallel to axis of rotation of the runner.[11 Del]

2.3. Type of Hydraulic Turbines

There are two main type of turbine;
(i) Impulse type: Pelton turbines
Cross flow turbines
Turgo turbines
(ii) Reaction type: Francis turbine
Kaplan turbine
Bulb turbine

2.4. Type of Impulse Turbines

Impulse turbines is completely converted to kinetic energy before
transformation in the runner. This means that the flow passes the runner buckets with
no pressure difference between inlet and outlet.
Therefore only the impulse forces being transferred by the direction changes
of the flow velocity vectors when passing the buckets create the energy converted to
mechanical energy on the turbine shaft. The flow enters the runner at nearly
atmospheric pressure in the form of one or more jets regularly spaced around the rim
of runners.
This mean that each jet hits momentarily only a fraction or part of the
circumference of the runner. For that reason impulse turbines are also denoted partial
turbines.
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2.4.1. Pelton Turbines

A Pelton turbine consists of a set of specially shaped buckets mounted on a
periphery of a circular disc. It is turned by forced jets of water which are discharged
from one or more nozzles and impinge on the buckets.
The resulting impulse spins the turbine runner, imparting energy to the turbine
shaft. The buckets are split into two halves so that the central area does not act as a
dead spot incapable of deflecting water away from the oncoming jet. One or two jet
Pelton turbines can have horizontal or vertical axis. The turbine runner is usually
directly coupled to the generator shaft and shall be above the downstream level. The
turbine manufacturer can only give the clearance.
The efficiency of a Pelton is good from 30% to100% of the maximum
discharge for a one- jet turbine and from 10% to 100% for a multi – jet. [15Pnw]

Figure 2.2 Pelton Turbine

2.4.2. Cross flow Turbines

In the cross-flow turbine, m water is led from the outer periphery of the
runner. It is called cross- flow, since the water passage through the runner.
The turbine consists of two parts, a nozzle and a turbine runner, as shown in
figure 2.3. The runner is built up of two parallel circular disk joined together at rim
with a series of curved blades. The nozzle, whose cross-sectional area is rectangular,
discharges the jet the full width of the wheel and enters the wheel at an angle of 16
degrees to the tangent of the wheel. The shape of the jet is rectangular, wide, and not
very deep.
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The water strikes the blades on the rim of the wheel, flow over the blade,
leaving it, passing through the empty space between the inner rim, enter abrade on the
inner side of the rim, and discharges at outer rim. The wheel is therefore an inward jet
wheel and because the flow is essentially radial, the diameter of the wheel is
practically independent of the amount of water impact, and the desired wheel breadth
can be given independent of the water.[15 Pnw]

distributor

runner

blades

Water flow

Figure 2.3 Crossflow Turbine

2.4.3. Turgo Turbines

The Turgo turbine can operate under a head in the range of 50-250m like the
Pelton, it is an impulse turbine, however its buckets are shaped differently and the jet
of water strikes the plane of its runner at an angle of 20° .
Water enters the runner through one side of the runner disk and emerges from
the other shown in fig. It cannot operate between 20% and 100% of the maximal
design flow. The efficiency is lower than for the Pelton and Francis Turbines.
Compared to the Pelton, a Turgo turbine has a higher rotational speed for the same
flow and head.
A Turgo can be an alternative to the Francis when the flow strongly varies or
in case of long penstocks, as the deflector allows avoidance of runaway speed in the
case of load rejection and the resulting water hammer that can occur with a Francis.
[15 Pnw]
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Figure 2.4 Turgo Turbine

2.5. Reaction Turbines

In the reaction turbines two effects cause the energy transfer from the flow to
mechanical energy on the turbine shaft. Firstly it follows from a drop in pressure from
inlet to outlet of the runner. This is denoted the reaction part of the energy conversion.
Secondly changes in the directions of the velocity vectors of the flow through the
canals between the runner blades transfer impulse forces. This is denoted the impulse
part of the energy conversion. The pressure drop from inlet to outlet of the runners is
obtained between the runners are completely filled with water. Therefore the group of
turbines also has been denoted as full turbines.

2.5.1. Francis Turbines

Francis turbine is a mixed flow type of reaction turbine. In which water enters
the runner radically at its outer periphery and leaves axially at its center. The water
from the penstock enters scroll case (also called spiral case) which completely
surrounds the runner.
The purpose e of the cased is to provide an even distribution of water around
the circumference e of the turbine runner, maintaining an approximately constant
velocity for the water so distributed. The flow of water being axial part the blades in a
closed passage. The blades of the turbines are almost flat with free outer ends, which
are much closed to the passage boundary.
The relative velocity of water with respective to blades is high and little
change in relative velocity as water passes over the runner.[11Maz]
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push & pull rod main shaft guide bearing

servomoto guide vane arm
r
head cover

stay ring
guide vane spiral case
draft tube runner

Figure 2.5 Francis Turbine

2.5.2. Kaplan Turbines
The modification of the propeller turbine is the moving blades turbine called
the Kaplan turbine. This machine has adjustable blades, the inclination of which is
adjustable to suit the load variations, which properly gives it a very high efficiency
under considerable variation of load.

generator

Figure 2.6 Kaplan Turbine

2.5.3. Bulb Turbines

The bulb turbine is similar to the propeller of a ship as the flow of
water being axial part the blades in a closed passage. The blades of the turbines are
almost flat with free outer ends, which are much closed to the passage boundary. The
relative velocity of water with respective to blades is high and little change in relative
velocity as water passes over the runner.
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Figure 2.7 Bulb Turbine

2.6. Difference between Impulse Turbine and Reaction Turbine

The difference between Impulse and reaction turbine is shown in Table2.1.
Table 2.1. Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbine
No Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
.
The entire available energy of the The available energy of water is not
1 water is first converted into kinetic converted from one into another.
energy.
The water flows through the The water is guided by the guide blades
2 nozzles and impinges on the to flow over the moving vanes.
buckets, which are fixed to the
outer periphery of the wheel.
The water impinges on the The water guides, over the moving
3 buckets, with kinetic energy. vanes, with pressures energy.
The pressure of the flowing water It is essential that the wheel should
4 remains unchanged, and is equal to always run full, and kept full of water.
the atmospheric pressure.
It is possible to regulate the flow It is not possible to regulate the flow
5 without loss. without loss.

The work is done only by the The work is done partly by the change
6 change in kinetic energy of the jet. in the velocity head, but almost entirely
by the change in pressure head.
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2.7. Selection of Turbines

The selection of a suitable type of turbine is usually governed by the following
factors:
(i) Head and Specific Speed
There is a range of head and specific speed for selection of suitable turbine
Table 2.2. Head and Specific Speed
No. Head (m) Type of Turbine Specific Speed
1. 500 to 2000 Pelton wheel Single jet 8.5 to 30
2. 500 to 1500 Pelton wheel Two jet 14 to 40
3. 150 to 500 Pelton wheel Four jet 20 to 60
4. 50 to 150 Francis 100 to 220
5. Less than 60 Kaplan or Propeller 220 to 1000

Figure 2.8 Selection of Turbine

(ii) Head, Discharge and Power A turbine can be selected base on the head, discharge
and part load operation as shown in Figure 2.9.
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Figure 2.9 Net Head and Flow Rate