Geofísica Internacional (2006), Vol. 45, Num. 4, pp.

243-253

The pyroclastic dikes of the Tertiary San Luis Potosí volcanic field:
Implications on the emplacement of Panalillo ignimbrite

José Ramón Torres-Hernández, Guillermo Labarthe-Hernández, Alfredo Aguillón-Robles, Martín Gómez-

Anguiano and José Luis Mata-Segura
Instituto de Geología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México

Received: August 10, 2004; accepted: September 5, 2006

RESUMEN
Una serie de diques piroclásticos en el Campo Volcánico de San Luis Potosí está asociada a fallas regionales que cortan y
basculan a la secuencia volcánica terciaria (32-27 Ma). Estos diques muestran sus raíces en las formaciones riolita San Miguelito
e ignimbrita Cantera y están expuestos en los arroyos El Juachín y Las Cabras.
Los diques tienen una inclinación casi vertical, su anchura es variable (máximo 60 cm) y están constituidos principalmente
por ceniza volcánica, que consiste de vitroclastos o esquirlas de vidrio formadas por la fragmentación del material juvenil
durante la erupción y de cristales fragmentados de cuarzo, sanidino y biotita. Los diques también contienen fragmentos de
pómez blanca casi afírica de forma subredondeada de 1 milímetro hasta 1 centímetro de tamaño y fragmentos de riolita. El
acomodo de material es de forma tabular y paralela a las paredes del conducto.
Los diques piroclásticos están asociados a las fallas normales formadas durante el Oligoceno medio, así como a los
procesos volcánicos que dieron origen a la ignimbrita Panalillo.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Dique piroclástico, ignimbrita Panalillo, tectónica, volcanismo, San Luis Potosí, Terciario, México.

ABSTRACT
Pyroclastic dikes emplaced along regional NW-SE faults in the Tertiary San Luis Potosí Volcanic Field consist of vitric
pumice shards, rhyolite lithics, and broken crystals of quartz, sanidine, and biotite. These clasts display a parallel orientation
inside the dikes and have developed devitrification structures after emplacement.
The presence of these pyroclastic dikes associated to normal faults and their relation to the Oligocene pyroclastic sequences
of the San Luis Potosí Volcanic Field suggests that they may represent the feeding conduits from which the Panalillo ignimbrite
was erupted.

KEY WORDS: Pyroclastic dike, Panalillo ignimbrite, tectonics, volcanism, San Luis Potosí, Tertiary, Mexico.

INTRODUCTION tectonic depositional feature). The pyroclastic dikes have

long, roughly tabular shapes. Different types of pyroclastic
The San Luis Potosí Volcanic Field (SLPVF) is located dikes have been reported in the literature (Chalot-Prat, 1995;
southwest of the city of San Luis Potosí (Figure 1). It was Wolff, 1986; Ellwood and Wolff, 1985; Milanovski and
first described by Labarthe-Hernández et al. (1982) as a Koronovski, 1965; Almond, 1971). They are considered
volcanic field formed by Tertiary lavas and ignimbrites. Later feeding conduits of explosive eruptions, whose
studies have documented that the SLPVF is affected by fragmentation and cooling occurred at depths <2 km (Wilson
regional normal faults that have tilted to the east this et al., 1980). In some areas, including the SLPVF, it is
Oligocene (32 to 27 Ma) volcanic sequence (Figure 2) possible to correlate the mineralogical and chemical
(Labarthe-Hernández and Jiménez-López, 1992; 1993; 1994; composition of the materials filling the dikes with the
Nieto-Samaniego et al., 1999). One of the most remarkable composition of clasts in the pyroclastic deposits on the
features in the SLPVF is the occurrence of pyroclastic dikes surface (Wolff 1986). Pyroclastic dikes have been observed
emplaced along these faults and their close association with at the margins of deeply dissected cauldrons (Ekren and
the Panalillo ignimbrite. Torres-Hernández et al. (1998) Bayers, 1976; Aramaki et al., 1977; Elston, 1984; Yoshida,
showed that faulting and volcanism occurred synchronically. 1984; Takahashi, 1986; Miura, 1997). In some cases they
Pyroclastic products rest against faults and the angle of are related to strike-slip faults (Chalot-Prat, 1995). In
deposition of the different units comprising the ash-flow general, pyroclastic dikes are associated to sub-volcanic
sequence decreases from the base to the top (typical syn- structures. Therefore, they are only exposed in older volcanic

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J. R. Torres-Hernández et al.

Fig. 1. A. Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) and study area ubication. B. Geologic map of the San Luis Potosí Volcanic Field, showing the location of the arroyo El Juachín (A.J.) and
arroyo Las Cabras (A.C.). The regional faults cut and tilt the entire sequence and control the stream. Pyroclastic dikes are only present in the El Juachín and Cabras areas.
 Pyroclastic dikes of San Luis Potosí volcanic field

Fig. 2. Composite stratigraphic column for the San Luis Potosí Volcanic Field. K/Ar ages were reported by: *Torres-Hernández et al.
(2001); **Labarthe-Hernández et al. (1982) and ***Nieto-Samaniego et al. (1996).

fields where exhumation and erosion has removed overlying their implication for emplacement of The Panalillo
deposits. ignimbrite.

The study of pyroclastic dikes in the SLPVF provides REGIONAL GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
new insights for the understanding of this sub-volcanic
phenomenon. In this paper we describe pyroclastic dikes in The SLPVF is located at the southeastern edge of the
Arroyo Juachín and Arroyo Las Cabras areas (Figure 2). Sierra Madre Occidental Magmatic Province (Figure 1). The
Petrographic and chemical analyses of their components prevolcanic basement consists of Cretaceous (Valanginian
(pumice clasts and lithic fragments) and stratigraphic to Maastrichtian) marine limestones, lutites, and sandstones
position of the ignimbrites in the SLPVF, provide enough with NW-SE trending fold-axes. An Eocene conglomerate
information for proposing a genetic model for the dikes and sequence with interbedded 44.1 ± 2.2 Ma old andesitic lavas

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J. R. Torres-Hernández et al.

of the Casita Blanca Formation (Labarthe-Hernández et al., southwestern parts of the volcanic field (20.3 ± 0.5 Ma;
1982) overlies discordantly the Mesozoic rocks. Torres et al., 1998).

This sector of the SMO is mostly Oligocene in age Arroyo Juachín area
and was emplaced in two cycle (Figure 2): During the first
period (31 to 30 Ma; Labarthe et al., 1982) silicic lava domes Labarthe-Hernández et al. (2000) were the first to
including the Portezuelo latite and San Miguelito rhyolite mention the occurrence of pyroclastic dikes running
were erupted. During the second cycle (29 to 27 Ma; roughly parallel to the fault plane that controls the course
Labarthe et al., 1982) the Cantera and Panalillo ignimbrites of the El Juachín stream. These dikes mainly consist of
were emplaced. In addition, subordinate emissions of rhyolitic (SiO2= 70%; Na2O + K2O=4.76%; CaO=1.39%;
rhyolitic and basaltic lavas interbedded with the ignimbrites Al2O3=9.87%; Fe 2O3=1.98% wt.) volcanic material of
(El Zapote rhyolite and La Placa basalt) took place. Miocene different granulometric sizes. The fine-grained material
volcanism (21 to 20 Ma; Labarthe et al., 1982) produced (silt-sized ash) is plastered to the dike walls, while coarser
basaltic to trachytic lavas (Cabras basalt and Los Castillo material (sand, gravel, and blocks) are concentrated in the
trachyte) of limited distribution in the southern part of the center of the dike. Dikes have a variable width, ranging
SLPVF. Overlying deposits are represented by Miocene- from a few cm up to a maximum of 60 cm (Figures 3A and
Pliocene thin conglomerates (Halcones conglomerate), 3B) and have a NW-SE orientation, dipping 70º - 90º to
Pliocene-Quaternary basaltic lavas, and phreatomagmatic the SW. Ash in the dikes consists of vitroclasts and
deposits associated to maar volcanism (Las Joyas secuence), fragmented crystals of quartz, sanidine, and biotite. It also
and Quaternary alluvial deposits in the Villa de Reyes graben includes sub-rounded to sub-angular fragments of
and other depressions. underlying volcanics rocks (San Miguelito rhyolite and
Cantera ignimbrite), which are dark-gray to reddish or
STRATIGRAPHY pinkish-brown in color due to oxidation. The long-axis of
lithic fragments is parallel to the dike walls. In addition to
A schematic stratigraphic column showing the relative the banded appearance of the dikes, flow-erosion surfaces
position of the dykes and related Panalillo ignimbrite is are frequently observed at the contact with the intruded
presented in Figure 2. The volcanic rocks in this field are rocks.
Oligocene-Miocene (44.1 ± 2.2 to 20.3 ± 0.5 Ma) in age.
The Portezuelo rhyodacite is 30.6 Ma and Los Castillo Arroyo Las Cabras area
trachyte is 20.3 Ma old. Volcanism was accompanied by a
complex history of mostly extensional tectonic events. The
The pyroclastic deposits of the Lower Panalillo
most prominent episode of volcanism occurred between 31
ignimbrite displayed along the Arroyo Las Cabras have
to 30 Ma and included two stages of dome formation. The
different bedding angles, which notably vary from the base
first was rhyodacitic in composition (Portezuelo trachyte)
to the top. Above the Cantera ignimbrite the deposits dip
and the second rhyolitic (San Miguelito rhyolite). Around
45° to the NE. Covering this deposit are two massive units
29 Ma, explosive volcanic activity formed the Cantera
containing abundant white pumice and lithic clasts, which
ignimbrite. A new explosive event produced a thin mantle
are again overlain by a series of thin white pyroclastic flow
of pyroclastic deposits followed by the emplacement of
deposits dipping 35º to the NE. On top is another sequence
voluminous rhyolitic domes (Zapote rhyolite) around 27.0
of biotite-rich pyroclastic flow deposits dipping at the base
± 0.7 Ma (Nieto-Samaniego et al., 1996). The next explosive
25º to the NE and towards the top only 10º in the same
eruption produced a series of pyroclastic flows and
direction. The uppermost pyroclastic Las Cabras deposits
associated pyroclastic dikes (Panalillo Inferior ignimbrite).
are interbedded with horizons of epiclastic material.
This event occurred synchronically with normal faulting,
because the pyroclastic deposits rest with an angle of 35° at
the base and decrease to 10° at the top. A series of basaltic The dikes in the Las Cabras area associated to the
lava flows (La Placa basalt) were emplaced mainly in the Lower Panalillo ignimbrite have variable thicknesses, with
southern and southeastern parts of the volcanic field. The a maximum thickness of 80 cm (Figures 4A and B). Most
pyroclastic activity almost ceased after the emplacement of dykes are parallel and the smallest are only 1-3 cm-thick.
the Upper Panalillo ignimbrite (26.8 ± 1.3 Ma; Labarthe- The dikes have a variable shape and width. They widen,
Hernández et al., 1982), an extremely hot sequence of ash thin, branch or strangle, following a winding trajectory and,
flows characterized by post-emplacement rheomorphic in some cases, forming anastomosed systems.
structures. The final volcanic event produced small basaltic
lava flows (Las Cabras basalt) in the south-central part of Vertical slickensides (striations) observed on the walls
the volcanic field (21.5 ± 0.5 Ma; Torres et al., 1998) and of some dikes, suggest slight vertical movement after
trachyte lavas (Los Castillo trachyte) in the southern and emplacement and some outcrops exhibit short

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 Pyroclastic dikes of San Luis Potosí volcanic field

Fig. 3. Photographs of the El Juachín dikes. A) Typical outcrop showing thickness of the dike. B) Close-up showing the planar character
of the clastic filling (hammer for scale).

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J. R. Torres-Hernández et al.

displacements of horizons of pyroclastic material on both fragments, and ash-matrix similar to that of the Dorobu
sides of the dikes. Ash, pumice, and lithics are graded ignimbrite A unit. These authors concluded that this is clear
showing vertical banding (Figure 4A). In their widest part, evidence for an hydraulic fracturing process caused by
the dikes show a complex network of fine and coarse material water–magma interaction that occurred at the beginning of
(> 3 cm), although as a whole the coarse material does not a paroxysmal eruption, generating the ignimbrite and the
have a tabular distribution (Figures 4C and D). The coarse subsequent collapse of the magmatic chamber roof that
material includes mostly mm-to-cm sized sub-angular formed the cauldron structure. They also found fractures that
accidental lithic clasts, although some have diameters of up branch out irregularly from the dikes. Inside the dikes the
to 12 cm (Figure 4D). Pumice clasts range in size from a coarser material is concentrated at the center bracketed by
few mm to up to seven cm. Commonly the dike’s fill consists finer ash stuck to the host-rock walls. The character of these
of pumice and ash only. In some other parts welding is more fractures is similar to those formed by hydraulic fracturing
intense near the dike’s walls. Particles can also be cemented and highly expanded underground water (Heiken et al.,
by amorphous silica. 1988). Because fault-mirrors with grooves and half-moon
structures in which pitches have values near 90° are present
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PYROCLASTIC along the contact between the dike and the host walls in the
DIKES AND PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS Arroyo Las Cabras and the Arroyo Juachín areas, it is inferred
that the faulting process initiated with the breaking of the
host rock prior to the injection of pyroclastic material. It is
The similar composition of components (particularly possible that hydrofracturing and faulting occurred
of the pumice clasts) in the pyroclastic dikes and pyroclastic simultaneously.
deposits suggests a common genesis. At Arroyo Las Cabras
a pyroclastic horizon contains two types of non-collapsed
pumice clasts (yellowish-white and ochre). The yellowish- For the case of clastic dike injection, Shrock (1948)
white pumice is the most abundant. It is slightly fibrous and and Potter and Pettijohn (1963) proposed that these dikes
contains scarce small crystals (< 1 mm) of quartz and were formed by the intrusion of material contained in some
sanidine (ca. 10%). The clasts are sub-angular to sub- substrata at a certain depth, and that this material had been
rounded. The ochre pumice is rare but larger and very fibrous. injected from the bottom towards the top as a fluid. In some
It contains quartz and sanidine crystals in similar amounts cases the driving mechanism might be intense quakes for
to those in the white pumice. In only one of the pyroclastic which the fracture can originate coevally with the intrusion.
dikes the two types of pumice occur together. For this reason In any case, the rupture of the rock progresses from beneath
it is possible to establish a genetic relationship between both, towards the top. It may initiate by pressure of accumulated
the dikes and the pyroclastic deposits containing the two gas or by hydrostatic pressure, processes that further promote
types of pumice clasts. the rupture through the clastic material forcing its intrusion.
The force that drives this mechanism corresponds to the
lithostatic load of the beds overlying the sedimentary layer
In pyroclastic deposits containing both pumice types that supplies the injection material (this is not the case in
(yellowish white and ochre), small faults displace layers of pyroclastic dikes of the SLPVF). The elements that indicate
pyroclastic material, without cutting through the entire the forced injection of the material are: flow lines, oriented
deposit. This suggests that the small-scale micro-faulting minerals (i.e. micas) or other minerals oriented parallel to
occurred shortly after the time of the eruption. the dike walls, a cutting relationship, and the dike material
being older than the intruded strata.
Finally, not all dikes are connected to the surface,
indicating that in some cases, the injection of pyroclastic We propose that the SLPVF dikes were formed by
material, which induced hydrofracturing, stopped before forced injection of juvenile material or magma as the injected
reaching the surface. This same feature has been observed fluid (pumice and volcanic ash) coming from the
in lava dikes (Gudmundsson et al., 1999). fragmentation zone. Pumice clasts with an eutaxitic texture
were observed only in one dike displaying medium to strong
DISCUSSION welding (Figure 4A). Different degrees of welding were also
observed at the arroyo Las Cabras dikes. Such textures and
Generation of pyroclastic dikes structures could not be formed by sedimentary particles
infilling pre-existing fractures.
Miura and Tamai (1998) pointed out that in some of
the mega-blocks within the intra-cauldron ignimbrite of the The complex internal structure of the dikes observed
Dorobu Caldera (Dorobu ash–flow A), it is possible to in the CVSLP is not common in other reported dike areas.
observe networks of small dikes filled with pumice, lithic For example, Chalot–Prat et al. (1995) mention that in the

248
 Fig. 4. Photographs of the Las Cabras dikes showing: A) Maximum thickness of the dikes (40 cm). B) Pyroclastic dike intruding the Panalillo Inferior ignimbrite sequence. C) Almost
vertical dike oriented N45°W with vitrophyric material near the rim of the dike´s walls, and coarse material in the central part. D) Close-up of C showing its components: pumice (P),
lithics (L), and matrix-ash (M). Scale in centimeters.
Pyroclastic dikes of San Luis Potosí volcanic field

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J. R. Torres-Hernández et al.

Tazekka volcanic complex east of Morocco, ignimbrite In the case of dikes formed by material that is
material filling the dikes is homogeneous. Chalot–Prat et introduced itself between an earlier dike and the host walls,
al. (1995) also consider that deposition of the pyroclastic it is assumed that the conditions in the dike are more
flows can be ascribed to a violent release of vitroclastic homogeneous and therefore the new material is less resistant
material from deep fractures (as in the CVSLP). to injection along the margins of the structure. Although this
Furthermore, they also infer that the active tectonics which case refers to lavas, characteristics of the pyroclastic dikes
induced the opening of the fissures is related to the volcanic are very similar in the sense that here also, the dikes present
activity, both being interdependent processes. a complex history of in-filling, where successive emissions
of pyroclastic material occurred at the center of an earlier
We infer that the different granulometric sizes of the dike, or between the walls and the same body.
material filling the dikes is the result of a particle flow in
the tabular channel of the open fractures. This assumption CONCLUSIONS
is supported by reported experimental work. Johnson (1970)
and Hui and Haff (1986) modeled the flow of granular
material in a vertical channel demonstrating that the different The complex history of dike filling suggests that
profiles of material speed, perpendicular to the channel wall, fractures were progressively opened, and that successive
are symmetrical, and concluded that symmetry indicates that flows occupied the central parts of the dike until the
all profiles have a cutting relationship equal to zero in the phenomenon ceased. In some cases renewed injections
center of the channel. occurred at the margin of the dike.

The complexity of the internal structure of the dikes The dikes (in a profile view as well as in a plan view)
at arroyo Las Cabras is the result of repetitive explosive present branching which ends in points. Not all reach the
events. Each event formed one deposit until the filling was surface. The geological relationships of the dikes at Arroyos
completed (or until the depressurization of the magmatic El Juachín and Las Cabras suggest that several emission
chamber was completed). The complex patterns of structures sources existed in order to produce the complex dike pattern.
such as cut-and-fill and cross-cut in the flow deposits of We believe that the juvenile pyroclastic material feeding the
the dikes were caused by erosion of material before dikes was injected at high speeds undergoing a vigorous
deposition by the rising flow (because of the turbulent elutriation. This process of turbulent ash eruptions and
character of the flow in the tabular conduit), and by the spreading or opening of new lateral fractures produced a
rupture of the filling during the sequential opening of the random, rather than homogeneous, distribution of juvenile
fractures that lodge the dikes. Wilson et al. (1980) analyzed material inside the fractures. On occasion it was also
the emission of young pyroclastic material through a observed that the closing of conduits at some places occurred
rectangular vertical conduit and concluded that the process in such a way that the pumice material concentrically filled
results in a rather complex phenomenon than in a simple the last open spaces through which the pyroclastic material
flow movement along an inclined surface. In a flow of flowed. It is widely accepted that if the intrusion is comprised
pyroclastic material moving along the surface, gravity by pyroclastics, it probably formed near the surface
induces a quick down-slope movement of the grains and (Shinohara, 1990). This situation is underscored if the
inter-granular fluid. The resultant deposits of pyroclastic juvenile material (pumice) filling the dikes presents no
material in a vertical tabular conduit have some differences collapsing or welding. A summary of our interpretation of
in their arrangement. the dike-formation process is illustrated in Figure 5.

Complex patterns of filling are not commonly reported ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

in pyroclastic dikes, but in contrast are well documented in
lava feeder dikes, in which the filling of fractures hosting We thank Armando García Palomo, Claus Siebe,
dikes occurred by repeated lava emissions. For example, Renato Castro Govea and two anonymous reviewers for their
Walker and Eyre (1995) reported a basal lava dike complex comments. We also thank Ignacio Hernández and Lilia Arana
in American Samoa, distinguishing a “composed dike for their assistance. Gratefulness to Dr. Rafael Barboza-
facies” and an “isolated dike facies”. In these dikes, the Gudiño, Director of the Instituto de Geología from the
intrusion of a dike into another may occur at the center of University of San Luis Potosí for the technical support and
the first dike or at the margins between the dike and the to Ing. Lucio Gallegos-Juárez for the traslation of the first
host rock. In the first case, dikes have a central vesiculated manuscript.
part that might correspond to the most gaseous part of the
fluid, which therefore remained warmer for longer periods
of time opposing minor resistance to the new dike material
injected.

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 Pyroclastic dikes of San Luis Potosí volcanic field

Fig. 5. Schematic model of dike emplacement. A) Pyroclastic volcanism begins along normal and listric faults (extension). B) The forceful
injection of pyroclastic material induces opening of fractures and dike initiation. C) When the extension stops the complex pattern of dikes
reflects the successive events of pyroclastic emission. From base to top the tilt of the deposits decrease.

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J. R. Torres-Hernández et al.

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TORRES-HERNÁNDEZ, J. R., G. LABARTHE- Instituto de Geología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis

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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
GEOS, 18, 373. Email: [email protected]

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