MODULE 13

FUEL FIRED EQUIPMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this module you will learn about:

General Objectives:
L Fuel Fired Equipment

Specific Objectives:
L The importance of Fuel Fired Equipment in Industry,
L Principles of Combustion,
L Characteristics of Various Fuels,
L Types and Applications of Fuel Fired Equipment
L Burners,
L Combustion Testing Procedures (Flue Gas Analysis),
L Efficiency Improvement of Fired Equipment.

Performance Objectives:
L Perform Flue Gas Analysis,
L Calculate Thermal and Combustion Efficiencies,
L Implement a Performance Testing Schedule in Your Plant.

SADC Industrial Energy Management Project

Implemented by AGRA Monenco Atlantic Limited for the Canadian International Development Agency
 Module 13
Fuel Fired Equipment

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.0 FUEL FIRED SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3.0 PROPERTIES OF FUELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.1 Properties of Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.2 Properties of Liquid Fuels (Oil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.3 Properties of Gaseous Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.0 COMBUSTION PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.1 Combustion Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4.2 Combustion Testing - Flue Gas Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Flue Gas & Other Losses in Process Furnaces, Dryers & Kilns 11
4.4 Thermal Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5 Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.6 Air Pollution Control - Process & Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5.0 FUEL FIRED EQUIPMENT & APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6.0 ENERGY MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

6.1 Housekeeping Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6.2 Low Cost Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3 Retrofit Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7.0 WORKED EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

8.0 ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

9.0 SUMMARY - Module 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

 MODULE 13
FUEL FIRED EQUIPMENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The standard of living in the majority of countries in the world largely depends on
the use of fossil fuels. Any time the supply of the fossil fuels is endangered, a
major economic crisis follows. It would seem logical that every country should try
to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels by better utilization of the resource. So far
the primary method of using fossil fuel is by burning, which is not the best way to
utilize such a valuable source of energy. However, since combustion is the most
popular way of fuel conversion, it is important for the technical personnel, who
handle energy conversion equipment such as boilers, furnaces and kilns to
understand the basic principles of combustion process.

2.0 FUEL FIRED SYSTEMS

Furnaces, dryers, boilers and kilns are used extensively in industry for diverse
applications such as melting and heating metals, evaporating water or solvents and
manufacturing lime for cement and in the pulp industries. Much of this equipment
was installed when fuel was relatively cheap and little or no consideration was
given to energy management. Even today, first cost and production capability are
frequently the prime criteria for the selection of equipment, with energy
management being relegated to a secondary role. The high cost of the fuels today
demands a greater awareness for energy management techniques which can be
applied to existing and new installations. Substantial savings in energy and cost

Figure 13.1
FUEL TYPES & USES

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can be realized by the application of these techniques. In many instances the

return on invested capital make the application of energy management one of the
most attractive investment opportunities available to industry. Figure 13.1 shows
typical types of fuels and their industrial applications.

3.0 PROPERTIES OF FUELS

The most important characteristics of the fuels is their calorific or heating value.
Each fuel has a certain range of heating values depending on its origin. In the case
of wood, bagasse and other biomass, the moisture content will determine the range
of heating values. All fuels contain hydrogen which burns and produces water.
This water normally leaves the plant as hot vapour at the temperature of exit gases.
This loss is significant because even small quantities of water absorb large
quantities of heat when it evaporates. The net calorific value or Low Heating
Value ( LHV) is the gross calorific value or High Heating Value (HHV) less this
loss. The difference between these two values is about 4% for coal, 5% for oils
and 11% for natural gas. When comparing the efficiencies of different fuel burning
equipment, it is important to establish the heating value of the fuels used during the
tests.

3.1 Properties of Solid Fuels

Fuel fired equipment using solid fuels must be carefully designed for the fuel
properties. Among these are calorific value, volatile content, ash content, moisture
content, ash fusion temperature, grindability and agglomerating characteristics. For
more information about these factors, consult reference manuals that deal
specifically in various solid fuels.

3.2 Properties of Liquid Fuels (Oil)

Fuel oil is classified by its viscosity, sulphur content, heating value, pour point, flash
point and specific gravity. Figure 13.2 gives characteristics of typically available
fuels, together with data on combustion air requirements and storage temperature.

! Viscosity

Viscosity, or resistance to flow, is expressed in the number of seconds it takes

a litre of fuel to pass through a certain size hole at a certain temperature. The
scales used are Redwood, Sybolt or Centistokes. Viscosity may be specified
as maximum for Residual Fuel Oil (RFO) at 50EC as follows:

< 125 centistokes ( 1000 sec Redwood)

< 180 centistokes ( 1500 sec Redwood)
< 280 centistokes ( 2500 sec Redwood)

The most widely used grade is 125 centistokes.

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! Flash Point

Flash point is a measure of fire hazard of bulk storage. Flash point is usually
controlled to a minimum of 65.5EC for the following reasons:

< For handling this category of product, a minimum flash point is

specified. The product is not expected to be volatile.
< If the flash point is lower than the specified value, then the viscosity may
be too low and this could make the product unsuitable.
< Addition of distillates such as kerosene with flash point of 38EC to
heavier oils considerably increases the fire hazard.

! Pour Point

Pour point indicates the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be pumped.
It is the temperature slightly above the solidification point.

! Sulphur Content

Upon combustion, the sulphur in fuel is converted to sulphur dioxide and

ultimately to sulphur trioxide. On cooling, sulphur trioxide combines with water
to form sulphuric acid which is destructive to the chimneys. For this reason the
stack temperature should not fall below 150EC.

Typically, maximum sulphur content is 3.7% for 125 and 180 centistokes and
4.0% max for 280 centistokes.

TYPICAL SPECIFICATION FOR INDUSTRIAL DIESEL OIL (IDO)

Description Specification Typical Value

Density at 20EC Max 0.920 0.855
Diesel Index Min 51 55
Viscosity, Redwood (sec) Max 55 45
High Heating Value (MJ/kg) 45,000 45,680
Pour Point (EC) Max 10 5
Sulphur Content (%wt) Max 1.8 1.5
Water (%vol) Max 0.25 0.05
Sediment (% wt) Max 0.02 0.01
Ash (% wt) Max 0.02 0.01
Flash Point (EC) Min 66 96
Ashfaltenes (% wt) Max 0.3 0.20

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 Figure 13.2
Stoichiometric Combustion Data For Typical Fuels
Fuel Type USA Botswana Zimbabwe No. 2 No. 6 Natural LPG Bagasse Pine Oak
Coal Coal Coal Oil Oil Gas Wood Wood
Ultimate Analysis
Fuel (%b.w.)
Carbon (C) 80.31% 59.71% 70.53% 87.20% 85.60% 69.26% 81.82% 23.40% 29.37% 27.34%
Hydrogen (H) 4.47% 3.30% 3.94% 12.50% 9.70% 22.68% 18.18% 2.80% 3.08% 2.97%
Nitrogen (N2) 1.38% 1.36% 1.54% -- 1.50% 8.06% -- 0.10% 0.06% 0.11%
Oxygen (O2) 2.85% 10.28% 2.96% -- 0.50% -- -- 20.00% 20.85% 21.62%
Sulphur (S2) 1.54% 1.75% 2.03% 0.30% 2.30% -- -- -- 0.06% 0.06%
Moisture (H2O) 2.90% 5.10% 6.00% -- 0.28% -- -- 52.00% 45.00% 45.00%
Ash 6.55% 18.50% 13.00% -- 0.12% -- -- 1.70% 1.60% 2.92%
Total Fuel 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Module 13 - Fuel Fired Equipment ....

Combustion Air (%b.w.)

Oxygen (O2) 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31% 23.31%

SADC Industrial Energy Management Project

Nitrogen (N2) 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69% 76.69%
Moisture (H2O) -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Total Combustion Air 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Stoichiometric Flue Gas (%b.w.)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 25.39% 26.03% 25.23% 20.93% 22.11% 15.20% 18.07% 22.80% 23.88% 23.91%
Nitrogen (N2) 70.63% 69.42% 70.33% 71.67% 71.40% 72.58% 72.07% 56.68% 59.97% 58.96%
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 0.27% 0.42% 0.40% 0.04% 0.32% -- -- -- 0.02% 0.03%
Moisture (H2O) 3.72% 4.14% 4.04% 7.36% 6.17% 12.22% 9.86% 20.52% 16.13% 17.11%
Total Flue Gas 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
Mass Ratios
Fuel (net) 0.9055 0.7640 0.8100 1.0000 0.9960 1.0000 1.0000 0.4630 0.5341 0.5209
Fuel Moisture 0.0290 0.0510 0.0600 -- 0.0028 -- -- 0.5200 0.4500 0.4500
Fuel Ash 0.0655 0.1850 0.1300 -- 0.0012 -- -- 0.0170 0.0160 0.0292
Fuel (gross) 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Stoichiometric Air (dry) 10.6654 7.5974 9.3809 14.2786 13.1989 15.7071 15.5996 2.7799 3.5251 3.2215
Stoichiometric Air (moisture) -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Total Stoichiometric Air 10.6654 7.5974 9.3809 14.2786 13.1989 15.7071 15.5996 2.7799 3.5251 3.2215
Flue Gas (dry) 11.1686 8.0644 9.8363 14.1536 13.3219 14.6659 14.9634 2.9909 3.7819 3.4751
Flue Gas (moisture) 0.4313 0.3480 0.4146 1.1250 0.8758 2.0412 1.6362 0.7720 0.7272 0.7173
Total Flue Gas 11.5999 8.4124 10.2509 15.2786 14.1977 16.7071 16.5996 3.7629 4.5091 4.1924
Fuel HHV (kJ/kg) 32,800 24,000 30,000 45,200 42,570 50,770 50,390 9,300 11,550 10,700
Fuel Specific Gravity n/a n/a n/a 0.87 0.98 0.13 n/a n/a 0.73 0.85
Fuel Specific Heat (kJ/kgC) 0.83 0.83 0.83 2.01 2.01 n/a n/a n/a 2.93 2.58

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Flue Gas Specific Heat (kJ/kgC) 1.02 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.02
Specific Heat Constants: Dry Air = 1.02 kJ/kgC, Moisture (liquid) = 4.19 kJ/kgC, Moisture (vapour) = 1.8 kJ/kgC, Latent Heat of Moisture = 2,500 kJ/kg
Module 13 - Fuel Fired Equipment ....

3.3 Properties of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels may be analyzed in terms of the chemical compounds they contain.
Other properties by which the fuels are identified are:

! Gas Gravity

Gas gravity is a convenient measure of specific gravity of a gas relative to that

of air (1.225 kg/m3).

! Heating Value

Although the heating value can be calculated from gas analysis, it is frequently
measured by means of steady flow, constant pressure calorimeter in which the
gas is burned in a water jacketed combustion chamber. The temperature rise
in the water is a measure of the heat given off by the fuel.

! Condensible Hydrocarbon Content

The term wet or dry as applied to natural gases indicates whether the quantity
of contained condensible hydrocarbons (usually natural gasoline) is greater or
less than 0.13 litres per cubic meter (0.1 gallon per 1000 cubic feet) of gas,
respectively.

! Sulphur Content

The term sweet and sour refers to the sulphur or hydrogen sulfide content of
the gas; sour gas being that which contains large proportion of sulphur
compounds.

4.0 COMBUSTION PROCESS

The combustion process is the cornerstone to development in our civilization. From

burning wood for warmth and cooking, to modern transportation which burns
petroleum products, to generating electricity by burning solid fossil fuels, our
modern world would collapse without conversion of fossil fuels to heat.

Combustion is a complex subject and any substantive changes to the process

should only be contemplated after consultation with the regulating bodies having
jurisdiction, the manufacturer of the fuel burning equipment, the control system
supplier and other trained specialists.

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4.1 Combustion Fundamentals

Combustion or burning by definition is a process of conversion of chemical energy

to thermal energy by very rapid oxidation of the component elements in fuels. The
three main elements of fuels are: carbon, hydrogen and sulphur.

Oxygen is obtained from combustion air which contains: 21% oxygen by volume
(23% by weight) and 79% nitrogen by volume.

During combustion, these elements are oxidized into carbon dioxide (CO2), water
vapour (H2O) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) accompanied by the release of heat and
light.

! Combustion of Carbon

Carbon can produce two compounds depending on the availability of the air
supply.

< If enough air is supplied, carbon dioxide is produced. If the air is exactly
right (stoichiometric conditions), the gaseous products equal the air
quantity, i.e. 21% CO2 and 79% nitrogen, plus release of heat.

< With a starved air supply, the carbon is partially burnt to carbon monoxide
and the full calorific value of the fuel is not released. This is known as
incomplete combustion; a dangerous condition in any fuel burning
equipment. Figure 13.3 provides an estimate of combustion loss due to
incomplete combustion which is indicated by the presence of CO in the flue
gas. Note the loss indicated in this chart is in addition to normal
combustion losses.

Figure 13.3
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION LOSS

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! Combustion Air Requirement

Stoichiometric air is the theoretical amount of air required for complete

combustion. In actual applications, however, it is impossible to get perfect
mixing of the fuel and air. Thus additional air, termed excess air, is required to
burn the fuel safely and completely. The more refined the fuel, the less excess
air is needed. Typical excess air values are:

Natural gas 5 - 10%

IDO (No.2 oil ) 10 - 20%
RFO (No.6 oil) 10 - 25%
Coal 20 - 40%
Biomass (bagasse) 30 - 50%

The effect of excess air on burning of oils is shown below. It can be seen that
the CO2 content is reduced from the stoichiometric 16% for perfect combustion
to 12% at 30% excess air on dry basis (i.e. water vapour removed).

% Excess Air % CO2 % O2

Nil 16% 0%
30% 12% 5%
50% 11% 7%
75% 9% 9.5%
120% 7% 12%

For more common fuels, the typical target values are:

Fuel Max CO2 Target CO2 Target O2

Coal 19% 14% 6%

Fuel Oils 16% 13% 4%
Natural Gas 12% 11% 2%

Although minimum quantities of excess air are required to ensure good

combustion, too much excess air leads to lowered thermal efficiency as larger
quantities of heated flue gases are produced and discharged to the
atmosphere.

Simple instruments such as a Bacharach one-bulb Orsat unit, filled with liquid
which absorbs CO2 and O2, can be used to give a quick assessment of the
combustion efficiency.

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Figure 13.4
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT POINTS
(For Boilers)

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4.2 Combustion Testing - Flue Gas Analysis

! Instrument Requirement

The following instruments are recommended for assessing the combustion

efficiency in most fuel fired equipment:

< Stack thermometer, to measure the flue gas temperatures,

< Digital thermometer, to measure the ambient and equipment surface
temperatures,
< Smoke pump, to establish the flue gas conditions,
< Combustion testing kit, to measure oxygen (%O2) and/or carbon dioxide
(%CO2) readings to calculate excess air and combustion efficiency, and
< ,Psychrometer, to measure the quality of the incoming combustion air.

The use of an electronic combustion tester, either hand-held or continuous type

is an alternative.

! Flue Gas Analysis

To obtain reasonably good data the equipment undergoing the test should be
in continuous operation for at least 20 minutes to reach stable conditions.

1. Take and record Bacharach smoke spot reading. If the smoke spot
reading is too high for the fuel used, say above 6 , have the air-fuel ratio
adjusted and repeat the reading. Proceed to number 2.

2. Measure and record the combustion air and stack temperatures as

indicated in Figure 13.4. Where air preheaters or economizers are used,
the stack and combustion air temperatures must be taken as indicated.

3. Using gas analyzer, read and record percentage of O2 and/or CO2.

4. Using the value of O2 or CO2 read the excess air from the appropriate
nomograph in Figure 13.6.

5. Calculate flue gas loss using Seigert's formula or read flue gas loss as
percentage of fuel input from the appropriate nomograph in Figure 13.7.
Approximate flue gas losses can also be obtained by simply measuring the
%C02 or %02 and using nomographs based on Seigert's Formula shown in
Figure 13.5.

6. Calculate heat losses in the exhaust air and gas mixture by an alternate
method using the following formula and the mass conservation law.

The mass of fuel plus the mass of air entering the furnace must be the
same as the mass of flue gases leaving the stack, assuming no infiltration
and negligible ash. The temperature and volume will change.

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Q = M x Cp x )T

where:
Q = heat loss flow (kJ/h)
Cp = specific heat of mixture (1.01 kJ/kgEC for air)
)T = temperature difference (EC) between incoming and exhaust air
M = mass flow of mixture (kg/h), where:

M = fuel input + (fuel input x CV x SA x %EA)

where:
fuel input is in Kg/h or l/h or m3/sec
CV = calorific value of fuel in MJ/kg, MJ/l, etc
SA = stoichiometric air requirement for specific fuels in kg/ GJ as
in table below or in Kg /kg as in Figure 13.2
%EA = excess air percentage obtained from the flue gas analysis

Figure 13.5
SEIGERT FORMULA

K x )T
%Loss ' % C
%CO2

where:
% Loss = total flue gas loss as % of the fuel's
gross energy (HHV),
K, C = constants for fuel type (see table
below),
%CO2 = CO2 as percent (by volume) of dry gas
in flue gas,
)T = temperature difference (EC) between
flue gas and combustion air (refer to
Figure 13.4)

SEIGERT CONSTANTS

Fuel Type K C
Fuel Oil 0.56 6.5
Coal 0.63 5.0
Natural Gas 0.38 11.0

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COMBUSTION AIR REQUIREMENTS

Fuel Theoretical Air Minimum Air Total Air Mass

(kg/GJ as fired) (kg/GJ as fired) (kg/GJ as fired)

Natural Gas 309 10% 340

No.2 Oil (IDO) 316 15% 363
No.6 Oil (RFO) 310 20% 372
Zimbabwe Coal 313 30% 407
Biomass (wood) 305 50% 458
Bagasse (50% 299 40% 418
mc)

4.3 Flue Gas and Other Losses in Process Furnaces, Dryers and
Kilns

Process requirements for some furnaces and dryers require high excess air values
which cannot be reduced. Thus, flue gas heat loss is high, and cannot be reduced
by lowering the excess air quantity. It is often possible in these applications to
install a heat exchanger to preheat the incoming air with the flue gases leaving the
furnace or dryer. The heat loss is then the heat in the flue gas after the heat
recovery equipment. Flue gas analysis and temperature should be measured
downstream of this equipment.

! Example

A furnace burns natural gas and the excess air is determined to be 77%. The
temperature of the gas leaving the furnace is 850EC.

From Figure 13.7 the heat loss is 65%. This is the per cent heat loss to the
stack. There are additional losses through the furnace walls and roof, which
may be as high as 20% of the fuel heat value. As a result, only 15% of the heat
input ends up as useful heat to the product.

There is good potential for improved energy management in this instance.

Either recover some of the heat by preheating combustion air as discussed
above and find more applications for recovered hot air, or consider a more
advanced technology such as induction heating where applicable.

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Figure 13.6
%O2 & CO2 vs EXCESS AIR

SCALE FOR EXTREME EXCESS AIR

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Figure 13.6 (cont'd)

O2 & CO2 vs EXCESS AIR

SCALE FOR EXTREME EXCESS AIR

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Figure 13.7
FLUE GAS LOSSES

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4.4 Thermal Efficiencies

Thermal efficiency is the ratio of useful heat output to the heat supplied to the plant.
It is necessary to convert the units of output to the same units as the energy input.

Useful Energy Output

Thermal Efficiency ' x 100
Heat Supplied to Plant

Heat Value of Steam

Boiler Plant Efficiency ' x 100
Weight of Fuel Used x HHV

Heat Content of Product

Furnace / Kiln Efficiency ' x 100
Weight of Fuel Used x HHV

kWh Converted to Heat Units

Diesel Generator Efficiency ' x 100
Weight of Fuel Used x HHV

Thermal efficiency can also be defined as total energy input minus losses. In boiler
plants and furnaces, these losses are mainly due to flue gas losses and radiation
from the plant. Since boilers and furnaces are normally kept at constant
temperatures, the radiation losses should be fairly constant. If a value of radiation
is assumed, the Seigert formula can be used to quickly obtain the thermal efficiency
to take into account of air fuel ratio and exhaust temperature.

Thermal Efficiency = Total Input - Total Losses

Flue gas losses - use nomograph or Seigert formula

Radiation losses - use standard values
- 2 - 5% for boilers
- 10% for furnaces and kilns

Figure 13.8
AIR DENSITY CORRECTION FACTORS
Altitude (m) Sea
Level 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 3000

Barometer (kPa) 101.3 98.3 96.3 93.2 90.2 88.2 85.1 83.1 80.0 76.0 71.9

Air 0 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.99 0.96 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.81 0.76
Temp. 20 1.00 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.79 0.75 0.71
(EC) 50 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.68 0.64
100 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.63 0.59 0.56

150 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.52 0.49
200 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.44
250 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.42 0.40
300 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.38 0.36

350 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.35 0.33
400 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.31
450 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.39
500 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.27

Standard Air Density, Sea Level, 20EC = 1.2041 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa

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4.5 Burners

! Liquid Fuel Combustion

To burn oils, particularly the heavier grades efficiently, it is first necessary to

break down the fuel into small droplets which can be quickly heated and mixed
with air. A fuel droplet of lighter oils is vaporized by heat from the downstream
flame and produces gases which readily react with oxygen.

A fuel droplet of the residual oils partially vaporizes and the gases burn readily,
leaving a shell of liquid. The shell cracks with further heat leaving an empty ash
shell which eventually breaks down. The whole process takes less than 2
seconds.

To atomise oil satisfactorily, it is necessary to control the viscosity of the oil. If

the oil is too thick, large droplets will form and will not burn fully. If the oil is too
thin, the droplets will be too small and evaporate too quickly, causing lift off
from the burner, pulsations, etc.

! Pressure Jet Burners

The pressure jet burner is essentially a nozzle through which the oil is pumped
at high pressure (4 to 10 bars). The oil is introduced tangentially into a
chamber through slots which cause the oil to spin through a small outlet orifice
in a hollow cone. Different nozzles can be used to give varying outputs and
flame shapes. Normally these burners are restricted to oil of less than 1000
secs viscosity, usually in an "On/Off" or "High/Low" mode. The main
characteristics are:

< cheap to install,

< oilways are fine and must be cleaned,
< very sensitive to oil viscosity limited to 1000 secs,
< heat soak-back can cause coking up around the nozzle, and
< sensitive to draft variations.

! Rotary Cup Burners

In this type, the oil is pumped into a tapered cup which is rotating at about 6000
rpm. The oil film flows to the tip where it is thrown off. Primary air is introduced
at high velocity and atomises the film into droplets. The main characteristics
are:

< high turn down ration (4:1) making the burner ideal for the fluctuating
loads,
< moderate cost,
< not too sensitive to oil viscosity, and
< easy to clean.

These burners are widely used on boiler applications.

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! Air Blast Burners

Atomising is achieved by introducing high velocity swirling air onto a stream of

oil. With low air pressure burners, 20 to 30% of the combustion air is required
for atomising, with the remainder being introduced through different ports. The
turn down ratio is usually about 4 to 2.1. Medium and high pressure burners (7
bar air pressure) use less than 10% of the combustion air for atomising, hence
the turn down ration of 5:1 are easily achieved.

This type of burner is mainly used for furnace work where preheated
combustion air can be used. Low pressure air 200EC, high pressure 400EC.
The main characteristics are:

< good turn down ratio,

< easy to maintain, the high pressure burners are almost self cleaning,
< insensitive to draught, and
< flame shape controllable.

! Common Problems in Burners

CONDITION CAUSE ACTION

Sparky Flame Atomization Check & Clean Nozzles

Flame Incorrect Air Supply Check Control Adjustments

Impingement

Flame Too High Oil Temperature Adjust Preheat

Pulsates Too High Air Velocity

Smoke Too Little Air Adjust Air/Oil

Seal Air Leaks

High Atomization Check Nozzle Preheat

Particulate Fuel Input Too High Reduce Fuel
Check Design

! Solid Fuel Combustion

In a bed of burning solid fuel (wood, coal, peat, etc) under-grate air combines
with the carbon to produce C02 and C0. These hot gases rise through the bed
and drive off the volatiles of the fuel (Hydrocarbons such as methane). Above
the bed, secondary air is admitted which burns off the C0 and the volatiles.

! Optimizing Combustion Conditions

In order to burn fuels efficiently, it is necessary to introduce optimum quantities

of air for combustion. To little air will cause smoking with consequent loss due
to unburnt fuel. Because of visible smoke, this problem is usually corrected
quickly.

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The introduction of too much combustion air is more common in boilers,

furnaces and vehicles, but less apparent, and therefore can continue
undetected for long periods. The use of excessive quantities of air leads to
substantial energy losses and can also cause operation problems, i.e. scaling
in furnaces.

Control of the air/fuel ratio is very important particularly in high temperature

exhausts i.e. furnaces and kilns, where stack losses can be up to 60% of the
fuel input. A simple oxygen analyzer and high temperature thermometer can
detect high excess air quantities which can often be rectified by simple
adjustment of the fuel control or the air fans.

! Control of Thermal Input

‚ Overfiring

Losses can also occur due to the use of excessive amounts of fuel input
into the furnaces and boilers, i.e. overfiring. This leads to high stack
temperatures and avoidable energy losses. Overfiring is generally
associated with incorrectly adjusted burners and/or with fouled heat transfer
surfaces.

‚ Underfiring

Low thermal inputs are easily detected because the boiler or furnace
outputs will be low. However, overfiring and therefore excessive losses, are
not apparent. A regular check of stack temperatures can ensure that the
burner outputs are optimized.

‚ Fuel air ratio

Experience has shown that many burners are incorrectly adjusted,

particularly under low load conditions. Wear on cams, linkages, fuel pump
adjustments affect the performance of the energy conversion equipment.
Regular combustion checks can identify any shortcomings in maintenance,
cleanliness etc.

‚ Flue gas temperature

High flue gas temperatures are associated with the following conditions:

< too high firing rate, usually due to incorrect setting of controls,
< fouled heating surfaces - in boilers it could be fouling of surfaces on
fireside or scaling on surfaces on the water side or both.

Fouled heating surfaces impede the heat transfer resulting in more heat
being rejected to the stack in form of higher flue gas temperature.

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4.6 Air Pollution Control - Process and Equipment

The combustion processes for heat generation, transportation and chemical

processes emit pollutants that are harmful to the environment. The three most
common effects of the air pollution are:

< Greenhouse effect

< Acid rain
< Ground level ozone

! Greenhouse Gas Effect

Sun's short wave radiation penetrates the atmosphere and heats up the earth.
The warmed earth radiates back the excess heat in form of long wave lengths
radiation because of much lower surface temperatures. Water vapour and
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides and methane absorb
the infrared radiation, thus heating the atmosphere and the earth's surface.
The heating of the atmosphere by blocking the escape of infrared radiation is
known as greenhouse gas effect which is responsible for global warming.

! Acid Rain

Acid rain results from combining of nitrogen and sulphur oxides with
atmospheric water vapour. These pollutants originate from coal burning, metal
smelting, vehicles and all other fuel burning activities. Nitric oxide and sulphuric
oxides, when combined with water vapour, form nitric and sulphuric acids that
return to the earth as acid rain, snow or fog that leads to acidification of lakes
and other surface waters.

! Ground Level Ozone

Ground level ozone is produced by the chemical reaction between nitrogen

oxides and volatile organic compounds and is the key NOx and VOC related air
quality problem. NOx is formed by burning fossil fuels. VOCs are formed
mainly from the evaporation of liquid fuels, solvents and organic chemicals.
Ozone damage to crops and vegetation can be significant. Ozone sensitive
crops include beans, tomatoes, potatoes , soybeans and wheat.

! Reduction of Pollutant Emissions From Combustion Process

The emission of pollutants from combustion processes can be reduced by four

different methods:

< Energy efficiency improvements

< Refinements and modifications to the combustion process
< Flue gas treatment
< Switching to cleaner fuels or alternative energy source.

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! Energy Efficiency Improvements

Changes to the combustion system that reduce fuel usage have the additional
benefit of reducing pollutant emissions. Measures to reduce fuel consumption
are desirable because cost savings accrue as fuel usage is reduced.

! Refinement to the Combustion Process

Modifications can be made to the combustion process for the purpose of

reducing the pollutant emissions. However, the changes may have a little or no
effect on combustion efficiency. Some of the methods used include flue gas
recirculation, staged air combustion and staged fuel combustion. All three
methods are designed to delay the availability of oxygen to the fuel. Flue gas
recirculation has added benefit of cooling the flame below the temperature
where most NOx formation takes place.

! Flue Gas Treatment

Flue gas treatment equipment is available that can remove NOx and SOx from
the flue gas stream, but it is quite expensive. SOx can be removed from the
flue gas through use of a chemical scrubber that works by spraying a solution
through flue gas stream. The spray chemically neutralizes the SO2 in the gas
and removes it from the stream before releasing it to the atmosphere.

! Fuel Switching

Different fuels have significantly different emission characteristics. Where

circumstances warrant, emissions can be reduced by switching to lower sulphur
fuels or by changing fuels altogether.

Note:
For more discussion of the environmental impact of fuel combustion, refer to
Module 1, Section 9, Environmental Issues.

5.0 FUEL FIRED EQUIPMENT AND APPLICATIONS

! Furnaces

The purpose of a process furnace is to supply heat to the contents in controlled

manner. The furnace may be used for heating metals to a precisely controlled
temperature for heat treatment or for melting. The furnaces are manufactured
in many different types and sizes, some of which are described in this section.

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Furnaces may be batch or continuous type. Furnaces, which generate heat by

burning fuels, may be of the direct or indirect fired types. Furnaces are also
heated by electric resistance or induction heaters.

! Batch Furnaces

The batch furnaces process the product in batches, which means that the
furnace doors must be opened and closed at the beginning and end of each
batch cycle. Since this is a significant source of energy loss, the loading and
unloading times should be minimized. It is also important to load the furnace
completely to minimize the energy loss per unit of product.

! Continuous Furnaces

Continuous furnaces process the product continually by moving it through the

heating zones on chains or conveyors. Since the loading and unloading doors
are open all or most of the operating time, there is a significant heat loss
through these openings.

Continuous furnaces also may have a significant heat loss because of the
conveying mechanism, which is heated to the operating temperature of the
product. If the conveyor cools off outside the furnace before re-entering the
loading area, the energy required to heat the conveyor is not used productively.
Thus it is better if the conveyor stays within the heated furnace area.

! Direct Fired Furnaces

The products of combustion are in direct contact with the product being heated
in a direct fired furnace. The heat transfer process from the flame to the
product is more effective than with the indirect heated furnace. The higher rate
of heat transfer which can be achieved with direct fired furnaces can lead to a
local surface overheating of the product, unless the furnace temperature is
properly controlled.

! Indirect Heated Furnaces

In indirect heated furnaces the heat is transferred through some form of heat
exchanger. This type of furnace may be used to provide a controlled
environment for oxidizing or reducing, by introducing an artificial atmosphere
independent of the combustion process. Since the heat transfer from the flame
to the product is not as effective as with the direct fired furnace, it can be
expected that the flue gas temperature will be higher, resulting in higher heat
losses unless heat recovery is used.

There are few special considerations for indirect fired furnaces which affect the
heat balance calculations. If the controlled atmosphere is maintained inside the
furnace, the heat input and output of the gas entering and leaving the furnace

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must be included in the heat balance. If heat is required for the preparation of
the atmosphere, the energy required in the gas generator must be included as
part of the total heat input to the furnace. Electrical energy used for
refrigeration or other purposes in the gas generator must also be included.

! Dryers

Dryers use heat to evaporate water or solvents from materials such as lumber,
grain, ceramics, paints and carbon electrodes. The same principles of energy
management described for furnaces also apply to dryers and much of the
equipment is similar in concept. A major difference is in operating temperature,
which is generally much lower than furnaces, as this avoids damage to the
product. As a result the direct fired heaters must operate with very high
percentage of excess air. This means that excess air cannot be reduced to
achieve the energy savings. Indirect fired dryers can operate at normal values
of excess air within the combustion chamber. With direct and indirect fired
heaters there is a large amount of heat in exhausted air in the form of
evaporated water or solvent. Often the solvents must be incinerated before
discharge to the atmosphere by burning additional fuel in the dryer discharge
and raising the temperature to about 900EC. Recovery of the heat in the dryer
exhaust can be achieved by a heat exchanger which is used to preheat the
incoming air for drying with indirect fired dryers or the combustion air for firing
in the direct dryers.

! Kilns

There is no fundamental difference between furnaces and kilns from the energy
management viewpoint. The ceramic and brick industries use stationary kilns.
The rotary kilns are used by the cement and pulp industries. Some rotary kilns
burn pulverized coal or refuse-derived fuel. The large heat input to the rotary
kilns provides opportunities for the insulation of heat exchangers to recover flue
gas heat.

6.0 ENERGY MANAGEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Energy Management Opportunities is a term used to represent the way that energy
can be used wisely to save money. It is intended to provide management,
operating and maintenance personnel with ideas to identify the opportunities.
Energy Management Opportunities are subdivided into Housekeeping, Low-Cost
and Retrofit categories.

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6.1 Housekeeping Opportunities

! Maintain Proper Burner Adjustment

It is a good practice to have an experienced burner manufacturer's

representative set up burner adjustments. Furnace operators can then identify
the appearance of a proper burner flame for future reference. The flame
should be checked frequently and always after a significant change in operating
conditions affecting the fuel, combustion air flow or furnace pressure.

! Check Excess Air and Combustibles in the Flue Gas

A continuous O2 and combustibles analyzer is the best arrangement, but cost

is high. Sampling tests with an Orsat or by other chemical means can be a
reliable guide for proper combustion conditions. Re-adjustment of the fuel/air
ratio control should be done promptly if required.

! Keep Heat Exchange Surfaces Clean

This is required more frequently with oil fired furnaces and for these
applications, the use of permanently installed steam or air sootblower may be
justified.

! Replace/Repair Missing and Damaged Insulation

Heat radiation from a furnace with inadequate insulation can be easily detected
during the plant survey.

! Check Furnace Pressure Regularly

Air leakage into or gas leaking out of a furnace can be controlled by maintaining
a slight positive furnace pressure. The control dampers in the furnace flue gas
ducting or related controls should be readjusted if the furnace pressure is not
at a correct value.

! Schedule Production to Operate Furnaces At Or Near Maximum Output

It may be possible to operate the furnace at maximum load every other day,
instead of at 50% load continuously. Alternatively, the work may be switched
to a smaller furnace which can operate near full load continuously.

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6.2 Low Cost Opportunities

! Replace Damaged Furnace Doors Or Covers

Furnace doors or covers which are warped or damaged can be a source of

considerable leakage of air into or gas out of the furnace. These should be
replaced by doors or covers with tight fitting seals.

! Install Adequate Monitoring Instrumentation

The minimum requirement is to have the ability to determine the energy used
per unit of output, so that significant deviations from this can be identified and
corrective action taken. The fuel or watt meter may be a portable instrument
which can then be used on several furnaces. Additional instrumentation will be
required to identify individual losses. Measurements of flue gas temperature
and oxygen content can be used to indicate the flue gas loss. If a heat
exchanger is used to recover the heat from the flue gas, the temperature of the
gas and air in and out of the heat exchanger can be used to check the
performance.

! Recover Heat From Equipment Cooling Water

It is often possible to use the warm water discharge from equipment coolers for
the purposes such as process washing. In some systems the water discharge
may be too cool to be useful. In these instances the installation of a water flow
control valve and temperature controller may be helpful. The water flow is
controlled automatically from the water temperature at the cooler outlet so that
the water temperature is high enough to be useful, while maintaining proper
cooling. The control system will also reduce water use.

6.3 Retrofit Opportunities

! Install A Heat Exchanger in the Flue Gas Outlet

The cost of a heat exchanger is significantly affected by the temperature of the

gas entering the unit. Careful consideration should be given to introducing cold
air into the gas stream, if required, to lower the gas temperature enough to use
economic materials. Stainless steels or alloys cannot be used for temperatures
above 950EC.

If the recovered heat is to be used to preheat combustion air, the burner

manufacturer should be consulted to determine the maximum allowable
temperature. Frequently it will be as low as 250EC. It is unlikely that it will be
higher than 400EC since that would require alloy steels instead of carbon steel.
If it is not practical to preheat the combustion air it may be possible to heat the
process water or to install a waste heat boiler to utilize the heat energy in the
flue gas.

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7.0 WORKED EXAMPLES

7.1 Example 1

A furnace uses 700 L/h of RFO (# 6) oil at 50% excess air. Ambient temperature
is 25EC and stack temperature is 450EC. The RFO oil, with 2.5% sulphur, has a
calorific value of 41.7 MJ/L and theoretical air requirement of 310 kg/GJ.

Calculate the heat loss as percentage of heat input.

Heat loss Q = M x Cp x )T

where:
M = fuel input + (fuel input x CV x Stoichiometric Air x %Excess Air)
= 700 L/h x 0.98 kg/L
+ (700 L/h x 41.7 MJ/L x 310 kg/GJ x 1.5 x 0.001 GJ/MJ)
= 14,259 kg/h
Cp = 1.01 kJ/kgEC
)T = (450 - 25)EC = 425EC

ˆ Q = M x Cp x )T
= 14,259 kg/h x 1.01 kJ/kgEC x 425EC
= 6,121 MJ/h

6,121 MJ/h
%of Heat Input ' ' 21%
700 L/h x 41.7 MJ/L

7.2 Example 2

Volumetric Combustion Air Requirements

At Higher Elevations and Temperatures

Determine combustion air requirements for a furnace using 700 L/h of RFO oil with
15% excess air at sea level conditions. Calculate the volumetric air requirements
for an altitude of 2,000 m and temperature of 20EC.

! Combustion Air Requirements At Sea Level:

700 L/h x 41.7 MJ/L x 310 kg/GJ x 1.15

'
1,000 MJ/GJ

10,406
' 10,406 kg/h or ' 8,643 m 3/h
3
1.204 kg/m

The blower has to deliver 8,643 m3/h of combustion air at 1.204 kg/ m3 density

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! Combustion Air Requirements At Other Conditions:

From Figure 13.8, the air density correction factor at 2,000 m altitude and 20EC
temperature is 0.79. Thus the combustion air requirement is:

10,406 kg/h
' ' 10,940 m 3/h
3
1.204 kg/m x 0.79

To deliver an equal mass of air the blower must deliver 10,940 m3/h at an
altitude of 2,000 m and 20EC.

8.0 ASSIGNMENT

The purpose of this assignment is to assess the operating conditions of existing

fuel-fired equipment in the facility (including the steam boilers) and bring them to
their design operating level. The following procedure is suggested. Use the "Fuel
Fired Equipment - Data Sheet and Test Results" form in Figure 13.9 for recording
information.

! Review equipment installation and operating manuals and record both

equipment and burner data. (Note equipment manufacturers do not necessarily
produce burners.)

! Analyze the flue gas, using the procedure outlined in this module. Measure
and/or calculate the following data:

.1 Bacharach smoke test number (if applicable),

.2 Percentage Oxygen and/or Carbon Dioxide reading,
.3 Excess air used by the unit,
.4 Flue gas loss using Seigert's formula or nomographs,
.5 Flue gas loss using mass law conservation formula (for comparison),
.6 Combustion efficiency of the unit.

! Calculate the annual energy cost due to combustion loss.

! Calculate radiation loss from the unit based on measured surface temperatures
and areas and estimated annual operating hours. (Part of Module 8
assignment.)

! Evaluate possibilities for reducing the operating cost of the unit.

! Prepare a one-page proposal suggesting recommended improvements,

potential benefits, cost of implementation and simple payback. (Use Energy
Management Opportunities Form from Module 3 for each proposal.)

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9.0 SUMMARY - Module 13

In this module you learned about:

L Properties of Solid Fuels,

L Properties of Liquid Fuels,
L Properties of Gaseous Fuels,
L The Combustion Process,
L Flue Gas Analysis,
L Losses in Fuel Fired Equipment,
L Burners,
L Energy Management Opportunities.

You should now be able to perform the following tasks:

L Assess the operating conditions of existing fuel fired

equipment in your plant.

L Prepare a report identifying potential improvements.

L Indicate the cost of implementing improvements, including a

payback schedule.

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Figure 13.9
FUEL FIRED EQUIPMENT
DATA SHEET & TEST RESULTS

1. Unit Data

Plant Name:

Type: Manufacturer:

Model #: Serial #:

Manufacturer's Ratings:

Fuel Type: 1. 2.

Rated Capacity:

Minimum Fuel Input:

Maximum Fuel Input:

Rated Efficiency:

2. Test Results
Date: Fuel Type:

Unit Load Comb Air Stack Flue Gas Analysis Combustion Thermal
Temp Temp Efficiency Efficiency
(kg/h) % of Max (EC) (EC) %O2 %CO2 %CO (%) (%)

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 FUEL FIRED EQUIPMENT
DATA SHEET & TEST RESULTS

1. Unit Data

Plant Name:

Type: Manufacturer:

Model #: Serial #:

Manufacturer's Ratings:

Fuel Type: 1. 2.

Rated Capacity:

Minimum Fuel Input:

Maximum Fuel Input:

Rated Efficiency:

2. Test Results
Date: Fuel Type:

Unit Load Comb Air Stack Flue Gas Analysis Combustion Thermal
Temp Temp Efficiency Efficiency
(kg/h) % of Max (EC) (EC) %O2 %CO2 %CO (%) (%)