Viral marketing in the music industry: How independent

musicians utilise online peer-to-peer communications

Item Type Thesis or dissertation

Authors George, Sam

Citation George, S. (2017). Viral marketing in the music industry:

How independent musicians utilise online peer-to-peer
communications. (Masters thesis). University of Chester, United
Kingdom.

Publisher University of Chester

Download date 03/07/2023 12:08:54

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10034/620824

 Viral marketing in the music industry: How
independent musicians utilise online peer-to-peer
communications

Sam George
A Management Research Project-Dissertation submitted in

partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of

Chester for the degree of Master of Science in Management

CHESTER BUSINESS SCHOOL

October, 2017
 Acknowledgements

I would firstly like to thank my dissertation supervisor, Maeve Marmion for her guidance
throughout the entirety of the dissertation process. During our meetings she was always
very helpful, particularly during the final week, when stress levels were at their absolute
highest.

I would also like to acknowledge my course and house mates Alex Davies and Sam
Burgoyne, who if it wasn’t for the early morning wake-up calls, I may not have made it to
the 9am lectures. Thanks for lending me your Dictaphone Johnny.

I would also like to thank my wonderful girlfriend Hannah Richardson for trying her best to
keep me motivated during the stressful periods of this project.

Finally, I would like to express my utmost gratitude towards my father, Ian George. Not only
for the copious amounts of proofreading and grammar checks, but also for the constant
support and encouragement throughout the entirety of my university career.
 Abstract
The aim of this research was to critically examine the use of viral marketing within the music
industry. Specifically, how peer to peer communications can be utilised to gain a higher
following. This was achieved by researching the uses of peer-to-peer communications
through social media, the role of branding in the music industry and how specific audiences
can be targeted through online platforms.

Although there has been substantial research into the use of online peer-to-peer
communications throughout various industries, there has been limited academic insight into
how viral marketing is utilised within the music industry. However, with the use of online
peer-to-peer communications becoming increasingly prevalent, it is a critical area for
academics to consider. Due to this gap in literature, this research may be regarded as
innovative.

To ensure that the full context surrounding the research question was considered, the study
was approached from an interpretivist stance and qualitative methods were used. By
conducting semi-structured interviews, the researcher was able to collect deep and
insightful data based on the narrative of each participant.

Although there were key differences throughout the data, there were several themes that
were consistent throughout. As social networks are a lucrative platform from utilising a viral
marketing strategy, several participants suggested that it is essential for musicians to use a
variety of them. The results showed that throughout the music industry it is crucial to
develop a strong brand image and remain consistent within this. The research also
suggested that consumers who are engaged with a brand are more likely to engage in peer-
to-peer communications. As the most likely demographic to engage in peer-to-peer
communications, this research suggested that millennials would be the most beneficial
group to target a viral marketing strategy towards.

As the sample contained participants from various roles within the music industry, each of
whom had different motivations, performed separate styles of music and were at various
stages of their career, it could be argued that this research contained too many variables
and therefore, lacked depth. However, the aim of this research was to analyse the
similarities and differences between a variety of roles within the music industry, therefore,
collecting a multitude of data was the intention of the researcher.

During the time of conducting, this research could have been considered innovative, due to
not only the gap in literature, but also because of the relevance of the current uses of
technology. However, due to the constant evolutions in modern technology, what may have
been considered current at the time of research, may not be as relevant in future years.
Therefore, similar research may need to be considered in future years.
Declaration

This work is original and has not been submitted

previously for any academic purpose. All secondary

sources are acknowledged as somebody else’s work.

Signed: S. George

Date: 11/10/2017
Contents
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................. 3
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Declaration .............................................................................................................................................. 5
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 8
1.1. Background context ..................................................................................................................... 8
1.2. Research question........................................................................................................................ 9
1.3. Justification for the research ..................................................................................................... 10
1.4. Outline methodology ................................................................................................................. 11
1.5. Outline of the chapters .............................................................................................................. 11
1.6. Definitions .................................................................................................................................. 12
1.7. Summary .................................................................................................................................... 13
2. Literature Review .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 14
2.2. Viral marketing ........................................................................................................................... 14
2.3. Consumer behaviour and artist revenue ................................................................................... 21
2.4. Conceptual Framework ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.5. Summary .................................................................................................................................... 25
3. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 26
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 26
3.2. Research paradigm .................................................................................................................... 26
3.3. Qualitative research ................................................................................................................... 27
3.4. Interviews................................................................................................................................... 28
3.5. Sampling and selection .............................................................................................................. 29
3.6. Data collection ........................................................................................................................... 31
3.7. Ethics, reliability, validity, generalisations and limitations ........................................................ 32
3.8. Summary .................................................................................................................................... 33
4. Data analysis and interpretations ..................................................................................................... 35
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 35
4.2. Sample........................................................................................................................................ 35
 4.3. Social media ............................................................................................................................... 36
4.4. Engagement ............................................................................................................................... 39
4.5. Peer-to-peer communications ................................................................................................... 40
4.6. Posting times .............................................................................................................................. 41
4.7. Opinion leaders .......................................................................................................................... 44
4.8. Branding ..................................................................................................................................... 45
4.9. Summary .................................................................................................................................... 48
5. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 49
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 49
5.2. Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 49
5.3. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 50
5.4. Managerial implications ............................................................................................................. 53
5.5. Limitations.................................................................................................................................. 55
5.6. Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 56
Reference list ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Appendices............................................................................................................................................ 62
Appendix 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 62
Appendix 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 67
 1. Introduction

1.1. Background context

Through the continuous developments in modern technology, the way we consume music

has changed dramatically throughout the years. With the evolution of digital music, the

need for purchasing physical copies of music has been eradicated.

Although there is software such as iTunes, where you can purchase digital music legally,

through online file-sharing and illegal downloading, consumers are able to obtain copies of

music for free. Due to the negative impact of illegal file sharing on record sales, Decrop and

Derbaix (2014) suggest that musicians’ main source of revenue has become live

performance.

However, according to research by the IFPI (2016), digital music sales account for 45% of all

global music revenue, compared to physical sales which account for only 39%. Therefore,

marketers focus has shifted from previous, more traditional methods of marketing, towards

various digital marketing techniques.

Through the use of online peer-to-peer communications, content can be received and

shared across a wider platform, at a much lower cost. Compared to more traditional

marketing techniques, viral marketing is a much faster way of reaching a large audience and

propagating a message. Therefore, it is vital for organisations to adopt a viral marketing

strategy (De Bruyn and Lilien, 2008; Fill, 2009; Harvey, Stewart and Ewing, 2011; Nigam,

2012).
With over 2.6 billion users on social media worldwide, networks such as Facebook,

Instagram and Twitter have become lucrative platforms for organisations to utilise peer-to-

peer communications. Due to the sheer amount of users, organisations can not only share

their own content to a mass audience, but there is also the potential for content to go viral

(Statista, 2017; Statistic Brain, 2016; Carlson & Lee, 2015).

Particularly within the contemporary music industry, Margiotta (2012) suggests that it is

essential for musicians to consider a viral marketing strategy. Not only are online peer-to-

peer communications an efficient and more cost effective way of reaching a wider following,

but they can also be a more personal way of connecting with your audience (Brodie, 2013).

Although the music industry is very broad, with a wide variety of roles within in it, viral

marketing is utilised throughout. However, each role within the industry may have different

implications regarding how a viral marketing strategy is applied. Therefore, this research will

aim to understand how viral marketing is employed through various contexts within the

music industry.

1.2. Research question

The aim of this research is to critically examine the use of viral marketing within the music

industry. Specifically, how peer to peer communications can be utilised by independent

musicians to gain a higher following throughout the industry.

The objectives for this research are as follows:

1) To discuss how word-of-mouth communications can be utilised through online platforms

2) To critically analyse the various uses of social media within a musician’s marketing

strategy

3) To investigate how specific groups can be targeted as a way of influencing peers

4) To identify the role of branding in the music industry

1.3. Justification for the research

Although there has been substantial research into the use of online peer-to-peer

communications throughout various industries, there has been limited academic insight into

how viral marketing is utilised within the music industry. However, with the use of online

peer-to-peer communications becoming increasingly prevalent, it is a critical area for

academics to consider. This research may be regarded as innovative, due to this gap in

literature.

As word of mouth communications have become an increasingly crucial factor in how

musicians gain a greater following, the development of online marketing has only increased

the opportunities for a musician to market themselves to a wider audience. Therefore, this

research is not only innovative in an academic sense, but also incorporates highly practical

insights, applicable for contemporary musicians. However, although this research may have

been current at the time of researching, it shall need to be revisited, due to the ever-

changing culture of modern technology and consumer behaviour.

This research shall be focussing particularly on independent musicians. An independent

musician in the context of this research, is defined by Brown (2012) as a musician that is not

signed to a record label. This has several different implications compared to artists that are

signed to a record label, especially major record labels. As major record labels, would
typically have a team of marketers and a larger budget, there would be different approaches

to that of an independent musician. As an independent artist may not have a large budget,

utilising viral marketing could therefore, be a low cost and effective way of marketing

themselves. Although, both may use viral marketing techniques, the participants in this

research will come from an independent background, as they will have full control over their

own marketing decisions. With an increasing number of musicians embarking on careers

independently, this research has become particularly relevant to the industry.

Although, this research shall be focusing specifically on viral marketing within the music

industry, certain themes may be similar throughout various fields. Literature regarding

separate industries shall also be considered, therefore, the findings of this research may

potentially be applicable for a variety of professions.

1.4. Outline methodology

Due to the nature of the research question, it was important for the research to be

considered from a contextual stance, therefore, this study was approached through an

interpretivist philosophy. As a set of results was being used to develop a hypothesis, this

research was inductive. To ensure that the full context surrounding the research question

was considered, qualitative methods were used. By conducting semi-structured interviews,

the researcher was able to collect deep and insightful data based on the narrative of each

participant. The data was then transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically to identify

key themes and differences throughout the various roles within the music industry.

1.5. Outline of the chapters

This aim of the initial chapter is to introduce the research project and briefly establish how

the research question will be approached. The second chapter of this research is the

literature review. In this section, the aim is to critically analyse all of the relevant literature

surrounding the research topic. Chapter three is the methodology section of the project.

This is where the methods chosen to answer the research question are detailed and justified

and the ethical considerations are discussed. In chapter four, the data is analysed and key

themes throughout the research were identified. In chapter five, the researcher will draw

conclusions from the data analysis in relation to the research question and literature review.

Managerial implications, limitations and recommendations for future research shall also be

discussed.

1.6. Definitions

In the context of this research, an independent musician is a musician that is not signed to

record company (Brown, 2012). This was important for this research as it was crucial that

the participants had full control over their own marketing decisions.

An original artist in the context of this research, is a musician that performs original

material. By performing material which they have written themselves, this has several

different implications to musicians that perform other people’s music.

A function band is a band that usually performs music from one particular genre or era.

They are often hired for functions such as weddings and parties.

A session musician is a musician that is usually hired to perform either for studio recordings

or live performances. These musicians are typically freelance and are hired on a temporary

basis for particular projects.

1.7. Summary

This chapter introduces the research problem and research question. The research

is then rationalised, the methodology is described and justified, definitions are

presented and the chapters of the dissertation are outlined. Upon these

foundations, the Management Research Project-Dissertation shall proceed with a

detailed description of the research.

 2. Literature Review

Contents
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................... 1
2.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 14
2.2. Peer-to-peer communication ........................................................................................ 14
2.3. Social Media .................................................................................................................. 17
2.4. Branding ........................................................................................................................ 19
2.5. Streaming and record sales ........................................................................................... 21
2.6. File sharing and live music ............................................................................................ 24
2.7. Conceptual Framework .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.8. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 25

2.1. Introduction

The aim of this chapter was to critically analyse the relevant literature surrounding the

research topic. By identifying the parents themes within the research, the researcher was

firstly able to gain a holistic understanding of the research area. However, by exploring the

specific literature within these themes, the researcher was also able to gain a deeper and

more comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

2.2. Viral marketing

2.2.1 Peer-to-peer communication

Viral marketing has become such an effective tool for marketers, due to not only its low

cost, but also its ability to propagate a message across a much larger platform at a

considerably faster rate. Compared to more traditional methods of marketing, utilising

online peer-to-peer communications provides a more efficient, cost effective and accessible

way of sharing information. It is therefore essential, particularly given the exponential

growth of online technology usage around the world, that organisations adopt some form of

viral marketing strategy. (De Bruyn and Lilien, 2008; Fill, 2009; Harvey, Stewart and Ewing,

2011; Nigam, 2012).

Compared to other, more traditional forms of mass media marketing, viral marketing

provides the opportunity for more personal interactions as it allows for feedback,

clarification and ongoing, back and forth communication. As demonstrated in Shannon and

Weaver’s (1949) communication model, communication is a two-way stream between

companies and consumers. Not only do companies send a message to customers, but also

receive feedback. However, where traditionally this feedback may have been collected

through market research, it can now be done through online peer-to-peer communications.

Fill’s (2009) ‘Multi-step flow of communications’ model, demonstrates how mass media

communications can often be blocked out by ‘noise’, however, through peer-to-peer

communications, the intended message is still received by consumers.

Nigam (2012) argues that viral marketing is not only a more efficient way of spreading a

company’s message, but also an effective way of building brand equity. Through online peer

to peer communication, a company can utilise the opinions of consumers, to provide insight

from an impartial perspective. As the opinions are coming from an external, seemingly

neutral stance, they may be valued higher than a message coming directly from the

company (Fill, 2009).

By targeting a specific market segment rather than a mass audience, Harvey, Stewart and

Ewing (2011) suggest that this may be an effective way of reaching a more appropriate

range of consumers. Kramer (2009) suggests that millennials are the most likely

demographic to engage in peer-to-peer communications. Not only this, but they are also

more likely to be influenced by peers. Therefore, it is essential for marketers to target this

segment. Due to their experience with technology, when targeting millennials, marketers

should focus on using digital methods of marketing such as social media and content

marketing (Barton, Koslow & Beauchamp, 2014).

However, Botha and Reyneke (2013), suggest that before releasing content online, there are

several things that should firstly be considered. Their research suggests that consumers are

more likely to share content, if it causes an emotional reaction. As consumers are likely to

share content that is either particularly positive, or particularly negative, it is essential that

marketers consider the emotive impact of their content. They also suggest that, particularly

with ‘generation Y’ consumers, it is important that any media content released is of a high

quality. Although the content may have the capacity to go viral, a consumer may be

reluctant to share if it is not high quality.

Also, Fill (2009), suggests that by targeting more influential consumers, such as opinion

leaders, viral marketing can have higher success rates. Due to their perceived expertise, or

higher social status, the recommendations of opinion leaders are often valued higher by

peers. Opinion leadership is an effective marketing tool because although opinion leaders

may be perceived as experts within a field, as they are not associated with the brand; their

opinion will be considered objective and unbiased. Additionally, Sun, Youn, Wu and

Kuntaraporn (2006), suggest that as opinion leaders play such a pivotal role in the diffusion
of information about a product, it is therefore essential to target them, if a larger audience

is to be reached.

Koenigstein and Shavitt’s (2012) research discusses how record labels use peer-to-peer

communications as a way of talent scouting. As artist and repertoire (A&R) representatives

have traditionally used word-of-mouth as a way of discovering new artists, the rise in online

peer-to-peer communications have made it easier for labels to source ‘up-and coming’

musicians. By utilising peer-to-peer communications, record companies can gauge the

popularity of an artist, without having to see them live, therefore, saving time and cost. As it

is important for record labels to be the first to locate potentially successful artists, peer to

peer communications have therefore, become a lucrative avenue of discovering new talent.

2.2.2. Social Media

With over 2.6 billion users worldwide, social media has fast become a global phenomenon,

changing the way consumers communicate and interact online. With Facebook having over

1 billion users, Twitter 328 million, Instagram over 700 million and YouTube gaining over

4.95 billion hits everyday, social media platforms have become a fast and efficient way of

sharing content online. With 56% of the world using social media, many businesses have

sought to utilise them as a way of promoting their brand. Due to the vast number of users,

not only can companies distribute their own content on a mass scale, but through peer-to-

peer communications there is the potential for content to go viral (Statista, 2017; Statistic

Brain, 2016; Carlson & Lee, 2015).

Although these networks have become an effective way for companies to create brand

awareness, they have also provided a greater opportunity for consumer engagement. By
directly communicating through social media, companies can develop a more personal

relationship with their customers. Not only do social media sites allow for companies to

communicate with consumers, but also for the customer to feedback to the company.

Compared to more traditional methods of marketing, social media allows a back and forth

between both parties, therefore making it easier for companies to track the success of their

products or services (Wiertz and de Ruyter, 2007).

Gholston, Kuofie and Hakin (2016), suggest that it is particularly essential for small

businesses to adopt a social media presence. Not only is social media an effective way to

interact with customers, but is also an efficient way of creating awareness for lesser known

brands. By utilising social media platforms, small businesses can gain exposure on a wider

scale, at less cost.

Their research also suggests that rather than focusing on sales, companies should focus on

building relationships with consumers (Gholston, Kuofie and Hakin, 2016). Through

consumer engagement, companies can build stronger, lasting relationships which create

opportunities for brand loyalty and repeat purchases. The more engaged a consumer is with

a brand, the more likely they will be to participate in peer-to-peer sharing communication

(Sashi, 2012; Bowden, 2009).

It is also essential that businesses have a social media strategy. By frequently posting on

social media and sharing content, companies can retain interest and keep consumers

engaged (Gholston, Kuofie and Hakin, 2016). However, it is also important that content is

not shared too often. Due to the amount of material shared, the online market can often

appear cluttered. Therefore, if a company posts too often on social media, it could be

perceived as spam (De Bruyn & Lilien, 2008).

Although social networks have proved an efficient way of spreading a company’s message,

Pfeffer, Zorbach and Carley (2013) warn that marketers must be cautious with the content

they share online, as a message may not always be interpreted as intended. If a negative

‘buzz’ is started, it can become very difficult to stop. Due to the nature of viral marketing,

this content could therefore be shared across the world within minutes using social media.

Buttle (1998), suggests that consumers are often more likely to share their experiences if

they are negative. Therefore, marketers should be cautious before posting on social media,

as a negative ‘buzz’ could not only influence the costumer, but also damage the reputation

of the brand.

Social media has become particularly important for musicians as not only does it allow for

music to be shared on a wider scale, but it creates a direct a communication channel

between artists and fans. Through personal interactions online, consumers are likely to

develop a positive affiliation with an artist. As a relationship between an artist and

consumer develops, the consumer may become likely to engage with peer-to-peer sharing

(Daellenbach, Kusel & Rod, 2015).

2.2.3. Branding

Decrop and Derbaix (2014) state that it is becoming increasingly important for musicians to

focus on branding, suggesting that artists themselves are essentially brand managers. Hatch

and Shultz (2001) also suggest that a brand can become so valuable, that it eventually

becomes worth more than the financial assets of a company itself. Therefore, it is essential

that musicians adopt at least some form of branding, as Kubacki and Croft (2004) agrees

that the rise of popular music throughout the years has been a result of the music industries

emphasis on branding.
Further, Hatch and Schultz (2001) describe brand image as the way a brand is perceived by

the public. It is important for organisations to develop a strong brand image, as this is how

brands become recognisable. Developing brand image can also gain consumer trust, as by

becoming renowned for a particular thing reduces perceived risk (Davis, 2007).

Although brand image is created externally via the perceptions of stakeholders, Hatch and

Schultz (2001) state that image is shaped by the vision and culture of a brand, which are

internal factors. In the ‘VCI’ model, Hatch and Schultz (2001), explain how the relationships

between vision, culture and image should correlate in order to form a consistency

throughout the brand, thus the image of a brand should ideally be perceived as intended by

the originator of the brand. Therefore, any gaps between the vision, culture or image of a

brand may lead to confusion and a dilution of the brand.

A gap between the culture and image of the brand may be caused by differences between

the consumer’s initial perceptions of the brand and the reality of their experiences. This can

be detrimental as it can lead to confusion within the consumer’s opinions of a brand and

therefore lead to mistrust. Hatch and Schultz (2001) suggest that it is essential that a brand

remains consistent within its vision, culture and image if it is to gain the trust of the

consumer. This therefore suggests that, when sharing anything online or engaging with

consumers on social media, it is imperative that the content is reflective of what the brand

stands for.

Wiertz and de Ruyter (2007) discuss the idea of online brand communities. In these

communities, a consumer is able to interact not only with the brand itself, but also other

consumers through peer-to-peer communication and information sharing. By engaging with

the brand in a more personal way, Brodie (2013) suggests that this is how deeper

relationships are formed, as it is through social functions that consumers feel the highest

level of engagement.

This is can also be displayed through Sashi’s ‘customer engagement cycle’ (2012). Through

positive interactions, consumers begin to form a trust and deeper relationship with the

brand. Once a consumer is committed to a brand, there is also the potential for brand

advocacy. As an advocate of the brand, the consumer is likely to engage in peer-to-peer

communications. Once a customer is fully engaged, Sashi (2012) suggests that not only will

there be brand loyalty, but the consumer will spread positive messages about the brand

amongst people with whom they interact.

2.3. Consumer behaviour and artist revenue

2.3.1. Streaming and record sales

Through the rise in technology and continued developments within the modern internet

era, the music industry has constantly had to adapt to keep up with current consumer

trends. With consumers now possessing the ability to obtain music at the click of a button,

this has created several implications for the music industry.

Although it has become easier for artists to share their music on a much larger scale

(Spangler, 2009; Asvanund, Clay, Ramayya & Smith, 2004; Shang, Chen & Chen, 2008), there

have been several negative connotations of online file sharing. In 2007, Sandulli discussed

how the rise of online streaming and illegally downloading music negatively affected global

music sales. Since the introduction of peer to peer sharing sites such as Napster in 1999,
many academics have attributed the decline of record sales to the impact of online file

sharing (Liebowitz, 2016; Connolly & Krueger, 2005; Hong, 2011; Barker and Maloney, 2012;

Walsh, Vincent-Wayne, Frenzel & Wiedmann, 2003).

Sandulli discusses how the arrival of downloadable MP3 files, eradicated consumer’s need

for physical music sales, as they were not only cheaper, but also faster and more convenient

Sandulli (2007). Rather than visiting a music store and purchasing a physical copy, it became

much easier for a consumer to download an entire album online. Within a matter of

minutes, a consumer can gain access to a plethora of music from an almost unlimited

catalogue (Sandulli, 2007; Walsh et al., 2003). Therefore, the need to purchase physical

copies of music diminished, rendering the compact disc format, seemingly redundant.

Although consumers can purchase music online through websites such as iTunes or Amazon

MP3, downloading music illegally is still a prominent source for acquiring music online.

However, Sandulli’s research also suggests that some consumers may use illegal

downloading merely as an accompaniment to purchasing physical copies of music. Although

this could be due to the experience of owning a tangible product, consumers who have a

positive association with an artist, may be more inclined to pay for their music (Sandulli,

2007; Sinclair and Green, 2015).

Sinclair and Green suggest that certain consumers tend to pay for music, if it belongs to

smaller, less established musicians. By supporting these lesser known artists, consumers

believe they are engaging in social responsibility, and that more established, “mainstream”

artists do not benefit as significantly from these payments (2015). Despite this, the

accumulation of consumers opting to illegally download music, has resulted in a severe loss
of income for “mainstream” artists (Liebowitz, 2016; Connolly & Krueger, 2005; Hong, 2011;

Barker and Maloney, 2012; Walsh, Vincent-Wayne, Frenzel & Wiedmann, 2003).

Sandulli (2007) research suggests that ‘generation Y’ consumers have a higher tendency to

illegally download music. Sandulli (2007) suggests that although this could be linked to the

higher incomes and lower price sensitivity of older consumers, this could also be due to the

attitudes of the younger demographic, perhaps not considering streaming music to be

illegal.

Despite many academics having closely linked the rise in file sharing with the decline in

record sales, others, such as Oberholzer-Gee and Strumpf (2007) state that there is not

enough statistical evidence to justify the connection and suggests there may be several

other factors that have influenced the decline in record sales.

Despite this, there has been substantial research implying that file sharing has had a

negative effect on record sales. Throughout the years, many artists have also campaigned

against illegal file sharing. In 2000, Metallica, won a law suit against peer-to-peer sharing

site, Napster for copyright infringement after leaking unreleased material (Marshall, 2002).

However, according to a 2016 report by the IFPI, digital sales accounted for 50% of global

music revenue. Despite a 20.5% decline in digital download sales, a 60.4% increase in

streaming revenue was responsible for digital sales becoming the leading revenue source

for the recording industry worldwide (IFPI, 2016). Although these sales do not come from

piracy or illegal downloading directly, Shields (2009), suggests that consumers who engage

in illegal downloading are also more likely to spend more money on purchasing music.
2.3.2. File sharing and live music

Dewenter, Haucap and Wenzel (2012), discuss the correlation between online file sharing

and live performance. Their research suggests that through online file sharing and peer to

peer communication, artists can gain a greater exposure and therefore create awareness for

live performances. Although artists may not receive much income through record sales,

there is the potential for greater ticket sales to live concerts.

Curien and Moreau (2009) state that although file sharing may have a negative effect on

record sales directly, overall, it’s impact on the music industry may be positive. Through the

diffusion of music, artists can gain a greater audience, thus increasing revenue in other

areas such as ticket sales and merchandising.

Curien and Moreau (2009) also suggest that without file sharing, certain consumers may be

less likely to discover new music and would therefore be less likely to become stakeholders

within the live performance market. As peer-to-peer file sharing creates an opportunity for

artists to gain a larger following, Curtin and Moreau suggest that this may balance out the

losses in record sales.

As ticket prices for live performances have increased throughout the years, Decrop and

Derbaix (2014) suggest that this is a way for artists to make up for lack of record sales. By

charging a greater price, artists can compensate for the royalties which they may have

previously received. They also suggest that more established musicians may charge higher

ticket prices, due to the loyalty of their fanbases willing to pay a premium price.

Decrop and Derbaix (2014) suggest that, where musicians traditionally toured to promote

the record sales, artists now release records to promote tours. As an artist’s highest form of
revenue has switched from record sales to live performances, it is not only important that

musician’s tour more frequently, but the length of tours has increased (Dejean, 2009).

Dejean (2009) states that the evolution of number of concerts and the raised price of tickets

draws parallel with the rise of file sharing. Dejean (2009) also suggests that artist’s main

incomes are usually received from live performances, while revenue received from record

sales, usually goes to the record companies and producers. This would therefore suggest

that that there is a higher personal incentive for artists to perform more frequently.

However, the literature suggests that peer-to-peer file sharing could be manipulated by

artists to gain a wider following, in turn, creating an opportunity for greater revenue in live

performances.

2.5. Summary

Throughout this chapter, the various literature streams surrounding the research topic were

critically discussed. By firstly identifying the parent themes, the researcher was able to gain

a broad overview of the research area. However, by analysing the specific areas within each

of the parent themes, the researcher was able to gather a thorough and detailed insight of

the literature.
3. Methodology

Contents
3. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 26
3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 26
3.2. Research paradigm ........................................................................................................ 26
3.3. Qualitative research ...................................................................................................... 27
3.4. Interviews ...................................................................................................................... 28
3.5. Sampling and selection ................................................................................................. 29
3.6. Data collection............................................................................................................... 31
3.7. Ethics, reliability, validity, generalisations and limitations ........................................... 32
3.8. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 33

3.1. Introduction

During this chapter, the researcher discussed and justified the methods that were used to

investigate the research question. The ethical considerations, limitations and validity were

also discussed along with the researcher’s choices of sample.

3.2. Research paradigm

Before conducting any research, it was firstly essential for the researcher to decide upon

which philosophical stance it would reflect. Due to the nature of the research question, it

was decided that the research would be considered from an interpretivist paradigm rather

than a positivist. A positivist ontology suggests that there is a single, objective reality

(Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The epistemological implications of this are that, research is

based purely on scientific data and measurable statistics. Many academics argue however,
that due to the complexity of social constructs, a positivist ontology cannot be justifiably

used in business research (Hasan, 2016).

In contrast to this, the interpretivist ontology is that reality is multiple and relative.

Interpretivists believe that reality is socially constructed, therefore, the epistemology is that

research should be approached from a contextual stance (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). As

there is a need for interpretivists to recognise situations from various social perspectives,

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009) state that it is crucial for researchers to adopt an

empathetic view. Therefore, when conducting this research, the various genres, aspirations

and career phases of an artist were all considered.

3.3. Qualitative research

As stated above, the aim of this research was to critically examine the use of viral marketing

within the music industry. Therefore, the research conducted to achieve this aim was

inductive, as a set of results was used to develop a hypothesis, rather than deductive

research, where an existing hypothesis is tested to produce a set of results (Elo and Kyngäs,

2008).

While deductive research is usually concerned with quantitative research, using scientific

and statistical approaches to test existing theory, inductive research is usually more

associated with qualitative methods.

As this research included participants from a variety of musical and professional

backgrounds; there was potential for varied responses to different questions. Thus, the data

produced throughout this research should be considered on a contextual basis. Due to the
scientific and definite nature of quantitative research, it can lead to generalisations within

results. Therefore, a quantitative approach may not have been the most appropriate way of

researching this question, as there may be more than one exact answer.

Conversely, qualitative methods are usually used to help understand the underlying reasons

behind a research problem and addressing the context surrounding an issue (Yin, 2016).

Therefore, this research was conducted through a qualitative perspective.

3.4. Interviews

During this research, data was collected through an interview process. According to Gill,

Stewart, Treasure and Chadwick (2008), there are three fundamental types of research

interviews: structured, semi-structured and unstructured. Structured interviews typically

consist of a set of fixed questions that are conducted in a formal setting. As the format for

these types interviews are usually very rigid, there is often little room for elaboration.

Therefore, due to the limited level of responses, structured interviews can often lack depth.

Unstructured interviews usually involve little or no preparation and are often based solely

on the narrative of the participant. Through asking open ended questions, the structure of

the interview is guided by the participant’s answers. As the answers will vary due to the

experiences of each participant, the data collected may be diverse. The disadvantages of

these types of interviews are that they can be very time consuming and often become

difficult to manage due to the lack of planning and structure. Data can also become difficult

to analyse due to the potentially broad range of answers participants may give (Stuckey,

2013; Gill, Stewart, Treasure and Chadwick, 2008).

For this research, the interviews conducted were semi-structured. Unlike unstructured

interviews, there was a set outline, however, the answers of the participants could influence

the direction of the interview. The questions asked were predetermined, however using

open ended questions allowed the participants to express themselves through their own

experiences. By using follow up questions, participants were also encouraged to elaborate

on their answers to gain a deeper insight. (Stuckey, 2013; Gill, Stewart, Treasure and

Chadwick, 2008).

3.5. Sampling and selection

The participants used within this research came from a variety of roles within the music

industry, including session musicians, original artists, function bands, and producers. It was

important to include participants from a variety of roles within the music industry as they

each may have different uses for viral marketing.

However, none of the participants used within this study were currently signed to any

record labels or promotional networks, as it was crucial that participants were strictly

unsigned musicians. Being independent from a record label meant that participants had full

responsibility and control over their own marketing decisions. This was important as not

only might a record company have more experience in marketing, but also may have access

to a more extensive budget, and influence over the extent of the artists’ autonomy. (Delava,

Doyle, Shingler & Stearns, 2009; Kubacki and Croft, 2004).

It was also important for this research to gather information from a variety of

demographics, as different genders, ethnicities and age groups each have different
tendencies online (Tamimi & Sebastianelli, 2016; Haryani & Motwani, 2015). The ages of

participants used ranged from 18 to 58 and were a mixture of male and females. By

collecting data from a range of participants, this research was able to gauge a more holistic

view of how viral marketing is utilised within the music industry.

However, none of the participants were currently residing outside of the United Kingdom.

By interviewing participants from a singular country, this ensured a concentrated set of

results. As different countries may have, not only different behaviours online but also

separate cultural norms or legislation, not all of the research would have been applicable to

each (Doole & Lowe, 2012). Interviewing participants from several countries, therefore, may

have led to the results of this research being too broad because of the many variables.

The majority of participants for this study were collected through the researcher’s contacts

within the music industry. However, further participants were gathered through ‘snowball’

sampling. Snowball sampling is often used when attempting to recruit participants whom it

usually may be difficult to access (Noy, 2007). By gaining referrals from existing

interviewees, the researcher was able to contact participants from various areas of the

music industry, that they may not have been able to access on their own.

Interviews continued to be conducted until the findings of the research had saturated. As

stated by Mason (2010), more data does not necessarily lead to more information.

Therefore, continuing to conduct research once a sample has saturated can be

unproductive. Due to the ‘open’ nature of semi-structured interviews, interpreting data can

also become very time consuming, as there is the potential for a vast amount of content.

After the sixth interview was conducted, it was therefore decided that it would be

unnecessary to collect any more data, as no new results were emerging.

Dew (1999), however, argues that the notion of sample saturation is impractical, stating

that often academics conclude data collection early and therefore, do not collect a large

enough variety of information. Francis (2010) also argues that if a sample size is too small,

the results may not necessarily reflect the full extent of the research area. Therefore, it was

essential when collecting data, that the sample size was large enough to gather a variety of

information whilst remaining a manageable size, to allow the researcher to look at each

interview in depth.

3.6. Data collection

As this research was aimed at participants from a range of backgrounds, it was important to

use methods that would allow the researcher to explore the various contexts behind each

participant’s experience. Semi-structured interviews therefore, would allow the researcher

to ask all the participants the same questions, yet allow the interviews to be adapted

according to each participant’s narrative. Whilst conducting the interviews, a device was

used to record the audio. The audio recordings were then transcribed verbatim.

After transcribing all of the interviews, the data was analysed thematically. By identifying

common themes throughout the interviews, the researcher was able to isolate which

themes were most significant.

Before interviewing any participants, it was firstly important for the researcher to conduct a

pilot interview. As suggested by van Teijlingen and Hundley (2002), pilot studies are an

efficient way of assessing how future interviews may unfold. Not only can a pilot interview

be a way of identifying any potential problems, but also a way of gauging the participant’s

receptiveness to each question. However, van Teijlingen and Hundley (2002), also suggest
that researchers should consider carefully before making any assumptions or predictions

based upon the initial interview, as subsequent participants may have differing views to the

pilot interviewee. By assessing the pilot interviewee’s responses to certain questions, the

researcher was able to appropriately alter the pilot interview, in order to ensure that the

most value was gained while interviewing actual participants.

3.7. Ethics, reliability, validity, generalisations and limitations

Before taking part in any research, each participant was given an ethics sheet to read and

asked to sign a document stating that they had read the terms and conditions and agreed to

participate. The participants also agreed to the interviews being audio recorded and

transcribed to be used as exerts in the data analysis. As some participants wished to remain

anonymous, pseudonyms were used.

Although the participants had been working in the music industry for varying amounts of

time and were each at different stages of their career, they were all considered to be

experts in their respective fields. Not only were the majority of participants able to make a

living from their roles in the music industry, but several had widespread recognition.

As musicians were examined from a variety of contexts, it could be argued that the research

may not be specific enough. However, due to the small sample size and the depth of semi-

structured interviews, each participant was encouraged to provide a thorough and detailed

account of their experiences. It could also be argued that as the research is concerned with

various fields within the music industry, it is more valuable in providing a holistic view

through multiple perspectives. Also several themes emerged that were consistent

throughout interviews, despite the diversity of interviewees, suggesting some industry-wide

commonalities. For these reasons, although the small sample size may be seen as a

limitation, as the sample began to saturate, continuing interviews may have become

counter-productive.

Although this research is aimed at musicians throughout the United Kingdom, the majority

of participants were from the West Midlands. This could be a seen as a limitation as these

participants may not necessarily represent the online behaviours of all UK musicians. As this

research is looking at musicians in various roles within the music industry, there were

already many variables. Focussing on musicians from a specific geographical location,

therefore, was seen as leading to a more concentrated set of results.

The majority of the interviews conducted lasted around seven to ten minutes. This was a

reasonable length as not only did it allow for interviewees to answer in depth, but it also

ensured that the answers were to the point. One interview, however lasted around forty-

four minutes. Due to the volume of information given, this interview was very time

consuming to write-up and also contained a lot of irrelevant data. Semi-structured

interviews are therefore limited due to the potential for participants to go off topic.

3.8. Summary

The research conducted in this study shall be qualitative and approached from an

interpretivist philosophy. The study consisted of six semi-structured interviews with a range

of participants throughout the music industry. Although the outlines of the interviews were

all based on a similar format, the exact structure of each was dependant on the responses

of each participant. By allowing the narrative of participants to lead each interview, the

researcher was able to collect data that was individually significant to a variety of roles
within the music industry. Through the use of improvised follow-up and prompting

questions, the researcher was also able to gain deep in and insightful answers from

interviewees.

The interviews were then transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically. By identifying

common themes throughout the interviews, the researcher was able to isolate which

information was most applicable throughout the music industry. The researcher was also

able to distinguish between the different behaviours of participants to identify how

musicians from different roles in the music industry may approach viral marketing in

different ways.
4. Data analysis and interpretations

Contents
4. Data analysis and interpretations ........................................................................................ 35
4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 35
4.2. Sample ........................................................................................................................... 35
4.3. Social media .................................................................................................................. 36
4.4. Engagement................................................................................................................... 39
4.5. Peer-to-peer communications ...................................................................................... 40
4.6. Posting times ................................................................................................................. 41
4.7. Opinion leaders ............................................................................................................. 44
4.8. Branding ........................................................................................................................ 45
4.9. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 48

4.1. Introduction

In this chapter, the data was analysed thematically. By identifying common themes and key
differences throughout the interviews, the researcher was able to isolate which data was
significant. The data is also grouped systematically in relation to the literature review.

4.2. Sample

Participant Name Age Gender Role

1 Katherine 22 Female Music tutor
2 Craig 23 Male Producer
3 Albert 28 Male Songwriter
4 Liam 34 Male Function band
5 Tony 57 Male Promoter
6 Lucy 25 Female Songwriter
4.3. Social media

When asked what methods they used to promote themselves, the immediate answer from

each of the participants was social media. By utilizing networks such as Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram and YouTube, participants all agreed that they were able to target a wider

audience at a faster, more efficient rate.

Aside from Craig, the rest of the participants that were recording artists, main source of

revenue actually came from live performance. As suggested by Decrop and Derbaix (2014),

artists are now using recordings to promote performances rather than more traditionally

using performances to promote record sales.

“It’s all about gigs really. Because we don’t really get paid much for our recordings or

anything, I suppose that’s the nature of the industry now, so everything we earn is

through gigs. So we kind of use our songs to promote that. By putting our songs

online for free, if people like them then hopefully they’ll come to see us. [Lucy]

By sharing music online for free, artists can gain a wider exposure and therefore potentially

make up for lack of record sales through higher tickets sales and merchandising (Curien and

Moreau, 2009).

“Through social media and everything, it’s definitely easier to gain a larger following

nowadays. Although we don’t actually make money from selling our songs… well

actually, I suppose we do, because the songs are what get people to the gigs. By

sharing our stuff on social media, our fan base has grown massively. So now it’s

much easier to sell tickets and that’s how we make our money.” [Albert]
Although Liam and Tony stated that they only used Facebook, the rest of the participants all

use a variety of social media platforms. However it was Albert and Lucy that seemed to

stress the importance of utilizing a mixture networks the most.

“I think it’s definitely becoming more important to use a variety of different social

media sites. I mean everyone is on Facebook, but Instagram is becoming really

important, Twitter is great just for communicating with fans as well. I think especially

for recordings artists it’s vital to be on stuff like Soundcloud and Spotify too. The

internet is a very busy place so you’ve just got to get your stuff on everything. That’s

what everyone else is doing.” [Lucy]

Compared to more traditional methods of marketing, the general consensus across all of the

participants was that it has also become easier to target a particular audience. Liam,

discussed how due to the increasing number of consumers from an older demographic

beginning to use Facebook, it has not only enhanced their ability to promote performances,

but also to communicate with their target audience.

“Because our music is mainly from the 70s and 80s, we’re mostly targeted at an older

audience, the people who were actually growing up around that sort of music. As

more and more older people are starting to use Facebook, it’s becoming so much

easier for us to promote gigs online.” [Liam]

Craig, however, whose music is targeted more towards millennials, stressed the growing

importance of utilizing Instagram to target this younger demographic.

“I mean obviously I still use Facebook a lot, but the big is thing definitely Instagram at

the moment. It’s massive now, especially for the younger generation. Just because
 kids are always on their phones looking at ‘memes’ or whatever, it’s just a great way

to connect with your audience.” [Craig]

However, with over one billion users, Facebook is by far the largest social media network.

Craig also discussed how, with its large variety of functions, Facebook is the most versatile

social network in terms of peer-to-peer communications.

“Although Instagram is cool, it is a bit limited in terms of what functions it has. It’s

just for sharing pictures really, which is great. But if you want to do things like make

events and stuff, then you have to go on Facebook. Also it’s so much easier for people

to share your stuff on Facebook.” [Craig]

As suggested by Kramer (2009), millennials are the demographic that are most likely to

engage in peer-to-peer communications. Therefore, by targeting millennials, there is the

greater potential for content to spread to a wider audience or even go viral.

“I think you have to target the younger generation really. I mean that’s our audience

anyway, but I just think that they’re the most likely to share things online. Because

we’ve grown up around technology, it’s second nature. I mean I’ll probably share four

or five things a day to be honest. I don’t think any other demographic would engage

that much is online sharing.” [Albert]

However, according to Lucy, it is not only millennials who are likely to engage in peer-to-

peer communications.

“It’s not just younger people though. Recently we’ve had quite a lot of the older

generation sharing our posts! But I suppose that might be to do with the growing

number of the older people going online nowadays. I mean all of our grandparents
 are on Facebook now; they’re probably on it more than we are. And they share all of

our videos on their friend’s ‘walls’ or whatever, it’s a proper little community.” [Lucy]

The idea of online communities is also discussed by Wiertz and de Ruyter (2007). Through

online brand communities, consumers can engage not only with the brand, but also with

other consumers through peer-to-peer communication and information sharing. Brodie

(2013) also agrees that it is through social functions, that a consumer feels most engaged

with a brand. This therefore suggests, that it is essential for musicians to not only share

content on social media, but to also engage in some form of dialogue with consumers

(Wiertz and de Ruyter, 2007; Brodie, 2013).

4.4. Engagement

Aside from sharing music or promoting live performances, some participants also discussed

sharing more personal content online. By sharing more intimate material, musicians are able

to connect with their audience on a personal level and therefore, develop a deeper

relationship.

“I’ll post things like pictures in the studio or ‘selfies’ on the way to rehearsal or

whatever just to keep fans in the loop. Well not only that, but by sharing more

personal stuff, I guess they feel more involved with the music. Rather than just

posting a song or whatever, by sharing personal, lifestyle stuff, you can develop a

more intimate relationship with your audience.” [Albert]

As explained in Sashi’s ‘customer engagement cycle’ (2012), through positive interactions

with a musician, consumers are more likely to build lasting relationships and eventually
develop a commitment to the artist. Once an emotional attachment has formed, there is

also the potential for not only brand loyalty, but also brand advocacy. As an advocate of the

brand, the customer is therefore more likely to engage in peer-to-peer communications.

The research therefore suggests that is crucial for an artist to engage with consumers on a

personal level.

One participant however, warned against sharing personal content too often. As personal

content may not necessarily be relevant to the music, sharing it too often could potentially

dilute the brand (Loken and John, 1993).

“I would be careful how much personal stuff you share though. Cause although it’s

good to keep your audience updated with what you’re doing, if you post too often, it

kind of becomes insignificant. That’s what my personal account is for. You still want

to make sure that your musician profile is primarily focused on your music.” [Craig]

4.5. Peer-to-peer communications

According to the research, the majority of participants interviewed have engaged in sharing

other artists’ music online. However, many of the participants expressed that if they shared

a fellow musician’s content, then they expected to have their own content shared in return.

Although this motive was similar across most of the participants, it was songwriters and

original artists who seemed to put the most emphasis on this.

“Yeah I mean it goes without saying, if I share your stuff than I kind of expect that

you’ll share mine. That’s what it’s all about really, supporting each other. I mean,
 how can you expect people to share your music if you won’t even share theirs?”

[Craig]

One participant also spoke about the idea of musicians as part of an online community. By

creating a network of musicians, there is the greater potential for musicians engaging in

peer-to-peer communication due to the common incentive of artists getting their own

shared.

“It’s a networking thing really. You need to get a community going with other

musicians. Because you think by sharing other people’s music and helping people,

you are leaving the door open for yourself.” [Lucy]

4.6. Posting times

A common theme throughout the interviews was which times were the best to post content

on social media. The majority of participants agreed that the most advantageous times of

sharing were between the hours of 6pm-10pm. Reasons for this were because these were

the times when most people in the United Kingdom had arrived home from work and were

most likely to be online.

“I always try to post after working hours, probably about 6pm, maybe 7pm. I avoid

posting during the day as most people at work and might not have access to a phone

or tablet or whatever to access the internet.” [Craig]

One participant however, expanded on this, stating that posting during these times also had

an international purpose.
 “It’s not just because of the United Kingdom either. Because the main places are

obviously Europe and America, so if you post at that time, like I said, everyone in the

UK is getting home from work and they’re looking at their phones more, but you’re

also catching the early afternoon people in America.” [Katherine]

Some participants also suggested that between the hours of 12pm-1pm could also be

beneficial posting times due to people at work browsing social media during their lunch

breaks.

Although the majority of participants agreed that posting between the times of 6pm-10pm

were the most beneficial, one participant did however warn against posting late in the

evening.

“I think it’s important to make sure you are not posting too late either, particularly on

weekends or a Friday night. You want to catch people when they’ve got home from

work but also before they’ve gone out to the pub or whatever.” [Lucy]

The frequency of which content was shared online was also varied across participants.

While some participants stated that they post online every day, others might only post once

a week or even less frequently. As different participants have a variety of roles in the

industry, some may not necessarily need to post as often as others. For example, this

research suggests that music tutors do not need to post as frequently as songwriters or

producers.

According to this research, the participants that post online the most frequently are original

artists. Albert, who posts an average once every two days, suggests that this could due to

the variety of content that original artists have to promote.

 “I think as an original artist you have to do a lot more online in terms of promotion. If

you’re a function band then you’re probably only going to be promoting the

occasional gig on Facebook. But as an artist, we have to promote gigs, promote our

records, merchandise and everything. And at the same time we’re to trying to build

relationships with fans on social media. So it seems like we’re posting stuff every

day.” [Albert]

After producing a new record, Craig discussed how for several weeks all posts on social

media would be dedicated to its release.

“For every new song that I make, I like to ‘hype’ it up bit before the actual release.

First of all, I’ll simply mention that I’m working on a track or that I’m collaborating

with someone. Then I’ll post some pictures of me working in the studio or whatever.

Then maybe I’ll release like a 10 second clip of the song as a teaser. Just to keep

people excited and up to date with what’s going on. So I’m probably posting 3 or 4

times per song. I think it builds the anticipation.” [Craig]

Although several participants agreed that it was important to post frequently, Katherine

argued that posting too often could be counter-productive, as each post may lose its

significance.

“I suppose it’s about quality over quantity. The benefits of posting sporadically are

that your posts are more relevant and because it’s really important to keep your

image consistent, you need to have less random posts. So posting less frequently,

your posts are going to be more defined. Although it’s important to keep people
 updated, when people are posting like ten times a day, you kind of stop caring”

[Katherine]

The posting habits of each participant however, may also depend on their level of workload

at that particular time. As musicians may experience episodes of intense workload followed

by quieter intervals, the need to promote themselves online may fluctuate.

“It depends how busy I am to be honest. Sometimes I might have four gigs in a week

and three songs that I need to release, so I’ll be posting pretty much every day. But

sometimes I’ll have nothing for weeks and you won’t hear from me at all.” [Liam]

Lucy however, argued that it is vital for musicians to adopt some form of plan for posting

online. By structuring how often content is posted, participant 6 suggests that you can keep

the audience interested without overloading them with material.

“I think it’s really important to have a plan. You see loads of people posting so

randomly. I mean one week they’ll post like twenty things and then you won’t see

anything for like a month. I try to plan all of my posts in advance, so I’m always

posting consistently. That way my fans are kept up to date, but they’re not being

attacked all at once with information.” [Lucy]

4.7. Opinion leaders

Several participants also spoke about sharing content through third-party accounts on social

media. Whether through Facebook, Instagram or YouTube, musicians can get their message

across to a wider audience, by utilising these platforms to target not only their own

followers, but also the followers of that particular page or group.

 “There are actually a lot of YouTube channels that you can send videos to and if

they’re good enough they’ll take them and upload them to their account. And they’ve

got loads of subscribers, like in the thousands and millions. So, once they share your

video, immediately you’re getting more listeners. Once they took some of our songs

we were getting between like, 10,000 and 30,000 views.” [Craig]

Due to their highly influential positions, these platforms could be considered a form of

opinion leadership. As opinion leaders are often considered experts within their field,

consumers usually tend to value their opinion higher than others. As opinion leaders usually

have no personal affiliation with what they are endorsing, consumers are more likely to

trust them (Fill, 2009).

“There are a few accounts on Instagram that share loads of clips of people

performing and stuff. If you hashtag them in one of your videos they might post it on

their page but they usually only put the really good stuff on there, so if they share

your video then you know it’s good. If it’s on something like that people are probably

more likely to listen to it as well, because they know it’s going to a decent standard.”

[Albert]

Therefore, by targeting these platforms, not only can musicians gain a wider following but

can also receive a valuable endorsement from highly influential opinion leaders.

4.8. Branding

Almost all of the participants agreed that it was essential for musicians to adopt at least

some form of branding. However, it was original artists and songwriters that seemed to put
the most emphasis on the importance of branding. By developing themselves as a brand,

participants found that it not only enhanced their ability to find work, but also their ability

to target a particular audience.

“I feel that branding has played a massive role for us. I mean, you have to get known

for a particular thing, that’s how you place yourself in the industry. Once we

established ourselves as an Indie band, it was much easier to find the right kind of

gigs. By placing yourself in a particular scene, it becomes easier to target an

audience.” [Lucy]

Several participants also agreed that it is crucial for bands to remain consistent within their

branding. As suggested by Hatch and Schultz (2001), it is important for the image of a brand

to reflect its value and culture. Therefore, bands must be cautious while posting online, as

sharing inconsistent content could potentially dilute the brand.

“You have to portray yourself in a certain way, not only in real life but also online.

But is has to be consistent, whatever your persona is in real life, it has to be the same

online. And if you act a certain way on Instagram or whatever, it’s got to be the same

on Facebook.” [Albert]

One participant put particular emphasis on branding in the early stages of a musician’s

career, arguing that this is possibly the most crucial time as an artist to develop their brand.

“Especially when you’re first starting out, you have to get known for something. You

never get a second chance to make a first impression, so you kind of have to define

yourselves from the beginning. By developing yourselves as a brand, people begin to

recognise you. This is probably the most crucial time to be honest. Once you’ve
 established yourselves you can start playing around with your brand a bit more, but

at the beginning it’s very important to stay consistent.” [Lucy]

The research also suggests that branding can play a particularly important role for function

bands. As certain aesthetics are often associated with particular styles of music, adopting a

specific image can be crucial for a band’s success.

“Yeah branding is incredibly important for us. We spent a lot of time as a 70s glam

rock act, so obviously we had all the costumes and everything for every gig, so it was

also important that on all of our Facebook pictures that we were seen wearing the

costumes. So at that time, if people were ever looking to book a glam rock or 70s

band, we were always at the front of their minds.” [Liam]

Where the emphasis for function-bands and original artists seemed to be focused on

portraying a particular persona, tutors and session musicians seemed to be focused more

simply upon professionalism and portraying themselves appropriately online.

“I suppose it’s the same with session players too, if you’re the person that’s known

for being a really professional bass player for example, you’re always on time and

you know your parts, you’re gonna jump to the top of the queue. But you can be the

best bass player and if you act unprofessionally online, it can seriously damage your

reputation. And for me, when I was a session player, my reputation is what got me

the majority of my gigs.” [Tony]

One participant suggested that this could be due to the roles of a music tutor or session

musician being more service based compared to songwriters, where their personality

arguably forms a significant part of their brand appeal.

 “As a vocal coach, everything is focused towards the student. It’s about what services

you can offer them. For example my posts on Facebook, I’ll say things like ‘Learn to

improve YOUR singing ability’ or ‘if this sounds like YOU, get in touch.’ It’s all about

catering towards the customer. And if I talk about myself, it’ll just be me saying what

experiences I have and what I can offer to the student.” [Katherine]

4.9. Summary

By utilising thematic analysis, the researcher was able to identify common themes

throughout the data. Although there were themes that were consistent throughout, as the

participants came from a variety of roles within the music industry, the data gathered

contained a plethora of results. By structuring the results in relation to the literature review

the researcher was able to identify common occurrences relevant to the research question.
 5. Conclusions

Contents
5. Discussion............................................................................................................................. 49
5.1. Introduction................................................................................................................... 49
5.2. Methodology ................................................................................................................. 49
5.3. Conclusions.................................................................................................................... 50
5.4. Managerial implications ................................................................................................ 53
5.5. Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 55
5.6. Recommendations for Future Research ....................................................................... 56

5.1. Introduction

The key themes that were identified throughout the data analysis were drawn together to

form conclusions. The managerial implications of these conclusions are then discussed. This

section also discusses the limitations and recommendations for future research.

5.2. Methodology

In this qualitative study, research was conducted from an interpretivist paradigm. As this

research was focused on musicians from various roles within the music industry, it was

important that each participant’s perspective was considered contextually.

By conducting semi-structured interviews, this not only allowed the researcher to collect a

wide range of data, but also allowed participants to express themselves freely. By allowing

interviewees to express themselves through their own experiences, this led to deeper and

more insightful interviews. As the participants came from a variety of roles within the music

industry, each gave their own unique insight into the utilisation of viral marketing. However,
as the structure of the interviews was based on the interviewees’ own narrative, several

interviews had the tendency to drift ‘off-topic’. Although the researcher could often direct

the interviews back to a more relevant route through prompting and follow-up questions,

this was sometimes not possible and led to the collection of a mass amount of irrelevant

data.

However, as proved through the thematic analysis of the data, there were a lot of

correlating themes and although each participant had their own unique insight into viral

marketing, several tendencies were consistent throughout. Therefore, semi-structured

interviews, seemed to be an appropriate way of collecting the data.

5.3. Conclusions

As suggested by the literature, the data analysis reaffirms the notion that musicians’ focus

has shifted from record sales to live performance. Rather than the previous format of using

live performance to promote record sales, this research suggests that musicians are now

more likely to use recordings to promote live performance. By releasing music online for

free, several participants suggested that they are likely to gain a larger audience. Although

no revenue is gained through royalties, the larger following is in turn more valuable. Despite

the lack of revenue gained through record sales, musicians can accommodate this through

ticket sales for live performances This therefore suggests that to achieve a greater amount

of revenue, content must be shared to a wider following as possible, to attract higher ticket

sales (Dejean, 2009; Decrop and Derbaix, 2014).

All of the participants agreed that the most efficient way of utilising a viral marketing

strategy was through the use of social media platforms. With over 2.6 billion users on social
media worldwide (Statista, 2017), social networks are a lucrative way of spreading a

message through peer-to-peer communications.

Although several participants utilised a variety of social media platforms, Facebook was

used by all of the participants. With over 1 billion users worldwide (Statista, 2017),

Facebook is by far the most heavily populated social network and therefore, can be used to

target a plethora of consumers. As the most versatile social media, participants stated

several uses for its variety of functions.

There were also several common themes regarding the online posting habits of participants.

The majority of participants agreed that the most beneficial times to upload content online

were between the hours of 6pm-10pm. This was mainly due to the majority of people being

home from work and therefore, being more likely to be using the internet. However, some

participants also discussed posting between 12pm-1pm as people could also be browsing

the internet during lunch-time work breaks.

This research suggested that the participants that posted most frequently online were

original artists and songwriters. While the other participants would usually post to advertise

upcoming performances or the release of a latest track, songwriters and original artists

would also post more personal content in the aim of building personal relationships with

consumers. Although the research does suggest that posting content frequently retains the

interest of consumers, it also suggests that sporadic posting leads to more relevant, less

random posts. Therefore, it is suggested that it would be the most beneficial to post

frequent enough to keep the consumer interested, but not too often that the significance of

content is diluted.
As well as being a lucrative platform to spread a message, the research suggests that social

media is also an efficient way of building consumer engagement. By engaging consumers

through online peer-to-peer communications, a musician can develop a deeper relationship

with their audience. As suggested in Sashi’s (2012) ‘customer engagement cycle’, through

positive interactions with a brand, consumers may be more likely to develop brand loyalty

and potentially become advocates. As an advocate of the brand, consumers are likely to

engage in peer-to-peer communications. Therefore, this research suggests that it is essential

for musicians to engage in personal interactions with their audience through social media.

Agreeing with Kramer (2009), several participants in this study suggested that millennials

are a particularly valuable demographic to target when utilising a viral marketing strategy.

Not only are millennials the most likely demographic to be influenced by peer-to-peer

communications, but they are also the most likely to engage in them. Therefore, when

attempting to initiate peer-to-peer communications, it is useful to consider which platforms

are the most likely to engage millennials.

When specifically targeting millennials it was suggested by several participants to utilise

Instagram. Although Facebook is beginning to consist of consumers from a more varied age

group, Instagram users still mainly consist of the younger demographic. Therefore, by

posting on Instagram, content is more likely to target millennials directly.

Also as Instagram is strictly pictures and videos, content is more likely to provoke an

emotional reaction. As stated by Botha and Reyneke (2013), emotive content is the most

likely to be shared among peers and potentially go ‘viral’.

Concurring with the literature, the majority of participants put a strong emphasis on the

importance of branding in the music industry. Stating that it is crucial for musicians to

develop a strong image, participants also suggested that musicians must remain consistent

with their branding. As image is how a brand becomes recognisable, it is important that the

brand is always portrayed in a way that reflects the true intentions of the brand. By

becoming known for a particular thing, this reduces potential perceived risk and increases

brand trust. (Kubacki and Croft, 2004; Decrop and Derbaix, 2014; Hatch and Schultz, 2001).

As displayed in the ‘VCI’ model (Hatch and Schultz, 2001), it is vital that a brand’s image

reflects its vision and culture. As brand image is created externally by the perceptions of the

consumer, if the vision, culture and image of a brand are not aligned then the brand may

lose credibility. As suggested by the majority of participants, it is therefore essential, that

the intended persona of a brand is portrayed consistently.

5.4. Managerial implications

Due to the constant evolutions in modern technology and online consumer behaviour, it is

important for companies to keep adapting alongside those changes in order to retain

competitive advantage.

Due to the low cost, efficiency and widespread capabilities of online peer-to-peer

communications, it is essential for organisations to adopt a viral marketing strategy. Due to

the mass amount of users on social media worldwide, these can be lucrative platforms to

target consumers.
As consumers often utilise a variety of social media, it is important to share content across a

variety of platforms. As Facebook is the most popular social media, this is the network that

will be most likely to attract a mass amount of people. However, due to the increasing

number of older demographics using Facebook, this is also likely to be the most beneficial

social platform when trying to target a varied range of consumers.

The research also suggests that through certain social networks it is easier to target specific

markets. As the most likely demographic to engage in peer-to-peer communications, it is

particularly important to try and target millennials. Therefore, it could be beneficial to share

content through social networks such as Instagram.

As a lot of business is based on the reputation that a business or organisation holds, it is

therefore essential to develop a strong brand image. It is also vital that the image

consistently reflects the values and culture of a brand (Hatch and Schultz, 2001). Therefore,

when interacting online or engaging with consumers/peers, it is crucial to act appropriately

in accordance with what the brand represents.

As the research suggests that consumers are more likely to participate in peer-to-peer

communication if they are engaged with a brand, it is therefore essential to develop a

relationship with consumers. By interacting on a more personal level online, organisations

can utilise brand communities as a way of engaging with customers. This could be done by

engaging in dialogue directly with consumers through social media platforms such as

Twitter.
5.5. Limitations

As this research is focussed on viral marketing throughout the music industry, the data that

was collected could be seen as too broad. Although the aim of this research was to analyse

the similarities and differences between a variety of roles within the music industry, it could

be argued that this research lacks depth. Therefore, a more specific approach may have

been needed to lead to a more concentrated set of results.

Due to the open ended nature of semi-structured interviews, there was a lot of information

given by participants that was not necessarily relevant to the research question. It

therefore, may have been more appropriate to conduct structured interviews in order to

gain a more specific set of results. However, as this research was aimed at a variety of

musicians, all of the questions may not have been applicable to each participant.

It could also be argued that as the aim was to analyse participants from a range of roles

within the music industry, that a larger sample size may have been needed. However, as the

sample had started to saturate, it may have been counter-productive to have conducted any

more interviews. Therefore, it could have perhaps been more time efficient to conduct

focus groups or questionnaires, as this would have allowed the researcher to gather a larger

collection of data within a shorter amount of time.

Although the majority of participants stated that they made money from their roles in the

music industry, only a few participants considered music their full time career. This could be

argued to be a limitation as several participants may be considered not to be at a

‘professional’ standard.
As the participants were all from separate roles within the music industry, at various stages

of their career and all had different motivations, it could be argued that there were too

many variables in this research and the data collected was therefore too diverse.

During the time of conducting, this research could have been considered innovative, due to

not only the gap in literature, but also because of the relevance of the current uses of

technology. However, due to the constant evolutions in modern technology, what may have

been considered current at the time of research, may not be as relevant in future years.

5.6. Recommendations for Future Research

Although this research may have been relevant at the time of conducting, the evolving

nature of technology may have implications for the future relevance of this research. As the

evolution in technology could not only change the way people consume music, but also the

way they behave and interact online, this could therefore, drastically change the way a

musician approaches viral marketing. It would therefore be beneficial to reconsider this

research again in upcoming years, as it is likely that the adaptations in technology may lead

to differences in the research.

It could also be beneficial to consider this research again from a more specific perspective.

As this research was aimed at discovering how musicians from a variety of roles in the music

industry utilise viral marketing, a broad range of data was collected. By focussing on a

singular role within the music industry, the research may give a more specific and detailed

account of a particular field.

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 Appendices

Appendix 1

Participant Information Document

Viral marketing in the music industry: How independent musicians utilise online peer to
peer communications.

You are being invited to take part in a research study. Before deciding, it is important for you
to understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please take time to
read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if you wish. Please ask if
there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more information. Take time to decide
whether or not you wish to take part. Thank you for reading this.

What is the purpose of the study?

The purpose of this study is to assess how viral marketing is utilised throughout the music
industry.

By comparing musicians from various backgrounds, this research aims to evaluate how viral
marketing can be used in various contexts. The findings from this study will hopefully be used
to inform the approaches used to further enhance musicians’ presence online.

Why have I been chosen?

You have been chosen as part of a sample of independent musicians, coming from a variety
of backgrounds in order to reflect the music industry from a broader perspective.
Do I have to take part?

It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. If you decide to take part you will be
given this information sheet to keep and be asked to sign a consent form. If you decide to
take part you are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason. A decision to
withdraw at any time, or a decision not to take part, will not affect the standard of care you
receive in any way.

What will happen to me if I take part?

If you decide to take part, you will be given this information sheet to keep and asked to sign
the consent form. You will then be contacted by a researcher and invited to attend an
interview, during which the aims and objectives of the project will be explained and your
questions answered.

What are the possible disadvantages and risks of taking part?

There are no disadvantages or risks foreseen in taking part in the study.

What are the possible benefits of taking part?

By taking part, you will be providing a unique insight which could potentially strengthen the
results of this research, thus helping to bridge the gap in academic literature surrounding this
topic. This research may also be beneficial in a practical sense, as fellow musicians may look
to this research from an industry perspective.

What if something goes wrong?

If you wish to complain or have any concerns about any aspect of the way you have been
approached or treated during the course of this study, please contact:

Professor Clare Schofield

Chair of Faculty Research & Knowledge Transfer Committee

Faculty of Business & Management, University of Chester, United Kingdom, Chester CH1 4BJ

+44 (0)1244 511000 or [email protected]

If you are harmed by taking part in this research project, there are no special compensation
arrangements. If you are harmed due to someone’s negligence (but not otherwise), then you
may have grounds for legal action, but you may have to pay for this.

Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?

All information which is collected about you during the course of the research will be kept
strictly confidential so that only the researcher carrying out the research will have access to
such information.

Participants should note that data collected from this project may be retained and published
in an anonymised form. By agreeing to participate in this project, you are consenting to the
retention and publication of data.

What will happen to the results of the research study?

The results will be written up into report for a dissertation project. It is hoped that the findings
may be used to improve the understanding of viral marketing in the music industry and
further enhance its uses in the practical world.

Who may I contact for further information?

If you would like more information about the research before you decide whether or not you
would be willing to take part, please contact:

Sam George

[email protected]

Thank you for your interest in this research.

 Participant Informed Consent Form

Title of Project: Viral marketing in the music industry: How independent musicians utilise
online peer to peer communications.

Name of Researcher: Sam George

Please initial box

1. I confirm that I have read and understood the

participant information sheet for the above study and
have had the opportunity to ask questions.

2. I understand that my participation is voluntary

and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without

giving any reason and without my care or legal rights

being affected.

3. I agree to take part in the above study.

4. I agree to the interview being audio recorded

5. I agree to the use of anonymised quotes in publications.

___________________ _________________ _____________

Name of Participant Date Signature

Sam George

Researcher Date Signature

Appendix 2

Interview #6 – Lucy

So what is your role in the music industry?

I am a songwriter and performer. I am the lead singer of an Indie band and we are just
coming off tour around the UK.

How long have you been performing together?

Just over a year now, we’ve not been going very long. Still really young I suppose in the
industry.

What are your motivations?

Well it’s weird really, because I started off thinking I wouldn’t really go into performing. I’ve
always had the ambition to become a songwriter and write for other people. I’ve had other
people perform my music. But I don’t know, I’ve got more out of performing than I thought I
would do. So I guess my motivation really is that, I want people around the world to hear my
music but I also want to be the one who is performing it.

What are your aims when releasing a song?

Well there’s obviously part of me which is like, it would be great if like hundreds and
hundreds of people will hear this and like start singing the lyrics and stuff. Part of it again is,
like, when we’re writing in the band, it’s usually the boys who start writing a song. The lads
tend to start it off by writing the music I suppose, writing the melodies, writing the bass and
stuff and then I’ll get inspired by what they’re playing basically and that’s where I write the
lyrics from. But I never really write stuff focussing on the audience, it’s just that afterwards I
release you know, how relatable some of the lyrics can be. Then I want everyone to hear it.

How do you promote your songs?

When release a track, we tend to promote it with a gig. So like, we’ll say “Here’s our new
track. It’s out on iTunes, Spotify, Soundcloud and what not.” We’ll also post it on social
media, like our Facebook and Instagram and stuff. But we also use it like, “If you want to
hear this, come to this gig!”

So you use gigs to promote material, but you’re also using material to promote your gigs?

Yeah that’s true. It’s great when we release a track but it’s all about gigs now really. Because
we don’t really get paid much for our recordings or anything but I suppose that’s the nature
of the industry now, so everything we earn is through gigs. So we kind of use our songs to
promote that. By putting our songs online for free, if people like them then hopefully they’ll
come to see us.

You mentioned social media. Which social media platforms do you use?

Hahaha, we use them all! I think it’s definitely becoming more important to use a variety of

different social media sites. I mean everyone is on Facebook, but Instagram is becoming

really important, Twitter is great just for communicating with fans as well. I think especially

for recordings artists it’s vital to be on stuff like Soundcloud and Spotify too. The internet is

a very busy place so you’ve just got to get your stuff on everything. That’s what everyone

else is doing.

Do you share other people’s content on social media?

We do personally, on our private page but the only time we’ve really done it on the band

page is when we’re collaborating with someone. For example we’re playing a gig on the 16 th

of December, which is kind of like an artsy collaborative night. So during the night there’s

going to be us and another band playing, and what we’re going to do is, we’ve actually going

to swap band members half way through. Sort of swap around, and that will be the

changeover between bands if that makes sense. So we’ve promoted people like doing that

in the past, but it’s only really a way of promoting ourselves. Because we’re basically saying

“Hi, here’s our friends, did you know we’re going to be playing with them?”
What are the benefits of sharing other people’s music?

It’s a networking thing really. You need to get a community going with other musicians.

Because you think by sharing other people’s music and helping people, you are leaving the

door open for yourself. I just think it’s really important to support other people because

how else are going to expect have friends support you if you’re not willing to just share a

post of someone’s or just say check out this band. I just don’t think it takes a lot of effort to

do it and it can mean a lot. And it can actually bring people new followers.

Is your music targeted towards any particular audience?

I don’t like to say an age bracket because that can differ. So I would say we aim at people

who are interested in sort of vintage styles, like décor and stuff you know. But also, people

that, I don’t know… Cause we’ve got kind of a quirky aesthetic, but we don’t really have a

band aesthetic if that makes sense. So anyone who’s ever complimented us they always say

“Oh you don’t really look like a band, you’re not in all black” or whatever. So I guess,

perhaps our audience target, is people who like to be themselves.

If we just said, we’re suitable for his demographic, it wouldn’t really make sense. Because

we have a lot of influence in our sound from like the 70s and 80s. So it wouldn’t make sense

to exclude people from the older demographic that have grown up with this kind of music.

Are there any particular channels you can use to target people of this particular

behaviour?

I suppose Instagram. I mean we use all of the different social media sites. Probably

Facebook because everyone is one Facebook and we actually get quite a range of

demographics sharing our stuff on there. People think it’s just for the kids but it’s not just
younger people though. Recently we’ve had quite a lot of the older generation sharing our

posts! But I suppose that might be to do with the growing number of the older people going

online nowadays. I mean all of our grandparents are on Facebook now; they’re probably on

it more than we are. And they share all of our videos on their friend’s ‘walls’ or whatever,

it’s a proper little community.”

What are the benefits of marketing online compared to more traditional methods of

marketing?

Well I guess because, it doesn’t matter the demographic, virtually everyone is on the

internet now. Even the band’s moms. We have a joke about how our mums are sharing the

posts because they’re obsessed with Facebook. They’re on Facebook more than us. So that

is just it, if we ever have anyone come over to us, they ask where they can download a song,

that’s what they say. They’re not saying have you got a CD, they’re saying where can I

download it from on the internet so… that’s how the industry has changed.

Is there any particular time of day to post on social media?

Yeah we actually aim to post like early evening. Later afternoon/early evening. We won’t

post stuff before 12 really. Unless we’re promoting the gig we’re playing on that night. SO if

we’re playing a gig that day, it doesn’t matter if we post at like 11am. But just because we

noticed that most people are on the internet when they’ve got home after work or what

not. I think it’s important to make sure you are not posting too late either, particularly on

weekends or a Friday night. You want to catch people when they’ve got home from work

but also before they’ve gone out to the pub or whatever.

Do you ever make events for gigs on Facebook?

Yeah, we make an event on Facebook for every gig we play. Apart from if someone else is

already promoting the gig. If somebody has already made an event on Facebook there is no

point, as people might not even click attend if it’s a duplicate event anyway.

Is there anything else you post on social media?

Yeah on Twitter we’re trying to be more aware of our band character. Cause obviously with

5 people, there’s often times when one of us will suggest to post something and one of us

will say “I don’t want that post!” So we’re trying to develop this sort of persona of what the

band is as a whole. So we’ve posted some funny videos on Instagram as well. Of us messing

around at rehearsals or whatever. So posting stuff like that is sort of aimed at developing

some sort of informal, friendly, sort of persona that people can sort of relate to. So, our fans

can sort of connect with the character. Be friendly. You know not too much though, we do

still want to keep an image of a serious band so we don’t want to make it too jokey.

Is branding important in the music industry?

Yeah definitely. I think that’s really important. It all comes down to accessibility for the fans

and people who are listening at the end of the day. If they’ve got something that’s more

than just a band, that they can get involved in and follow, you know, obsess over. There’s

more to it than just the music. It’s the character, it’s the story. It’s a style, you know. It’s

even colours, if there’s a colour scheme to follow. I think that’s great. You know, that helps

in merchandise and promotion and everything. I feel that branding has played a massive

role for us. I mean, you have to get known for a particular thing, that’s how you place

yourself in the industry. Once we established ourselves as an Indie band, it was much easier
to find the right kind of gigs. By placing yourself in a particular scene, it becomes easier to

target an audience.