Guide Efficiency PowerQuality

POWER QUALITY
Energy Efficiency Guide

VOLTAGE SAG
200V
125V
Voltage
105V
0V
20.0v/div vertical 2 sec/div horizontal
LINE-NEUT VOLTAGE SAG
Time
CURRENT SWELL
100A
AMPS
Current
30.0A
0A
10.0A/div vertical 2 sec/div horizontal
LINE AMPS CURRENT SURGE
Time
DISCLAIMER: BC Hydro, CEA Technologies Inc.,
Consolidated Edison, Hydro One, Hydro-Quebec, Manitoba
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Hydro, Natural Resources Canada, Ontario Power Authority,
Sask Power, Southern Company, Energy @ Work or any
Page Section
other person acting on their behalf will not assume any liabil-
ity arising from the use of, or damages resulting from the use
10 Acknowledgements
of any information, equipment, product, method or process
disclosed in this guide.
11 Foreword
11 Power Quality Guide Format
14 1.0 The Scope of Power Quality

14 1.1 Definition of Power Quality
15 1.2 Voltage
15 1.2.1 Voltage Limits
18 1.3 Why Knowledge of Power Quality
is Important
19 1.4 Major Factors Contributing to
It is recommended to use certified practitioners for the
Power Quality Issues
applications of the directives and recommendations
contained herein. 20 1.5 Supply vs. End Use Issues
Technical Editing and Power Quality Subject Expert: 21 1.6 Countering the Top 5 PQ Myths
Brad Gibson P.Eng., Cohos Evamy Partners, Calgary, AB 21 1) Old Guidelines are NOT the
Mr. Scott Rouse, P.Eng., MBA, CEM, Energy @ Work, Best Guidelines
www.energy-efficiency.com 21 2) Power Factor Correction DOES NOT
Portions of this Guide have been reproduced with the Solve all Power Quality Problems
permission of Ontario Power Generation Inc. All Rights 22 3) Small Neutral to Ground Voltages DO
Reserved. NOT Indicate a Power Quality Problem
23 4) Low Earth Resistance is NOT
MANDATORY for Electronic Devices
23 5) Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) DO 42 3.4.1 Transients, Short Duration and Long
NOT Provide Complete Power Quality Duration Variations
Protection 49 3.4.2 Steady State Disturbances
24 1.7 Financial and Life Cycle Costs 49 3.4.2.1 Waveform Distortion
25 1.7.1 Simple Payback and Harmonics
26 1.7.2 Life Cycle Costing 59 3.4.2.2 Flicker
26 1.7.3 The Cost of Power Quality 59 3.4.3 Distribution and Wiring Problems
Problem Prevention 60 3.4.3.1 Fault Protection in Utility
Distribution Systems
28 2.0 Understanding Power Quality Concepts
64 3.4.4 Voltage Unbalance
28 2.1 The Electrical Distribution System
64 3.5 Relative Frequency of Occurrence
29 2.1.1 Voltage Levels and Configurations
67 3.6 Related Topics
30 2.1.2 Site Distribution
67 3.6.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
32 2.2 Basic Power Quality Concepts
68 3.7 Three Power Quality Case Studies
32 2.2.1 Grounding and Bonding
68 3.7.1 Case Study: Meter, Monitor &
36 3.0 Power Quality Problems Manage: A proactive response to
power quality
36 3.1 How Power Quality Problems Develop
71 3.7.2 Case Study: High Demand Load in an
38 3.2 Power Quality Disturbances Aircraft Assembly Facility
39 3.3 Load Sensitivity: Electrical Loads that are 72 3.7.3 Case Study: Motor Drive and
affected by Poor Power Quality Transformer Incompatibility in a
39 3.3.1 Digital Electronics Commercial Building
41 3.3.2 Lighting
75 4.0 Solving and Mitigating Electrical Power Problems
42 3.3.3 Motors
75 4.1 Identifying the root cause and assessing
42 3.4 Types and Sources of Power Quality symptoms
Problems
76 4.2 Improving site conditions 97 Mitigating Equipment
76 4.2.1 Mitigating Effects 98 Equipment Ratings
76 4.2.2 Mitigating Equipment 99 Best Practices
77 4.2.1.1 Dedicated Circuits 99 4.3.2 Troubleshooting
77 4.2.1.2 Surge Protective Devices
(SPDs; also known as 101 5.0 Where to Go for Help
Transient Voltage Surge
Suppressors, TVSS) 101 Web Resources
78 4.2.1.3 Lightning Arresters 102 CSA Relevant Standards
78 4.2.1.4 End-User SPDs
80 4.2.1.5 Power Line Filters
82 4.2.1.6 Isolation Transformers
84 4.2.1.7 Line Voltage Regulators
85 4.2.1.8 Ferroresonant Transformers
86 4.2.1.9 Tap Switching Transformers
86 4.2.1.10 Power Conditioners
87 4.2.1.11 UPS Systems
89 4.2.1.12 Isolated Grounding Outlets
90 4.2.3 Preventative Measures
90 4.2.3.1 Distribution System Consider-
ations for Sensitive Loads
93 4.2.4 High Frequency Grounding
Considerations
96 4.3 Troubleshooting and Predictive Tips
96 4.3.1 Tips
96 Distribution Wiring and Grounding
55 Figure 18: Harmonic Effects on Equipment
Table of Figures
59 Figure 19: Flicker Curve IEEE 519-1992
61 Figure 20: Example of a Repetitive Reclosure
15 Figure 1: Pure Sinusoidal AC Voltage Waveform Operation
17 Figure 2: RMS Voltage and Current Produced When 62 Figure 21: Effect of Multiple Reclosure Operation
Starting a Motor on Voltage
28 Figure 3: Electrical Transmission and Distribution 63 Figure 22: Reclosing Interval for Hydraulic and
29 Figure 4: 120/240 V Single-phase Service Electrical Control Types
29 Figure 5: Typical 208 V Three-phase Wye 65 Figure 23: Relative Occurrence of Disturbances to
Connected Service Power Systems Supplying Computers
30 Figure 6: Grounded Wye Connection 67 Figure 24: Individual Voltage Harmonic Statistics
222 EPRI DPQ Sites from 6/1/93 to
31 Figure 7: Typical Residential Service 6/1/94
31 Figure 8: Service with Branch Panel Boards 79 Figure 25: Effect of Line Clamp on Transient
32 Figure 9: Typical Transformer Installation Voltages, 120 Volt System
34 Figure 10: Equipment Without Proper Equipment 79 Figure 26: Example of Impulses Not Clamped
Bonding 81 Figure 27: Examples of Untuned Filters
34 Figure 11: Equipment With Proper Equipment 90 Figure 28: Motor and Sensitive Loads Supplied from
Bonding the Same Feeder
36 Figure 12: Elements of a Power Quality Problem 92 Figure 29: Motor and Computer Loads Supplied
40 Figure 13: Computer Susceptibility Profile to Line from Separate Feeder
Voltage Variations and Disturbances 92 Figure 30: Isolation Transformer Added to Computer
– The ITIC Curve Feeder Supply
50 Figure 14: Superposition of Harmonic on 94 Figure 31: Equivalent Circuit of a Wire
Fundamental: Initially In-Phase
95 Figure 32: Signal Reference Structure or “Grid”
51 Figure 15: Superposition of Harmonic on
Fundamental: Initially Out-of-Phase
52 Figure 16: Main Sources of Harmonics
53 Figure 17: Harmonics Produced by Three-Phase
Controlled Loads
Acknowledgements Forward
Acknowledgements Foreword
This guide was prepared for the CEA Technologies Inc.
Customer Energy Solutions Interest group (CESIG) with Power Quality Guide Format
the sponsorship of the following utility consortium Power quality has become the term used to describe a wide
participants: range of electrical power measurement and operational issues.
BC Hydro Power Smart BC Canada Organizations have become concerned with the importance
of power quality because of potential safety, operational and
Consolidated Edison NY USA economic impacts.
Company of New York
Power quality is also a complex subject requiring specific
Hydro One Networks ON Canada terminology in order to properly describe situations and
Hydro-Québec QC Canada issues. Understanding and solving problems becomes possible
Manitoba Hydro MB Canada with the correct information and interpretation.
Natural Resources Canada Canada This Power Quality Reference Guide is written to be a useful
and practical guide to assist end-use customers and is struc-
10 Ontario Power Authority ON Canada tured in the following sections: 11
Sask Power SK Canada
Southern Company AL USA Section 1: Scope of Power Quality
Energy@Work is grateful to CEATI for the opportunity to Provides an understanding that will help to
work on this interesting issue. The support and guidance by de-mystify power quality issues
the CEATI CESIG Technology Coordinator, Phil Elliott,
and Program Manager, Angelo Giumento, was greatly Section 2: Understanding Power Quality Concepts
appreciated by the investigators. Defines power quality, and provides concepts and
Scott Rouse and Brad Gibson wish to express their gratitude case study examples
for the support and contribution of ideas of project
monitors: Cristiana Dimitriu from Consolidated Edison, Section 3: Power Quality Problems
Masoud Almassi from Hydro-One, Jean Bertin-Mahieux Helps to understand how power quality problems
from Hydro-Québec, Rob Kolt & Mike Kizuik from develop
Manitoba Hydro and Norm Benoit from Natural Resources
Canada.
Forward Forward
Section 4: Solving and Mitigating Electrical NOTE: It is strongly recommended that individuals or
Power Problems companies undertaking comprehensive power quality projects
Suggestions and advice on potential power quality secure the services of a professional specialist qualified in
issues power quality in order to understand and maximize the
available benefits. Project managers on power quality
Section 5: Where to go for Help projects often undervalue the importance of obtaining the
correct data, analysis and up-front engineering that is neces-
Power quality issues are often addressed reactively. Planned sary to thoroughly understand the root cause of the problems.
maintenance is more predictable and cost effective than Knowing the problem and reviewing options will help secure
unplanned, or reactive, maintenance if the right information the best solution for the maximum return on investment
is available. Power quality problems often go unnoticed, but (ROI).
can be avoided with regular planned maintenance and the
right mitigating technologies.
Prevention is becoming more accepted as companies,
particularly those with sensitive equipment, are recognizing
that metering, monitoring and management is an effective
strategy to avoid unpleasant surprises. Metering technology
12 13
has also improved and become cost effective in understand-
ing issues and avoiding problems.
Selecting the proper solution is best achieved by asking the
right question up front. In the field of power quality, that
question might best be addressed as:
“What level of power quality is required for my electrical
system to operate in a satisfactory manner, given proper
care and maintenance?”
1.0 The Scope of Power Quality 1.0 The Scope of Power Quality
1.0 The Scope of Power Quality 1.2 Voltage

The voltage produced by utility electricity generators has a
sinusoidal waveform with a frequency of 60 Hz in North
1.1 Definition of Power Quality America and 50 Hz in many other parts of the world. This
frequency is called the fundamental frequency.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
Figure 1: Pure Sinusoidal AC Voltage Waveform
defines power quality as:
“The concept of powering and grounding electronic 1 Cycle Maximum or
Peak voltage
(1/60 second)
equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation of RMS 1.414
that equipment and compatible with the premise wiring
V
system and other connected equipment.” 1
Making sure that power and equipment are suitable for
Voltage
0 Time
each other also means that there must be compatibility
between the electrical system and the equipment it pow- Effective (RMS) voltage
0.707 Peak voltage
ers. There should also be compatibility between devices that V typically 120V from
electrical outlet
share the electrical distribution space. This concept is called Average voltage
14 Electromagnetic Compatibility (“EMC”) and is defined as: 0.637 Peak voltage 15
“the ability of an equipment or system to function Any variation to the voltage waveform, in magnitude or in
satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without frequency, is called a power line deviation. However, not all
introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to power line deviations result in disturbances that can cause
anything in that environment.” 2 problems with the operation of electrical equipment.
The best measure of power quality is the ability of electrical
equipment to operate in a satisfactory manner, given proper 1.2.1 Voltage Limits
care and maintenance and without adversely affecting the Excessive or reduced voltage can cause wear or damage to an
operation of other electrical equipment connected to the electrical device. In order to provide standardization, recom-
system. mended voltage variation limits at service entrance points
are specified by the electrical distributor or local utility. An
example of typical voltage limits is shown in the table below.
1
IEEE-Std 1100-1999, IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding
Electronic Equipment, New York, IEEE. 1999
2
A definition from the IEC at http://www.iec.ch/zone/emc/whatis.htm
Rated voltage (V)* Voltage limits at point of delivery There are no comparable limits for the utilization point.
Marginal operating conditions These voltage ranges exclude fault and temporary heavy load
Normal operating conditions conditions. An example of a temporary heavy load condition
Single-phase circuits is the startup of a motor. Since motors draw more current
120/240 106/212 110/220 125/250 127/254 when they start than when they are running at their operat-
480 424 440 500 508 ing speed, a voltage sag may be produced during the initial
600 530 550 625 635
startup.
Three-phase/
Figure 2: RMS Voltage and Current Produced when Starting a Motor
four-wire circuits
120/208 (Y)* 110/190 112/194 125/216 127/220
VOLTAGE SAG
277/480(Y) 245/424 254/440 288/500 293/508 200V
347/600 (Y) 306/530 318/550 360/625 367/635
Three-phase/
three-wire circuits 125V
Voltage
240 212 220 250 254 105V
480 424 440 500 508

600 530 550 625 635
Medium-voltage circuits
16 1,000–50,000 - 6% - 6% + 6% + 6% 0V
20.0v/div vertical 2 sec/div horizontal 17
LINE-NEUT VOLTAGE SAG
In addition to system limits, Electrical Codes specify voltage Time
drop constraints; for instance: CURRENT SWELL
100A
(1) The voltage drop in an installation shall: AMPS
• be based upon the calculated demand load of the feeder

or branch circuit.
Current
• not exceed 5% from the supply side of the consumer’s
service (or equivalent) to the point of utilization.
30.0A
• not exceed 3% in a feeder or branch circuit.
(2) The demand load on a branch circuit shall be the con- 0A
10.0A/div vertical 2 sec/div horizontal
nected load, if known, otherwise 80% of the rating of the LINE AMPS CURRENT SURGE
overload or over-current devices protecting the branch Time
circuit, whichever is smaller.3 (Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from “Handbook of Power
For voltages between 1000 V and 50 000 V, the maximum Signatures”, A. McEachern, 1988)
allowable variation is typically ±6% at the service entrance.
3
Check with your local Authority Having Jurisdiction for rules in your area.
It is not technically feasible for a utility to deliver power 1.4 Major Factors Contributing to Power
that is free of disturbances at all times. If a disturbance-free
Quality Issues
voltage waveform is required for the proper operation of an
electrical product, mitigation techniques should be employed The three major factors contributing to the problems
at the point of utilization. associated with power quality are:
Use of Sensitive Electronic Loads
1.3 Why Knowledge of Power Quality is The electric utility system is designed to provide reliable,
Important efficient, bulk power that is suitable for the very large major-
ity of electrical equipment. However, devices like computers
Owning or managing a concentration of electronic, control
and digital controllers have been widely adopted by electrical
or life-safety devices requires a familiarity with the impor-
end-users. Some of these devices can be susceptible to power
tance of electrical power quality.
line disturbances or interactions with other nearby equipment
Power quality difficulties can produce significant problems in
The Proximity of Disturbance-Producing Equipment
situations that include:
Higher power loads that produce disturbances – equipment
• important business applications (banking, inventory
using solid state switching semiconductors, arc furnaces,
control, process control)
welders and electric variable speed drives – may cause local
18 • critical industrial processes (programmable process 19
power quality problems for sensitive loads.
controls, safety systems, monitoring devices)
• essential public services (paramedics, hospitals, police, Source of Supply
air traffic control) Increasing energy costs, price volatility and electricity related
Power quality problems in an electrical system can also quite reliability issues are expected to continue for the foreseeable
frequently be indicative of safety issues that may need future. Businesses, institutions and consumers are becom-
immediate corrective action. This is especially true in the case ing more demanding and expect a more reliable and robust
of wiring, grounding and bonding errors. electrical supply, particularly with the installation of diverse
electrical devices. Compatibility issues may become more
Your electrical load should be designed to be compatible with
complex as new energy sources and programs, which may be
your electrical system. Performance measures and operating
sources of power quality problems, become part of the supply
guidelines for electrical equipment compatibility are available
solution. These include distributed generation, renewable
from professional standards, regulatory agency policies and
energy solutions, and demand response programs
utility procedures.
Utilities are regulated and responsible for the delivery of
energy to the service entrance, i.e., the utility meter. The
supply must be within published and approved tolerances problems but ultimately these key principles apply:
as approved by the regulator. Power quality issues on the • Most PQ issues are end-user issues
“customer side of the meter” are the responsibility of the • Most supply issues are related to utility reliability
customer. It is important therefore, to understand the source
of power quality problems, and then address viable solutions. 1.6 Countering the Top 5 PQ Myths
1.5 Supply vs. End Use Issues 1) Old Guidelines are NOT the Best Guidelines
Many studies and surveys have attempted to define the Guidelines like the Computer Business Equipment
percentage of power quality problems that occur as a result of Manufacturers Association Curve (CBEMA, now called
anomalies inside a facility and how many are due to prob- the ITIC Curve) and the Federal Information Processing
lems that arise on the utility grid. While the numbers do not Standards Pub94 (FIPS Pub94) are still frequently cited as
always agree, the preponderance of data suggests that most being modern power quality guidelines.
power quality issues originate within a facility; however, there
The ITIC curve is a generic guideline for characterizing
can be an interactive effect between facilities on the system.
how electronic loads typically respond to power disturbances,
Does this matter? After all, 100% of the issues that can cause while FIPS Pub94 was a standard for powering large main-
power quality problems in your facility will cause problems frame computers.
20 no matter where they originate. If the majority of power 21
Contrary to popular belief, the ITIC curve is not used by
quality issues can be controlled in your own facility, then
equipment or power supply designers, and was actually never
most issues can be addressed at lower cost and with greater
intended for design purposes. As for the FIPS Pub94, it was
certainty. Understanding how your key operational processes
last released in 1983, was never revised, and ultimately was
can be protected will lead to cost savings.
withdrawn as a U.S. government standards publication in
Utilities base their operational quality on the number of November 1997. While some of the information in FIPS
minutes of uninterrupted service that are delivered to a Pub94 is still relevant, most of it is not and should therefore
customer. The requirements are specific, public and approved not be referenced without expert assistance.
by the regulator as part of their rate application (often
referred to as the ‘Distributors Handbook’).
2) Power Factor Correction DOES NOT Solve all
Power Quality Problems
While some issues affecting the reliability of the utility grid
– such as lightning or animal caused outages – do lead to Power factor correction reduces utility demand charges for
power quality problems at a customer’s facilities, the utility apparent power (measured as kVA, when it is metered) and
cannot control these problems with 100% certainty. Utilities lowers magnetizing current to the service entrance. It is not
can provide guidance to end users with power quality directly related to the solution of power quality problems.
There are however many cases where improperly maintained 4) Low Earth Resistance is NOT MANDATORY for
capacitor banks, old PF correction schemes or poorly Electronic Devices
designed units have caused significant power quality
Many control and measurement device manufacturers recom-
interactions in buildings.
mend independent or isolated grounding rods or systems
The best advice for power factor correction is the same as the in order to provide a “low reference earth resistance”. Such
advice for solving power quality issues; properly understand recommendations are often contrary to Electrical Codes and
your problem first. A common solution to power factor prob- do not make operational sense. Bear in mind that a solid
lems is to install capacitors; however, the optimum solution connection to earth is not needed for advanced avionics or
can only be found when the root causes for the power factor nautical electronics!
problems are properly diagnosed. Simply installing capacitors
can often magnify problems or introduce new power quality 5) Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) DO NOT
problems to a facility. Provide Complete Power Quality Protection
Power factor correction is an important part of reducing Not all UPS technologies are the same and not all UPS tech-
electrical costs and assisting the utility in providing a more nologies provide the same level of power quality protection.
efficient electrical system. If power factor correction is not In fact, many lower priced UPS systems do not provide any
well designed and maintained, other power quality problems power quality improvement or conditioning at all; they are
22 may occur. The electrical system of any facility is not static. merely back-up power devices. If you require power quality 23
Proper monitoring and compatible design will lead to peak protection like voltage regulation or surge protection from
efficiency and good power quality. your UPS, then make sure that the technology is built in to
the device.
3) Small Neutral to Ground Voltages DO NOT
Indicate a Power Quality Problem
Some people confuse the term “common mode noise” with
the measurement of a voltage between the neutral and
ground wires of their power plug. A small voltage between
neutral to ground on a working circuit indicates normal
impedance in the wire carrying the neutral current back to
the source. In most situations, passive “line isolation” devices
and “line conditioners” are not necessary to deal with Neutral
to Ground voltages.
1.7 Financial and Life Cycle Costs Regrettably, the energy industry has adopted the Simple
Payback as the most common financial method used. Simple
The financial and life cycle costs of power quality issues are
Payback is admittedly the easiest, but does not consider
two fold;
important issues. To properly assess a capital improve-
1. The “hidden cost” of poor power quality. The ment project, such as a solution to power quality, Life Cycle
financial impact of power quality problems is often Costing can be used. Both methods are described below.
underestimated or poorly understood because the
issues are often reported as maintenance issues or 1.7.1 Simple Payback
equipment failures. The true economic impact is
Simple Payback is calculated by dividing the initial, upfront
often not evaluated.
cost of the project (the ‘first cost’), by the annual savings real-
2. The mitigation cost or cost of corrective action ized. The result is the number of years it takes for the savings
to fix the power quality issue. The costs associated to payback the initial capital cost. For example, if the first
with solving or reducing power quality problems can cost of a power quality improvement project was $100,000,
vary from the inexpensive (i.e., checking for loose and the improvements saved $25,000 annually, the project
wiring connections), to the expensive, such as pur- would have a four year payback.
chasing and installing a large uninterruptible power
As the name implies, the advantage of the Simple Payback
supply (UPS).
24 method is that it is simple to use. It is also used as an indica- 25
Evaluation of both costs should be included in the decision tor of both liquidity and risk. The cash spent for a project
process to properly assess the value, risk and liquidity of the reduces the amount of money available to the rest of the
investment equally with other investments. Organizations organization (a decrease in liquidity), but that cash is re-
use basic financial analysis tools to examine the costs and turned in the form of reduced costs and higher net profit (an
benefits of their investments. Power quality improvement increase in liquidity). Thus the speed at which the cash can
projects should not be an exception; however, energy prob- be ‘replaced’ is important in evaluating the investment.
lems are often evaluated using only one method, the ‘Simple
Payback’. The evaluation methods that can properly include Short payback also implies a project of lesser risk. As a gen-
the impact of tax and cost of money are not used, e.g., Life eral rule, events in the short-term are more predictable than
Cycle Costing. events in the distant future. When evaluating an investment,
cash flow in the distant future carries a higher risk, so shorter
Monetary savings resulting from decreased maintenance, payback periods are preferable and more attractive.
increased reliability, improved efficiency, and lower repair
bills reduce overall operating costs. A decrease in costs trans- A very simple payback analysis may ignore important sec-
lates to an increase in profit, which increases the value of the ondary benefits that result from the investment. Direct sav-
organization. ings that may occur outside the immediate payback period,
such as utility incentive programs or tax relief, can often be considered include:
overlooked. • site preparation (space requirements, air conditioning,
etc.)
1.7.2 Life Cycle Costing • installation
Proper financial analysis of a project must address more than • maintenance
just ‘first cost’ issues. By taking a very short-term perspective, • operating costs, considering efficiency for actual
the Simple Payback method undervalues the total financial operating conditions
benefit to the organization. Cost savings are ongoing, and • parts replacement
continue to positively impact the bottom line of the company • availability of service on equipment
long after the project has been ‘repaid’. • consulting advice (if applicable)
• mitigating equipment requirements
A full Life Cycle Costing financial analysis is both more real-
istic, and more powerful. Life Cycle Costing looks at the The cost of purchasing any mitigating equipment must be
financial benefits of a project over its entire lifetime. weighed with the degree of protection required. In a non-
Electrical equipment may not need replacing for 10 years critical application, for instance, it would not be necessary to
or more, so Life Cycle Costing would consider such things install a UPS system to protect against power interruptions.
as the longer life of the equipment, maintenance cost sav- Power supply agreements with customers specify the respon-
26 ings, and the potential increased cost of replacement parts. sibilities of both the supplier and the customers with regard 27
In these cases, the time value of money is an important part to costs.
of the investment analysis. Simply stated, money received in
For very large electrical devices, even if no power quality problems
the future is less ‘valuable’ than money received today. When
are experienced within the facility, steps should be taken to
evaluating long-term projects, cash gained in the future must
minimize the propagation of disturbances which may originate
therefore be discounted to reflect its lower value than cash
and reflect back into the utility distribution system. Many
that could be gained today.
jurisdictions regulate the compatibility of electrical loads in order
to limit power quality interactions.
1.7.3 The Cost of Power Quality Problem Prevention
Section 4.0, “Solving and Mitigating Electrical Power Problems,”
The costs associated with power quality prevention need to
provides suggestions.
be included with the acquisition cost of sensitive equipment
so that the equipment can be protected from disturbances.
Installation costs must also be factored into the purchase of
a major electrical product. The design and commissioning of
data centres is a specific example. The costs that should be
2.0 Understanding Power Quality Concepts 2.0 Understanding Power Quality Concepts
2.0 Understanding Power Quality 2.1.1 Voltage Levels and Configurations

The power supplied to the customer by the utility will be
Concepts either single-phase or three-phase power. Single-phase power
is usually supplied to residences, farms, small office and small
commercial buildings. The typical voltage level for single-
2.1 The Electrical Distribution System phase power is 120/240 V (volts).
One of the keys to understanding power quality is to Figure 4: 120/240 V Single-phase Service
understand how electrical power arrives at the socket, and LINE
why distribution is such a critical issue. LINE
Supply 120V
Electrical power is derived from generation stations that from NEUTRAL 240V
Utility
convert another form of energy (coal, nuclear, oil, gas, water Line 120V
motion, wind power, etc.) to electricity. From the generator,
LINE
the electricity is transmitted over long distances at high
voltage through the bulk transmission system. Ground
Power is taken from the bulk transmission system and is

transmitted regionally via the regional supply system. Power Three-phase power is usually supplied to large farms, as well
28 29
is distributed locally through the distribution system and as commercial and industrial customers.
local utilities. The voltage of the distribution system is Figure 5: Typical 208 V Three-phase Wye Connected Service
reduced to the appropriate level and supplied to the custom-
er’s service entrance.
LINE LINE
Figure 3: Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Transformer Transfer
Station Station
LINE LINE
Supply
Bulk Transmission Regional Supply
from
Generating
Station System System Utility
LINE LINE
Electrical System
NEUTRAL NEUTRAL
Line to Neutral Voltage – 120V

Customer Distribution Ground Line to Line Voltage – 208V
System
Typical voltage levels for three phase power supply are 120 Figure 7: Typical Residential Service
V/208 V, 277 V/480 V (in the United States and Canada) or
Service
347 V/600 V (in Canada). Entrance
Rotating equipment such as large motors and other large
equipment require three-phase power to operate, but many
loads require only single-phase power. Single-phase power is Billing
obtained from a three-phase system by connecting the load Meter
between two phases or from one phase to a neutral Circuits
conductor.
Different connection schemes result in different voltage Panel Board
levels being obtained.
In larger distribution systems this power panel board will
Figure 6: Grounded Wye Connection
supply other panel boards which, in turn, supply circuits.
Ø Figure 8: Service with Branch Panel Boards
Ø
Circuits
30 Ø 31
N
G
Panel Board
Ø to Ø Voltage Ø to N Voltage Billing
208V 120V Meter
480V 277V Circuits
600V 347V
Panel Board
Panel Board
2.1.2 Site Distribution

Electrical power enters the customer’s premises via the Circuits
service entrance and then passes through the billing meter to
the panel board (also referred to as the “fuse box”, “breaker
panel”, etc.). In most residential or commercial installations A transformer is used if a different voltage or isolation from
electrical circuits will be run from this panel board. the rest of the distribution system is required. The trans-
former effectively creates a new power supply system (called a
separately derived power source) and a new grounding point
on the neutral.
Figure 9: Typical Transformer Installation In order to serve Code requirements, effective grounding that
480V 208V systematically connects the electrical system and its loads to
earth is required.
Transformer Connecting to earth provides protection to the electrical
system and equipment from superimposed voltages from
208V lightning and contact with higher voltage systems. Limiting
Panel Board over voltage with respect to the earth during system faults
and upsets provides for a more predictable and safer electrical
Panel Board system. The earth ground also helps prevent the build-up of
potentially dangerous static charge in a facility.
The grounding electrode is most commonly a continuous
2.2 Basic Power Quality Concepts
electrically conductive underground water pipe running from
the premises. Where this is not available the Electrical Codes
2.2.1 Grounding and Bonding
describe other acceptable grounding electrodes.
Grounding
Grounding resistances as low as reasonably achievable will
Grounding is one of the most important aspects of an reduce voltage rise during system upsets and therefore
32 electrical distribution system but often the least understood. provide improved protection to personnel that may be in the 33
Your Electrical Code sets out the legal requirements in your vicinity.
jurisdiction for safety standards in electrical installations.
Connection of the electrical distribution system to the
For instance, the Code may specify requirements in the grounding electrode occurs at the service entrance. The
following areas: neutral of the distribution system is connected to ground at
(a) The protection of life from the danger of electric shock, and the service entrance. The neutral and ground are also con-
property from damage by bonding to ground non-current- nected together at the secondary of transformers in the
carrying metal systems; distribution system. Connection of the neutral and ground
(b) The limiting of voltage on a circuit when exposed to higher wires at any other points in the system, either intentionally or
voltages than that for which it is designed; unintentionally, is both unsafe (i.e., it is an Electrical Code
(c) The limiting of ac circuit voltage-to-ground to a fixed level on violation) and a power quality problem.
interior wiring systems;
(d) Instructions for facilitating the operation of electrical
apparatus
(e) Limits to the voltage on a circuit that is exposed to lightning.
Equipment Bonding If the equipment were properly bonded and grounded the
Equipment bonding effectively interconnects all non-current equipment enclosure would present no shock hazard and the
carrying conductive surfaces such as equipment enclosures, ground fault current would effectively operate the over-cur-
raceways and conduits to the system ground. rent device.
The purpose of equipment bonding is:

1) To minimize voltages on electrical equipment, thus
providing protection from shock and electrocution
to personnel that may contact the equipment.
2) To provide a low impedance path of ample
current-carrying capability to ensure the rapid
operation of over-current devices under fault
conditions.
Figure 10: Equipment without Proper Equipment Bonding
Short to Enclosure Enclosure

15A Breaker
120V appears on
34 enclosure presenting 35
a hazard to personnel
120V LOAD
Ground
Figure 11: Equipment with Proper Equipment Bonding
Short to Enclosure Enclosure

15A Breaker Opens
Fault current flows
through safety ground
and breaker opens.
120V LOAD No voltage appears on
enclosure. No safety
Fault Current hazard.
Safety Ground
Ground
3.0 Power Quality Problems 3.0 Power Quality Problems
3.0 Power Quality Problems contacts, lightning and/or by intentional radiation from
broadcast antennas and radar transmitters. When the
EMF couples through the air it does so either capacitively
or inductively. If it leads to the improper operation of
3.1 How Power Quality Problems Develop equipment it is known as Electromagnetic Interference
Three elements are needed to produce a problematic power (EMI) or Radio Frequency Interference (RFI). Unshielded
line disturbance: power cables can act like receiving antennas.
• a source Once a disturbance is coupled into a system as a voltage
• a coupling channel deviation it can be transported to a receptor in two basic
• a receptor ways:
If a receptor that is adversely affected by a power line devia- 1) A normal or transverse mode disturbance is an unwant-
tion is not present, no power quality problem is experienced. ed potential difference between two current-carrying
Figure 12: Elements of a Power Quality Problem circuit conductors. In a single-phase circuit it occurs
between the phase or “hot” conductor and the neutral
conductor.
Disturbance Coupling
Receptor 2) A common mode disturbance is an unwanted potential
Source Channel
36 difference between all of the current-carrying conduc- 37
tors and the grounding conductor. Common mode
The primary coupling methods are: disturbances include impulses and EMI/RFI noise with
respect to ground.
1. Conductive coupling
A disturbance is conducted through the power lines into
the equipment. The switch mode power supplies in computers and ancillary
2. Coupling through common impedance equipment can also be a source of power quality problems.
Occurs when currents from two different circuits flow The severity of any power line disturbance depends on the
through common impedance such as a common ground. relative change in magnitude of the voltage, the duration and
The voltage drop across the impedance for each circuit is the repetition rate of the disturbance, as well as the nature of
influenced by the other. the electrical load it is impacting.
3. Inductive and Capacitive Coupling
Radiated electromagnetic fields (EMF) occur during the
operation of arc welders, intermittent switching of
3.2 Power Quality Disturbances The IEEE has provided a comprehensive summary of the
types and classes of disturbances that can affect electrical
Category Typical Spectral Typical Typical Voltage
power. The classifications are based on length of time, magni-
Content Duration Magnitude
tude of voltage disturbance and the frequency of occurrence.
1 .0 Transients
1.1 Impulsive Transient
These classifications are shown in the previous table.
1.1.1 Nanosecond 5 ns rise <50 ns
1.1.2 Microsecond 1us rise 50 ns -1 ms 3.3 Load Sensitivity: Electrical Loads that are
1.1.3 Millisecond 0.1 ms rise >1 ms
1.2 Oscillatory Transient Affected by Poor Power Quality
1.2.1 Low Frequency <5 kHz 0.3-50 ms 0-4 per unit
1.2.2 Medium Frequency 5-5000 kHz 20 us 0-8 per unit
1.2.3 High Frequency 0.5-5 mHz 5 us 0-4 per unit
3.3.1 Digital Electronics
2.0 Short Duration Variations Digital electronics, computers and other microprocessor
2.1 Instantaneous based equipment may be more sensitive to power line
2.1.1 Sag 0.5-30 cycles 0.1-0.9 per unit disturbances than other electrical equipment depending on
2.1.2 Swell 0.5-30 cycles 1.1-1.8 per unit the quality of their power supply and how they are intercon-
2.2 Momentary
nected. The circuits in this equipment operate on direct
2.2.1 Interruption 0.5-30 cycles <0.1 per unit
2.2.2 Sag 30 cycles-3 s 0.1-0.9 per unit current (DC) power. The source is an internal DC power
38 2.2.3 Swell 30 cycles-3 s 1.1-1.4 per unit supply which converts, or rectifies, the AC power supplied by 39
2.3 Temporary the utility to the various DC voltage levels required. A com-
2.3.1 Interruption 3 s-1 min <0.1 per unit puter power supply is a static converter of power. Variations
2.3.2 Sag 3 s-1 min 0.1-0.9 per unit
2.3.3 Swell 3 s-1 min 1.1-1.2 per unit
in the AC power supply can therefore cause power quality
anomalies in computers.
3.0 Long Duration Variations
3.1 Sustained Interruption >1 min 0.0 per unit The Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers
3.2 Under-voltages >1 min 0.8-0.9 per unit Association Curve (CBEMA, now called the ITIC Curve)
3.3 Over voltages >1 min 1.1-1.2 per unit published in the IEEE Orange Book is intended to
4.0 Voltage Imbalance Steady State 0.5-2% illustrate a suggested computer susceptibility profile to line
5.0 Waveform Distortion voltage variations. The ITIC curve is based on generalized
5.1 DC Offset 0-100th Harmonic Steady State 0-0.1% assumptions, is not an industry standard and is not intended
5.2 Harmonics 0-6 KHz Steady State 0-20% for system design purposes. No ITIC member company is
5.3 Inter-harmonics Steady State 0-2%
5.4 Notching Steady State
known to have made any claim for product performance
5.5 Noise Broadband Steady State 0-1% or disclaimer for non-performance for their products when
6.0 Voltage Fluctuations <25 Hz Intermittent 0.1-7%
operated within or outside the curve. The ITIC curve should
not be mistakenly used as a utility power supply performance
7.0 Frequency Variations <10 s
curve.
Figure 13: Computer Susceptibility Profile to Line Voltage Variations The susceptibility profile implies that computers can tolerate
and Disturbances – The ITIC Curve slow variations from -13% to + 5.8%, and greater amplitude
disturbances can be tolerated as their durations become
shorter. In fact, many computers can run indefinitely at 80%
ITI (CBEMA) Curve
(Revised 2000)
of their nominal supply voltage; however, such operation does
500 lead to premature wear of the power supply.
While the operating characteristics of computer peripherals
Percent of Nominal Voltage (RMS or Peak Equivalent)
may at one time have been more dependent on the types of

power supply designs and components used, generalizations
400
that infer that computers are highly sensitive to small devia-
tions in power quality are no longer true.
There is also no validity in the contention that, as the operat-
300 ing speed of a computer increases, so does its sensitivity to
Voltage Tolerance Envelope voltage variations. IT equipment sensitivity is due to the
Applicable to Single-Phase Prohibited Region manner in which its power supply components interact with
120-Volt Equipment
the supplied AC power.
200
40 41
3.3.2 Lighting
140
120 There are three major effects of voltage deviations on light-
110
100
No Interruption In Function Region 90
ing:
80
70 1. reduced lifespan
40 2. change of intensity or output (voltage flicker)
No Damage Region
3. short deviations leading to lighting shutdown and long
0
.001 c 0.01 c 1c 10 c 100 c
Steady
turn-on times
1us 1 ms 3 ms 20 ms 0.5 s 10 s State
For incandescent lights the product life varies inversely
Duration in Cycles (c) and Seconds (s)
with applied voltage, and light output increases with ap-
plied voltage. In High Intensity Discharge (HID) lighting
systems, product life varies inversely with number of starts,
light output increases with applied voltage and restart may
take considerable time. Fluorescent lighting systems are more
forgiving of voltage deviations due to the nature of electronic
ballasts. Ballasts may overheat with high applied voltage and

these lights are usually less susceptible to flicker.
Information on lighting is available from the companion
“lighting reference guide” that can be easily found through
the various internet web search engines.
3.3.3 Motors
Voltages above the motor’s rated value, as well as voltage
phase imbalance, can cause increased starting current and
motor heating. Reduced voltages cause increased full-load
temperatures and reduced starting torques.
3.4 Types and Sources of Power Quality

Problems
42 3.4.1 Transients, Short Duration and Long Duration Power Line Disturbances Summary 43
Variations
A general class of power quality variations (summarized in
the following charts) are instantaneous variations. These are
subdivided as:
• Transients (Impulsive and Oscillatory; up to 50 ms)
• Short-Duration (0.5 cycles to 1 minute)
• Long-Duration (>1 minute but not a steady state phe-
nomenon)
Generally, instantaneous variations are unplanned,
short-term effects that may originate on the utility line or
from within a facility. Due to the nature and number of
events that are covered by this class of power quality
problem, a summary chart has been provided to highlight the
key types of variation.
Fold out page
sep document
PQ Foldout
44 45
Power Line Disturbances Summary
Power Line Disturbances Summary (1 of 4)

COMMENTS AND
DISTURBANCES SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE CAUSES POSSIBLE RESULTS
SOLUTIONS
Duration • high amptitude, short • switching inductive loads on or off • electronic interference • Transient problems are mainly due
• typically 0.5 cycles duration voltage (motors, relays, transformers, • microprocessor based equipment to the increased use of electronic
Coupling Mechanism disturbances x-ray equipment, lighting ballasts) errors equipment without regard for the
•conductive, electromagnetic • can occur in • operation of older UPS/SPS • hardware damage of electronic realities of normal power system
Duration common and systems may cause notching equipment operation and the operation of
• impulsive normal mode • arcing grounds • current limiting fuse operation the customers’ facility
• oscillatory • lighting • It is sometimes very difficult to
• capacitor switching trace the source of a transient.
Impulsive Non-Periodic Non-periodic impulses • fault clearing • Transients usually have less
which increase energy than momentary
TRANSIENTS
V instantaneous voltage disturbances.

• Transient suppressors rarely
Voltage
0 Time protect against equipment

generated transients.
V • There is a general consensus that
most transients get into computer
45
logic and memory circuits through
Impulsive Periodic Periodic impulses which poor wiring or EMI, not by
increase or decrease the conduction.
V instantaneous voltage • Normal mode impulses are typi-
cally the result of the switching of
Voltage
0 Time heavy loads, or of power factor

connection capacitors.
• Common mode impulses are
V
often caused by lightning.
Oscillatory High frequency

oscillations (from a few
V hundred Hz to 500 kHz)
that decay to zero within
Voltage
0 Time a few milliseconds
V
Power Line Disturbances Summary Power Line Disturbances Summary
Power Line Disturbances Summary (2 of 4) Power Line Disturbances Summary (3 of 4)

COMMENTS AND COMMENTS AND
DISTURBANCES SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE CAUSES POSSIBLE RESULTS DISTURBANCES SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE CAUSES POSSIBLE RESULTS
SHORT DURATION DISTURBANCES
SOLUTIONS SOLUTIONS
LONG DURATION DISTURBANCES

Duration Voltage Deviations
• 0.5s - 1min. Duration:
Coupling Mechanism • >120 cycles (2 sec)
• conductive Coupling Mechanism:
• sags • conductive
• swells
Undervoltage Any long-term change • overloaded customer wiring • errors of sensitive equipment • Some municipal utilities have
• interruptions
above (overvoltages) or loose or corroded connections • low efficiency and reduced life a list of overloaded distribution
Sag Low voltage in one or • starting large loads (motors, • related computer systems V below (undervoltages) the • unbalanced phase loading of electrical equipment, such as transformers, which can indicate
• When starting large loads, such as
more phases air conditioners, electric furnaces, failures motors, high inrush currents are prescribed input voltage conditions some motors, heaters areas prone to undervoltage
Voltage
V etc) • hardware damage unlikely produced which drop the voltage for 0 Time
range for a given piece of • faulty connections or wiring • lengthens process time of conditions.
• overloaded wiring and incorrect • flickering of lights short periods. This is a relatively equipment. (undervoltages) overloaded distribution system infrared and resistance heating • Undervoltages can be reduced
the prescribed input voltage • incorrect tap setting processes
Voltage
0 Time fuse rating • motor stalling common problem and can be by practicing regular mainte-
V
• fuse and breaker clearing • reduced life of motors and prevented by using reduced voltage range for a given piece of • reclosing activity • hardware damage nance of appliance cable and
• lightning (indirect cause due to driven equipment motor starters, by reducing the equipment. • dimming of incandescent lights, connections, checking for proper
V number of large loads operating simul-
effects of lightning arresters) • digital clock flashing and problems in turning on fuse ratings, transferring loads
46 taneously, by restricting the number Brownouts A type of voltage fluctua- • poor wiring or connections fluorescent lights to separate circuits, selecting 47
• ground faults
of motor starts at any given time, by tion. Usually a 3-5% voltage • high power demand within building a higher transformer tap
• utility switching/equipment failure
transferring the large load to its own reduction. or local area setting, replacing an overloaded
• utility reclosing activity circuit, by upgrading feeder voltage, • intentional utility voltage reduction transformer or providing an
and by using cable of proper rating.
to reduce load under emergency additional feeder.
Swell High RMS voltage • open neutral connection • light flicker • Although lightning may initially cause
system conditions
voltage spikes or surges near its point
disturbance on one or • insulation breakdown • degradation of electrical contacts • planned utility testing
of impact, surge arrestors momentarily
V more phases • sudden load reduction
shorten the power line, producing sags
• improper wiring, which restricts Overvoltage • improper application of power • overheating and reduced life of • Ensuring that any power
that may be conducted for a consider-
Voltage
0 Time the amount of current available factor correction capacitors electrical equipment and lighting factor correction capacitors are
able distance through the system.
for loads • Electrical equipment may respond V • incorrect tap setting • blistering of infrared processes properly applied
• fault on one line causing voltage to a sag as it would to a power • Changing the transformers tap
V
setting
Voltage
rise on other phases interruption. 0 Time
• open conductor fault
Voltage Flicker Repetitive Repetitive sags or swells • large cyclic loads such as spot • light flicker V
in the voltage welders, induction arc furnaces,
and motors when cycled
Power Line Disturbances Summary
Power Line Disturbances Summary (4 of 4)

COMMENTS AND
DISTURBANCES SYMPTOMS POSSIBLE CAUSES POSSIBLE RESULTS
SOLUTIONS
LONG DURATION DISTURBANCES
Power Interruptions
Duration:
• momentary interruptions; 2 mins
• sustained interruptions: 2 mins
Coupling Mechanism:
• conductive
Power Interruptions Total loss of input voltage. • operation of protective devices in • loss of computer/controller • employing UPS systems,
Often referred to as a response to faults that occur due memory • allowing for redundancy,
V “blackout” or “failure” to acts of nature or accidents • equipment shutdown/failure • installing generation facilities in
for events of a few cycles • malfunction of customer equip- • hardware damage the customer’s facility
• product loss
Voltage
0 Time
or more, or “dropout” ment
or “glitch” for failures of • fault at main fuse box tripping
shorter duration. supply
V
48
3.0 Power Quality Problems
3.4.2 Steady State Disturbances
3.4.2.1 Waveform Distortion and Harmonics

Harmonics are currents and voltages with frequencies that
are whole-number multiples of the fundamental power line
frequency (which is 60 Hz in North America). Harmonics
distort the supplied 60 Hz voltage and current waveforms
from their normal sinusoidal shapes.
Each harmonic is expressed in terms of its order. For ex-
Fold out page ample, the second, third, and fourth order harmonics have
frequencies of 120 Hz, 180 Hz, and 240 Hz, respectively. As
order, and therefore frequency, of the harmonics increases,
sep document the magnitude normally decreases. Therefore, lower order
harmonics, usually the fifth and seventh, have the most effect
PQ Foldout on the power system. Due to the nature of power conver-
sion techniques, odd numbered harmonics are usually the
48 only frequencies of concern when dealing with harmonic 49
problems. The presence of low levels of even harmonics in a
system requires expert mitigation advice from a power quality
professional.
The effect of a given harmonic on the power system can be
seen by superimposing the harmonic on the fundamental
waveform, to obtain a composite:
Figure 14: Superposition of Harmonic on Fundamental: Initially In- Figure 15: Superposition of Harmonic on Fundamental: Initially Out-
Phase of-Phase
Initially In-Phase Initially Out-Of-Phase

sin (x) sin (x)
.33 sin(3x) –.33 sin(3x)
Voltage
Voltage
0 Time 0 Time
sin (x) + .33 sin(3x) sin (x) – .33 sin(3x)
Voltage
Voltage
0 Time 0 Time
50 51
In this example, the two waveforms begin in-phase with each
other, and produce a distorted waveform with a flattened top. Harmonics can be differentiated from transients on the
The composite waveform can be changed by adding the same basis that transients are not periodic and are not steady state
harmonic, initially out-of-phase with the fundamental, to phenomena.
obtain a peaked effect:
Production and Transmission Figure 17: Harmonics Produced by Three-Phase Controlled Loads
Most harmonics result from the operation of customer loads,

1000 V
at residential, commercial and industrial facilities.
Figure 16: Main Sources of Harmonics
Common Sources of Harmonics
Sector Sources Common Problems
Voltage
0V
Industrial Variable speed drives • Overheating and fuse
welders, large UPS blowing of power factor
systems, lighting system correction capacitors
• Overheating of
supply transformers
• Tripping of overcurrent
–1000 V
protection 200 V/div vertical 5.0 ms/div horizontal
Commercial Computers, electronic • Overheating of neutral PH B–NEUT INITIAL WAVE SHP
office equipment, conductors and Time
lighting transformers (Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from “Handbook of Power
• Interference Signatures”, A. McEachern,1988)
52 Residential Personal computers, • Generally not a problem 53
lighting, electronic • However, high density of
Aside from solid state power converters, loads may also
devices electronic loads could produce harmonics if they have nonlinear characteristics,
cause overheating of meaning that the impedance of the device changes with the
utility transformers applied voltage. Examples include saturated transformers and
Harmonics are caused by any device or equipment which gaseous discharge lighting, such as fluorescent, mercury arc
has nonlinear voltage-current characteristics. For example, and high pressure sodium lights.
they are produced in electrical systems by solid state power As harmonic currents flow through the electrical system, they
converters such as rectifiers that conduct the current in only may distort the voltage seen by other electrical equipment.
a portion of each cycle. Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) Since the system impedances are usually low (except during
or thyristors are examples of this type of power conversion resonance), the magnitudes of the voltage harmonics, and the
device. extent of voltage distortion are usually lower than that for
The levels of harmonic current flowing across the system the corresponding current distortion. Harmonics represent
impedance (which varies with frequency) determine the har- a steady state problem, since they are present as long as the
monic voltage distortion levels. harmonic generating equipment is in operation.
Third harmonic currents are usually most apparent in the Figure 18: Harmonic Effects on Equipment
neutral line. These occur due to the operation of single-phase
nonlinear loads, such as power supplies for electronic equip- EQUIPMENT HARMONIC EFFECTS RESULTS
ment, computers and lighting equipment. Capacitors (all; – capacitor impedance decreases – heating of capacitors due to
not just those with increasing frequency, so increased dielectric losses
As lighting equipment has been a cause of many neutral for power factor capacitors act as sinks where
problems adequate precaution must be taken to mitigate the – short circuits
correction) harmonics converge; capacitors do
harmonic emission of lighting equipment, in particular in not, however, generate harmonics – fuse failure
case of re-lamping. These harmonic currents occur due to – supply system inductance can – capacitor failure
the operation of single-phase nonlinear loads, such as power resonate with capacitors at some
supplies for electronic equipment and computers. The third harmonic frequency causing large
currents and voltages to develop
harmonic produced on each phase by these loads adds in the
neutral. In some cases, the neutral current can be larger than – dry capacitors cannot dissipate
heat very well, and are therefore
the phase currents due to these third harmonics.
more susceptible to damage from
harmonics
Effects of Harmonics – breakdown of dielectric material
In many cases, harmonics will not have detrimental effects on – capacitors used in computers are
54 equipment operation. If the harmonics are very severe, particularly susceptible, since they 55
however, or if loads are highly sensitive, a number of are often unprotected by fuses
or relays
problems may arise. The addition of power factor correc-
tion capacitors to harmonic producing loads can worsen the
situation, if they have parallel resonance with the inductance
of the power system. This results in amplifying the harmonic Transformers – current harmonics cause higher – transformer heating
currents producing high harmonic voltages. transformer losses – reduced life
Harmonics may show up at distant points from their source, – increased copper and iron
thus causing problems for neighbouring electrical end-users, losses
as well as for the utility. In flowing through the utility supply – insulation stress
source impedance, harmonic currents produce distortion in – noise
the utility feeder voltage.
In addition to electrical conduction, harmonics can be Capacitors

coupled inductively or capacitively, thus causing interfer- Harmonic amplification due to resonance associated with
ence on analog telecommunication systems. For example, capacitor banks can be prevented by using converters with
humming on telephones can be caused by induced harmonic high pulse numbers, such as twelve pulse units, thereby
distortion. reducing high-amplitude low order harmonics. A similar
A power harmonic analysis can be used to compare distortion effect occurs with pulse width modulated converters.
levels against limits of acceptable distortion. In addition, the
operation of some solid state devices will produce a notched Method Advantages Disadvantages
effect on the voltage waveform. Change the size of the capaci- • relatively low • vulnerable to power system
tor bank to shift the resonant incremental cost changes
point away from the major
Harmonic Prevention and Reduction • ease of tuning
harmonic
It is very important when designing an electrical system, or Place an inductor in series • better ability to minimize • series inductor increases the
retrofitting an existing one, to take as many precautions as with the capacitor bank, and harmonics fundamental
necessary to minimize possible harmonic problems. This re- tune their series resonance • flexibility for changing load frequency voltage of the
quires advanced planning and, potentially, additional capital. below the major harmonics conditions capacitor; therefore, a
higher rated capacitor may
The complete electrical environment must be considered.
be required
56 57
Filters
Telephone Line Interference
Harmonic filters can be used to reduce the amplitude of one
or more harmonic currents or voltages. Filters may either be Telephone interference can be reduced by the aforemen-
used to protect specific pieces of equipment, or to eliminate tioned prevention and reduction methods, by rerouting the
harmonics at the source. Since harmonic filters are relatively telephone lines, improved shielding and balance of telephone
large, space requirements may have to be budgeted for. cables, compatible grounding of telephone cables, or by
reducing the harmonic levels on the power line. The degree
In some situations, improperly tuned filters may shift the of telephone interference can be expressed in terms of the
resonant frequencies close to the characteristic harmonics of Telephone Interference Factor (TIF).
the source. The current of the high harmonics could excite
the resonant circuit and produce excessive voltages and at- Harmonic Study
tract high oscillating harmonic currents from elsewhere in
the system. Single calculation of resonant frequencies, transient network
analysis, and digital simulation are among the techniques
available today to perform harmonic studies. These tools
could be used to accurately model the power network, the
harmonic sources, and perform the harmonic analysis in the perceived to ‘flicker’ when viewed by the human eye. The level
same manner as traditional load flow, short circuit and tran- at which it becomes irritating is a function of both the magni-
sient stability studies are conducted. Experienced consultants tude of the voltage change and how often it occurs. A voltage
may be approached to conduct or assist in a harmonic study. flicker curve indicates the acceptable magnitude and frequency
of voltage fluctuations on a distribution system. Flicker is
Equipment Specifications caused by rapidly changing loads such as arc furnaces, electri-
Consider the effect on your power system when ordering cal welders, and the starting and stopping of motors.
harmonic producing equipment. Large projects may require
a pre-installation harmonic study. Be prepared for filtering Figure 19: Flicker Curve IEEE 519-1992
requirements if necessary to ensure compatibility with the
House Pumps Single Elevator Arc Furnaces
power system. If a harmonic filter is required, a description of Sump Pumps Hoists Flashing Signs Reciprocating Pumps
A/C Equipment Cranes Arc-Welders Compressors
the power system should be considered in its design, Theatrical Lighting
Domestic Refrigerators
Y-Delta Changes on
Elevator-Motor-Generator Sets
Drop Hammers
Saws
Automatic Spot Welders
including: 5
Oil Burners X-Ray Equipment Group Elevators
Solid Lines composite curves of voltage flicker studies by

General Electric company. General Electric Review August 1925:
• fault level at the service entrance 4
Kansas City Power & Light Company, Electrical World, May 19,
1934: T&D Committee, EEI, October 24, 1934. Chicago:
Detroit Edison Company: West Pennsylvania Power Company:
• rating and impedance of transformers between the
% Voltage Fluctuation
Public Service Company of Northern Illinois.
3
service entrance and the input to the power Border Lines
Dotted Lines voltage flicker allowed by two utilities,references
Electrical World November 3, 1958 and June 26, 1961.
2 of Irritation
58 conditioning equipment 59
• details of all capacitor banks in the facility. 1
Border Lines
of Visibility
0
Where a choice is available, consider using equipment
1 2 3 10 20 30 1 2 4 6 10 20 30 60 2 3 4 6 10 15
with low harmonic emission characteristics. This should Fluctuations Per Hour Fluctuations Per Minute Fluctuations Per Second
be explicitly stated in the manufacturer’s literature. Where
Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) will be deployed, active front 3.4.3 Distribution and Wiring Problems
end designs generate lower harmonic levels and have a power Many power quality problems are due to improper or inef-
factor close to unity. Variable Speed Drives are also the same fective electrical distribution wiring and/or grounding within
equipment as Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs); Variable the customer’s site.
Frequency Drives (VFDs); Adjustable Frequency Drives
(AFDs), etc. Grounding and distribution problems can result from the
following:
• improper application of grounding electrodes or
3.4.2.2 Flicker
mistakenly devising alternate “grounds” or grounding
Flicker is the impact a voltage fluctuation has on the luminous systems
intensity of lamps and fluorescent tubes such that they are
• high impedances in the neutral current return path or disconnects the faulted portion of a system to minimize the
fault current return path number of customers affected.
• excessive levels of current in the grounding system, The utility distribution system includes a number of devices
due to wiring errors or equipment malfunction such as circuit breakers, automatic circuit re-closers and
It must be realized that although mitigating equipment when fused cutouts which clear faults. Automatic re-closers and
properly applied will resolve voltage quality problems, it will re-closing breakers restore power immediately after tempo-
do nothing to resolve wiring or grounding problems. It is rary faults. Fused cutouts that have operated must have their
essential that the site distribution and grounding system be fuse replaced before power can be restored. These protective
designed and installed properly and in accordance with the devices can reduce the number of customers affected by a
applicable Electrical Safety Code to ensure the safety of per- fault, reduce the duration of power interruptions resulting
sonnel and proper equipment operation. All electrical equip- from temporary faults and assist in locating a fault, thereby
ment used must be approved by the applicable authority, decreasing the length of interruptions.
such as the CSA or UL, or inspected by the local authority Automatic reclosers and reclosing breakers open a circuit on
in order to ensure that regulatory minimum safety standards over-current to prevent any further current flow, and reclose
have been achieved. it after a short period of time. If a fault does not disappear
after one reclosure operation, additional opening/reclosing
3.4.3.1 Fault Protection in Utility Distribution Systems
60 cycles can occur. 61
Faults resulting in overvoltages and over-currents may occur
Figure 20: Example of a Repetitive Reclosure Operation
in the utility system, typically due to lightning, construction,
accidents, high winds, icing, tree contact or animal interven- Fault Fault
tion with wires.4 These faults are normally detected by Persists Persists
over-current relays which initiate the operation of fault t t t

clearing by equipment. Circuit
Open
Faults may be classified as temporary or permanent.
Temporary faults may be caused by momentary contact
with tree limbs, lightning flashover, and animal contact. Circuit
Closed Time
Permanent faults are those which result in repairs,
Fault Circuit
maintenance or equipment replacement before voltage can Start Recloses
be restored. Protection and control equipment automatically
4
A worst case event of tree contact with utility lines contributing to power problems took place Circuit Circuit Circuit
on August 15, 2003. See “U.S.- Canada Power System Outage Task Force Final Report on the Opens; Reopens; Reopens;
August 14, 2003 Blackout in the United States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations,” First Reclosure Second Reclosure Third Reclosure
April 2004 Initiated Initiated Initiated
Normally a few seconds are required to clear a fault and Figure 22: Reclosing Interval for Hydraulic and Electrical Control
energize the appropriate circuitry for a reclosure. The reclos- Types (“t1” 1st reclosing operation etc.)
ing interval for a recloser is the open circuit time between an Reclosing Interval (Seconds)
automatic opening and the succeeding automatic reclosure.
In the above diagram, three intervals of duration ‘t’ are Type of Control t1 t2 t3
indicated.
Hydraulic 2 2 2
Some hydraulic reclosers may be able to provide instanta-
neous (0.5 seconds) or four second reclosing intervals. In Electronic <0.5 2 5-10
addition to these reclosers, circuit breakers at substations, on
the secondary or distribution side, are equipped with timers When a solid fault on a feeder is cleared, the voltage at the
which allow a range of reclosing times to be selected. A com- fault point declines to near zero instantaneously. However,
monly available range is 0.2 to 2 seconds. the time constant in the detection circuitry results in the
graph above. In this figure, small voltage rises indicate when
Figure 21: Effect of Multiple Reclosure Operation on Voltage
reclosure was attempted unsuccessfully due to the persistence
200 V
of the fault.
If a fault persists, the recloser or breaker may lock open, or
62 a fuse or sectionalizer will operate. An autoreclosure on one 63
feeder that is faulted can produce a disturbance that travels
on neighbouring feeders.
Voltage
125 V Customers frequently mistake the effects of a temporary

105 V (0.5s - 2s) interruption, such as the loss of time-keeping
abilities of digital clocks, as evidence of a sustained power
interruption. The fact that most High Intensity Discharge
(HID) lighting, which is frequently used in industrial
settings, can take 10-20 minutes to come back on after a fault
has cleared is a further example of an apparent power supply
0V problem that actually represents normal operation of the
20.0 V/div vertical 2 sec./div horizontal
utility distribution network. The lengthy period of time
LINE–NEUT VOLTAGE SAG
before light is restored results from the characteristics of the
Time lighting system. Although special HID systems are available
(Reproduced with Permission of Basic Measuring Instruments, from “Handbook of Power that eliminate this problem, they do not represent the major-
Signatures”, A. McEachern,1988) ity that are currently used.
3.4.4 Voltage Unbalance customer’s or a neighbour’s facility. Many of these distur-

A voltage unbalance is a condition in a three-phase system bances are due to the use of disturbance producing
in which the measured r.m.s. values of the phase voltages or equipment, improper wiring and grounding, or the misappli-
the phase angles between consecutive phases are not all equal. cation of mitigating equipment.
Voltage unbalance is a significant concern for users that Some disturbances are caused by normal utility operations
have poorly distributed loads and impedance mismatches. such as fault clearing, capacitor switching, and line switching.
An excessive level of voltage unbalance can have serious Although fewer in number than those generated within a fa-
impacts on induction motors, leading to large inefficiencies cility, these events can cause great difficulty for customers that
causing over-heating and winding failure. Excessive losses have equipment incompatible with these normal operations.
in the motor may cause over-current protection systems to
operate. Although induction motors are designed to accept a
100
small level of unbalance they have to be derated if the voltage
unbalance is 2% or higher. If an induction motor is oversized, 80
Relative
then some protection is built into its operation although the Percent of 60
Occurrence
motor does not operate at the best efficiency and power (%) 40
factor. Voltage unbalance may also have an impact on AC 20
64 variable speed drive systems unless the DC output of the 65
0
drive rectifier is well filtered. Sags Impulses Power Overvoltages
Interruptions
There are two major sources of voltage unbalance: Voltage Disturbance
1) the unbalance of load currents, which can be Figure 23: Relative Occurrence of Disturbances to Power Systems
controlled by making sure load currents are balanced Supplying Computers
to within 10% Source: Goldstein and Speranza, “The Quality of U.S. Commercial AC Power”; Proceedings of
2) high impedance or open neutrals, which represent a INTELEC Conference, 1982.
major wiring fault that needs to be corrected by your In 1991 and 2000, the Canadian Electrical Association
electrician. undertook major studies of power quality in Canada – the
National Power Quality Survey . Utilities from across the
3.5 Relative Frequency of Occurrence country performed monitoring at hundreds of sites. By com-
Frequently, the source of a disturbance originates within a paring primary and secondary metered sites, the survey con-
customer’s plant or building. Some pre-existing data studies cluded that the average power quality provided by Canadian
conducted in the United States indicate that as many as 90% utilities is very good, and the average quality experienced by
of the origins of power quality problems originate within a customers is good.
There are considerable differences in the state of power qual- Figure 24: Individual Voltage Harmonic Statistics 222 EPRI DPQ Sites
ity between sites or locations. This is because of the large from 6/1/93 to 6/1/94
number of factors involved, such as customer equipment and Individual Voltage Harmonic Statistics for All Sites
wiring practices, the effects of neighbouring customers, geog- Each column represents a mean average of a given statistic for all DPQ sites
raphy and weather conditions. Sites that have a small inde- 2.5
% of Fundamental
2.0 5th Percentile
pendent power source, or one utility transformer that supplies Mean Average
a number of users, such as strip malls and large buildings, are 1.5 th
95 Percentile
particularly prone to power quality problems. This is because 1.0
both disturbing and sensitive loads share the same power .5
supply. In addition, the individual loads can represent a very 0.0
THD 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
large proportion of the total amount of electricity supplied to
the building, so that changes in voltage can be very signifi- (Reproduced with Permission of EPRI, from * “Preliminary Results For Eighteen Months of
cant when one of these loads is turned on or off. Frequently, Monitoring from the EPRI Distribution Power Quality Project”, D. Sabin, T. Grebe, A. Sundaram,
1994)
customers unknowingly cause their own power quality prob-
lems by operating disturbance-producing process equipment
in the same vicinity as electronic control devices. 3.6 Related Topics
66 From 1992 to 1995, the Electrical Power Research Institute 67
(EPRI) collected data at 300 sites in the U.S. to assess utility
3.6.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
power quality at the distribution level. A report* indicated Electromagnetic compatibility is the term given to the
that sites experienced an average of 9 voltage sag or interrup- measure and creation of electrical equipment that has both
tion events per year. In addition, the data indicated that volt- its susceptibility and transmission of electromagnetic noise
age THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) peaked during late reduced. The amount of reduction may be regulated by gov-
afternoon and evening periods. For residential feeders this ernment rule or may be required to meet a certain operational
data is consistent with past experience, since this is where requirement. Areas of EMC that may overlap with power
harmonic sources such as television sets are the predominant quality are:
load on the system. 1) Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) magnetic field
interference from power lines (solved by distance, field
cancellation or shielding techniques)
2) Radiated noise from electronic devices (usually solved
with filtering or shielding)
3) Radiated noise from power wires (solved with
re-routing, shielding or filtering)
4) Generation of harmonics by electrical loads (solved the existing complement of business equipment. This could
with filtering or re-design of the circuitry). result in system over-loading at some points in the distribu-
Electromagnetic Compatibility is a more involved and tion network. In the modern context of loading, harmonic
complex subject than can be adequately addressed in this currents need special attention, thus a real time monitoring
guide. The international technical community has provided system was requested to provide harmonic and true loading
standardization activity under the IEC EMC committees of the center’s distribution grid.
(see http://www.iec.ch/zone/emc for more information). As was pointed out to the BRC personnel and engineering
staff, for only a small additional cost, a total power quality
3.7 Three Power Quality Case Studies monitoring system could be installed that would provide
building envelope information along with distribution point
3.7.1 Case Study: Meter, Monitor & Manage: A data within the envelope. The BRC utilizes a 600 V base
building distribution system. BRC business equipment
proactive response to power quality
transformers are fed from one of two bus risers, while
The site in question is located in a multi-story office tower. mechanical equipment is fed from a separate 600 V bus duct.
The top four floors of the building have been designated In the event of a total loss of utility power these bus ducts
as a “Business Recovery Center” (BRC) of a large financial can be fed by two diesel generators that have an extended
institution. The function of the center is to provide backup, operating capability.
68 69
mirror and support services for the company’s business units.
The following requirements were developed both from BRC
If a natural or operational disaster occurred, many of the
requests and expert input from the various stakeholders:
business functions could be temporarily routed to this center.
• Each dry-type transformer in the BRC was to be
As a result, the BRC contains a significant concentration of
monitored in order to provide current and harmonic
computing resources that need to be available at any time.
loading, current and voltage distortion, voltage
Workstation computing requirements are based on the actual
unbalance, and neutral current readings in real time
working systems used by line personnel.
• Power quality meters to provide transient, sag/swell and
Disaster and recovery planning must allow for unforeseen waveform deviation graphs and statistics
events. Even the best disaster planner will realize that some • Power quality thresholds must be programmable and
events contain the seeds for others; some problems are accessible
cascading in nature and this requires adaptability on the part • Energy monitoring must provide an aggregated table
of the recovery center. At this location, electrical capacity of consumption criteria with graphs on a monthly basis
has been designed to allow for increased loading from extra • All meters must be fully networked utilizing open
workstations and servers that may be brought to the site standards networking architectures and protocols
subsequent to the on-set of a recovery situation and added to
One of the key decisions that was made at this site on the ba- This site’s experience with the monitoring system has been
sis of data viewed from the power quality component of the beneficial in the following ways:
meters was with regard to Uninterruptible Power Supplies • Data is presented to management that allows new
(UPS). Two issues arose that lead to cost savings. The first insight into equipment utilization
of these concerned the need for a large on-site UPS system • Information is available at all times that can define load
which was advocated by some. While servers require the factors for key processes
ride-through of the UPS, management determined that the • Reporting is available that shows the size, shape and
impact of transfer switching, while annoying for some is ac- duration of building envelope power quality anomalies.
ceptable and that most workstations did not need the protec- The money invested in the monitoring system has generated
tion of 0.5 – 2 s of ride through afforded by the UPS. Data great returns in terms of the impact power quality data has
from monthly generator tests revealed however that transfer had on equipment purchase and utilization since installation.
switch wave shape anomalies were impacting the servers,
leading to some network anomalies. The UPSs in use at the
3.7.2 Case Study: High Demand Load in an Aircraft
site were of a hybrid type that allowed transient and switch-
Assembly Facility
ing noise to pass through the UPS. UPSs were also subjected
to excessive battery wear. Based on waveform data captured A pulsed laser system used by an aircraft manufacturer was
during testing, a decision was made to switch to an on-line used to number and identify wires on each and every plane
70 UPS design and to institute a networked UPS management manufactured. The unit was malfunctioning and would stop 71
system. operating for short durations. The cost to the operation
involved downtime of staff and equipment but, more impor-
Within 8 months of operation, an increased voltage unbal-
tantly, inconsistent wire marking presented a massive safety
ance was noted on a non-K-rated dry-type transformer.
liability.
Normally this would indicate a high impedance neutral to
ground bond which, if left undetected, would lead to over- The machine operated at 20 Hz supplied from a standard
heating and equipment failure. A check of the meter revealed 120 V, 60 Hz single phase branch circuit. The system relied
however that the neutral to ground bond on the meter was on an effective transfer of peak power from the power supply
loose. Upon tightening this connection the voltage unbalance to the laser. Anything less than the peak power during pulse
indication was corrected on the operator display. operations resulted in reduced laser intensity with a conse-
quent lack of quality in the process. Further investigation
revealed that the quality of voltage at the site was distorted
by 4.5%, and that the peaks of the voltage waveform were
flattening out.
A second point of concern occurred when the laser unit was transformers are the AC drives. The figure below shows a
powered up. There was a large current inrush that led to a rather innocuous looking snapshot. The variable speed drives
voltage notch and a drop in peak voltage. This is an imped- are rather like large switch-mode power supplies which
ance interaction: essentially the source is unable to provide demand peak current after reaching peak voltage.
the kind of current the load is asking for.
Moving beyond the start-up phase to a period when the laser Power quality experience tells one that a concentration of
was being “fired”, the voltage flat-topping was more obvious electronic, single phase loads leads to a 3rd harmonic neutral
and the loss of peak voltage was chronic and severe. The peak current. The neutral current in this case is shown in the sec-
power delivered to the laser was over 25% less than what was ond figure and can be seen to be primarily composed of 180
required. Product marking during this cycle was substandard. Hz. current, peaking above 150 Amps.
Facility electricians were instructed to wire up a temporary
source close to the laser load which had a lower impedance Voltage
Site 4 - Phase B-Neut. Snapshot 10:25:45 AM Current
and higher capacity. This solution provided a healthier situ-
ation for the internal workings of the power supply, since 200 200
capacitors reach full charge and more power was available for 150 150
100 100
the laser.
Amps
50 50
Volts
72 Why was the capacity of the source increased? Nominally 0 0 73
–50 –50
the unit operated on a 20 A breaker at 120 V giving us a –100 –100
rough capacity rating of 2400 VA. The system required large –150 –150
charging currents to power its laser, and therefore a source of –200 –200
50 A at 120V, 6000 VA, was needed. It is not unusual to have
to up-size source requirements considerably for loads of this
type. Site 4 - Neut-Gnd Snapshot 10:25:45 AM
Voltage
Current
3.7.3 Case Study C: Motor Drive and Transformer 5 200

150
Incompatibility in a Commercial Building 3 100
This case study looks at a commercial office building 1 50
Amps
Volts
0
which utilizes two banks of AC motors with variable speed –1 –50
drives (VSDs) to control Heating, Ventilating and Air –100
–3
Conditioning (HVAC) functions. Each of the banks is ser- –150
viced by its own 45 kVA transformer; the only loads on these –5 –200
3.0 Power Quality Problems 4.0 Solving and Mitigating Electrical Power Problems
The major problem at this site was the intense heating in the
service transformers. The problem became especially acute
4.0 Solving and Mitigating
when tenants on the second floor complained about the smell Electrical Power Problems
of smoke from the transformers below them. The transform-
ers were doing a fine job of providing isolation from the
third harmonic; the problem was that they were not the right 4.1 Identifying the Root Cause and Assessing
size for the electronic load. In order to provide a complete
analysis of a transformer with regard to IEEE 519 harmon- Symptoms
ics guidelines, some calculations from the name-plate of the Power quality technologists employ technical instrumenta-
transformer needed to be performed. tion. This instrumentation can range from simple digital
What was discovered was that the load on the transform- multi-metering through to sophisticated waveform analysis
ers was at least 5 kVA over their nominal de-rated capacity instruments. True power quality monitoring requires full-
which accounted for the severe heating. Both transformers time monitoring so that steady state effects can be trended
were operating just above their maximum designed tempera- and infrequent events can be captured as they occur. A
tures which will lead to premature insulation failure. What variety of electronic meters are now available for permanent
is not shown here, and was required to obtain the results is monitoring that offer numerous features at moderate prices.
74 the raw data analysis from the power quality instrument that A trained PQ specialist can also employ a portable instru- 75
obtained the RMS and peak currents. ment, or groups of instruments, to diagnose power quality
The solution for this site was new K-rated transformers for for fixed periods of time. It should be emphasized that power
each drive bank. Given the isolated nature of the drives and quality monitoring is a highly technical and potentially
the low neutral to ground voltage, there was no need for dangerous skill; even many trained electricians are completely
phase shifting transformers or special neutral current limiting unfamiliar with the details of how power quality measure-
devices. ment is properly carried out.
Do not attempt to undertake a power quality measurement
exercise without the help of a professional practitioner in
the field.
One of the first things that should be carried out before
monitoring begins is a check of the effectiveness, safety and
operational characteristics of the wiring in the facility. This
will ensure that problems like bad grounding, poor termina-
tions and improperly connected loads are not masking other
problems or are, in fact, not mistaken for other types of issues.
4.0 Solving and Mitigating Electrical Power Problems 4.0 Solving and Mitigating Electrical Power Problems
Some of the elements that might be tracked by a PQ profes- effective may fail to protect sensitive equipment after such a
sional are: change has occurred.
• RMS (Root - Mean - Square) Measurements When selecting equipment that has an operational heat loss,
• Average Measurements as indicated by an efficiency rating, provision should be made
• Peak Measurements for adequate cooling of the equipment, especially if it is to be
• Harmonic Analysis located in a computer room.
• Power Line Event Logging
4.2.1.1 Dedicated Circuits
4.2 Improving Site Conditions A dedicated circuit is a single circuit with one load. It is a
Consideration of disturbance sources external to the facility relatively inexpensive distribution technique that can reduce
should only be considered after the internal electrical envi- load interaction. The ability of a dedicated circuit to solve
ronment has been thoroughly checked. power quality problems depends on its location, impedance,
and other factors. To achieve the lowest possible impedance,
theoretically, the load of the circuit should be as close as pos-
4.2.1 Mitigating Effects
sible to the building service entrance. However, this could
The key elements to mitigate power quality problems are: aggravate the situation if transients are a problem, since they
76 • proper grounding and wiring could travel more freely through the system. For improved 77
• effective mitigating equipment (if required) operation of the circuit, the neutral and the ground wires
should be the same size as the current-carrying conductor.
4.2.2 Mitigating Equipment
Tips and Cautions
A wide variety of products are available that can help to
mitigate power line disturbances. Care should be taken to Dedicated circuits will solve local problems only. Properly
properly select effective mitigating equipment. Improper installed dedicated circuits obviate the need for isolated
application of these products may cause new power quality grounding circuits.
problems due to unforeseen incompatibilities. Before select-
ing a product, the customer should have a good understand- 4.2.1.2 Surge Protective Devices (SPDs; also known as Transient
Voltage Surge Suppressors, TVSS)
ing of the cause of the problem, as well as the characteristics
of the available equipment. SPDs are energy diverters that pass the energy contained in a
A properly functioning system may be adversely affected by transient to the ground. There are a variety of designs avail-
change in the electrical environment, as in a change of load able including gas discharge tubes, line clamps made of
in the facility. Therefore, mitigating equipment that was once semiconducting material, and hybrid designs which may
contain linear inductive or capacitive components. It is occur within the sine wave envelope but do not exceed the
important to note that transient suppressors do not provide limiting threshold.
voltage regulation or isolation. Figure 25: Effect of Line Clamp on Transient Voltages, 120 Volt System
transient clamped at 183 V peak

4.2.1.3 Lightning Arresters
The lightning arrester is designed to remove large overvol- MOV
183V threshold
tages and associated high energy levels. This is accomplished 170V
during an overvoltage by short-circuiting the line to ground transient: +400V peak
in what is referred to as a crowbar effect of energy diversion.

The conduction of energy to ground will cease when the
Voltage
current drops to zero. The response time for this technology 0V Time
is relatively slow. These products are used as primary arresters
on main power feeders.
4.2.1.4 End-User SPDs – 170V

transient: –250V peak MOV
Faster-acting SPDs that use Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs), – 183V threshold
78 or silicon avalanche diodes (SADs) can be used for lower- 79
transient clamped at 183V peak
voltage transient attenuation. They act by clamping line
voltage to a specific value and conducting any excess impulse Figure 26: Example of Impulses Not Clamped
energy to ground, regardless of frequency. The energy shunt-
ing capability of a line clamp is expressed by its joule MOV
183V threshold
rating, which determines the amount of energy the device 170V
can handle. It is important to realize that these units are transient: transient:
50V peak 250V peak
only as good as the ground wiring that they are connected
to; routing transient energy to ground may result in the
Voltage
mis-operation of some devices. In addition, they are quite 0V Time
susceptible to longer duration overvoltages, which can lead
to catastrophic component failure. Silicon avalanche diodes
operate on lower voltages, handle less power, but tend to act
faster than MOVs, and are often used in communication – 170V
systems for these reasons. Due to the clamping nature of a – 183V
MOV
threshold
surge suppressor, it cannot remove voltage irregularities that
4.2.1.5 Power Line Filters Figure 27: Examples of Untuned Filters
Filter design is a complex topic and needs to be properly

addressed by a qualified power quality practitioner.
L
Linear Passive Filter
Produces
Design and Operation C
Output
A linear filter is composed of linear components, such as
Cutoff
inductors and capacitors. It passes the basic power frequency R Frequency
(60 Hz) and attenuates other frequencies which are in the
form of electrical noise and harmonics. C
Produces
Some filters are tuned circuits, which means they address a Output
small range of frequencies. Examples of filters that are not Cutoff

Frequency
tuned are the simple low pass filter, and the simple high pass Low Pass Filter Design and Characteristics
filter (next page).
C
Uses
80 Simple low pass filters attenuate high frequencies, and have 81
L Produces
the general characteristics most desired in filters for improved
Output
power quality and noise attenuation.
Cutoff
Simple high pass filters attenuate low frequencies. Frequency
C
Tuned shunt filters are not used for general power quality
applications.
R Produces
Special designs are used to attenuate harmonics. A shunt
Output
connected tuned filter, which consists of an inductor, a ca-
Cutoff
pacitor and a resistor, is tuned to eliminate a specific har- Frequency
monic order by providing a low impedance to the harmonic High Pass Filter Design and Characteristics
frequency and shunting the harmonic energy to ground. A
number of these filters may be arranged in stages, with each
stage selectively filtering a given harmonic frequency.
Examples of Harmonic Filters Since the ability of a transformer to pass high frequency
Equipment which is either sensitive to electrical noise, or noise varies directly with capacitance, isolation transformers
which creates it, is often designed with linear filters for pro- should be designed to minimize the coupling capacitance
tection of equipment. For instance, all power supplies contain between primary and secondary sides, while increasing the
electrical filters. For harmonics, multi-staged shunt filters are coupling to ground. Isolation transformers have no direct
most effective for mitigation of lower order harmonics. current path between primary and secondary windings. This
feature is not characteristic of an auto-transformer, and
Disadvantages therefore an auto-transformer cannot be used as an isolation
• Common mode noise is not necessarily eliminated by transformer.
the use of linear filters. Unshielded isolation transformers can only attenuate low
• Low pass series filters are seldom used for harmonic frequency common mode noise.
attenuation since they must be rated for full line current High frequency normal mode noise can be attenuated by
making them relatively expensive. specially designed and shielded isolation transformers,
• Shunt filters applied at individual loads can often be although it is not frequently required (consult with your
overloaded by harmonics produced by nearby loads or electrical system expert).
even at other customer sites. Advantages
82 83
4.2.1.6 Isolation Transformers • Isolation transformers are used to attenuate common
mode noise.
Design and Operation • They provide a new neutral to ground reference point.
• They can be used to break ground loops.
Isolation transformers consist of two coils (primary and sec- • Isolation transformers can reduce higher order
ondary) intentionally coupled together, on a magnetic core. harmonics, but will not eliminate harmonic distortion
They have two primary functions: or prevent notching.
a) They provide isolation between two circuits, by con- • Isolation transformers may be combined with other
verting electrical energy to magnetic energy and back equipment such as transient suppressors and
to electrical energy, thus acting as a new power source. circuit breakers to form complex circuits known as
Power Distribution Units (PDUs).
b) They provide a level of common mode shielding be- • Only high quality shielded isolation transformers
tween two circuits. should be used in critical applications.
Disadvantages Uses
• No voltage regulation or ride-through capabilities are These products regulate voltage to protect against momen-
available. tary and transient disturbances, within a certain range. Their
• Poorly designed isolation transformers may produce response time is typically one cycle.
harmonics. Regulators are already built into some sensitive equipment.
• The ability of an enhanced isolation transformer to Most regulators that are built into equipment, however, are
attenuate normal mode noise varies, depending on the DC regulators.
load.
Disadvantages
4.2.1.7 Line Voltage Regulators • Voltage regulators do not have noise suppression
capabilities.
Design and Operation • Those with switching power supplies actually create
A line voltage regulator is a device that maintains a relatively noise in the input line.
constant voltage output within a specified range, regardless of
input voltage variations. Some kinds of line voltage regula- 4.2.1.8 Ferroresonant Transformers
tors can regulate, but not “condition”, the power. They are less In contrast to a typical isolation transformer, the ferroreso-
84 frequently used, and include the ferroresonant transformer, nant transformer is designed to operate at saturation. The 85
the tap switching transformer, the variable ratio transformer, ferroresonant transformer provides the same functions as the
the magnetically coupled voltage regulator, the induction shielded isolation transformer, but also provides instanta-
regulator and the saturable reactor. The ferroresonant trans- neous, continual voltage regulation, as well as ride-through
former and tap switcher are discussed in more detail within capabilities.
this section. A ferroresonant transformer has a relatively simple design,
Auto-transformers are frequently used in voltage regula- and no moving parts; however this mitigation device was
tion devices. If an auto-transformer is used as the variable designed for older, linear electrical loads. A ferroresonant
circuit element, it develops a variable voltage which is added transformer is often incompatible with modern electronic
to the incoming AC line voltage. A sample of the input loads and should be used with caution on high demand
voltage is rectified, filtered and compared to a DC refer- loads. Ferroresonant transformers usually have higher
ence voltage. The difference is then used to offset the input operating temperatures that can lead to very warm equip-
voltage change. Auto-transformers are also used in Silicon ment enclosure temperatures. It is therefore recommended
Controlled Rectifier regulators. In this case, the primary that these transformers be safely guarded from accidental
voltage of the autotransformer is varied by phase control. contact by personnel.
4.2.1.9 Tap Switching Transformers 4.2.1.11 UPS Systems

“UPS” means uninterruptible power supply. A UPS system
Design and Operation contains a component that stores energy which can be used
An electronic tap switching transformer, or tap switcher, during power interruptions. UPSs are available in a wide
regulates output voltage by changing the ratio of primary range, from basic battery backup to units that can supply
windings to secondary windings in response to fluctuations power for days.
in input voltage or load. This is accomplished with solid state UPS systems can be on-line or off-line (standby). Typically,
switches (SCRs or TRIACS) which select the appropriate the on-line systems provide greater protection and cost more.
taps to compensate for the fluctuations. Voltage is regulated These systems may be either rotary or static. Rotary systems
not continuously, but in steps. Switching occurs when line employ rotating machines; static systems use solid state
voltage passes through zero, so transients are not created. components. A UPS does not necessarily provide protection
• The tap switcher can react in one or two cycles. against high energy impulses.
• Either peak or RMS voltage detectors may be used. A properly selected UPS system is the only product, other
• Taps may either be on the primary or secondary side. than a generating unit, that can protect critical loads against
Uses power interruptions exceeding 0.5 seconds and which can
Where voltage fluctuation is the primary concern. provide active regulated power.
86 87
Disadvantages Some inexpensive UPS systems with low power ratings
produce a square wave output, causing some loads to
Voltage output changes are not continuous. Better voltage malfunction. This characteristic is particularly true for
continuity is achieved by using more taps. standby UPS systems. The problem can be avoided by
If auto-transformers are used, no isolation is provided. selecting a UPS system with a synthesized sine wave.
Disagreement often arises as to the preferred type of system,
4.2.1.10 Power Conditioners rotary or static. Rotary systems are often criticized for the
Devices marketed as power conditioners are often combina- regular maintenance they require, whereas static systems are
tions of the above-mentioned mitigation devices. They often criticized for the frequency of failed components. It should
contain transient voltage surge suppression, noise filters, and be pointed out that regular maintenance and parts replace-
isolation transformers or voltage regulators. Careful consid- ment of rotary systems helps to prevent component
eration of product specifications and the intended use are failures, whereas static systems can run for a significant
required in order to determine if they will be effective. period of time without maintenance before failure with
minimal downtime. No matter what system is selected, the
user should expect that some type of maintenance or
replacement will eventually be required. Multiple UPS Rotary UPS

systems can be used for redundancy in critical applications. A state-of-the-art, on-line rotary UPS is one of the most
They can be arranged in parallel, in which case they normally effective but more costly types of UPS systems. Although a
share loads, or in isolation, so that each UPS supplies a number of designs are available, they include motor-genera-
specific load under normal operation. tors with battery backups and fly-wheel systems.
Large UPS systems (>100 kVA) typically employ inverters
and wet-cell batteries, which require ventilation. Care should 4.2.1.12 Isolated Grounding Outlets
be taken to locate these items in protected, ventilated areas. An isolated ground (IG) outlet as recognized by Electrical
Regardless of where the system is situated, the room should Codes is a receptacle, orange in colour or with an orange
be relatively free of dust, and the temperature maintained triangle and marked “Isolated Ground”, that is wired as an
near 25°C for optimum battery life and performance. More individual branch circuit outlet. This outlet has a separate
recently designed small UPS systems (<100 kVA) employ green or green/yellow wire along with the normal uninsulated
sealed batteries, which emit no hydrogen gas, and transistor- ground wire that runs continuously from the ground conduc-
ized inverters, which are very quiet. The batteries are tor terminal to the first panelboard where it is connected to
mounted in a cabinet, and the whole system can be placed the ground bus. Bonding of the conduit, boxes, etc. of the
in a computer room. Care should be taken to ensure that circuit is accomplished by ordinary means, i.e., conduit or a
88 adequate battery life is available for these systems. separate ground wire. The two grounds are connected only at 89
the panelboard.
Battery Design and Selection
Many years ago, this arrangement was implemented to re-
A battery is an electrochemical device that converts stored duce common-mode noise problems. Common-mode noise
chemical energy into electrical energy. is better attenuated at each device in the system and is in fact
Recharge time is typically 8-10 times the discharge time. effectively filtered at the input of modern electronic devices.
When selecting a UPS battery, the cell size, cell life, required The IEEE Emerald Book states that:
voltage, reliability, weight/space and manufacturer’s warranty “This type of equipment grounding configuration is only
should be considered. It is also important to note that battery intended to be used for reducing common-mode electrical noise
discharge time as a function of load is not a linear relation- on the electronic load equipment circuit as described in the
ship. Two basic types of batteries that are used for UPS sys- NEC. It has no other purpose and its effects are variable
tems are lead acid and Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA). and controversial.”
Carefully consider the minimum amount of battery time that
is necessary in order to reduce capital and maintenance costs
in the system.
Isolated grounding receptacles are no longer recommended If the feeder has a resistance of 0.075 ohms, during a motor
for installation in any situation. The effects they are supposed start the voltage drop along the feeder is:
to solve can be more easily and cheaply mitigated with robust V = IR
electrical system design. = 160A x 0.075
= 12V
4.2.3 Preventative Measures Voltage at the sensitive loads is 120 -12 =108V
Voltage at the motors is 208 - (兹3 x 12) =187V
4.2.3.1 Distribution System Considerations for Sensitive Loads If the motor is a 10 HP motor, it will draw an inrush current
The quality of the power supplying sensitive loads is very in the order of 160 A for a short period of time when
heavily influenced by other loads within a customer’s facility. starting.
If there are “heavy” loads such as motors or heating, venti- The impedance of the feeders to the distribution panel
lating and air conditioning systems being supplied, voltage supplying the motor and sensitive loads will cause a voltage
drops and electrical noise can be generated causing power drop of 12 volts or more while the motor is starting. Because
quality problems for sensitive loads such as computer loads. of this voltage drop the sensitive loads will be supplied with
As an illustration, consider the following distribution system only 108 volts for a short period of time. Unless the sensitive
supplying both motor loads and sensitive electronic loads. In loads have an adequate amount of stored energy to
90 this case the sensitive loads are fed from phase to neutral, and ride-through the voltage sag, they may malfunction. In 91
motors are fed phase to phase. addition, the current drawn for the first one or two cycles
Figure 28: Motor and Sensitive Loads Supplied from the Same Feeder
of the motor start, while the stator is magnetizing, is 2 to 3
times higher than the normal starting current. This will lead
to only 84 V feeding the sensitive loads during this time.
108V If the motor load and the sensitive loads are supplied from
separate feeders then the voltage drop does not occur in the
Computer
12V drop Units feeder supplying the sensitive loads.
along feed
600V 208Y/120V
Supply Motors
Transformer
187V
Figure 29: Motor and Computer Loads Supplied from Separate Typical voltages for computer equipment are 120 volts single
Feeder phase and 120/208 volts three-phase wye. If the sensitive
120V loads are susceptible to some form of RFI (radio frequency
interference), the transformer may utilize a shield that
Computer
Negligible drop Units isolates electrical and magnetic noise coupling from the
primary to the secondary of the transformer. This shield is
connected to ground. The neutral on the secondary of the
12V drop transformer must be connected to ground per the applicable
600V Motors
Code in your jurisdiction.
208Y/120V 187V
4.2.4 High Frequency Grounding Considerations
Equipment grounding and the grounding of the electrical
An even better approach is to effectively create a new supply
distribution system provide a low impedance path to ground
system for the sensitive loads by using a transformer in addi-
for low frequencies (mainly 60 Hz and up to the 11th
tion to a separate feeder
harmonic). Computers and microprocessor controlled equip-
Figure 30: Isolation Transformer Added to Computer Feeder Supply ment operate at high frequencies (in the 100s of MHz for
control devices and well into the GHz region for IT and
92 Computer Units communications equipment). 93
120V
IT equipment transfers data between various pieces of equip-
ment at very high frequencies utilizing low signal levels. In
the past, where these signal levels were referenced to the local
ground system, they were susceptible to electrical noise and
interference. Examples of the types of interfaces that suffered
600V from noise coupling problems were the RS-232 interface and
208Y/120V Motors
the Centronics printer interface. Grounded interconnection
187V
standards like these have been largely superceded by isolated
and higher speed connections like Ethernet, fibre optics and
A transformer establishes a separately derived power source. USB. Where older analog communications systems and digital
The transformer can be of the step-down type to reduce the interface standards are still used, these types of equipment need
supply voltage to the utilization voltage of the equipment or an effective means of grounding for both low and high frequen-
an isolation transformer if the supply voltage is already at the cies. A more effective approach is to eliminate all ground-refer-
appropriate voltage. enced communication interfaces in a facility with newer, higher
speed and noise immune interfaces.
Effects of Frequency on Conductors Signal Reference Structure

Wiring systems used within a building generally have low A ground plane is a conducting surface that has low imped-
impedance at low frequency, but as the frequency increases ance over a range of frequencies. The ideal situation would be
the impedance increases. “Real” wiring can be modeled by a to have all communications equipment located on a ground
wire with resistance and inductance and stray capacitance to plane so that short connections could be made from the
ground distributed along its length. equipment to the plane.
For a grounding conductor to be effective at high frequencies While it is usually not practical to have a true ground plane,
it must be short to minimize the effects of stray capacitance an effective alternative is a grid of conductors spaced on
and distributed inductance along its length. A rule of thumb regular intervals, bonded at their intersections on the subfloor
is that the conductor should be shorter than 1/20th of the of a room’s raised floor, where it exists. This is called a Signal
wavelength at that frequency. This means a length shorter Reference Grid (SRG). In the absence of a raised floor, the
than 1.4 m at 10 MHz. The single point, parallel path bonded interconnection of equipment racks and trays at
ground, which makes for a good equipment ground, is a less regular intervals also creates a SRG effect.
reliable high frequency signal ground. Figure 32: Signal Reference Structure or “Grid”
In order to satisfy both equipment grounding and signal Common grounding point at point of
penetration of the electrical conductors
grounding requirements, a hybrid system should be em- to computer room.
94 ployed. This system is a combination of the parallel path Computer Room 95
ground combined with a multipoint ground for good high
frequency performance.
One such method, described in IEEE 1100-1999, The
Emerald Book, is a signal reference structure. Ground via
Figure 31: Equivalent Circuit of a Wire Electrical
Distribution
System.
Typical Conductor
Equivalent Zero signal

Circuit reference grid
grounded to
electrical
system at
the common
grounding
point. Equipment bonded Conductors
Resistance to reference grid via bonded
Stray Capacitance short conductors.
of Wire Inductance together at
of Wire
of Wire intersections.
The grid is grounded to the electrical system ground at the have been identified and corrected. Then identify any
point where the supply enters the room. All powered equip- problems that require mitigating equipment.
ment is also grounded at this point making the equipment • Ensure that all components of interconnected IT
grounding a single point system. equipment are bonded to the same grounding system.
Equipment is bonded to the reference grid via short con- • For the purposes of signal grounding, never assume
ductors creating a low impedance path to ground for high that two physically separated points of a ground system
frequencies. This hybrid system satisfies both equipment will be at the same potential. Use isolation techniques
and high frequency grounding requirements and complies or current transmitters for physically separated
with the Electrical Safety Code. It creates a more stable and equipment.
robust environment for all equipment connected to it in the • If significant changes have been made in an electrical
event of a voltage transient or system fault impacting the system, and a low voltage condition exists, notify the
electrical system. utility.
4.3 Troubleshooting and Predictive Tips Mitigating Equipment

• Ensure that overvoltage protection exists at the
4.3.1 Tips powerline entrance to the building and at other
96 susceptible points. 97
Distribution Wiring and Grounding • When purchasing electrical products, ensure that they
• Check that the electrical contractor is reputable, and will effectively perform the functions that are required,
practices proper grounding and wiring techniques. and cause minimal degradation of the power system. It
The electrical installation should be tested with is a good idea to request a demonstration of the
instruments to determine compliance to Codes and equipment within the plant, when possible, especially
equipment requirements. Have all wiring inspected. for mitigating equipment.
• Electrically separate highly sensitive loads from other • Following installation of mitigating equipment, verify
loads. This may involve using separate buses, or that the problem is solved.
separate distribution transformers. The Code generally • Always identify any equipment sensitivity requirements,
does not allow separate AC services to be used in a such as sensitivity to voltage fluctuations, in
facility. specifications.
• Ensure that all equipment is CSA certified for safety • Consider the interaction between mitigating equipment
reasons. Before purchasing mitigating equipment, and the load. For instance, if the mitigating equipment
ensure that all distribution and grounding problems has a high impedance, and the load has high inrush
current (due, perhaps, to the starting of large motors), a
voltage sag could result rating. It is especially important to obtain the

• The noise suppression capabilities of some products power requirements for sensitive loads from the
may be specified in terms of peak attenuation, which manufacturer.
may not be appropriate for some applications. In
addition, it is important to know the conditions under Best Practices
which the attenuation was measured. • Reduce the number of disturbance sources.
• Proper installation of electrical equipment is very • Maintain a malfunction log.
important and yet often overlooked. For example, many • Customers should be aware of the level of harmonics
ferroresonant transformers and power conditioners are they are producing. If a customer is exceeding the
improperly installed due to incorrectly sized primary acceptable limits of the distribution system, they may
conductors or breakers. be required to shut down their facility.
• To minimize problems related to voltage sags use
Equipment Ratings reduced voltage starters on motors
• The purchaser should check if quoted equipment • If installing an isolation transformer, ensure that the
capabilities apply to units operating at no load, partial ground on the secondary side is properly connected.
load or full load. • Above all, know and understand the technology of
98 • All electrical equipment should be properly sized. mitigating equipment before applying it. 99
Products may be sized by power, in volt amps (VA),
or by maximum current rating in amps. To determine 4.3.2 Troubleshooting
proper sizing, the following steps should be taken: If an electrical end-user suspects that a power quality prob-
o Determine the load operating voltage, current, lem exists in his facility, there are a number of steps that may
and/or VA from the nameplate rating. be taken to troubleshoot the problem. The key is a process of
o Sum all individual VA ratings of the loads. To elimination. Reputable consultants may be contacted by the
obtain an estimate of the power consumed by the customer to assist the process:
load, which is the real power in watts, calculate:
1. Define the type of disturbance, frequency of
Real Power = VA x Power Factor.
occurrence and magnitude of the problem.
o Many nameplate ratings assume a power factor of
2. Determine which power conductors -- hot, neutral or
unity. If this is not a good assumption, factor this
ground -- have problems; this is critical, since some
in. Some units are rated in Primary Power ratings.
mitigation techniques only address problems with a
If this is the case then the sum of all secondary
specific conductor. For grounding problems, the source
loads will have to be divided by the efficiency of
of the problem must be fixed; no mitigating equipment
the unit in order to obtain the Primary Power
4.0 Solving and Mitigating Electrical Power Problems 5.0 Where to Go for Help
will provide a solution.

3. Check wiring for loose connections.
5.0 Where to Go for Help
4. Check that proposed solutions actually work and
follow-up.
Web Resources
IEEE Standards Information
Home of the IEEE standards; in particular 446; 519;
1100 (“The Emerald Book”, considered the key IEEE
reference on power quality); 1159; 1250 and 1346.
Copper.org
A site by the Copper Development Organization
responsible for promoting the use of copper; check out
the reference primer on power quality.
100 Power Standards Laboratory 101

A web site from principal, Alex McEachern, about
voltage sags.
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

A good power quality reference is UL Standard 1449,
second edition that describes performance specifications
for surge protection devices.
Power Quality Guidelines for Energy Efficient Device

Application
This guidebook has three primary objectives:
1) to improve guidelines for minimizing any undesirable
power quality impacts of energy saving technologies,
5.0 Where to Go for Help 5.0 Where to Go for Help
2) to provide an understanding of the energy savings • CAN/CSA-C61000-2-2-04

potential of power quality related technologies and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 2-2:
3) to provide guidelines for evaluating “black box” Environment - Compatibility Levels for Low-
technologies. Frequency Conducted Disturbances and Signaling in
Public Low-Voltage Power Supply Systems”
Semiconductor Equipment Materials International • CAN/CSA-CEI/IEC 61000-2-8-04
SEMI F47, Specification for Semiconductor Processing Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 2-8:
Equipment Voltage Sag Immunity, is available from Environment - Voltage Dips and Short Interruptions
SEMI. on Public Electric Power Supply Systems with
Statistical Measurement Results
International SEMATECH Technology Transfers • CAN/CSA-C61000-3-3-06
This web site is by Sematech, a consortium of semicon- Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-3:
ductor manufacturers and tool manufacturers. It contains Limits - Limitation of Voltage Changes, Voltage
the report, “Guide for the Design of Semiconductor Fluctuations and Flicker in Public Low-Voltage Supply
Equipment to Meet Voltage Sag Immunity Standards.” Systems, for Equipment with Rated Current <= 16 A
per Phase and Not Subject to Conditional Connection
102 IEC Standards Information • CAN/CSA C61000-3-6-04 103
Information about types of disturbance, emission and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 3:
immunity, etc., as well as the different IEC Standards Limits - Section 6: Assessment of Emission Limits
can be found at: http://www.iec.ch/zone/emc/whatis.htm for Distorting Loads in MV and HV Power Systems
- Basic EMC Publication
National Fire Protection Association • CAN/CSA-C61000-3-7-04
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 3:
Information about electrical safety can be found at:
Limits - Section 7: Assessment of Emission Limits
http://www.nfpa.org
for Fluctuating Loads in MV and HV Power Systems
- Basic EMC Publication
CSA Relevant Standards
• CAN/CSA-CEI/IEC 61000-4-11-05
Standards are available at: Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-11:
http://www.csa-intl.org/onlinestore/ Testing and Measurement Techniques - Voltage Dips,
GetCatalogDrillDown.asp?Parent=183 Short Interruptions and Voltage Variations Immunity
Tests
5.0 Where to Go for Help 5.0 Where to Go for Help
• CAN/CSA-CEI/IEC 61000-4-34-06 • T004700 5108

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-34: Techniques to Assess Harmonic Distortions for
Testing and Measurement Techniques - Voltage Dips, Systems with Distributed Harmonic Sources
Short Interruptions and Voltage Variations Immunity
Tests for Equipment with Input Current More Than
16 A per Phase
• CAN/CSA-C61000-3-11-06
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) - Part 3-11:
Limits - Limitation of Voltage Changes, Voltage
Fluctuations and Flicker in Public Low-Voltage Supply
Systems - Equipment with Rated Current <= 75 A and
Subject to Conditional Connection
CEATI Reference Documents
• T984700 5103
Canadian Power Quality Survey 2000
104 • T034700 5120 105
Review of Flicker Measurement of the CEA DPQ
Survey 2000
• T014700 5113
Sag, Swell and Short Interruption Evaluation from the
Canada PQ Survey 2000
• T044700 5123
Power Quality Impact Assessment of Distributed Wind
Generation
• T044700 5126
Customer Power Factor Correction Capacitor
Application Guide
• T014700 5110
An Automated Method for Assessment of Harmonics
From Non-Linear Loads and Distributed Generators
Notes:
Your feedback and comments are appreciated. Please provide

feedback to [email protected]
106 107
Energy Efficiency is Good Business
• Economic Prosperity
• Environmental Performance
• Social Responsibility
108
• Security

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POWER QUALITY

Energy Efficiency Guide

14 1.0 The Scope of Power Quality

1.0 The Scope of Power Quality 1.2 Voltage

480 424 440 500 508

• be based upon the calculated demand load of the feeder

2.0 Understanding Power Quality 2.1.1 Voltage Levels and Configurations

Power is taken from the bulk transmission system and is

Line to Neutral Voltage – 120V

2.1.2 Site Distribution

The purpose of equipment bonding is:

Short to Enclosure Enclosure

Figure 11: Equipment with Proper Equipment Bonding

Short to Enclosure Enclosure

may at one time have been more dependent on the types of

ballasts. Ballasts may overheat with high applied voltage and

3.4 Types and Sources of Power Quality

Power Line Disturbances Summary (1 of 4)

V instantaneous voltage disturbances.

0 Time protect against equipment

0 Time heavy loads, or of power factor

Oscillatory High frequency

0 Time a few milliseconds

Power Line Disturbances Summary (2 of 4) Power Line Disturbances Summary (3 of 4)

LONG DURATION DISTURBANCES

Power Line Disturbances Summary (4 of 4)

3.4.2 Steady State Disturbances

3.4.2.1 Waveform Distortion and Harmonics

Initially In-Phase Initially Out-Of-Phase

sin (x) + .33 sin(3x) sin (x) – .33 sin(3x)

Most harmonics result from the operation of customer loads,

In addition to electrical conduction, harmonics can be Capacitors

Solid Lines composite curves of voltage flicker studies by

over-current relays which initiate the operation of fault t t t

125 V Customers frequently mistake the effects of a temporary

3.4.4 Voltage Unbalance customer’s or a neighbour’s facility. Many of these distur-

3.7.3 Case Study C: Motor Drive and Transformer 5 200

transient clamped at 183 V peak

in what is referred to as a crowbar effect of energy diversion.

4.2.1.4 End-User SPDs – 170V

4.2.1.5 Power Line Filters Figure 27: Examples of Untuned Filters

Filter design is a complex topic and needs to be properly

small range of frequencies. Examples of filters that are not Cutoff

4.2.1.9 Tap Switching Transformers 4.2.1.11 UPS Systems

replacement will eventually be required. Multiple UPS Rotary UPS

Effects of Frequency on Conductors Signal Reference Structure

Equivalent Zero signal

4.3 Troubleshooting and Predictive Tips Mitigating Equipment

voltage sag could result rating. It is especially important to obtain the

will provide a solution.

100 Power Standards Laboratory 101

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

Power Quality Guidelines for Energy Efficient Device

2) to provide an understanding of the energy savings • CAN/CSA-C61000-2-2-04

• CAN/CSA-CEI/IEC 61000-4-34-06 • T004700 5108

Your feedback and comments are appreciated. Please provide

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