Concrete

concrete, in
construction, structural material consisting of a hard,

chemically inert particulate substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel),
that is bonded together by cement and water.
Among the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians, the bonding substance most often
used was clay. The Egyptians developed a substance more closely resembling modern
concrete by using lime and gypsum as binders. Lime (calcium oxide), derived
from limestone, chalk, or (where available) oyster shells, continued to be the
primary pozzolanic, or cement-forming, agent until the early 1800s. In 1824 an
English inventor, Joseph Aspdin, burned and ground together a mixture of limestone
and clay. This mixture, called portland cement, has remained the dominant
cementing agent used in concrete production.
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Building Blocks of Everyday Objects
Aggregates are generally designated as either fine (ranging in size from 0.025 to 6.5
mm [0.001 to 0.25 inch]) or coarse (from 6.5 to 38 mm [0.25 to 1.5 inch] or larger).
All aggregate materials must be clean and free from admixture with soft particles or
vegetable matter, because even small quantities of organic soil compounds result in
chemical reactions that seriously affect the strength of the concrete.
Concrete is characterized by the type of aggregate or cement used, by the specific

qualities it manifests, or by the methods used to produce it. In ordinary structural
concrete, the character of the concrete is largely determined by a water-to-cement
ratio. The lower the water content, all else being equal, the stronger the concrete. The
mixture must have just enough water to ensure that each aggregate particle is
completely surrounded by the cement paste, that the spaces between the aggregate
are filled, and that the concrete is liquid enough to be poured and spread effectively.
Another durability factor is the amount of cement in relation to the aggregate
(expressed as a three-part ratio—cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate).
Where especially strong concrete is needed, there will be relatively less aggregate.
concrete
The strength of concrete is measured in pounds per square inch or kilograms per
square centimetre of force needed to crush a sample of a given age or hardness.
Concrete’s strength is affected by environmental factors, especially temperature and
moisture. If it is allowed to dry prematurely, it can experience unequal tensile
stresses that in an imperfectly hardened state cannot be resisted. In the process
known as curing, the concrete is kept damp for some time after pouring to slow the
shrinkage that occurs as it hardens. Low temperatures also adversely affect its
strength. To compensate for this, an additive such as calcium chloride is mixed in
with the cement. This accelerates the setting process, which in turn generates heat
sufficient to counteract moderately low temperatures. Large concrete forms that
cannot be adequately covered are not poured in freezing temperatures.
Concrete that has been hardened onto imbedded metal (usually steel) is

called reinforced concrete, or ferroconcrete. Its invention is usually attributed
to Joseph Monier, a Parisian gardener who made garden pots and tubs of concrete
reinforced with iron mesh; he received a patent in 1867. The reinforcing steel, which
may take the form of rods, bars, or mesh, contributes tensile strength. Plain concrete
does not easily withstand stresses such as wind action, earthquakes,
and vibrations and other bending forces and is therefore unsuitable in many
structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the
compressional strength of concrete render a member capable of sustaining heavy
stresses of all kinds over considerable spans. The fluidity of the concrete mix makes it
possible to position the steel at or near the point where the greatest stress is
anticipated.
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Another innovation in masonry construction is the use of prestressed concrete. It is
achieved by either pretensioning or posttensioning processes. In pretensioning,
lengths of steel wire, cables, or ropes are laid in the empty mold and then stretched
and anchored. After the concrete has been poured and allowed to set, the anchors are
released and, as the steel seeks to return to its original length, it compresses the
concrete. In the posttensioning process, the steel is run through ducts formed in the
concrete. When the concrete has hardened, the steel is anchored to the exterior of the
member by some sort of gripping device. By applying a measured amount of
stretching force to the steel, the amount of compression transmitted to the concrete
can be carefully regulated. Prestressed concrete neutralizes the stretching forces that
would rupture ordinary concrete by compressing an area to the point at which no
tension is experienced until the strength of the compressed section is overcome.
Because it achieves strength without using heavy steel reinforcements, it has been
used to great effect to build lighter, shallower, and more elegant structures such as
bridges and vast roofs.
In addition to its potential for immense strength and its initial ability to adapt to
virtually any form, concrete is fire resistant and has become one of the most common
building materials in the world.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Adam
Augustyn.
plaster
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plaster of paris gypsum plaster building material
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plaster, a pasty composition (as of lime or gypsum, water, and sand) that hardens
on drying and is used for coating walls, ceilings, and partitions.
Plastering is one of the most ancient building techniques. Evidence indicates that
primitive peoples plastered their reed or sapling shelters with mud, thus developing
more durable structures and more effective screens against vermin and inclement
weather. More lasting and sightly materials in time replaced mud. Some of the
earliest plastering extant is of a quality comparable to that used in modern times.
The pyramids of Egypt contain plasterwork executed at least 4,000 years ago that is
still hard and durable. The principal tools of the plasterer of that time were in design
and purpose like those used today. For their finest work the Egyptians used a plaster
made from calcined gypsum that is identical to plaster of paris.
Very early in the history of Greek architecture (e.g., at Mycenae), plaster of a fine

white lime stucco was used. Greek artisans had achieved high quality earlier than the
5th century BCE. Plaster was frequently used to cover the exteriors of temples, a
technique commonly known as stucco, in addition to covering the interiors, in some
cases even when the building was made of marble.
The ornamental plaster ceilings of England during the reigns of Henry

VIII, Elizabeth I, and James I are still admired. Earlier extant specimens of the
plasterers’ skill in England are the pargeted and ornamented fronts of half-timbered
houses.
Plaster as a medium of artistic expression waned by the 19th century, when imitation
and mechanical reproduction displaced this creative art. However, as a surface
material for interior walls and ceilings and to a lesser degree for exterior walls,
plaster remains in common use. It facilitates cleanliness and sanitation in building
and is a retardant to the spread of fire.
Interior plasterwork is designed according to the type of lathing to which it is applied

and the number of applications that are necessary. Ornamental plaster for ceilings
and cornices is usually applied with a metal molding tool that has the reverse of the
desired profile. Some elements may be formed by hand, while others are precast and
stuck in place with plaster of paris. Stucco may be applied directly
to concrete, brick, tile, or a supporting metal lath base. Various types of finish,
including colours and textures, may be incorporated in the finish coat. Splatter dash
and pebble dash are textured surfaces resulting from throwing mortar or pebble with
some force on the finish coat while it is still soft.

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concrete, in

construction, structural material consisting of a hard,

Building Blocks of Everyday Objects

Concrete is characterized by the type of aggregate or cement used, by the specific

Concrete that has been hardened onto imbedded metal (usually steel) is

 More Articles On This Topic

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Very early in the history of Greek architecture (e.g., at Mycenae), plaster of a fine

The ornamental plaster ceilings of England during the reigns of Henry

Interior plasterwork is designed according to the type of lathing to which it is applied

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